Category: United Nations

The United Nations is one of the largest intergovernmental organizations in the world. It is not affiliated to any state but is supported by its member to ensure democracy, peace and global prosperity. This essay highlights the origins, objectives and fundamental principles of the organization.

Origins

In the early 1900s, the world experienced various kinds of interstate wars. Several regional organizations were formed to ensure that loss of life and property was minimized. However, the global leaders soon came to realize that despite the regional efforts, countries still went to war. After the First World War, the nations involved created the League of Nations, whose primary task was to oversee and resolve territorial disputes. Despite its efforts, the worlds superpowers did not fully embrace the League. Countries such as USA and USSR refused to join the League and would not respect its rules.

In 1931, the League failed to prevent the invasion of Manchuria by Japan. Other countries noted the limitations of the League, and soon more attacks followed. Additionally, Adolf Hitler from Germany started to expand his territories, and this led to the Second World War. It is important to note that after the First World War, Germany was banned from taking over new colonies and some of their old territories were reinstated. Thus, expansion was a direct violation of the peace treaty formulated after World War I.

After World War II, the then president of the US, Franklin Roosevelt, drafted the Declaration of the United Nations, alongside the British Prime Minister and the leader of the Soviet Union, as an attempt to bring together the countries that were involved in the Second World War. The Declaration gave responsibilities of global affairs to the US, USSR, China and the United Kingdom. It is vital to point out that countries that were referred to as the Axis forces during World War II were not included in the Declaration.

The initial UN Conference on International Organization was launched in 1945 and included over 50 state governments. With counsel from other major non-governmental organizations, the UN Charter was drafted. Since the UN did not have any funding, the initial committee suggested that member countries were free to contribute any amount to the interstate organization. In turn, presidents that would donate money would have a chance to chair the organization. The first official meeting of the UN was held in 1946 after the structure of the organization was created and funding was received from several countries. At the time, the organization had 51 members representing the same number of countries.

The organization came under scrutiny during the Cold War era. The US and the USSR deferred in regards to economic ideologies. Whereas the US supported capitalization, the Soviet Union supported communism. Such differences affected the UN as both countries had vital roles in its management. USSR accused the UN leadership of biases towards the US when the interstate organization interfered with the Soviet Unions plans of invading Hungary. During the Cold War period, a significant influx of newly formed states joined the UN. Indeed, such states were grateful to the US as it had played a crucial role in the decolonization of many African countries. Additionally, the US was significantly involved in the formation of the new states after colonialism. Therefore, it can be argued that the new states, especially those from Africa, were eager to become allies with the US in the hopes that they will benefit both economically and socially in the global platform. For this reason, the UN has always been perceived to carry the US agenda as opposed to the global plan. To help curb this, the UN came up with several objectives.

Objectives

The United Nations has four main objectives. The first objective is to maintain global peace and safety. There are two main elements to consider within this objective. One is the assurance of peaceful negotiations before war breaks out, and the second is the peaceful resolutions after the war has started. It is important to note that the UNs initial mandate is to ensure that interstate wars are avoided by all means necessary. For example, the UN had a mandate to resolve concerns between Israel and Palestine before the war broke out. It is crucial to note that the UN had already facilitated 79 resolutions for the conflict. Despite its effort, the two nations continued to fight. Currently, the UN is involved in stopping the war between the two countries. Limitations of the UN can be highlighted through cases such as the Rwandan Genocide. Since the war was within the state, despite its mandate for peace, the UN could not be directly involved and only came in as a mediator. To achieve peace in such situations, the UN sends in its peacekeeping groups to negotiate with the involved.

The second objective of the interstate organization is the development of cooperative associations between countries using the principle of human rights. The UN Charter embraced the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948. Towards this end, the organization pledged to uphold what was defined as human rights across its member states. All member states were also required to adhere to this declaration. It is this objective that gives the UN power to send peacekeeping groups into a country to help resolve conflicts. The argument behind this is that even though the UN has no mandate within a single state, it has the mandate to protect the citizens of that state. Therefore, any conflict that violates any of the human rights gives the UN a leeway to get involved. Recently, Burundi, in Africa, had civil unrest due to its general elections. To avoid genocide, the UN sent in its troops to negotiate a peaceful election. The same examples can be given from Kenya, Congo and even Sudan.

The third objective of the UN is to attain global co-operation in resolving conflicts. The premise suggests that the UN has to ensure that during any interstate disputes, allies of the involved nations also have to broker peace. Also, the UN has to garner support from powerful countries during regional wars to help resolve the fight. The example of the Arab-Israeli conflict highlights how the UN can bring together states to settle a war. Countries such as the US and Canada have been categorical in stating that they do not recognize Palestine as a nation. On the other hand, countries such as Morocco, Saudi Arabia, and Qatar have refused to accept Israel as a sovereign nation. Towards this end, the allies of the two countries have also helped encourage the war between them. For example, the US government bombed Syria in early 2018 in support of Israel. However, Russia, in support of Syria, retaliated and bombed Israel. Using this scenario and the third mandate of the UN, one can argue that it is the duty of the United Nations to bring the allies of the two nations together and encourage them to help resolve the war as their participation in it is making the conflict worse.

The fourth objective of the UN is to be a center for peace. Member countries can come together, through the UN, to create peaceful measures to resolve war. It is important to point out that one of the common products of war is refugees. The Arab-Israeli conflict has seen the arrival of refugees in Europe, the US and Canada. The UN has taken a keen interest in the welfare of these refugees as its fourth objective requires. For example, in Europe, the UN was a key negotiator during discussions on whether to allow refugees into the continent or direct them to other countries. Additionally, refugee camps such as Dadaab, the second largest refugee camp in the world, are managed by the UN. The organization brings together donors who support the camps in various ways as they negotiate terms for re-settling.

Basic Principles

To achieve the discussed four objectives, the UN also came up with seven principles. The first principle is the autonomous equality of all members of the organization. This principle means that all member countries of the UN are seen as equal despite their economic positioning in the global platform. The second principle is the abiding by the UN Charter laws by all member states. This principle ensures that one comprehensive policy governs the countries involved. Any nation that does not follow the UN Charter laws has its membership revoked. The third principle suggests that member countries have to look for peaceful resolutions as opposed to war. It can be stated that Israel violated this principle as it is a member state of the UN yet continues to fight with Syria/Palestine. However, it can be argued that Israel is just trying to protect its sovereignty as a nation.

The fourth principle states that members shall refrain from regional wars and negotiate peacefully on any territorial conflicts. Indeed, there have been various territorial wars that have been resolved peacefully since the UN was formulated. Additionally, the principle of active involvement in the workings of the UN through the provision of any assistance from member states has been highly observed through the years. The UN peacekeeping troops are usually supported by the different countries that they come from, while at the same time, financial donations are offered from both governments and non-governmental institutions to help the organization. The sixth principle ensures that nations that are not members of the UN are also encouraged to abide by some of the standard rules to ensure world peace. The sixth principle ensures that member states are not encouraged to go into battle with the excuse of the involved not being a member of the UN. The seventh and last principle of the UN highlights the importance of the organization keeping out of domestic conflicts and involvements unless they threaten global peace. In such situations, however, as stated, the UN can intervene to ensure that fundamental human rights are upheld within the state despite the domestic conflict experienced.

