Category: Uncategorized

Introduction

Security is a multifaceted concept that can be comprehended in diverse forms, hinging on its objects: the discernment of threats, the preserved values, and the ways through which these values are preserved¹. The ongoing change in perception of security threat and the means through which these threats are addressed has contributed to the current studies of security concepts². Traditionally, security matters mainly focused on safeguarding the territorial integrity of a country against internal and external aggressors. These include external military attacks or internal rebellion that could fragment or threaten the ruling elite. Other issues, for instance, economic matters were given less priority³.

Global security studies are derived from security debates following the end of the 2^nd World War. Initially, these debates were about how to defend a country from external and internal acts of aggression. Security was regarded as a mere slogan, distinguishing it from the earlier thoughts and disciplines of combat and military history⁴. Most security literature before the 2^nd World War was to a large extent characterized by war and military strategies, as well as geopolitics.

They include books written by well-known writers, for example, Richardson, Mahan and Clausewitz among others⁵. Global security studies as a field evolved through interrelated concepts and theories drawn from a wide range of research programs. It later became an integral part of the field of International Relations⁶.

After the 2^nd World War, there was a conceptual shift to a broader set of political matters, for instance, societal cohesion and the link between combative and non-combative threats and defencelessness. This was attributed to military and ideological threats posed by the Soviet Union during the cold war⁷. Moving forward from the 70s, the relationship between the world superpowers in terms of nuclear weapons came of age. The pressure was now on broadening the global security plan beyond military and geopolitics. As a result, economic and environmental security was later integrated into the wider security agenda. The global security agenda in the post-cold war era was later expanded to include identity/societal security, human security, and food security among others.

However, some of this literature challenged state-centrism and began focusing on the significance of ideas and culture and other aspects of security⁸. At the moment, global security studies have expanded into various distinct but interrelated subjects. In addition to conventional military-cantered security studies, other crucial security studies have emerged. They include feminist security studies and post-structuralism, constructivist security studies and many more⁹. Most contemporary studies on security also focus on terrorism and insurgency following the 9/11 attack and the war in Afghanistan¹⁰.

Nonetheless, this essay will explore different premises and concepts and key arguments between different authors and their academic positions to find an answer to our main study question, that is, what is European security? Is it an attempt by the European member states to realize their long-term dream of a centralized Europe with an autonomous military and security strategy? Or is it another attempt by the EU member states to guarantee the continued existence of NATO by tying its combat operations to the nationals and other resources available to the European Union?

The essay will tackle this issue in five chapters. The first chapter will analyze theories and approaches to European security. The second chapter will offer an overview of European security. Chapter three will explore the role of NATO and the EU on European security. Chapter four will explore the evolution of European security and defense policy. Last but not least, the paper will take a look at some critical issues that will shape the future of European security.

Theories and approaches to European security

European security refers to EUs initiatives to restore peace and stability among the member states and other areas of interest¹¹. Several kinds of literature unequivocally tried to conceptualize the relationship between the EU and its foreign/defense policies within a theoretical framework. The contribution of these writers reflected historical developments within a specific period. For instance, writers in the 70s and 80s pursued two discrete approaches.

These are neo-realism and neo-functionalism. Neo-realism emphasized the correlation between developments in the European domain and changes in the global system structure¹². Classical realists emphasized on the significance of the balance of power in determining the conduct of individual states in global relations. Therefore, European defense and security issues were not tied to the dynamics of regional integration¹³.

On the contrary, neo-functionalists think that integration is a result of political interest played within global institutions. They argue that members of a particular organization may resolve their discontent in the realization of the agreed joint objective by partnering with another organization. According to the neo-functionalists, a tendency had been created to favor the establishment of joint international policy¹⁴.

A considerable amount of literature emerged in the late 80s and early 90s investigating the relationship between the European Union and the common foreign and security policy, reflecting developments in defense and security domain. One school of thought acknowledged the contribution of neo-realism and neo-functionalism approaches. However, it identified several significant drawbacks to both approaches.

It argues that these limitations could be bridged by taking into consideration Moravcsiks work on interstate institutions. Moravcsik tried to show how an improved realist point of view could explain the EUs negotiations. His approach confirmed the centrality of power and interest, which was the principal precept of a realist in the earlier period. Moravcsik argued that the interests are not only established through power balance but also the influence of the local stakeholders and politicians¹⁵.

Moravcsiks approaches are anchored in three fundamental ideologies: intergovernmental, mutual bargaining, and firm restrictions on future transfers of autonomy. According to this viewpoint, the principal stakeholders of policy-making are found at the country level, though there are international dynamics in the process¹⁶. Fascinatingly, he later amended his approach to giving this important role to institutions rather than individuals¹⁷.

Another school of thought emphasized that the dynamics of EU security depended on the negotiation process between, on one hand, NATO and Western Europe and, on the other hand, efforts by the EU member states and the United States to work out a new arrangement on how to share the burden. For this reason, Laird came up with a caucus model to capture a range of bilateral relationships among certain western European countries¹⁸. Another school of thought attempted to merge regional integration theory and systems of government. Also, they employed the concept of international presence to understand the role of the European Union in the global affairs¹⁹.

Overview of the European security

The turning point of European security began at the end of the 2^nd World War. The aftermath of the war left the US and Russia as the leading military powers around the globe, but their style of governance and economy were like chalk and cheese. The United States was a capitalist democracy, while Russia was a communist dictatorship. The two superpowers dreaded each other in all aspects. Also, the 2^nd World War left Russia in command of the Eastern bloc, while the allies of the United States controlled the Western bloc²⁰.

The US and the Western allies felt threatened by the communist conquest. As a result, they took the necessary actions and precautions to stop the spread of communism, for instance, the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan. The growing tension and fear between the two sides saw the formation of military alliances. The US-led West grouped to form NATO, while the Russian led East came together under the Warsaw pact.

As a result, by the early 50s Europe was disintegrated into two major power blocs, each side having nuclear warheads. This was subsequently followed by hostility between nations without actually fighting (also known as the cold war)²¹.

Despite the anxiety and trepidation of nuclear war, the cold war division between the two blocs shockingly stabilized. Numerous steps and programs were undertaken to ease strained relations between states. They included a series of talks which helped to calm down the hostilities and equalize arms numbers. The two German nations entered into talks under the Ostpolitik plan²². Experts argue that the horror of total devastation played a huge role in averting direct military engagement. Luckily, the division between the two blocs ended after the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991²³.

Following the end of the cold war, European member states signed a treaty (also known as the Maastricht Treaty) which marked the beginning of modern Europe. Under the Maastricht Treaty, EU foreign policies are formulated and implemented under two distinct institutional processes: the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) and other external policies managed by the three main EU institutions²⁴. Several treaties have also been signed to enhance the unity and efficiency of the EUs foreign and security policies, the most recent being the Lisbon treaty. Lisbon treaty was aimed to improve the coordination between the two institutional processes²⁵.

Many authors have written numerous articles on the state of European security. The majority of them tend to put a lot of emphasis on significant decisions²⁶ and specific subjects, for instance, military capacity and transatlantic relations rather than offering a general account of the dynamics behind such initiatives²⁷. However, several writers have tried either to discuss European security as part of the intergovernmental conference agenda to examine the impact of the recent accords on the EUs evolution or have emphasized the role of bilateral relationships, external influence and the process of the EU integration²⁸.

Professor Howorth argues that the European security policies were shaped by three principal factors: the high level of political goodwill created since the Amsterdam treaty; the reliance of NATO on European military capacity and need to sustain a defense industrial base; and the commitment of the key member states towards security initiatives. He drew attention to the significance of the impact of the Kosovo crisis on these initiatives. The EU member states were perturbed by the fact that they could not get their act together and lacked autonomous military capacity to intervene²⁹.

The role of NATO and the EU on European security

NATO was formed in 1949 after the signing of the North Atlantic Treaty by the United States and 12 EU member states. NATOs main objective is joint security against external aggressors³⁰. The current membership comprises of 28 EU member states, the United States and Canada, with the newest members being Croatia and Albania. NATOs budget constitutes more than two-thirds of the global military expenditure³¹.

The majority of new members hail from southeast Europe (also referred to as Balkan states). NATO and the EU signed a comprehensive agreement in 2002 under the Berlin Treaty. The accord gave the EU authority to use NATO resources whenever it felt like acting autonomously in global security matters. The agreement gives the EU military wing an additional muscle to tackle both internal and external security and defense matters³².

NATO has been used in major global military and peace operations in the post cold war era. However, the organization never took part in any operation during the cold war period. Several military operations carried out by NATO include Bosnia and Herzegovina operations in 1992, Kosovo intervention in 1999, Afghanistan War following 9/11 attack, Iraq military training mission, anti-piracy campaign along the Gulf of Eden, and the most recently ousting of Muammar Gaddafi³³.

The European Union is organized into three branches (also known as pillars): the first branch deals with socioeconomic and green policies: the second branch is responsible for foreign policies and security strategies, and lastly the third branch deals with legal and domestic issues. Initially, security matters were exercised through a link between the second pillar and the Western European Union (WEU). The WEU acted as a link between the European Union and NATO. The WEU was mainly entrusted with the responsibility of providing a forum for dialogue on matters related to security and had no adequate resources to build up command and control capacity³⁴.

Since security matters go beyond military operations and budgeting, the EU plays a major role in security through the first two pillars. The Maastricht and Amsterdam treaties offered new foreign and security policy instruments and political structures³⁵. It also introduced popular voting and constructive non-voting to offer greater flexibility in foreign affairs and security matters. The EU also introduced joint actions among member states to avert or simplify intricate matters, for instance, the proliferation of nuclear weapons, humanitarian assistance, extra-territorial legislation, and deployment of a team of observers in various elections³⁶.

The EU is increasingly becoming an important player in global affairs. The presence of the EU is gradually being integrated into the reality of international politics by scholars and global players. Some experts believe that the EU will play a major role in security matters in the coming years. The recent EU operation in the DRC and war against piracy on the coast of Somalia are examples of how its responsibility for security matters is growing³⁷.