What is the importance of United Nations? The essay on this page answers this question.

Introduction

United Nations is an international organization, established in 1945 after the Second World War following the dire consequences of the First and the Second World Wars. Although the First World War led to the establishment of the League of Nations in order to promote international peace and security, it failed to prevent the occurrence of the Second World War. To overcome the flaws in the League of Nations, the United Nations was formed on 26 June 1945, when the Charter of the United Nations was signed by member states.

The functions of the United Nations as stipulated in the Article 1 include maintaining international peace and security, developing friendly relations among nations, promoting international cooperation in problem solving and harmonization of the collective responsibility of the nations (Auden, 1997, p. 50). This essay examines the role of the United Nations in maintenance of international peace and security, and its effectiveness as empowered by the charter.

The United Nations Provisions

The Charter of the United Nations Article 24 empowers the Security Council to exercise the functions of the United Nation. According to the International Court of Justice (2010), the United Nations members confer on the Security Council primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security, and agree that in carrying out its duties under this responsibility the Security Council acts on their behalf.

The Security Council has prerogative of determining peace and security status of the member states by ensuring that every member has equal rights of protection. The Security Council should discharge its functions as stipulated in chapters VI, VII, and XII in the Charter of the United Nations.

Chapter VI of the United Nations Charter deals with Pacific Settlement of Disputes. This chapter empowers the Security Council to call disputing parties to solve any dispute by negotiation, enquiry, mediation, conciliation, arbitration, judicial settlement, resort to regional agencies or arrangements, or other peaceful means of their own choice (Browne, 2003, p. 16).

The Security Council identify, investigate and recommend appropriate procedures of addressing situations that may threaten the maintenance of international peace and security to the International Court of Justice (Novak, 2001, p. 5).

In chapter VII, the United Nations Charter gives powers to the security to determine the existence of any threat to the peace, breach of the peace, or act of aggression and shall make recommendations, or decide what measures shall be taken in accordance with Article 41 and 42, to maintain or restore international peace and security (Miller, 1999, p. 67). The Security Council will use all means to make sure that all its members are protected against any threat to peace or an aggression.

In chapter VII, the United Nations Charter empowers the Security Council to ensure that any regional arrangements that involve maintenance of the international peace and security should comply with the United Nations purposes and principles.

According to the Article 52, the Security Council shall encourage the development of pacific settlement of local disputes through such regional arrangements or by such regional agencies either on the initiative of the states concerned or by reference from the Security Council (Brader, 2005, p. 78).

The Security Council should be updated at all times about the activities undertaken or in contemplation under regional arrangements or by regional agencies for the maintenance of international peace and security (Smith, 2002, p. 33). Since the United Nations Security Council is responsible for the maintenance of peace and security worldwide, then any issues related to peace and security are of great concern lest they threaten peace and security of others.

Effectiveness of the United Nations

Political nature of the General Assembly and the Security Council hinder the effectiveness of the United Nations in fostering international peace and security. Simon (2009) argues that, the United Nations efforts to preserve international peace and security are the most contentious aspect of its entire work, because of the inherently political nature of its role (p. 23). The resolution of conflicts and disputes depend on the political orientation of the General Assembly, Security Council and member states thus complicating the issues.

The decision to invade Iraq was formulated politically by George Bush and Tony Blair to deceive the world that Saddam Hussein had weapons of mass destruction. Prados and Ames (2010), argue that, the evidence indicates the decision was made very early, long before ultimatums to Iraq or other diplomatic action.

This shows that the main reason for Iraq invasion was political rather than a security reason. Another case is the cold war between the United State and Soviet Union where Baruch describes it as the most important political and diplomatic issue of the early post war period (2007). The split of the Soviet Union was due to political influence of the United Nations.

Conclusion

The main reason for the establishment of the United Nations was save the world against horrible consequences of war. Horrible experiences of First and Second World War made the world leaders to come together and think of various ways of preventing the future occurrence of war.

The United Nations in its Security Council arm is fostering international peace and security through legal procedures, diplomacy and military peacekeeping. With this noble responsibility, the United Nations experiences undue political pressure as they maintain international peace and security.

References

Auden, H. (1997). The United Nations Charter. Human Rights Journal, 22(3): 45-53. Print.

Baruch, B. (2007). Cold War. Global Security. Web.

Brader, S. (2005). International Relations: Peace and Security. New York. Norton. 78.

Browne, M. (2003). United Nations Peacekeeping: Issues for Congress. The Library of Congress, 6(2): 1-16.

International Court of Justice, (2010). The Charter of the United Nations. Web.

Miller, T. (1999). Peace Treaties and the United Nations. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 67.

Novak, G. (2001). The Security Council: United Nations. Journal of Human rights, 3(1): 5.

Prados, J., & Ames, C. (2010). The Iraq War: U.S. and British Documents Give No Indication Alternatives Were Seriously Considered. National Security Archive. Web.

Simon, T. (2009). International Peace Security: Basic Charter Provisions. United Nations Review, 34(9): 23.

Smith, P. (2002). The Charter of the United Nations. The Expositional Journal, 12(1): 32-33.

Introduction

The UN Security Council has the sole mandate of maintaining international peace and security throughout the world. So far, it has managed to do so with the maintenance of law and order in countries like Afghanistan, Cambodia, Namibia, and the likes. Its track record has been highlighted by the maintenance of peace and policing of truces to end some of the bloodiest world conflicts; however, other credits have been attributed to the councils commitment to helping nations build their economies after wars and in bringing perpetrators to book. Some of its successes on this front are like bringing Libya to account for its bombings in Pan Am 103, and the acknowledgment of Colonial Rhodesian leaders of their war crimes during an endless oppressive regime they let thrive under their watch.

However, recent developments, especially in the gulf have cast a lot of doubt on the councils ability to maintain world peace and security. One notable development was the failure of the council to prevent the recent Iraq invasion by the US in 2002, under former President Bushs government. In addition, the council was unable to stop wars in Somalia, Bosnia, and Rwanda, thereby giving room for critics to castigate the council as ineffective and full of fiascoes. In this context, the UN Security Council has been threatened by the power of willing nations to carry out their military actions in foreign lands before getting the go-ahead from the council. Nonetheless, the UN Security Council is the only body that can confer the legitimacy of the use of military force, even though some nations may not be in agreement with its decision. In other words, the council is recognized globally for the authorization of armed forces in international conflicts.

However, the council as a body has often experienced challenges in trying to enforce its decisions in major world conflicts, as can be seen from Iraqs invasion into Kuwait in the 90s. Some of the hurdles experienced arise out of legal challenges and the interpretation of its mandate in stopping world conflicts. Some of its powers in enforcing military actions are stipulated in article 39 of the UN charter; but, before the body can exercise its authority, it has to determine certain elements like the threat to peace, breaches of the peace, and acts of aggression, by one of the states engaged in war. Furthermore, the councils actions are stipulated in articles 41 and 42 of the UN charter as either forcible or non-forcible actions.

This study seeks to determine the scope and powers of the UN about authorizing armed force by the UN charter which determines its powers in effecting military action on rogue states. However, this is going to be done with special reference to the Iraq  Kuwait invasion in 1991 and the councils resolution (678) that led to the withdrawal of Iraq troops from Kuwait. This study will further analyze the form and content of this resolution during the war and its implications in the enforcement of future council actions in international conflicts.

Conceptual Analysis

A few years preceding the Iraq  Kuwait invasion, the UN Security Council had found a new spirit of cooperation among member states, prompting many proponents of the Councils actions to openly boast of the Councils capability to finally end the scourge of war among nations. The councils five permanent seating members had finally decided to be regularly consult with each other during the process of resolving world conflicts, by maintaining a cordial working relationship under the system of rotating chairmanship in the councils leadership; however, the Iraq -Kuwait conflict cast a lot of doubt to the councils ability in dealing with conflicts, especially after the council exhibited a lack of preparedness to deal with Saddam Husseins aggressive military tact in Kuwait

Over the past years, preceding Iraqs invasion of Kuwait, Saddams government had been accusing Kuwait of stealing oil from its borders; in addition, the country claimed that the pro-western country was its 19th province. Unfortunately, as Saddam amassed his troops at the Kuwait border, the UN Security Council did little to dissuade the dictator from making his threats real. Moreover, Saddam Hussein may have drawn wrong conclusions to the perceived indifference western governments had on his earlier attack on Iran; in some quarters, it was reported that some Western regimes may have supported his invasion into Iran but the regime suffered defeat in the war anyway. Months before Saddam attacked Kuwait, its reported that Western governments never gave him a clear go-ahead to attack the country, but they also did little to stop him from doing so. These developments included a much-publicized meeting between Saddam and the American ambassador of the time; but in all this time, the UN Security Council was never firm on its position on the impending conflict.

A few months later, Saddam made his threats real and chased the ruling al Sabah clan out of Kuwait through military action, even though Kuwait had a relatively smaller army and was less empowered as compared to Iraqs. In some quarters, it is noted that Iraq may have as well held on to Kuwait for a long time if the US never found the resolve to oust him out of power; at this time, the UN security council looked up to the US to give it direction in solving the impulse. Nonetheless, Saddam Husseins actions against Kuwait took the Security Council by surprise because in months preceding the invasion, the UNs capitals perceived Saddams amassing of tankers at the Kuwait border, a bluff, and they also never thought he was going to make his threats real. His subsequent invasion into the country thereafter put the newly found cooperative spirit of the councils member states to test. The biggest shortcoming of the council in the entire conflict was that it was well aware of the situation but was nonetheless, not overly concerned about the matter. From the councils proceedings after the war, there was both a good and bad side to the conflict; the good news was that the council had clear reports on the issues underlying the conflict and their subsequent eventualities, but the bad news was that there was no plan to deal with the conflict at all.

Article 39

Under article 39 of the UN charter, the council needs to determine the threat to peace, breach of the peace, or an act of aggression before authorizing armed force in international conflicts; after which, it is to determine the course of action to be followed by article 41 and 42 of the charter. Article 39 is what governed the councils action in the Iran  Kuwait conflict since it is found in chapter VII which outlines the recommendations the council is to undertake with regards to recommending military or nonmilitary action in any conflict. This article dictates the actions to be followed by military staff members in determining the actions to be taken by the council, in case they wanted to use military force, which is often at the disposal of the UN.

An analysis of article 39, therefore, becomes quite important in the Iran  Kuwait situation because it authorizes the use of force to stop Iraq from further causing havoc in Kuwait. However, the action by the council is only effective on UN member states because, under article 39, the council can intervene in preventing wars between member states, since the article bars one state from attacking another. Articles 39, 41, and 42 were extensively used to moderate the soaring relationships between Iraq and Kuwait because, under article 39, the UN Security Council could use force to quell violence if it was established that acts of aggression or a breach of the peace were noted from either of the two nations. Acts of aggression of breaches of peace all have different implications under article 39.

When analyzed in the Iraq  Kuwait context, breach of peace implies that one of the parties had to destabilize the peace that was existent before the conflict by carrying out some form of disorderly conduct in another nation. A common manifestation of a breach of the peace is the trespass into another countrys territory to carry out acts of violence. Saddams actions perfectly befitted the breach of the peace because his invasion into Kuwait was unlawful, and under article 39, his use of military force to destabilize the sitting government authorized the councils actions to use force to stabilize Kuwait again.

Saddams actions caused a lot of public unrest in Kuwait because of the destabilization of peace and the consequent expulsion of the ruling clan out of the country. His actions when analyzed under article 39 implied that Saddam should have possibly faced detention or deportation as outlined in articles 41 and 42 of the UN Charter, which outlines the course of action to be followed by the council after the establishment of a breach of peace in a conflict.

Under UN regulations, the threat of peace is quite difficult to determine and so the council does not have a blanket definition of the act of a threat to peace. Instead, the council determines on a case-by-case basis whether the threat to peace can be established in a conflict. The implications of a threat to peace and an act of aggression are the same and all of them call for the use of force in stabilizing conflict areas. Acts of aggression can also be equated to Saddams actions in Kuwait because the invasion by military means and the ousting of the sitting regime was a clear act of aggression by Iraq. The situation was further worsened from the observation that Kuwait had a much smaller and weaker army when compared to Iraq, thereby pitting Iraq as an aggressive country, especially considering Iraq wanted to take over the country as one of its provinces. Under article 39 therefore, Iraq depicted acts of aggression, breached the peace, and was an equal threat to peace in the region. This warranted the use of force, or otherwise, depending on the course of action to be taken under articles 41 and 42.

Nonetheless, under article 41 of the UN charter, the use of armed forces is not completely guaranteed of the council unless it is established in the words of Higgins that armed forces are to be used only if the economic and spare the prayer rail, sea, air, postal, and others, are partially or completely ineffective.