The EUs focus on global security matters dates back to the early 70s. During this period, Europe had to confront the price shocks in the global petroleum industry and later on the insurgency in Iran. All these incidences helped the EU member countries to acknowledge the need to have an autonomous foreign security policy³⁸. An example of this increasing awareness is the Venice Declaration in the early 80s where the EU made its first contact with the Middle East, calling for the basic fundamental rights, territorial exchange and security in the entire region³⁹. Therefore, war and unrest in the Middle East during the early 70s marked the beginning of the EUs relations with the region, although it was a humble start with more focus on bilateral trade agreements and limited policy cooperation⁴⁰.

The new security strategies used by the EU attracted a lot of interest from the region. Also, the growing bad blood between the US and the Arab world drew them closer to the EU. This was facilitated by the massive domestic opposition and criticism of the Middle East governments owing to their overdependence on US military power and protection⁴¹. Furthermore, Americas overwhelming support for Israel and war against Iraq has created widespread mistrust in the Arab world. For the Arab nations, it had become a matter of national security to be associated with the US. As a result, the regimes have been doing everything possible to show that they are not dependent on US power.

This has provided the EU with massive opportunity to strengthen its ties with the Middle East region⁴². Nonetheless, the EUs participation in the region is still being considered as unsatisfactory. Regardless of this, the EU has continued to engage with the Middle East governments to make sure that there is stability in the region⁴³.

The relationship between NATO and the European Union is significant to European security. After the unsuccessful attempt to develop the European Defence Community (EDC), the wish for European security found expression in Euro groups and other makeshift alliances within NATO⁴⁴. The end of the Cold War increased the position of NATO in European security. This caused tension between NATO and the Western European Union.

Even though NATOs strategic plan of 1991 recognized the significance of joint European security and defense policy, the two organizations found it very difficult to work together. The rivalry between them was manifested in 1992 when they both took part in the former Yugoslavia but failed to harmonize their operations. However, in the mid-90s, NATO took over the peacekeeping and enforcement activities⁴⁵.

The US proposed a Combined Joint Task Force (CJTF) in 1994 to help solve the problem of burden-sharing. This concept took into account both political and military components. From a military perspective, the proposal represented a novel system of coordinating command and control structures within NATO⁴⁶. However, during 1996 a couple of impediments hindered the progress of the Combined Joint Task Force (CJTF).

The main obstacle was defining responsibility between NATO and WEU during the execution process. A breakthrough appeared to be found during the Berlin Summit in 1996 when a proposal was made to create an all-inclusive military force that can work together under the political leadership and plan of a joint security organization. The WEU was to be allowed to use NATO resources. However, the proposal was later dropped due to misunderstandings and wrangles among the principal stakeholders. All in all, NATO remained the major force in European security and defense matters regardless of the introduction of the above concepts⁴⁷.

Evolution of European security and defense policy

The evolution of the European security strategy took a dramatic change in 1999 during the war in Kosovo. The European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP) is an essential component of the joint foreign and security strategy. The institutions and systems supporting ESDP have gone through significant reforms since the late 90s. These reforms were based on the fundamental requirement expressed in the British-French summit at St. Malo in 1998. During the summit, a proposal was passed that the EU must have the capability to execute an independent operation backed by a reliable military force under one command. This meant that the European security body had to be given fitting structures and power to decide on its policies⁴⁸.

The formulation of security and defense policies in Europe is based on an intricate process of decision-making that generally involves far-reaching, institution-based interstate relations. The EU member states are normally involved in policymaking. The final decisions pass through the voting process, hence they are based on the majority rule. For this reason, foreign affairs and security resolutions are shaped by the interaction between the EU and the national governments⁴⁹.

The European Council (EC) is the highest European body that is responsible for defining security and defense guidelines and principles. To be specific, the EC decides on the general policies and addresses areas of concern for member states. For this reason, most security and defense matters hardly ascend to the highest level of the heads of states unless the deliberations and decisions are of high significance. The EU summit assemblies held between 1999 and 2003 (for instance, Helsinki summit, Nice summit, and Brussels summit) contributed significantly to the establishment of European Security and Defence Policy⁵⁰.

The approval of the European Security Strategy (ESS) in 2003 was a significant milestone towards the achievement of the common security and defense policy. In 2004, the EC approved a vital document on WEU/NATO relations, envisaging new modus operandi to enhance collaboration between the two organizations. Last but not least, successive European summits held between 2007 and 2008 initiated and concluded the reassessment of the ESS implementation, which involved a specific emphasis on ESDP development. The adoption of the policy document also contributed to the definition of ESDPs wider political context and setting up of a regional security and defense strategy⁵¹.

Critical European Security issues

One of the most critical issues facing European security is military and political policies. Over the recent past, there are several voices, particularly from different sides of the political realm, demanding for a common strategic concept and statutory report on security. They argue that it is the only way through which EU member states can come to a common ground on how to set up a political set of guidelines for defense and security and avert ad-hoc decision-making process that has become a norm⁵².

On the contrary, some experts argue that such attempts would be impulsive and probably unproductive. According to these experts, member states should be given adequate time to find common ground. Also, neutral states would be particularly hesitant to make their stance known on such sensitive matters⁵³.

They add that another obstacle to this style of the policy-making procedure is the new set of participants in European security. These include influential and very powerful defense ministries and multinational corporations within the technology sectors. These interest groups in collaboration with several EU member states can attempt to sidestep the laid down procedures, thus creating space for lack of democratic accountability⁵⁴.

In recent times, discussions about uniformity in the EUs security policies have surfaced again. In particular, these discussions have focused on the dynamics of inter-institutional relations across the EUs principal security pillars. Different decision-making directives and processes are not only applied among these pillars but also distinct policy domains within each pillar. This can cause a considerable amount of problems during the implementation of the security and defense strategies. Even though several treaties signed by the EU member states entailed measures to enhance cooperation among the EUs three pillars, the truth is that a significant level of rivalry and incongruence persist⁵⁵.

Another critical issue that will have a massive impact on European security and defense is the expansion of the EU and NATO. Analysts argue that the EUs enlargement as proposed in the Nice Treaty will have a considerable impact on the European security policies, both at the functional and geographical levels. At the moment, reflections on the effect of such enlargement are still tentative.

However, even though it is not possible to comprehend the position of the prospective aspirants for EU membership on security and defense matters, their inclusion will lead to reorganization and a rebalancing of popular and marginal views within the Security Council⁵⁶.

It is obvious that most prospective aspirants from the former Eastern bloc consider EU expansion basically for economic gain and have a tendency to rely on NATO for security. This could mean that in the future European security might be diluted by the alliance between the current member states and the prospective candidates from the East. As a result, a number of the current EU member states have been very eager to introduce new clauses in the existing security and defense policy to ensure future stability⁵⁷.

Another critical issue is the EU and NATO divergent expansion. The two organizations do not follow similar logic and procedures, although they do have common characteristics. For instance, the EU is funding eastern European states to streamline their security and defense structure, whereas NATO is urging these countries to enhance their military spending. For this reason, the lack of clear and consensual guidelines may cause challenges during the transition process. Therefore, the two processes call for more linkage⁵⁸.

Also, the disparity between NATO and EU membership means that the Baltic republics are favored for speedy European accession whereas there are some reservations about their admission to NATO. Therefore, it appears that their inclusion will involve some ingenious security assurance. Furthermore, some western European security experts believe the ongoing negotiations between the EU and these countries would have immense security implications⁵⁹.

Conclusion

Significant steps have been made towards the realization of the long-term dream of a centralized Europe with an autonomous military and security strategy. The long-term objective of enhancing the working relationship between NATO and WEU has also been realized. The establishment of the EUs military committees and the Rapid Reaction Force has given the EU some military muscle. However, there are several conflicting trends in the process.

Even though the majority of the EU member states approved the setting up of military structure and forces, a common ground has not been reached on how to use them in times of crisis. Also, there are different views on the relationship between NATO and the EUs military structure. Even though the latter was created to fortify EUs security, several experts argue that it may end up contributing more to the restructuring of NATO and the creation of makeshift alliances instead of giving EU independent capability.

These conflicting trends are attributable to the nature of the consensus attained during the various negotiation processes. For instance, during the British-French summit at St, Malo in 1998, the objective was to create a military force that can undertake foreign operations.

However, the British government appeared somehow reluctant in embracing the idea of creating a military structure under the second pillar. Also, NATOs chief of Defence plays a major role in defining the EUs security and defense policies. All in all, the creation of a military structure and forces is a significant step towards strengthening the EUs role in regional and global security and defense matters.

The current security strategies used by the EU has attracted a lot of interest from regions perceived to be hostile towards the United States, for instance, the Middle East. The growing bad blood between the US and the Arab world has brought them closer to the EU. EU-Middle East relationship has also been strengthened by the fact that the current US foreign and security policies have received heavy criticism from a section of the EU members. Furthermore, the US overwhelming support for Israel and the anti-terror war in the Middle East has worsened the situation.

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Outline

Child welfare has generated a lot of interest in the recent years; a phenomenon that might have began with backing from some research findings that scrutinized the existing child welfare practices. The principle goal of the child welfare is to provide each and every child with a safe and positive home environment; after parents failure to give adequate support due to myriad of reasons. The existing perspectives such are the justice perspective and the care perspective seem to dominate the child welfare theories and practices. All these are in an effort to better the services we offer to the children. With several studies revealing that separation of the perspectives are the beginning of the problems, many observers and scholars alike have proposed various steps to be taken in order to better the child welfare services. One of the proposal is to integrate the two perspectives rather than argue over which one is more important. This paper will outline the child welfare practices in the United States and critically analyze the two theoretical perspectives; justice perspective and care perspective and concludes with the proposals that are backed by the analysis.

Introduction

Child welfare issues have generated a lot of interests from scholars, child welfare activists, government agencies and the society as a whole in the recent years. This could be attributed to the evidences from research studies indicating that children in care have significant developmental, behavioral and emotional problems and that proper care and services for these children are very essential for the general welfare of the society (Scott, 1994).

According to the United States Census Bureau (2006), approximately 13 million children in the United States live in poverty, representing 18.8% of the total poverty prevalence among the children. In addition National Incidence Study (2006) revealed that child abuse and neglect is rampant, with worrying statistics showing that in the year 2005, about 872,000 children were victims of child abuse and neglect (NIS, 2006). According to this data, child neglect case accounted for 64.5%, followed by psychological and other maltreatment cases at 21.5%, physical abuse at 17.5%, and sexual abuse at 9.7%, while the rate of victimization was 12.1 per 1000 children in 2006 (NIS, 2006). In 2006 over 900,000 referrals were substantiated and over 1500 children died as a result of abuse or neglect (Hill, 2006).The effect of this problem is wide, overwhelming and has spread all over the society structure and well being, welfare workers are understaffed, and the little resources available are stretched to the limit.