As the conflict between Iraq and Kuwait ceased, Iraq constantly referred to the seventh chapter of the UN charter in formulating its policies on Kuwait; however, provision 688 was an exception to this chapter because to a significant degree, the resolution emphasized the protection of human rights and political freedoms which were also to liberate them from any forms of oppression to be perpetrated by any government. Nonetheless, there were some segments to the resolution which were nonbinding to Kuwait but all the resolutions against Iraq were binding, with the most important resolution being resolution 678. With reference to this resolution, Carl affirms resolution 678 was

adopted on 3 / April / 1991 and is making all of Abu, which contained the present resolution to the 34 rule and put all of Iraq at the threat of the seventh item supplied in the service of the American Zionist. Since Iraq was also under American tutelage under the umbrella of the United Nations, when U.S. forces entered Iraq in April 2003, according to the UN 1483 resolution (after amendment), the same forces launched a multi-national resolution 1546

Article 41 and 42

Under articles 41 and 42, the UN charter encompasses the use of force as the last resort in preventing the occurrence of war at any given point of conflict between two nations. The charter has not only been used in the Iraq  Kuwait conflict but also the preventions of Civil war in Congo. The article gives power to the Security Council to use a requisite measure of force in apprehending, detaining, or deporting individuals who are identified to perpetrate violence or conflict. Article 41, therefore, gives the council the power to arrest, detain or deport individuals without contravening international regulations, but in some respect, such a scope is contrary to military measures which have been outlined in article 42 of the UN charter.

The constitutional basis for article 41 excludes the use of force in quelling conflicts so that the UN Security Council puts more emphasis on its decisions. However, there is a loophole to this restriction under article 39 which approves the use of force to prevent conflicts whenever a breach of peace, a threat to peace, or an act of aggression is established (since these three conditions give the go-ahead to the council to use force which may not necessarily be an armed force. However, the lack of use of arms in stabilizing conflicts may not necessarily mean that such action is non-military.

UN Security Council Resolution 678

The UN security council resolution 678 was adopted after several resolutions including 660, 661, 662, 664, 665, 666, 667, 669, 670, 674, and 667 were ignored by Saddam; thereby prompting Iraq to constantly defy previous resolutions by the UN security council; however, after the council realized Iraqs nonconformance to peace agreements, it gave the oil-rich nation a strict deadline to implement resolution 660, failure to which member states were to use force in marinating peace in the region. Under resolution 678, the above ultimatum was the primary condition under the resolution, but in the same context, the resolution gave member states authority to cooperate with the government of Kuwait in establishing peace in the region, if Iraq failed to fail to meet the deadline of withdrawing its troops from Kuwait. Under the resolution, member states were persuaded to comply with the second condition of the resolution which was to assist Kuwait in establishing peace in its country. However, the council was to be informed of all the member states actions when assisting Kuwait to realize peace within its borders; such that, a diversion of the overall mission of establishing peace was not witnessed.

Resolution 678 however did not act as a sole ultimatum in its sense because it reinforced previous resolutions, and subsequent ones, in addition to guaranteeing legal recognition of whatever support member states were to give Kuwait in establishing peace within its borders. To some degree the 678 resolution was also an act of goodwill by the UN Security Council in avoiding military force to expel Iraq from Kuwait because the agreement gave Iraq an ultimatum in which it was supposed to withdraw its troops from Kuwait; failure to which military actions were to be undertaken against it. Iraq, therefore, had the option of avoiding conflict with member states by withdrawing its forces from Kuwait.

The 678 resolution however had other implications in international politics because it reaffirmed the authority of the UN Security Council in declaring wars with other nations. The French and German governments affirmed the opinion that the war against Iraq was justified after the UN resolution. To some extent, this sets the precedent for future use of force in world conflicts as is affirmed by Lobel and Ratner, when they assert that Despite the language and history of Resolution 687, U.S. and UK officials have asserted since 1991 that the Resolution 678 authorization to use force remains in effect, and on several occasions, they have deployed forces against Iraq. In this context, Lobel and Ratner note that the 678 resolution has given immense powers to member nations to attack Iraq in case it goes contrary to any of the resolutions guidelines, even today.

In other respects, the councils resolution can be seen as a contravention to the rights of nations to defend themselves against external attacks, and this implies that Iraq is still allowed to fight the UN under international laws right to self-defense. According to Higgins, this situation is likely to cause more conflict because she notes that &because of each states sovereignty over its territory under international law, the alleged internationally illegal action of a discriminatory expropriation would never justify another nation physically invading the host state&.

In some respect, since all the goals of the 678 resolution were not realized, the right to attack Iraq in 2002 may have been justified because under resolution 678, member states were allowed to use whatever means to establish peace in the region, and since Saddam was a key factor to the destabilization of peace in the Middle East, the US may still have been justified to attack Iraq in 2002 and oust Saddam. It remains very interesting to note that peace in the Middle East is still long from being realized and the UN resolution 678 may implicitly still legalize subsequent actions by member states in establishing peace in the region.

Conclusion

The UN Security Council is the sole body recognized globally to legalize the use of armed force in international conflicts. The Iraq  Kuwait conflict provides a good example of this provision because the council allowed member states to use whatever means to ensure previous resolutions were observed by Iraq and peace was established in the region. The councils powers are outlined in articles 39, 41, and 42 of the UN charter. Article 39 guarantees the councils action to use military force, or not if it establishes that acts of aggression, a threat to peace, or breaches of the peace are carried out by a given nation. In the Iraq  Kuwait conflict, Iraq exhibited a direct contravention of the guidelines in article 39 which gave the UN Security Council a go-ahead to authorize member states to use force in ensuring peace was established in the region.

After it was established under article 39 that the authorization of force was legal, the council had to choose a course of action either under article 41 or 42 of the UN charter, which either advocated for military force or otherwise. However, since Iraq failed to comply with previous resolutions to establish peace in Kuwait, the council found it necessary to enforce article 42 which authorized the use of force by member states on Iraq. These steps outline the UN Security Councils authorization of armed force in world conflicts in addition to legalizing the councils actions (about the Iraq  Kuwait conflict).

References

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Resolution 2341 (2017) is an important document issued by the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) and presenting some of its major objectives. In particular, it describes the main principles of critical infrastructure security and its protection from terrorist attacks. According to Resolution 2341 (2017), each member state is responsible for identifying what can be considered their critical infrastructures and what are the most effective ways to protect them. UNSC includes five permanent members: China, France, the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The other ten members are temporary and are elected for two years by the General Assembly (Current Members, n.d.). The Security Council emphasizes that their collaborative actions are needed to guarantee the overall safety and eliminate risks of terrorist attacks.

The recent events allow analyzing the actions of UNCS and how they correspond to its mission and principles. One of them is connected with the nuclear program of Iran and the UNSC response. It is believed that the nuclear development of this country, which significantly increased during the Cold War, is a major threat to the security of the United States. Therefore, the growing nuclear arsenal and military technologies of Iran triggered tensions in the American security bodies, including UNCS.

In response to this threat, UNCS imposed sanctions on the Iranian military and economic systems. They included Resolution 1737, implying bans on the trade of nuclear technology (Sahakyan, 2017). It is fair to say that UNCS demonstrated a wise and timely reaction to the actions of Iran. Even after the claims of Irans officials about the peacefulness of nuclear development, UNCS posed arms embargo and financial restrictions (Sahakyan, 2017). The U.S. became the main initiator of these decisions since the security of this country was at risk in the first place. By restricting arms supply, the organization weakened Irans military positions. Moreover, it influenced the financial side of the issue, since nuclear development heavily depends on monetary investments. The oil embargo became the most effective measure; it caused Iran to sign an agreement, under which the country changed its nuclear policy (Sahakyan, 2017). Therefore, the actions of UNCS were logical and integrated, which allowed preventing possible nuclear conflicts threatening the overall security.

Container Security Initiative and its Principles

Homeland Security is closely connected with the ways of transferring goods and information. Container Security Initiative (CSI) is one of the ways to ensure U.S. security in terms of trade and cargo shipping. CSI can be described as a system under which a foreign port that is a member of this initiative agrees to scrutinize cargo containers destined for its own ports (Singla, 2019, para. 3). The initial goal of CSI is to prevent any risk of terror spread through cargo transfer through the security check of all containers leaving for American ports.

There are certain shipping-related cases that threaten the security of the U.S. Given the territorial closeness of Mexico, it can be suggested that drug trafficking is one of the major risks to consider. Moreover, as Prodan (2017) emphasizes, explosives, such as chemical-biological agents, may threaten the lives of citizens and lead to serious financial loss. Radiation is also considered an important problem, as it leads to significant environmental damage, which is also a part of U.S. security. Finally, special attention should be paid to the transportation of hazardous substances such as fuel, since security negligence may cause intended or accidental damage (Prodan, 2017). As a result, all containers are subject to careful inspection at checkpoints, for example, through an X-ray or radiation examination.

The shipment of hazardous cargo can also threaten the critical infrastructures of the host country. For example, according to Prodan (2017), major objects demanding special protection include sea ports, ships, bridges, oil and gas platforms (p. 102). In particular, there are many critical facilities and installations around sea ports, such as cranes, pipelines, roads, and fuel storages. (Prodan, 2017). Bridges are considered some of the most vulnerable objects that require enforced security, especially in terms of a possible explosion of transported cargo. Other risks include threats to different kinds of marine vessels, such as tankers and passenger ships. In general, the risks are mostly connected with the possible contamination, fire, radiation, or other consequences caused by hazardous cargo.

In order to improve the overall security situation and eliminate these and other incidents, CSI offers a range of security measures. Those include non-intrusive inspection at the exporters port and in the U.S. ports, enhanced border control, customs information, and other ways of security control (Singla, 2019). With the growing cooperation between the U.S. and foreign countries and after the terrorist attacks of 2001, more attention is paid to the security, including shipping-related regulations.

Natural Disasters and their Effects on Critical Infrastructures

Both man-made and natural disasters threaten the safety of citizens and negatively impact critical infrastructures in the affected area. The recent wildfires in California prove the demand for enhanced control over the risks of natural disasters. Wildfires in California emerge during the hot summer and autumn season and are typical for this area. However, the 2018 season became the most devastating and deadliest among others recorded in this part of America. Among the causes of the catastrophe, specialists name an increase in dead tree fuel and dry and hot climate that led to a fire outbreak.

California fires took the lives of more than one hundred people and resulted in enormous costs for the government. Moreover, the damage to critical infrastructure worsened the consequences of the catastrophe and posed more risks to the health and well-being of California citizens. The report by the Department of Homeland Security (2018) presents the affected infrastructure and the negative effect of wildfires. According to the infrastructure assessment, the fire affected exposed communication lines, including the emergency communication system. Electric power and fuel disruptions led to interruptions in fuel transportation and electric system performance. It is evident that the fire destroyed many roads and bridges, though there was no significant damage to railroad operations (California Wildfire: Camp Fire  Projected Infrastructure Impact Summary, 2018). The agricultural sector of the economy also suffered from the devastation of fields and farms. Therefore, it is possible to say that wildfire influenced different kinds of critical infrastructure and caused significant financial losses.

Energy infrastructures are considered especially vulnerable to such abnormal climate conditions. Energy and gas stations, fuel storages, and other related structures can cause fuel disruption and lead to explosions and consequent human losses. Fires in California were followed by a significant decrease in the energy sector. According to Moftakhari and AghaKouchak (2019), substantial new investment is required for an additional 38.5% peak generation capacity to compensate the decreased efficiency of generators and substations (p. 2). Moreover, the threat to energy infrastructures can be increased due to extreme rainfalls in the affected areas (Moftakhari & AghaKouchak, 2019). As a result, these objects should be provided with special control during the periods of high wildfire risk.

References

Current Members (n.d.). United Nations. 2020, Web.

Department of Homeland Security (2018). California Wildfire: Camp Fire  Projected Infrastructure Impact Summary. Web.

Moftakhari, H., & AghaKouchak, A. (2019). Increasing exposure of energy infrastructure to compound hazards: Cascading wildfires and extreme rainfall. Environmental Research Letters, 4, 1-8.

Prodan, T. (2017). Maritime terrorism and resilience of maritime critical infrastructures. National Security and the future, 1-2(18), 102-122.

Resolution 2341 (2017) on the protection of critical infrastructure from terrorist attacks, S/RES/2341 (2017). Web.

Sahakyan, M. (2017). Comparative analyses of Irans and the DPRKs nuclear issues in the UNSC (2006-2013). Iran and the Caucasus, 21(2), 230239.

Singla, S. (2019). What is Container Security Initiative (CSI) and how does it work? Marine Insight. Web.

Introduction

The role of the United Nations in sustaining international peace and its present-day level of effectiveness in global governance is often questioned. In recent years, the UN has performed a number of processes aimed at strengthening its ability to rid the world of the scourge of war.¹ It was caused by the weakening of the effectiveness of international policy and proved that the organization needs critical changes. Consequently, politicians have come to realize that the United Nations is outdated and needs to be revised in light of trends reflecting the modern world.

This research paper was written to analyze the relevance of the UN policy. The importance of the topic is explained by current events in the world with the constant aggravation of military conflicts. The identification of problems in the work of the main peacekeeping organization can lead to the prevention of crises in the future. Despite the fact that, in general, the UNs work and political strategy seem very effective, some areas still require changes.

Overview

Since its inception, the United Nations has been an organization that has constantly adapted to the modern world. Over the past few decades, the pace of geopolitical, economic and technological changes has led to unprecedented challenges.² However, new opportunities have been opened to support the work of the Security Council and numerous proofs of its necessity.

Efficiency

As an international organization, the UN has significantly succeeded in establishing collective security, which it considered its priority after the end of World War II. The organization adheres to the policy that interference does not resolve ³ but aggravates the conflict, which is why diplomacy remains the basis of relations for many years. The organization has also successfully implemented humanitarian rights worldwide, serving as a platform for peace and compromise between States.