Several studies have also revealed linkage between domestic violence and child abuse, with some cases highlighting over-discipline for slightest provocations in homes, and that sometimes such cases of unjust punishments come as a result of substance abuse (Kufeldt & McKenzie, 2003). Gauthier, et al. (1996) states that children who suffer from abuse, neglect and maltreatment have lower self-esteem, fewer friends, less ambitious, cautious and inhibited in their interpersonal relationships and had more behavioral and emotional problems than their counterparts. More astonishing is that abused and neglected children often have low verbal language development and read below chronological age (Gauthier et al., 1996).

Despite enormous expenditure on child care, United States has been noted to have one of the worlds worst rates of infant mortality, teenage pregnancy and child poverty (Hill, 2006). In contrast to less spending nations alike Switzerland, Japan, and Netherlands, US spend an average of $140,000 per child, well over the United Nations estimated average of $125,000 (Hunter et al., 2007). However, the spending is observed to be skewing towards older children of ages between 12 and 17. Furthermore, the society as a whole has never been at its best in providing the total care to the children, at least in the overall responsibility.

Historical background

The idea of child welfare emerged when state sanctioned child welfare system was adopted after the City-State governance theory by Plato (Gauthier et al., 1996). Gauthier et al. (1996) observes that in theory, Plato saw that interest of children could be served by withdrawing children from the care of their parents, and putting them into state-run custody, purposefully to prevent an uprising from the dispossessed parents. In this concept, the responsibilities of care are stated within an act of provincial or state legislature, which subsequently empowers the government department or agency to provide services in the area as well as intervene in the families or societies where child abuse or other child related problems have been suspected (Gauthier et al., 1996). The agencies that were tasked with the management of these services used such names as child and family services, childrens aid, etc depending on each province or state (Gauthier et al., 1996). Kufeldt & McKenzie (2003) note that there is some sort of consistency in the nature of laws, even though the application may vary from state to state or country to country.

Scrutinizing Effectiveness

In the past two decades, child welfare activities in the United States such as child protection services have come under intense scrutiny, both by the public and private agencies as they are seen as an institution than can and have caused great harm in the name of protection (NIS, 2006). This is despite the benefits of the services of these child welfare agencies, generally viewed positively. However, there are increased incidences where critics believe Child Protection Services (CPS) have reacted unjustifiably.

One notable case stood out in the recent past within the family of Gary and Melissa Gates in Texas. In this incident, the school called the local CPS and requested them to forcibly remove all the Gates Children (who were thirteen in number) and take them to the foster homes under court order, despite the clear evidence that the children faced danger in terms of physical health and safety (Prinz, 2008). Such cases have been termed by many as a sign of I dont care attitude within the society that leads to child abuse. Brenda Scott, in her study of CPS concluded, Child Protective Services is out of control. The system, as it operates today, should be scrapped. If children are to be protected in their homes and in the system, radical new guidelines must be adopted. At the core of the problem is the antifamily mindset of CPS. Removal is the first resort, not the last. With insufficient checks and balances, the system that was designed to protect children has become the greatest perpetrator of harm (Scott, 1994).

Disproportional Child Welfare System

A recent data in the United States suggests that a number of minority children, particularly African American and Native Americans enter the foster care system disproportionately (Hill, 2004). The data gives evidence that disproportional nature may be varied throughout the period when a child is involved with the child welfare system, but the differences in disproportionate care are seen at key decision points such as the reporting of abuse, substantiation of abuse, and placement into foster care (Hill, 2006). Studies have also shown that once these children enter foster care, they are likely to remain in care longer than anticipated (Wulczyn, Lery &Haight, 2006). Empirical researches further indicate that there is absolutely no difference in the rate of abuse and neglect among minority populations when compared to Caucasian children that would account for the disparity (NIS, 1996). Even the Juvenile Justice system has not bee left out of criticism for disproportionate negative contact of minority children (Pope & Feyerherm, 1995).

It is prudent to conclude that the overlap in child welfare systems of the United States is the reason why the country has been rated badly in Child Welfare services, where a report indicated that United States Child welfare services were the fourth worst in the world after Mexico, Turkey and Slovakia (Prinz, 2008; Robyn et al. 2006).

Social welfare theoretical perspectives

According to the social welfare theoretical perspective, child welfare services have two purposes:

1. the social control task of policing parenting; and
2. the provision of surrogate parenting to those children whose natal parents fail to meet the prescribed standards (Kufeldt & McKenzie, 2003).

However, Hill (2006) notes that the orderly rigidity of law and regulation is useful in managing social control function, but it is poorly suited to the task of surrogate parenting. We describe award of state as a child in care but we know that there is no guarantee that the child will find authentic human connection-the other meaning of care-while in child welfare care (Hill, 2006). It is logical to note that authentic human connection is very essential to the overall wellbeing of a child. However, among other failures, the language to discuss the child welfare perspective has been lacking for the better part of last decades, jeopardizing the entire child welfare work (Hill, 2004). The actual goal of child welfare is to provide each and every child with a safe and positive home environment. Child Welfare theories entail the idea of providing social services to children, especially those whose parents are not able to adequately accomplish their child-rearing responsibilities due to a myriad of reasons such as poverty, substance abuse, mental illness, and lack of proper parenting skills/knowledge.

There has been a movement in the recent years, in keeping with intent underlying the development and ratification of the UN Convention of the rights of the Child, to articulate the rights of children and youths in care (Hunter et al., 2007). Even though respecting the rights of children is an essential condition under which authentic human connection may take place, it cannot guarantee that a caring connection will happen; furthermore it can never be legislated (Hill, 2004). Since we know that caring and being cared for is crucial to the well-being of a child, the better way to start serving the children in a more humane way is to embrace change of thought patterns concerning child welfare (Hunter et al. 2007) states that the three practical changes that are necessary in this context are to reclaim and rename the children, highlight communities versus agencies, and place value on principles. The first change is to stop labeling children; child welfare workers must change their language to include positive terms and labels-the cases that are worked on are children and families who need assistance (Hunter et al. 2007). Hunter et al. (2007) warns that terms such as dysfunctional, at-risk, emotional or behavioral disorder negatively label a child and decrease their already fragile self-esteem. The second change affects entire communities; children are products of their environments and if one child is in need of help then all children in that environment require help (Hunter et al. 2007). Lyons-Ruth (1996) adds that child welfare workers must be cognizant of the religious, ethnic, cultural, and racial environments that a part of each child. The third and final practical change is to promote positive ways to develop dignity, opportunity, positive relationships, and continuity. How then can we measure the level of success in terms of the above highlighted needs of the children and community/ society responsibility?

The Care-Justice Balance

For critical analysis to examine the issues that relate to care in the child welfare, I will use two theoretical perspectives that Carol Gilligan developed in 1988. Gilligan postulated two ways to describe ethical orientation, how people determine what makes things right or good:

1. Justice (or order) that is based on roles, rules, and reciprocity, and
2. Care that includes responsiveness towards the needs of other as well as concern of minimizing harms (Kufeldt & McKenzie, 2003).

However, the problem with the two perspectives is the difficulty in making decision about switching from one care perspective to justice perspective. For example, if a child is given household chore of cleaning toilet, will failure to do it portray a sign of disobedience? And who will make that decision of what is right or what annoying behavior is? Who actually decides when the middle age children who are often just a few years separating them from the youth are peers in informal interaction, and when to invoke a hierarchy that transforms the transaction into a clinical or legal matter? (Kufeldt & McKenzie, 2003).

Justice perspective

Justice perspective begins with the selection of issue that determines the roles and rules of that apply. In this approach, the selection criteria are inequitably negotiated. However, the problems associated with justice perspective have been of much concern.

A study conducted by Kufeldt & McKenzie (2003), confirm the confusion surrounding the justice perspective when they state: boys in my research group talk about staff pushing your button (i.e. provoking emotional response), presumably as part of their roles as therapist, and youth being physically restrained and /or charged under the law of their reactions. The report further elaborates that the response from some boys indicted that they openly preferred jail to group homes because rules and regulations of juvenile jails were not only clear but consistent too, while rules in group homes changed with the idiosyncrasies of individual staff (Kufeldt & McKenzie, 2003).

The other problem of conflation: in child foster homes; there is a common confusion that leads to mistaking one thing for another i.e. one thing is taken for another or incorporated into another (Malinosky-Rummell & Hansen, 1993). For example, in a recent case, a regular foster family who has, for three years, cared well, with much community support for some two siblings got into trouble with conflation. When their long time worker went on sick leave, the new worker, having read the file, announced on her first home visit that the two siblings had diagnoses that warranted treatment foster home placement (NIS, 2006). If the family of the siblings did not want to undertake the training to qualify for that designation, she said, perhaps it would be best-particularly since testing indicates that both kids had a limited capacity for attachment- that they be moved to appropriate placement so that their psychological needs could be addressed (NIS, 2006). In this case, it is apparent that the diagnosis stands for the children, while the designation defines the home, as Prinz (2008) puts it, such a scenario means the files replaces lived reality.

While its a cut reality that the rationale of minimizing child welfare in the United States is the bottom line priority, the unforeseen problem emanates everywhere. Some scholars do not agree to the idea of huge spending of public money on parenting, when according to them, parenting is ordinarily funded from personal pockets (Robyn, Alan, Chiodo & ONeill, 2006). This argument is economic-focused and could be interpreted to mean that if kids from failed families have more advantage than kids from struggling families in the financing law, then there is a possibility of the struggling families abandoning their struggle, which will ruin society and bankrupt the state.

The idea of independence is too another theoretical idea that offers much confusion. The persistent practice of justice perspective making the ages of the majority synonymous with granting adult independence is rather blunt; as Pope& Feyerherm (1995) explains, independence being on ones own, is not the normal or healthy adult condition. Healthy adults live interdependently, with partners, children, neighbors, employees, relatives and business associates of all sorts. It is therefore logical to argue that children who live without these social connections are socially isolated or marginalized. The other common reasoning is that age of majority has no connections or relationships with real life scenario; as Wulczyn, Lery & Haight (2006) vividly put it, it is a legal nicety, a line arbitrarily drawn because a line is needed to satisfy the linearity of legislation and the rigidity of bureaucracy.