Challenges to Efficiency

Critics of the UNs activities question the effectiveness of the organizations work, criticizing its main provisions and policy directions. For example, the logic of collective security becomes questionable against the background of difficulties in its application. The political limitations of the UN are confirmed by the war in Nagorno-Karabakh or the conflict in Ethiopia.⁴ Environmental policy is also criticized by opponents of the organization. The most powerful economic powers continue to damage the nature of production in order to strengthen their economic power.

Reasons of Failures

Firstly, the UN resorts to solving local problems, thereby limiting the possible prospects of its projects. In other words, the lack of systematic thinking jeopardizes noble intentions, which can potentially lead to counterproductive consequences.⁵ Secondly, along with the peacekeeping agenda, the UN avoids risks and continues to insist on the peaceful settlement of conflicts where these methods are no longer appropriate. In the long run, this creates the illusion of solving the problem that does not strive for the actual eradication of evil.

Conclusion

To date, the UN, despite numerous criticisms and the reasonableness of the arguments given, has repeatedly proved its adaptability to solving world problems. Due to new monitoring capabilities, the CIA data also confirm the progress of the United Nations.⁶ Potentially, this may mean that the continuation of such a policy may lead to the solution of minor local problems and the designation of further directions in the development of countries. Consequently, the preservation of efficiency will require more significant measures in the direction of research and further proposed projects.

Bibliography

Anastas, Paul, and Julie Zimmerman. The United Nations sustainability goals: How can sustainable chemistry contribute?Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry 13 (2018): 150-53.

Five challenges the UNs sustaining peace agenda needs to address.Saferworld.

Fritz, Steffen, Linda See, Tyler Carlson, Mordechai Haklay, Jessie L. Oliver, Dilek Fraisl, Rosy Mondardini, Martin Brocklehurst et al. Citizen science and the United Nations sustainable development goals.Nature Sustainability 2, no. 10 (2019): 922-30.

MacQueen, Norrie. Is it worth it? Success and failure in UN intervention. Chap. 7 in Humanitarian Intervention and the United Nations. Edinburgh University Press, 2022.

Ten Challenges for the UN in 2021-2022.Crisis Group.

Weiss, Thomas, and Sam Daws, eds. The Oxford Handbook on the United Nations. New York: Oxford University Press, 2018.

Footnotes

1. Five challenges the UNs sustaining peace agenda needs to address, Saferworld. Web.
2. Weiss, Thomas, and Sam Daws, eds., The Oxford Handbook on the United Nations (New York: Oxford University Press, 2018), 27.
3. Norrie MacQueen. Is it worth it? Success and failure in UN intervention, chap. 7 in Humanitarian Intervention and the United Nations, (Edinburgh University Press, 2022).
4. Ten Challenges for the UN in 2021-2022, Crisis group. Web.
5. Anastas, Paul, and Julie Zimmerman. The United Nations sustainability goals: How can sustainable chemistry contribute? Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry 13 (2018): 150. Web.
6. Fritz, Steffen et al. Citizen science and the United Nations sustainable development goals. Nature Sustainability 2, no. 10 (2019): 922. Web.

Introduction

In September 2000, 191 members of the United Nations ratified a charter known as the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MGDs). The MDGs established goals that were to be achieved by all UN member states by 2015. The goals were premised on the desire to improve healthcare by improving access to universal education, gender equality, eradication of poverty and hunger and international cooperation.

Summary of eight MDGs and their relation to health

The united nations MDGs were ratified by member states to the United Nations and this signified the beginning of a journey to improve living standards by the end of 2015. First, member states made a commitment to eradicate poverty and extreme hunger from their countries.

The United Nations noted that most member states had more than half their population living below the poverty line. By 2000, it was estimated that over 1.2 billion people were exposed to extreme poverty, hunger and deplorable living conditions. Developing countries contributed a larger number of people living below the poverty line according to the United Nations (Piebalgs, 2010).

Under the Millennium Development Goals, members made a commitment to achieve specific goals aimed at reducing the level of poverty in their countries. Based on the first goal of the MDGs, member states made a commitment to lower the number of people earning less than a one dollar per day.

Under this goal, the member states committed to providing productive employment and proper working condition for all without gender or age discrimination. Nations that ratified the declaration also committed to reducing by half the number of people living in extreme poverty.

A poor nation cannot be able to support the healthcare needs of its people due to lack of adequate facilities. By improving the economic status of the people through poverty eradication, the Millennium Development Goals sought to ensure that everyone had equal access to universal healthcare (Vilsack, 2013).

Achieving access to universal primary education by 2015 was the second goal of the declaration. Member states made a commitment to ensure that all children have access to universal primary education irrespective of their social and economic status. Before the ratification of the declaration, most developing countries lacked adequate capacity to provide universal primary education to children.

With low literacy levels, residents of developing countries lack the capacity to control and manage infectious diseases. The high mortality and morbidity rates in Africa and some parts of Asia can be attributed to the low literacy levels (Vilsack, 2013).

The promotion of gender equality and access to employment opportunities, education and healthcare facilities was the third goal of the MDGs. Elimination of gender disparity within primary and secondary education in member states is essential in achieving other goals that are part of the declaration.

By 2015, signatories to the MDGs made a commitment to ensure that all its citizens have equal access to education and training opportunities irrespective of gender. The fourth goal of the declaration sought to reduce child mortality rates in member countries by two thirds (Kjorven, 2011).

In the developing countries, preventable diseases such as malaria, pneumonia and measles are the main causes of death in children under the age of five (Lomazzi & Laaser, 2014).

The fifth objective of the MDGs is to reduce by three quarter the number of maternal deaths across the globe. In 2013, the world health organization estimated 289,000 women died during childbirth. Though the level of maternal deaths in sub-Saharan Africa has remained high, current figure remain promising.

Combating HIV/Aids and other infectious conditions such as malaria, pneumonia and measles by 2015 is the sixth goal of the MDGs. Mortality cases arising from malaria and HIV/AIDS have remained relatively high due to lack of access to healthcare facilities and treatment. Under this principle, countries will be able to integrate principles of sustainability into their policies and programs.

Such an effort will reduce the loss of scarce environmental resources and introduce new ways for exploitation (Piebalgs, 2010). To eliminate infectious diseases, member states made a commitment to improve access to clean water and improve overall sanitation by 2015.

The seventh goal of the MDG sought to integrate sustainable development within the policies of different countries. Through this goal, the United Nations intends to improve the level of forest cover and reduce carbon dioxide emission. Finally, the eighth goal of the United Nations under the MDGs sought to enhance global partnership to ensure equitable development among member states.

Under this goal, nations will improve their cooperation to improve ICT development and provision of healthcare facilities to developing nations. For example pharmaceutical companies should cooperate with member states to improve access to quality drugs(Lomazzi & Laaser, 2014).

Feasibility of accomplishing the Millennium Development Goals

By the time the MDGs were introduced, countries had varying levels of development and capacity to achieve the goals within the set time limit. The eradication of poverty has remained elusive in different parts of the world especially Africa. By 2010, over a billion people were still exposed to extreme poverty according to estimates released by the United Nations.

The number of children suffering from malnutrition has also remained high despite the progress made in achieving these goals. With reports indicating that one in every five children suffer from stunted growth in 2013, reducing poverty by half in 2015 will be impossible especially in developing countries (Lomazzi, 2012).

The push to achieve universal primary education by 2015 has slackened out despite the progress that has been made so far. Today, the high number of school dropouts has affected the achievement of this goal in different parts of the globe. With over 50% of school going children living in conflict prone regions, access to universal primary education will remain elusive.

Liberia, Brazil and other countries have women leaders today, a demonstration of the impact of the third goal of the MDGs. Most signatories to the declaration have enacted laws which ensure that women have equal access to elective and selective leadership opportunities (Lomazzi & Laaser, 2014).

The introduction of quotas in some countries has also enhanced the achievement of gender parity goal across the globe. However, this goal has remained elusive in predominantly Muslim nations, where women have low access to education and employment opportunities. To achieve this goal, member states must eliminate discriminatory religious and traditional laws.

Substantial progress has also been made in the desire to reduce child mortality rates across the globe. However, preventable disease still remains the major cause of child mortality in different parts of the globe. As a result, the world has failed to achieve this MDG target based on results published in 2012.

With infectious diseases still wreaking havoc in developing nations, achieving this target by 2015 will be impossible. Asia and sub-Saharan African remain major deterrents to achieving this MDG goal globally (Kjorven, 2011).

Maternal mortality is still high despite the progress that has been made this far by the member states. The inability to achieve the first and second goals makes this goal elusive to most countries.

Poverty and low access to quality education has increased the number of adolescent births and deaths according to a progress report released in 2014. Access to prenatal and postnatal care facilities is critical in achieving the fifth goal (Lomazzi & Laaser, 2014).

Through research, collaboration and increased sensitization, new HIV/AIDS infections have considerably reduced. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) is currently accessible to most HIV victims across the globe, thanks to the success of the eighth goal. Youths and women are currently enlightened on issues associated with HIV/AIDS infection and ways to control malaria.

Attaining sustainable development has remained elusive due to uncontrolled industrialization and intensive farming (Lomazzi, 2012). Large forest reserves are cleared every year to give way for agriculture and settlement. This has led to an increase in the level of global greenhouse gas emission.

Though the first seven goals have met significant challenges, global partnership has been enhanced. As a result, most developing countries have access to aid and grants to support their development agenda (Vilsack, 2013).

Summary

Though independent to a certain degree, the eight declarations are related to the desire to improve access to quality healthcare. Before the ratification of the declaration, most developing countries lacked adequate capacity to provide universal primary education to children.

With only one year left before the period established under the declaration ends, most countries have not achieved the goals as captured in the declaration. Despite the dismal performance this far, achieving the Millennium Development Goals will be possible if access to quality education and healthcare facility is enhanced.

References

Kjorven, O. (2011). Why so far the Millennium Development Goals have been a success. Web.

Lomazzi, M. (2012). The Millennium Development Goals survey. Journal of public health policy, 34(1), 1-22. Web.

Lomazzi, M., & Laaser, U. (2014). Millennium Development Goals: How public health professionals perceive the achievement of MDGs. Global health action, 7(1), 243-252. Web.

Piebalgs, A. (2010). More and better aid needed for making Millennium Development Goals a success. Web.

Vilsack, C. (2013). 1000 days to reach the millennium goals. Web.

First and foremost, the article describes the United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, that includes essential directions of improvement in terms of sustainable development of the planet. It was adopted by all of the United Nations members in September 2015 at Sustainable Development Summit in New York. The proposed incentives focus on upgrading quality of life of minorities, preserving natural habitat of the animals, and generate economic growth all over the planet. The work towards achieving these goals is already in the process of implementation, and the progress made is reported annually.

The source, where the article is posted is the official website of the Division for Sustainable Development Goals in the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. It is an established and globally recognized organization. That is why, I find this particular source reliable. Moreover, the incentive, described in the article is of great public importance. It positively affects all the segments of the world population, especially the most vulnerable ones, by providing them with the essential resources and help. Additionally, it puts a focus on improving climate and environmental situations, along with aiming for economic growth in an ethical way, which is beneficial for society, as well.

In my opinion, the ideas of the Agenda for Sustainable Development are closely related to the Marians Franciscan values, such as dignity of the individual, responsible stewardship, peace and justice, and reconciliation, as they put well-being of people and nature as their prime concern. Therefore, it can also be said, that the article is relevant in terms of our class, since it covers an important initiative, that simultaneously covers and interconnects social, economic, psychologic and scientific fields of research.

Reference

The 17 Goals / Sustainable Development. (n.d.) Department of Economic and Social Affairs Sustainable Development. Web.

Generally, it is obvious that wherever an organization is formed, it will experience a certain degree of opposition regarding its intended purpose, and the United Nations (UN) formation was of no exception. Politics are mostly the questioners of the UN activities from the time it was formed and mandated with the task to look into societal and economic matters. Many challenges have come from the escalating poverty levels much more in the global southern nations because of different countries development levels especially the deficient states in need of international assistant. Many of these countries have been experiencing political instabilities that have led to civil wars and other related disasters. Irrespective of these challenges, the UN has managed to penetrate unstable political states with its universal backup to convince and dialogue with affected countries governments to bring equality and sustainability in minoritys claims.

Different bodies which work under the UN such as, among others UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) and the UN Commission on Human Rights (CHR) have entirely been dedicated to the provision of basic needs to the affected nations through other international agencies such as World Food Programme (WFP) and thus minority claims can be addressed appropriately. When such services are offered to these poor countries, their peoples have the opportunity to live sustainable lives hence reduce mortality rates. The success of these endeavors is much dictated by the political class of the affected region/State and the organizational implementation structure of the UN system (Williams 87).

With the powers owned by the UN organization authority, it has played a major role in the manipulation of political issues in the world in particular when it comes to social and human morals, a field in which they have accomplished their aim. UN involvement with the government has managed to bring to the attention minority issues to the planning tables at different levels of the UN organization such as its influence on environmental matters. UN can offer guidelines concerning different issues since they are well joined in the international map and thus can obtain support on their intended agendas.

Their policies on different organizations platforms that work towards the benefits of the minorities have been well checked to ensure they accomplish their required goals. Follow-ups are made after the commencement of different projects to ensure that the set desired results are achieved. This has however brought prolonged arguments especially with the states that dont support UN interference in their country matters. But with their well-organized and experienced panels, the UN can provide guidelines on the creation and execution of set goals especially to areas hit by disasters and the most crucial goal of saving lives can be achieved. With their independent mandatory, high-level delegations can be sent to hold dialogues with affected governments which have managed then to reach in to and accomplish their purpose to implementing the international excellence.