Care perspective

On the other hand, a care perspective needs the end goal to be specifically articulated to rescue it from endless process and the choice of a goal will determine who gets included, and the needs and vulnerabilities that needs to be respected (Solomon & George, 1999). As stated earlier, well functioning families have both care and justice organized and working together. Care perspective is important since it offers middle ground during transition time, that is, it helps renegotiate roles, reconsider rules, and redefine reciprocity (Wulczyn, Lery & Haight, 2006). When a child comes of age, it is viewed in a developmental perspective rather than a legal parameter, hence the decision to leave foster home is negotiated taking into consideration other factors such as specific needs and strength of the graduating youth, minimizing the potential harm while at the same time addressing the longer task ahead of establishing the new person into the bigger world (Solomon & George, 1999).

But why is the justice perspective taking the lead in defining the foster children in the United States? In his study of Synthesis of research on disproportionality in child welfare, Hill (2006) states that justice perspective is an easy way out, as people do not want to knock their heads with the a seemingly bigger task of negotiation that care perspective demands.

Whats in for imbalance correction?

As highlighted above, justice perspective, despite inherent anomalies, is preferred to Care perspective. So what can be done to correct this imbalance? Care has always been a core factor in the child welfare issues all over the world and many social workers believe it is the way out to ensure the tranquility in child welfare protection. Wulczyn, Lery & Haight (2006) expalins that we need justice (or order) perspective that honors care to replace justice (order) perspective that disregards (silences, confuses, conflates, minimizes) care. We need to integrate and legitimize language of care.

To emphasize his need of balancing care perspective with justice (or order) perspective, Wulczyn, Lery & Haight (2006) propose a series of criteria to be applied in the process of making decisions in the event of child welfare activity, albeit in the form of questions:

1. What are the issues we are addressing?
2. What are the roles involved in this issue?
3. What are the rules that relate to the roles involved in this issue?
4. Who are the people impacted by this issue?
5. What are their needs relative to this issue?
6. What is the overall goal to be achieved by the possible resolutions to this issue and the related actions?
7. Which course of action is least harmful to the group of people impacted? and
8. How will we evaluate the success of the course of action we choose?

In the critical overview of the policy preference on the two theoretical perspectives, it is evident that the child welfare policy is inclined towards the justice perspective against the care perspective, a clear sign that the child welfare policy in the United States needs reform. One activist once commented, We do better with animals than we do with children-punishments are more severe when animals are abused and a judge can award an injunction against having other pets (Hunter, et al., 2007).

The Need for Continuum Child Welfare

After the analysis of the child welfare through the context of care perspective and the justice perspective, it is prudent to look at what the continuum child welfare will mean. Critically, it is essential to: 1. incorporate child welfare into context; 2. analyze the discontinuity of care; 3. concerns about the focus of services i.e. whose best interests are we serving?; 4. critically look at the needs of adequate resources

Incorporating child welfare into context

In this approach, there is urgent need to support, prevent, and manage transitions in children. Vividly put, there is critical and immediate need to take ecological approach to child welfare (Carlson, 1988). Despite numerous changes and legislations in the child welfare policy that emphasize that supporting family as the preferred first choice line of defending children, resources are still limited in the area, putting the primary focus of child care into jeopardy (Hill, 2006). The argument that is normally put forward by the critics of child welfare huge financial support is that it is the communitys responsibility to provide support and prevention to the children. However the term community is amorphous in nature and even if we assumed the term community was solid, it is still engulfed in poverty, one single most reason why the community takes their children to the foster homes (Hill, 2006).

Within this context of prevention and support, the principle focus is the need to expand the preceding factors in family wellness and prevention (Kufeldt & McKenzie, 2003). First, the child welfare services should work towards prevention techniques rather than reactionary approach when a serious problem occurs such as risk of social structure breakdown. Secondly, to be effectively and truly preventive in approach, all the possible efforts to reduce abuse and neglect should be considered a policy priority that would help promote family wellness, instead of just targeting family dysfunction (Hill, 2006). Third, there is the complexity of which approach to go for, holistic or biological (Lyons-Ruth, 1996. This resonates in very corner of argument but continual dilemma that has led to many scholars and policy makers alike shy away from the two paradigms is not healthy for the efforts to eliminate or minimize child problems.

One important approach to solve this complexity is seen in the United Kingdoms Department of Health. In their treaty to solve the complexity and effectively assess the children in needs, they have broken the ecological approach into key dimensions to assessing whether the child is in need, namely:

1. Absolute and thorough understanding of the developmental needs of the child,
2. The capacities of parents and care givers to appropriately respond to the highlighted needs, and
3. The wider families impacts as well as environmental factors on parenting capacity and children (Prinz, 2008).

Discontinuity of Care

The discontinuity of the care in the child welfare can be observed into two fronts: the discontinuity of the individual child and the discontinuity of different phases of services offered (Scott, 1994). According to Scott (1994), child welfare services must be transformed from their residual role and present tendency toward people processing that leaves children adrift in a limbo characterized by too much discontinuity.

Currently, the child welfare workers and scholars have accepted that there is the possibility of people changing and that despite any form of physical discontinuation from the former environment, there should be more into accepting that reality (Prinz, 2008). Nonetheless, there is a general improved awareness that problems are basically not the outcome of individual pathology but can easily arise from inequalities and inadequate justice existing in the society, hence the increased demand and emphasis on support and prevention (Scott, 1999). While it is acknowledged that people changing i.e. learning different parenting approaches, in some cases are essential, Scott (1994) notes that for the most part effective promotion of childrens welfare will require transformation at all levels of our system.

The inherent discontinuity of services offered for the child welfare in the United States is seen in the services offered as they are broken in different branches, principally to search for efficiency (Solomon & George, 1999). In this state, children and their families are processed through various and numerous services instead of use of services that wrap the whole package of child and family need, as Solomon & George (1999) aptly dismiss the approach, efficiency is no longer efficient if it reduces effectiveness of our interventions.

How can this discontinuity be changed into continuity?

Scott (1994) explains this concept using his experience with Looking after Children in Canada Project, that in their community, the same worker stayed with child and the family throughout their history with child welfare services, a concept that created continuity of planning as well as placement. The effect of this discontinuity in between the care givers and the child and family leads to the discontinuity in service provision (Scott, 1994). Furthermore, for the change of status from at risk to in care and other changes throughout the whole level of guardianship like to available for adoption and sometimes occasional change of workers may result into change of placement (Scott, 1994). Prinz (2008) acknowledges that this change of placement is likely to create more changes in school, in worker, loss of peer relation, and at worse may lead to broken and unsustainable family connections.

The design of the welfare services is in whose best interest?

Principally, everyone would agree with me that the whole intent of designing the child welfare programs is to serve the children. But the predominant themes in most arguments are inclined towards serving others interests rather the primary planned focus, and subsequent loss of sight of the overall child welfare. However, Hunter (2007) defends this phenomenon by arguing that no one intends to shift this reasoning perspective, but says that to the best possible option, children should remain with their families. Certainly no one would argue against this reasoning, considering the underlying benefits of such arrangements, if only all these children in foster homes could be safely raised in their own homes. This would be appropriate if all the stressors like poverty, lack of adequate housing, and other forms of child abuse were removed, and all the necessary supports were given promptly (Carlson, 1988; Malinosky-Rummell & Hansen, 1993). Again as Carlson (1988) points out, the majority of those children in foster would opt for their home, given chance through just a slight improvement of resource provision.

The family support and preventive measure that are most likely to succeed will have adequate resources. As one informant in a research clearly stated, prevention should be having people well and happy, and not so much that they just squeak by (Kufeldt, & McKenzie, 2003). This calls for the expansion of the innovative methods of resource distribution for the optimum welfare services to succeed.

Such approaches are known to increase full participation of the community, in design, implementation and empowerment to ensure positive change and improvement of the whole family, children included. In the meta-analysis of such a program on United Kingdom, Malinosky-Rummell & Hansen (1993) found out that the importance of such programs is that they demonstrate the importance of tailoring the design to the need rather than client having to fit into whatever an agency has to offer.

Even though some of the highlighted strategies like the biological may have evidenced efficacy, such programs have been found to be vulnerable to the vagaries of resource allocation and funding (Hunter et al 2007). That is to say, they are far from being sustainable as the funding priorities do change as time goes by.

Conclusion

In general, the degree of success in the child welfare appraisal will largely depend on the degree of inclusiveness in the program. That is, inclusive care and justice practice where the child and family contacts are maintained and involved to the best interest of the child and the society as whole.

Again the other aspect is partnership and collaboration to incorporate the whole concept optimum care. This corporation should in the first instance take care of the parental collaboration, in tandem with the principle of keeping in touch with the parental responsibility, a concept that has been found to increase the success of transition and eliminates detachment (Hunter et al 2007). Further, government agencies that have been established for child welfare must be ready to collaborate and work together as a team. Hunter et al (2007) explain that child welfare workers, treatment providers and the court system must open the lines of communication in order to be effective in bettering the lives of the children. This collaboration will also improve the sharing of resources and ideas, all in the interest of children.

Reference List

Carlson, A. (1988). A prospective longitudinal study of disorganized/disoriented attachment. Journal of Child Development 69, 1107-1128.

Gauthier, L., Stollak, G., Messe, L., & Arnoff J. (1996). Recall of childhood neglect and physical abuse as differential predictors of current psychological functioning, Child Abuse and Neglect 20, 549-559.

Hill, B. (2004). Institutional racism in child welfare: Child welfare revisited. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. pp. 57-76).

Hill, B. (2006). Synthesis of research on disproportionality in child welfare: An update.

Casey-CSSP Alliance for Racial Equity in Child Welfare. Web.

Hunter, L., Kimberly E. Hoagwood, J., Kaplan, P., Kemp, L., & Hartman S. et al. (2007).

Best Practices for Mental Health in Child Welfare: Parent Support and Youth Empowerment Guidelines and the Child WelfareMental Health Best Practices Group. Web.

Kufeldt, K., & McKenzie B. (2003). Child Welfare: Connecting Research, Policy, and Practice. New York: Wilfrid Laurie University Press.