The UN Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) can become significant in convincing host country governments to achieve their goals which are set on international map. They can push for reforms on unstable governments to lay down legal policies that will meet the needs of the minorities. This has brought about harmony in the world to ensure sustainable global development irrespective of different developing levels. With time, the UN policies implemented through NGOs influence the minority prospects on different issues, and with time opposing governments will be lobbed to support such initiatives. UN significance has been felt in different ways and at different levels which has to lead to the maturity of international laws based on formal states agreements and usual behaviors has much in harmonizing international duties by preparing multilateral formal agreements concerning customary laws (Finkelstein 47).

UN sole influence is not applicable in creating legal guidelines but with its significant influence, it has managed to lobby for support from opposing odds to ensure that sustainable policies are put in place to attain the ultimate goal of sustainable global development with minor yet important states being recognized.

Works cited

Finkelstein, Lawrence S. Politics in the United Nations System. Duke University Press, 1988. Print.

Williams, Lucy, and International Social Science Council. International Poverty Law: An Emerging Discourse CROP International Studies in Poverty Research.Zed Books. 2006. Print.

Introduction

The UNO was created in 1945 or maintaining peace on the Earth, as its predecessor  the League of Nations failed in accomplishing this task. Pacta sunt servanda is the principle, which is the basis of any statute, treaty or convention, thus, every UN member should observe the rule of avoiding using the force, or a threat of force, let alone the unilateral use of force. The conflicts should be solved by the means of diplomacy and negotiations.

Discussion

Since the Cold War terminated with the loss of socialistic, the researchers started rising the issue of UN relevance in their works. They claimed that there should be no conflicts, as the world is no longer bipolar. Nevertheless, the world became multi-polar, and the origins of the conflicts transformed. One of such assaults was the ethnic conflict in Kosovo. The US and NATO forces started bombing the territory of Republic of Yugoslavia without UN Security Council resolution. Originally, these actions are regarded as the direct violation of the world order and should be subjected to processing in International Military Tribunal.

As The Nation (2003) states, the main argument of the USA on the issues of UN relevance in Kosovan conflict was the gap between the USA and the rest of the world. It is emphasized that most countries, entailing the great powers, has initiated post national understanding of global governance on questions of world order. France, Germany, Russia, China and other world powers are now committed to international rules forbidding the unilateral use of force and to a form of consensual global governance. This is a remarkable achievement  the vision of the founders of the UN.

Still, the US avoids explaining the bombing of Serbian Kosovo, while Serbs were subjected to ethnic cleansing by Albanians, and KLA was reasonably suspected in contacts with Al Qaeda and drug trafficking. (Vaknin, 2005) Thus, the USA followed its own aims, which are not linked with the global welfare and peace on the Earth. Thus, the UNO also fails to accomplish its task and resist the real aggressor.

However, the violators had stayed unpunished and felt free to start another military assault in 2003. The intervention to Iraq was neither approved by the Security Council. As Arnold (2005) emphasizes, the Bush team members even did not wish to discuss the issue of the absence of UNSC resolution: Questioning the relevancy and the legitimacy of the UN is not only immature and impulsive, it is an underhanded and dangerous challenge to the only organization the world now has for dealing with a host of problems that neither the United States nor any other country can or should want to tackle alone. At the top of that list are AIDS, world hunger, human rights, failures and deficiencies in the nation state system, and the real war on terrorism.

The war in Iraq was just regarded as the best way to disarm Saddam. In spite of the fact that the mass destruction weapon was not found in Iraq, the USA and the Great Britain do not feel any guilt. Neither the UN can impose any sanctions upon them. Consequently, the UNO loses its position of the world arbitrary, as it is unable to control the actions by superpowers, thus, the relevance of this organization is seriously doubted.

References

The Nation. The UN Relevance 2003. Web.

Terrell E. Arnold. On The Relevance Of The United Nations. 2005. Web.

Sam Vaknin. Should UN Administer Iraq: Kosovos Iraqi Lessons. 2005. Web.

Introduction: The Digital Age and Its Challenges

The recent technological breakthrough that has been witnessed over the past few decades has clearly heralded a new epoch. A range of IT innovations, particularly, those that allow for global communication, has become ubiquitous, altering peoples lives on a variety of levels. However, IT tools also offer a plethora of opportunities for managing peoples needs on a global level, as the report published recently by the UN indicates. Despite the fact that the security issue has been addressed extensively and the chances for reinforcing the concept of the Global Citizenship have been explored in depth, the UNs current approach toward the use of IT-related opportunities could use a deeper insight into the issues associated with economics and global trade.

UN and the Digital Age: Reflection

Essential Accomplishments

The enhancement of economic growth through the extensive use of IT innovations can be deemed as UNs major accomplishment in the Digital Age. Seeing that the subject matter is the area of major concern for a range of third-world countries, the enhancement of the data management process for which modern IT tools allow has huge significance for the further economic development.

Possible Areas for an Improvement

As stressed above, the report does not provide much information about how IT tools could be used by the UN as the means of enhancing the financial growth worldwide. The issues associated with taxations, investments, and the role that digital tools play in the promotion of the financial development, as well as the prevention of financial fraud, could have used greater attention. For instance, when addressing the issue of financial mismanagement, Fletcher could have brought up the opportunity for establishing a tighter control over the key financial operations as one of the options that modern IT tools provide: Reports of abuse and exploitation, financial mismanagement and bureaucracy harm the UNs reputation (Fletcher 15).

How the Digital Era Has Been Marshaled

According to the evidence provided by Fletcher, the United Nations have been using the options that emerged with the increase in the role of IT in peoples lives quite successfully so far. Particularly, the promotion of global citizenship as a new model of building relationships in a multicultural environment should be listed among the key accomplishments. Furthermore, active exploration of the factors that affect the economic growth on local and global levels needs to be mentioned as an important step in the right direction.

However, certain areas still need improvements, as the report states quite clearly. For instance, the management of online security still leaves much to be desired, with cybercriminals posing a consistent threat to the economic and personal well-being of online users (Fletcher 19). Despite numerous attempts at fighting digital crimes, cybercriminals invent new ways of bypassing the security.

Conclusion: UNs Actions in the Wake of the Digital Age

Despite significant accomplishments in the area of technology, the current approach toward using IT innovations to encourage economic growth worldwide still needs improvements. The UN should focus on addressing the issues associated with finances and, particularly, the threat of financial fraud in the context of the online environment. Furthermore, the safety of users needs to be enhanced significantly. Thus, the premises for a consistent progress can be created. Focusing on the issues associated with the financial aspect of international business communication, however, is also necessary for the further management of cybercrimes.

Work Cited

Fletcher, Tom. United Networks. Emirates Diplomatic Academy, 26 Apr. 2017,