Lyons-Ruth, K. (1996). Attachment relationships among children with aggressive behavior problems: The role of disorganized early attachment patterns. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 64, 64-73.

Malinosky-Rummell, R. & Hansen D. (1993). Long-term consequences of childhood physical abuse. Psychological Bulletin 114, 68-69.

NIS. (2006). U.S. Department of Health & Human Services: Administration for Children & Families. National Incidence Study. Web.

Pope, E., & Feyerherm W. (1995). Minorities and the Juvenile Justice System Research Symmary. Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, 8(2), 132-138.

Prinz, R. (2008). Dissemination of a Multilevel Evidence-Based System of Parenting: Interventions with Broad Application to Child Welfare Populations, Child Welfare Journal, Issue (6). 1432-1449.

Scott (1994). Relationship of Child Neglect and Physical Maltreatment to Placement Outcomes and Behavioral Adjustment in Children in Foster Care: A Canadian Perspective. Canadian Journal of Childcare. We

Introduction

Capital punishment is one of the most debated issues in our time where governments and rulers need more time to decide on  at least thats what they say. Some governments impose moratorium to allow more breathing space before total abrogation can be attained. One reason for postponing the issue is opinion polls.

But there are more ways than one to kill a cat, we say. Delaying tactics could be one of the reasons for retentionists. In our study however of the pros and cons of the death penalty, it is with all honesty that in our present time, the reasons for the abolition far outweigh those for retention. The retentionists alibis have been too repetitious and have become illogical in the eyes of the world. Those who have retained are governments which have questionable motives; motives which seem personal or for selfish interests.

Hans Gvran Franck, Swedish human rights activist and political figure, who contributed much to the adoption of Protocol No. 13 to the European Convention on Human Rights, which abolishes capital punishment in both wartime and peacetime, says that it is a well known fact that the general attitude toward the death penalty can shift drastically [and] it is mainly after particularly gruesome acts of violence that the ideas favouring retribution and a tough stance against crime gain currency. (Franck, 2003, p. 33).

Franck further notes that perceptions and attitudes of peoples towards the death penalty can change with increased knowledge. If theres enough information campaign by people in government and those concerned, favourable opinion can be gained for the abolition of capital punishment.

One of the strongest arguments for the retention of capital punishment or death penalty is the An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth principle in Biblical times where Moses found so hard to lead the Israelites to the Promised Land. God himself found the people hardheaded that he had to devise a plan that could make them follow his will through Moses. But what could be the underlying principle behind this commandment? Was it because God was just trying to protect his people from evil, or was it to show to the Israelites that a wrong done should have its corresponding punishment, meaning retribution? Or did God allow Moses to enforce it because the evil ways of the people could run counter to his plan of salvation?

We can surmise upon reading the many biblical passages on capital punishment that it was different in those times, or people lived differently. Society wasnt too organized yet, thats why God intervened, or talked with the people face to face.

Are those laws in Biblical times applicable today? Because if the answer to this is yes then theres no need of any argument. But the fact is we are now living differently from those times when there were no laws yet, except Gods Ten Commandments of which God Himself had to refine every now and then and explain to them through the prophets, kings, and judges.

For Christians, we have the New Testament, a record of the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. Christ was a victim of capital punishment. He was tried and sentenced outright without even the chance of defence, and the accusations were all fabricated. And Christ left for us an example  that the states finishing of life, legally killing a criminal, is all wrong. Although, theologically speaking, Christs dying on the cross was for some deeper meaning, which is redemption for mankinds sin, there was other meaning of the crucifixion, or the states condemning the life of a convicted criminal. He was showing to the world that it was all wrong  the method, the principle, and all the circumstances surrounding the death penalty. The death penalty should be discussed properly by government and all sectors of society.

Another question to ask is: What was the state of society when the death penalty was the popular choice of the peoples of the world? There were so-called barbarous states at the time, which is much different at present. At the present state of the world and governments, we can say that we are more humane than the peoples of the earth in Biblical times  at least, for some countries and governments. At present however there are many states that still impose the death penalty. But there are those postponing abolition but actually their people in government are wantonly punishing their people. Some humanitarian organizations are doing the checking for the great majority of the world population.

Professor Sir Leon Radzinowicz (1999, as cited in Hodgkinson, 2004, p. 2) says that should Cesare Beccaria be alive today and look at the situation on capital punishment, he should probably be disappointed on the ground that the abolitionist cause has acquired the heaviest blow from the United States, which most of the states has rallying behind the retentionist cause.

Some keep on postponing the issue, sometimes imposing moratorium instead of abrogating it, but when talk start on from opposing sectors, controversies would start occupying the headlines once again. We can just look in wonderment the countries or states in the world which have abolished penalty for ordinary crimes  only 195 states or 14% of the countries, leaving 86% with death penalty right before the poor and the oppressed of the world who are the most vulnerable in terms of justice and law in their land.

Methodology

There are various reasons for or against the death penalty, and they do differ from country to country. Generally these include issues on deterrence, public opinion, and human rights.

In going about the statistics of crimes and capital punishment, we researched on books, periodicals, the internet, and websites which give details about the pros and cons of the death penalty. Amnesty International has a detailed list of the death penalty statistics, or states which have retained and abolished the death penalty. We can get information from Amnesty International website about statistics: 92 abolitionist countries, 10 abolitionist for ordinary crimes, 36 abolitionist in practice, while total abolitionist in law or practice are 138 countries. There are 39 retentionists.

World Statistics

We have listed down at the end of this essay, all the countries which have abolished the death penalty, the year it was abolished, and the nature of crimes. 36 countries are listed by AI as Abolitionist in practice, because they have retained the death penalty but have not executed a convicted felon during the past 10 years.

Internationally, abolition of the death penalty is supported by the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe when in 1985 it entered into force the draft protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights. (Hodgkinson, 2004, p. 21)

Sometime ago, the death penalty was once imposed by international courts, but it is no longer (Hodgkinson, 2004, p. 61).

During the period after the Second World War, European governments indulged in a few years of executions of war criminals. The last execution in France was late 1970s (Hodkingon, 2004, p. 22).

In the Philippines, there is no evidence of a drop in crime due to capital punishment. Former President Estrada commuted all death sentences in December 2000, and in 2001 his successor President Gloria Arroyo announced a three-year moratorium on the death penalty. Moves to abolish capital punishment are as a result of political leadership at the highest leadership in the Philippines and Taiwan (Hodgkinson, 2004, p. 28).

China remains Asias proponent of the death penalty, executing criminals by the thousands, especially those convicted of drug trafficking and fraud on public institutions. The authorities have committed capital punishment as a deterrent. However, China has signed the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, imposing a number of limitations on the use of capital punishment, requiring that it be used only for most serious crimes and following trials that respect the most rigorous due process standards. Chinese jurists express their own dislike of capital punishment but then explain it is inevitable given widespread public support (Hodgkinson, 2004, p. 29).

Arguments for Capital Punishment (The Retentionist)

Historically, capital punishment has not been considered cruel and inhuman punishment because when the Bill of Rights was written in 1789, every state allowed the death penalty.

However, Schabas (1997) in arguing for the abolition, quotes Article 6 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which was adopted in 1966, as follows:

In countries which have not abolished the death penalty, sentence of death may be imposed only for the most serious crimes in accordance with the law in force at the time of the commission of the crime and not contrary to the provisions of the present Covenant and to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. This judgement has to be rendered rendered by a competent court. (International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1976, 999 UNTS 171, art. 6, as cited in Schabas, p. 9).

In the 1970s, France and Spain were both conducting executions, and South Africa, Ukraine and Russia, now abolitionists, were sentencing hundreds every year. The United Kingdom, Ireland and Canada have not executed anyone for forty or fifty years, it is only within the last few years that they have changed their constitutions against the death penalty (Schabas, 1997, p. 1).

Within Europe, governments of Germany, Austria and Italy abolished capital punishment as part of the transitional justice process by which they turned the page on the abuses of the previous decades. Human rights law became the guiding principle of new international organizations, the United Nations and the Council of Europe.

In the United Nations, the death penalty was treated as an inevitable and necessary exception to the right to life, but also one whose validity was increasingly open to challenge& Full fledged and complete respect for the right to life, something that necessarily involves the abolition of the death penalty, stands as the implied common standard of achievement in article 3 of the Universal Declaration. (Schabas, 1997, p. 2).

On the other hand, the European Union adopted its Charter of Fundamental Rights. Article 2 states:

1. Everyone has the right to life.
2. No one shall be condemned to the death penalty, or executed. (Schabas, 1997, p. 2)

This universal declaration of the right-to-life principle should be binding on all peoples and all states, big and small. We are now living in a new and free world; the age of barbaric principles and practices should be past tense.

Demand for Justice

This is also known as retribution. As W. S. Gilbert (cited in Levinson, p. 160) says: Let the punishment fit the crime. In other words, those who kill deserve to be killed  an eye for an eye. This can be explained in particular situations.

When someone in the family has been wronged, for example, a daughter has been raped and murdered, the family demands justice. As Rae (2000) says there is an imbalance created in the social order. There is a demand for justice created by the imbalance and therefore there should be a restoration of the balance in society. Retentionists say that only capital punishment can equalize the offense of murder or some other crimes such as rape. Rae says, Only the death penalty can express societys moral outrage at the taken of innocent life. Justice being satisfied is especially important for a society dependent on due process of law instead of vigilantism to restore the imbalance created by crime. (p. 212).

Abolitionists, on the other hand, argue that when victims demand for justice, they are seeking revenge which is against the teachings of Jesus and the Bible on loving ones neighbor and putting the other cheek when one strikes you on the other cheek.

But this is confusing personal with social ethics. We indeed have to love our neighbor and teach others to make peace even when they commit wrong against us, because this is part of personal ethics taught by Jesus Christ. But this cannot be applied to the state. The responsibility of the state is to punish criminals, not to forgive them. The state may not exercise its role unjustly or indiscriminately, but God has given the state the responsibility of criminal punishment. (Rae, 2000, p. 212)

In other words, the state has the right to defend itself; capital punishment then is defense of the state against criminals.

Schabas (1997) states that, Public opinion is frequently invoked in defence of capital punishment. Sometimes it presents itself as an excuse, relied upon by legislators and jurists who argue that they are personally favourable to abolition of the death penalty but that they cannot move too far ahead of public opinion. (p. 3).

Politicians use this seeming justification for postponing or retaining capital punishment. They say that it is a part of democracy, or that democracy rules in this present world that capital punishment continues  because it is the will of the people.

Robert Jay an Greg Mitchell (cited in Schabas, 1997, p. 3) state that the death penalty exists uneasily in any contemporary democracy. Emerging democratic attitudes, over centuries, mostly militate against state killing.

Deterrence

Deterrence means the belief that criminals would end their careers in crime due to the threat of punishment [death] by the criminal justice system (Levinson, 2002, p. 162).

The issue of deterrence has been raised by governments to support retentionist position. But Hodgkinson (2004) says that this could be a reliance on hope than evidence. (p. 10).

Roger Hood (cited in Hodgkinson, p. 9) states: [E]conometric analyses have not provided evidence from which it would be prudent to infer that capital punishment has any marginally greater deterrent effect than alternative penalties. In other words, states imposing death penalty have no grounds holding as deterrent measure for crimes.

Isaac Erlich (cited in Hodgkinson, 2004, p. 9) showed in a study that death is a deterrent to the crime of murder. Erlichs work was a systematic analysis of the relation between capital punishment and the crime of murder. Erlichs study found that from 1933 to 1965 an additional execution per year & may have resulted on the average in seven or eight fewer murders. Although Erlich conceded that the finding was not a justification that other punishments could not be used as deterrent, still it showed that capital punishment is a deterrent.

Another study conducted by Hashem Dezhbakhsh, Paul Rubin and Joanna Shepherd (as cited by Hodgkinson, 2004, p. 9) also concluded that capital punishment has a strong deterrent effect and that each execution results on average in eighteen fewer murders.

However, these studies were contradicted by John Sorenson, Robert Wrinkle, Victoria Brewer and James Marquart who conducted their own study in Texas between 1984 and 1997, and found no evidence of a deterrent effect. They used Texas as the subject for their study because this state had a high number of sentences and executions. It was concluded in the study that capital punished had no deterrent effect.

Michael Mello, a death-row lawyer and author of Dead Wrong, and who had witnessed the system of imposing capital punishment in the Circuit Court in Texas, says how flawed the system of capital punishment is. Mello tells of how a convict named Stanley, considered mentally retarded, was executed for some inefficiencies of the trial attorney.

Kronenwetter (2001) says, Abolitionists argue that most murderers cannot think rationally enough to be deterred by any penalty, including death. (p. 27).

Most crimes like murder which are considered heinous crime by many states are also considered crimes of passion, committed when in anger, hatred, and frustration, that people committing it dont know exactly what they are doing. They dont what are the consequences of their action.

This is one of the best arguments supporting the abolitionist stand. Indeed, murder and other capital offenses were committed in moments where criminals did not have time to think that what they were about to commit were punishable by death. Although this is an explanation taking into consideration the psychological point of view, what is pointed out here is the logical side of things.

Most other murderers  those who cold-bloodedly plan and carry out their crimes  think they are too clever to be caught. The death penalty cannot be a deterrent to them because they are convinced they will escape punishment of any kind.

What Albert Pierrepoint, the legendary British executioner who became an opponent of capital punishment after his retirement in the late 1950s, said on capital punishment is worth noting here importantly: The death penalty never once acted as a deterrent in all the jobs I carried out & and I have executed more people than anyone this century. (Kronenwetter, 2001, p. 23).

Supporters of capital punishment face an obvious problem when they try to prove that the death penalty deters. How can they establish that someone would have committed a crime if that person ahd not been deterred by the threat of the death penalty? (Kronenwetter, 2001, p. 23).

And some governments just support it for not apparent reasons. Governments and others in positions of influence refer to strong public support for the death penalty as one of the justifications for retaining it. (Hodgkinson, 2004, p. 18).

But capital punishment is cruel as provided for in the Eighth Amendment. Cruel and unusual punishment, which is prohibited in the Eight Amendment in the Bill of Rights, means punishment that inflicts pain in a wanton and unnecessary manner, as well as punishment that is disproportionate to the crime committed. (Rae, 2000, p. 214).

Capital Punishment is Humane

Proponents of the death penalty argue that punishment of death can be accomplished in a humane and not cruel way. The punishment can be administered in a way that it does not involve wanton infliction of pain, much like euthanasia where a lethal drug is injected on the patient so that he would not suffer anymore from pain. This can be done also to the convict (Rae, 2000, p. 214).

When retentionists say this, its tantamount to saying that killing is humane and not cruel. It would mean that a crime could not be corrected no matter the gravity of the crime. We call our institutions correctional because we intend to correct a wrong that has been done, and that include crimes of murder and other grievous crimes.

Moreover, according to Rae, the cost of lifetime term in prison is far greater than the cost of the appeals process. Caring for inmates for the rest of their lives cost about $900,000, while providing for the needs of a death row inmate just costs about $30,000. Rae (2000) says that the cost of life imprisonment is much greater than the cost of appealing a death sentence. (p. 214).

There should never be a reasonable argument for the amount spent to preserve a life even if that life belongs to a murderer. Governments of the world should be able to shoulder the costs of correcting convicts because thats the only way our society can be called humane and Godly.

Arguments for the Abolition

First the system is flawed. The justice system of world governments could be sending innocent victims to the gallows. Second, the death penalty undermines the dignity of persons made in the image of God and cheapens human life.

Capital punishment runs counter to the humane treatment of prisoners and convicts. It was during Biblical times when the world was not yet governed by laws. God directly communicated with the Israelites, and the mentality of the people at that time is very different from today. God has given us all these tools, technology, and above all education to understand what is right and wrong for us.

Franck et al. (2003) state this strong argument against capital punishment:

The idea that the death penalty is needed as a form of retribution for a crime, as an act of vengeance, is outdated. No countries that respect the rule of law invoke this principle any longer on an official level to justify their use of the death penalty. Hence, civilized nations ruled by law have gradually come to abandon the concept of retribution and either abolished the death penalty or thought up new reasons for using it. There are still, however, people who cling to the retribution argument and who believe that there are crimes so terrible that societys only appropriate response can be to kill the perpetrator (Franck et al., 2003, p. 34).

There are those who point to the barbaric aspect of the killing. From then on, prophets and great men have come  all of these great men never advocated capital punishment. We have had Jesus Christ, the prophet Mohamed, Mahatma Gandhi, Buddha, and the great leaders of the Catholic, Islam, Hinduism, and other denominations who have all advocated love for ones neighbor, and for states and communities to give each and every human being a chance to reform and be a part of society after one has committed wrong to society.

It has never been the nature of humans to be retributive and vengeful. Man was not created like an animal with claws and pangs. He was created to be loving and thoughtful to his fellow human being. Christ teaches us to pass on the other cheek when one hits you. This is the principle of forgiveness  not killing.

The death penalty is cruel and inhuman. The long history of the death penalty could tell us how it was during the times of barbaric and uncivilized people. It was during the time of Moses, when he had to impose the strictest measures on Gods chosen people. Now criminal punishment is being motivated by the desire for revenge. In a society that so values human life, it seems inconsistent for a person to be against abortion and for the death penalty.

Moratorium will lead to genuine abolition. Professor Roger Hood (cited in Hodgkinson, p. 3) argues that capital punishment violates the fundamental right to life; it is not a deterrent for criminals to commit the same crime again; that there are a lot of flaws in the administration of the death penalty even in developed legal systems; and the effects of capital punishment is counter-productive and is totally out of this present modern world. (R. Hood, Capital Punishment  A Global Perspective (2001) 3 Punishment & Society, as cited in Hodgkinson, p. 3).

Franck (2003) adds that the conditions surrounding the execution itself and the period between the sentence and the carrying out of the sentence, which is frequently quite long, make it possible to compare the death penalty to torture. (p. 35).

This condition is similar to torture, an inhuman and degrading treatment or punishment, which is prohibited under international law. The prohibition against torture is universal and absolute, thus not exceptions are permitted. (Franck et al., 2003, p. 35).

Conclusion

From the pros and cons of capital punishment, we have gathered some strongest arguments. These arguments seem to change over time or as times change due to opinion from the great population. But we have noted some of the great and noted personalities like Hans Gvran Franck who says that todays societies are assured of certain inalienable rights, rights that extend even to the most hardened criminals. (p. 34)

We have laws and punishment for even recidivist criminals. We can correct these criminals and in modern times, it is not anymore societys obligation to kill a hardened criminal. This is reflective of the barbaric times when criminals who were not even positively proven guilty by the most competent court were automatically killed.

The statistics of world states indicate that majority still impose capital punishment. However, this fraction of the world population can dissuade others or conduct continuous information campaign and impart knowledge or, in the words of Hans Gvran Franck, show the fallacy of the original motive for capital punishment  the concept of retaliation  that dominated criminal law for a long time.

For a clean and human society of today, capital punishment should be past tense. States which have totally abolished it should continue the pressure on others doing it. God will have a different look on us when all of us follow his will of totally abolishing killing our fellowmen no matter what their sins are to society.

Countries that abolished the death penalty and the nature of crimes (from Amnesty International website:

References

1. Amnesty International. Abolitionist and Retentionist Countries.
2. Bedau, H. A. (2005). An Abolitionists Survey of the Death Penalty in America Today. In. H. A. Bedau and P. G. Cassell, Debating the Death Penalty: Should America Have Capital Punishment?: The Experts on Both Sides Make Their Best Case. U.S.A.: Oxford University Press, 2005. 23-24.
3. Franck, H. G., Nyman, K., and Schabas, W. ( 2003). The Barbaric Punishment: Abolishing the Death Penalty (The Raoul Wallenberg Institute Human Rights Library, 12). United Kingdom: Kluwer Law International. 34-35.
4. Hodgkinson, P. (2004). Capital Punishment: Improve it or Remove It? In P. Hodgkinson and W. Schabas, Eds. Capital Punishment: Strategies for Abolition.

Introduction

Importance of the Issue in the Global Context

The issues regarding refugees are currently highly relevant given the social and political environment in such countries as Syria, Lebanon, and Iraq. Refugees from these areas have no alternative other than to seek shelter in Europe. The resulting enormous flow of refugees leads to social, political, economic, and cultural problems across the European Union (EU). Such countries as Germany and Serbia are particularly crucial to examine as they are open to virtually all refugees in contrast to many countries, especially those of Eastern Europe, who oppose the admission of refugees and migrants. Such a situation creates the risk of a European split and may even lead to some leaving the EU, as in case of the UK.

Problem Identification

First of all, it is necessary to clarify the term of refugee. It can be defined as a person who had to leave his or her country because of persecution on religious or political grounds, war, or other imminent dangers to life. The movement of refugees is currently experiencing a significant increase in the numbers of migrants and refugees from the Middle East and Africa (The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees). This migration crisis has already been acknowledged to be the largest since the Second World War. The size and nature of this crisis has caused mixed reactions across the world. Some people, referring to the experience of the Roman Empire, perceive the migration crisis as the beginning of the end of European civilization. For others, the current immigration situation is a manifestation of the inefficiency of European institutions and organizational structures that have been created to regulate migration flows.

One of the distinguishing features of the current crisis is the merger of several migration flows with legal asylum seekers and illegal economic migrants coalescing into one powerful stream. It is important to note that the majority of migrants initially target the most developed countries of Western Europe, indicating a relatively high degree of awareness of the standards of living and social and economic assistance available to migrants and refugees in any particular EU country. Modern migrants, unlike their predecessors, do not blindly run from danger, rather their actions are based on information provided not only from the media but also from formal and informal information networks, including feedback from ethnic diasporas that is facilitated by the spread of the Internet.

In terms of the long-term effects of the migration crisis, on the one hand, receiving countries become more diverse and multicultural, promoting globalization, but on the other, this in itself may cause ethnic conflicts. In particular, some aspects of Muslim beliefs and practices are alien to Europeans. Receiving countries often encounter additional refugee issues that may be reflected in a countrys financial state. In their turn, refugees very often face a lack of employment opportunities in the receiving countries (The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees). Considering that the majority of refugees have no education or comparatively low levels of educational qualifications, it is no surprise that job opportunities are severely limited. The fact that the perceptions and attitudes of Europeans and refugees are not aligned may lead to cultural conflicts. In general, however, the long-term outcomes would appear to be positive where appropriate measures are implemented to promote integration.

Causes of the Problem

The Syrian refugee crisis began with the escalating violence in the Middle East and resulted in the implementation of an asylum policy in 2015 (Kingsley 2015). According to the definition given by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), national asylum systems are in place to determine who qualifies for international protection; however, everyone has a right to seek asylum (The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees). The ongoing war in Syria has caused extreme poverty and created fear amongst its citizens, driving many to relocate in pursuit of a better life. The refugees crossed the borders of the EU both by sea and land. The Balkan Route involved approximately 1.5 million people using the advantages of the Schengen Agreement, which eliminates border controls between those countries that have signed it, to access the more wealthy northern European members of the EU. The use of this route was facilitated by the decision of the government of Macedonia to provide a three-day visa to refugees, thus presenting an easy way to enter the EU. The most targeted countries include Germany, Denmark, and the Netherlands. The problem is exacerbated by the fact that currently refugees can, pay smugglers no more than $2,000 to $3,000 to complete the journey instead of the $5,000 to $6,000 required to reach Libya and take the boat to Italy (Sly 2015, para. 5). Another reason for the current refugee crisis lies in the deterioration of refugee camps in countries such as Turkey, Lebanon and Jordon. In particular, people have had to suffer from a lack of drinking water, food, and electricity. In many cases, children have had no opportunity to receive basic education at schools, let alone opportunities to take university level courses. At the same time, Europe was seen as a beacon of prosperity, economic opportunities, and safety.

Refugees from Other Nationalities

In addition to those from Syria, there are numerous refugees from Jordan, Lebanon, Iraq, and Turkey. They also seek a better life and are usually considered along with Syrian refugees. This means that refugees from nationalities other than Syria receive the same financial aid and social services.

Role of the UAE in the Refugee Crisis

As a part of the international community, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) strives to promote a diverse society and provide support in the context of wider international efforts. It goes without saying that the international community as a whole suffers from the refugee crisis. The UAE is no exception. In this regard, the countrys foreign policy focuses on meeting existing challenges in a sustainable and humane manner (Malek). From the time of its unification, the UAE has provided assistance for those who are in need, irrespective of country. In particular, in 2013, it was recognized as the most important donor to Official Development Assistance (ODA). The core principal of this program is the establishment of human rights throughout the world.

In collaboration with its regional and international partners, the UAE has developed a range of important measures. In particular, it has extended permission to reside to approximately 100, 000 Syrians although the number is estimated at 242, 000 (Syrian Refugee Crisis  UAE Contribution). Moreover, it has donated $630 million in humanitarian aid both directly and within the framework of the Syria Recovery Trust Fund. Financial aid is also provided through the Marajeeb Al Fhood refugee camp which is located within Jordanian territory and serves as a shelter for Jordanian, Lebanese, Iraqi, and Turkish refugees. Various refugee camps received an additional $72 million within the past two years (Syrian Refugee Crisis  UAE Contribution). The detailed information is presented in the following Infographics 1:

The UAE supports the UNHCR programs by contributing $38 million for their realization. Supporting the Global Coalition Against Daesh (ISIL), the country acts as a co-leader and provides essential humanitarian aid. The Emirates Red Crescent assists refugees as well assisting camps in Jordan, for example, the Al Zaatri Camp, and in Greece. As a result, the contribution of the UAE to alleviating the refugee crisis is considerable and it makes very conscious, considerable efforts to support refugees by establishing, maintaining, and funding camps while at the same time actively participating in various meetings and summits called to determine ways to resolve the issue.

Germany and Serbia in Relation to the UAE

The Role of Germany in Terms of Bilateral Relations and Political Viewpoint

Germany and the UAE have a rich history of bilateral relations as an increasing number of officials and businessmen visit the two countries specifically for the development of cooperation. The UAE is one of Germanys largest export partners and has more than 300 German companies, including Siemens and Daimler Chrysler, operating in the country. According to the Minister of Finance, it is necessary to realize the importance of relations between the countries (United Arab Emirates). Germany is involved in the development of key sectors of the economy in Dubai, such as the technological and financial services sectors.

Germany and the UAE established their first political contact in 1972, and, since 2004, regular political consultations have taken place between the ministries of foreign affairs of the two countries. The Emirati German Friendship Society was created in 2006. The multiple reciprocal visits are testimony to their intentions to create sustainable cooperation over issues of global concern. There has been no deviation from this collaboration since its inception, thus demonstrating a consistent approach by both in their relations. The importance of the UAE-Germany relationship can also be seen in the tourism rates. In particular, Germany is the ninth largest source of tourists for the UAE. In its turn, the UAE is the fourth largest provider of tax free-shopping tourists in terms of the money they spend. There are several direct daily flights between Germany and the UAE. The German National Tourist Board and the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) have offices in both countries, helping to increase the level of tourism.

Another aspect of bilateral relations between the UAE and Germany is the cultural ties that have been developed. For example, the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) and the Goethe Institute (GI) offer various exchange programs that are aimed at both education and the promotion of friendship and an understanding of a new culture. Several German schools and colleges have been set up across the UAE and Emirate schools in Germany open to German students. The development of such mutually beneficial cultural links is an indication of the close collaboration of the countries, and suggests that they will strengthen and increase in the coming years.

The Role of Serbia in Bilateral Relations with the UAE

The development of bilateral relations between the UAE and Serbia is supported by reciprocal visits by representatives of both countries. The collaboration began in 2012, with the signing of an initiation of diplomatic relationship agreement and a range of other political agreements. With the signing of the Interstate Agreement of Cooperation in 2013, economic collaboration began (Bilateral Relations). The advantages of this relationship are manifested in the opening of new and attainable opportunities for both countries. Developing the economy of each other, they exchange products and services and also promote the concept of a diverse society. In the case of Serbia and the UAE, political agreements are supported by economic ties. Taking into account the fact that the UAE has one of the greatest political and economic powers in the world, Serbia became its partner. The Republic of Serbia and UAE have commodity exchanges valued at $30 million per year (Bilateral Relations). In particular, such sectors as agriculture, defense industry, pharmaceutics, and tourism are especially valued and valuable. The latter is characterized by increased interest from the both sides. In particular, the National Tourism Organization of Serbia is keen to attract more visitors from the UAE to its Belgrade Waterfront and some other major sites while the UAE is investing in the development of these attractions. The number of direct flights has risen to seven return flights per week between Serbia and the UAE.

There are a number of ongoing projects between the two countries. For example, the UAE provides financial aid to Serbia. As a result, the largest country of the former Yugoslavia may refuse to accept loans from international financial organizations and might cancel plans to place Eurobonds in the amount of ¬1 billion, if it manages to agree more favorable terms from the UAE (Bilateral Relations). The loan is needed to enable Serbia to pay its debts and eliminate its budget deficit. The size of the loan, according to budget plans, would be in the region of $2 billion US dollars. The interest rate on Serbian state dollar bonds of Serbia, expected to mature in 2021, is 4.8 percent. Currently, Serbia is implementing a plan to cut budgetary expenditure in order to reduce the budget deficit and the level of public debt. Measures include reducing public sector wages and pension payments and selling unprofitable state-owned assets, including the telecommunications company Telekom Serbia, and Belgrade airport.

The United Arab Emirates has already invested in Serbia, with, for example, Etihad acquiring a 49 percent stake in Air Serbia (Bilateral Relations). Eagle Hills, owned by the head of the state-owned Emaar Mohammad Al Abbar Company, has launched the Belgrade Waterfront project, which will create a complex on the Danube with 5,700 apartments, eight hotels with 2,200 rooms, office buildings, and the largest shopping center in the Balkans. Eagle Hills owns a 68 percent stake in the project while the remaining shares are owned by the Serbian government. A Memorandum of Understanding of the Government of the Republic of Serbia and Mubadala company in advanced technologies was signed by the First Deputy Prime Minister of Serbia Mr.Aleksandar Vucic and Managing Director of Mubadala Khaldoon Al Mubarak in 2012 in Belgrade (Bilateral Relations). The total cost of the project, one of the largest in Serbia over the past 20 years, is $3 billion. The UAE is one of the potential buyers of the Telekom Serbia Corporation.

UAE  Germany Bilateral Relations

Business Ties

Along with existing political relations, economic intelligence unit, business ties, and infrastructure projects are being developed as Germany and the UAE increase their already extensive trade relations. According to recent data, German exports to UAE were worth approximately ¬14.6 billion in 2015, making UAE  along with Saudi Arabia  Germanys principal export market in the entire Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region (United Arab Emirates). Moreover, exports from the UAE to Germany comprise goods valued at ¬0.9 billion, made up primarily of aluminum sales. In its turn, Germany exports cars, electrical goods, and chemical products. The German Embassy in Abu Dhabi and the German Consulate General in Dubai are the two responsible institutions that initiate bilateral trade. The German-Emirati Joint Council for Industry and Commerce (AHK) was founded in 2009 and works on improving German companies access to the UAE market and vice versa. As identified on the German official website, there are approximately 900 companies operating in the UAE market, most of them located in Dubai (UAE Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation). Germany and the UAE have agreements regarding air borders and a new double taxation agreement. In the list of the largest commercial exchanges of the world created by Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation (MOFAIC), Germany holds the third place and is estimated that transactions worth $2,597,240.00 are carried out annually. It is evident that Germany and the UAE have strong existing relations in a variety of fields, including political, economic, social, and cultural sectors.

Connection between the UAE and Serbia

Economic Bilateral

As has been mentioned earlier in this paper, economic relations between Serbia and the UAE are based on shared political views and various investment programs. In this regard, recent reports show that the UAE finances the Belgrade Military Technical Institute and the Utva plant in Pancevo, in particular, the three projects developing military aircraft: the turbo-propeller training and assault aircraft Kobas, a near-sound training aircraft for advanced training as a further development of the Orao aircraft, as well as a supersonic multipurpose aircraft Beli Orao (UAE Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation). In total, the United Arab Emirates has invested approximately $200 million in the Serbian defense sector with an emphasis on the joint development of the 155 mm self-propelled howitzer Nora B-52 and guided ALAS missiles. In 2012, Tawazun, an Emirati company, signed an agreement establishing a joint venture to develop controlled weapon systems from the South African Denel (Bilateral Relations). The joint venture, in which the Tavazun share is 51 percent, is located in the Abu Dhabi Tawazun Industrial Park. The countries intend to continue the development of the Nora self-propelled howitzer and this confirms the desire of the UAE to develop the capabilities of its national defense industry in the area of artillery systems.

Developments in the area of mutual banking projects are worthy of consideration. Mirabanks assets amount to $300 million and its work in Serbia promotes closer cooperation between the two countries and also facilitates transactions (Bilateral Relations). In highlighting how important the cooperation between Serbia and the UAE is, the unity of Etihad and UAT Airways, the Serbian airline, is a prime example of how the two countries are working collaboratively. Today, the joint company Air Serbia is especially important, in terms not only of the quality of services provided to passengers and their numbers but also in terms of the appearance of the planes.

Germany Before and After Refugees

The Latest Statistics Regarding Refugees

The preferred destination for the majority of asylum seekers is the northern European countries, especially Germany. It was the Chancellor of Germany, Angela Merkel, who decided to open the countrys borders to hundreds of thousands of refugees and migrants who arrived in Germany and other European countries within the previous year in an attempt to escape the conflicts in Syria, Iraq, and Jordan. Many of the refugees did not have passports, so that the police were not in a position to confirm identity or even their country of origin. According to official data, the climax of the refugee crisis has passed as only 280, 000 applications were received in 2016 compared to 890, 000 in 2015 (The Federal Office for Migration and Refugees). A further 250, 000 people allegedly entered Germany and are still in hiding from the authorities. In 2016, at least 210, 000 migrants arrived officially in Germany. The immigration figures are presented in Figure 1.

Germany spends significant amounts of money to support refugees in its territory. Ostrand states that, Germany and the United States have provided the most resettlement places as of January 2015, these two countries made up one-half of all the resettlement and other forms of admission space offered for Syrian refugees by countries outside the region (268). The question as to how much money Germany spends on the reception and maintenance of refugees is complex. In most studies, the cost of maintaining one refugee during the year is estimated at approximately ¬12, 000  20, 000 (Ostrand 270). Based on these estimates and its own calculations, the Ministry of Finance of the Federal Republic of Germany will spend ¬93.6 billion between 2016-2020 (Dearden). Approximately ¬20 billion, therefore, will be required each year from the federal treasury. In 2016, the largest expenditure, ¬6.9 billion, was spent to support land and local authorities, which bore the direct costs for the reception and maintenance of refugees.

However, the German Ministry of Internal Affairs recently issued a statement that the measures taken by the authorities to reduce the influx of refugees from eastern countries are not working (Dearden). Experts from the European Commission assume that the scale of the migration crisis, which broke out in the fall of 2015, may render the authorities impotent to manage the situation. The German Ministry of Internal Affairs supplies depressing data and calculates that in 2017 about one million people who have arrived from Syria, Libya, and other hot spots of the Eastern region are trying to enter the territory of the European Union.

Integration Method Used by the Government

Germany is considered to be a leader among countries that accept migrant refugees. It tries to promote a unified European policy for their reception, primarily in terms of quotas and equal distribution of migrants throughout the EU (European Website on Integration). This country opened its borders. However, due to the Schengen Agreement, which allowed unhindered access to all EU states, it had to introduce a temporary border control regime, appealing to other countries to show solidarity with them. Berlin temporarily stopped and then re-started the procedure for the readmission of refugees from Syria to countries that, according to the Dublin protocol, were formally the countries of their first arrival in the EU. By the same token, however, Germany was skeptical about the viable implementation of the Dublin agreement according to which Italy and Greece should have the responsibility for those refugees that had entered the EU through their territory. However, Germany calls upon other EU countries to be more open and welcoming to refugees.

As for the cost of the integration efforts that may be initiated by Germany, the Institute for Economic Research estimated that the integration of refugees from Syria and other eastern countries would cost the country ¬21 billion (Bach et al.). This amount is supposed to be spent on educational programs and the provision of food and housing to the refugees. This information can hardly be considered comforting as the experts from the Institute of Economic Research express caution. They believe that Germany is not yet ready to meet such costs, and the authorities should not continue to finance refugees at the expense of paying more regular debts (Bach et al.). The head of the Institute believes that the money earmarked for the financing of refugees should be spent in a more focused and sophisticated way.

Legal Aspects

The government of Germany and leaders of non-governmental organizations believe that refugees and migrants will enrich Germany and will have a beneficial effect on the labor market in the light of the demographic difficulties and the aging of the indigenous population. However, taking into account the relatively low educational level of most arrivals, it is likely that they will primarily enter the low-wage labor market. Another potential decision is the extent to which the government should provide refugees with appropriate education.

Social Points

Looking at the refugee issue from the social perspective, it should be noted that Germany is ready to provide social benefits not only to citizens but also to new arrivals. According to the statistics, every third refugee chooses Germany as a destination, and Germany has one of the highest levels of social guarantee to people who have been accepted for political asylum or given refugee status. The country already integrates various ethnic groups from countries such as Albania, Turkey, and other Maghreb countries. Germany is, perhaps, the only country where the majority of residents consider that refugees make the country stronger because of the creation of a new labor force.

Initially, a person who applies to be granted asylum has to live in a migration camp. Over time, he or she is distributed to one of the regions of the German state (Germany). There, a person has the right to benefit from more comfortable housing. If a person needs to leave his or her place of residence, he or she has to obtain the appropriate permission from the German authorities. In 2016, the average monthly allowance for a family consisting of two adults and five children who were granted asylum status was ¬3,612 (Germany). Refugees have the right to receive unemployment benefits, having collected the necessary information and proving their inability to work.

Germany provides education to refugee children and specific training programs for adults. For example, Le Blond and Welters point out that, a group of Syrian refugee children saved a famous German school from disaster and breathed new life into a shrinking village. This story indicates the willingness of refugee children to study and acquire knowledge and skills, thus developing themselves and the place in which they currently live. Among other social services, they also receive free medical insurance, monthly social payments, free language courses, and the right to compete for employment.

Serbia Before and After Refugees

Statistical Facts

Serbia is considered to be one of the transit countries on the way to the EU. However, it is also a temporary shelter for refugees from different Eastern countries. According to the latest data, the number of refugees has increased drastically, reaching 2,500-3,000 persons per day (Migration Policy Centre). For the most part, they are Syrians (67 percent), with Iraqis (15 percent), and Afghans (7 percent) making up most of the remainder. It should be noted that the data reflects only registered refugees that comprise approximately half of the whole refugee flow. Considering this fact and also that the reception capacity of Serbia had already been exceeded, many refugees inevitably encountered a lack of food, social services, and adequate sanitation conditions.

Recently, Serbia announced its intention to completely close its borders to refugees. Following steps from Hungary, Austria, and Slovenia, Belgrade is likely to take this step: Mr. Nikoli, the President of Serbia, indicated his patience has run out with Europes patchwork response to the escalating chaos, meaning he will now take matters into his own hands (Gutteridge). According to the Serbian head of state, his country cannot be like a funnel, from which water flows. Despite a willingness to help, Serbia is likely to take tough measures to restrict entry. At best, the state cannot accept more than five or six thousand refugees. According to the authorities, in Serbia there are currently about 7,400 people who have come from African and Middle Eastern countries (Gutteridge), housed in reception centers. The majority of them expect to be allowed to move to Hungary or other EU countries.

Integration Method Used by the Government

The approach of Serbias government focuses on the enhancement of existing reception facilities. In particular, the three assistance centers built near the border on the way to EU countries. All the facilities closely collaborate with the UNHCR in order to provide the best assistance possible (Migration Policy Centre). At the same time, the government understands that there is a dire need for further actions as the number of arrivals increases. Therefore, Serbia is seeking international support over such issues as migration management and refugee reception. In response, the EU decided to grant ¬3.2 million to build new assistance facilities and an extra ¬400,000 to improve the current centers (Migration Policy Centre). Serbia actively, and positively, participates in the refugee crisis, trying to eliminate negative outcomes and help new arrivals.

Legal Points

Serbia signed both the 1951 Convention and the Geneva Conventions 1967 Protocol that establishes refugee status. Serbia also accepted a proposal of the European Commission, establishing a list of safe EU countries. Considering the urgent nature of the problem, Serbia responded by initiating a processing centre that is controlled by the Serbian Commissariat for Refugees and Migration (SCRM) and Border Police.

Social Aspects

Like Germany, Serbia strives to provide refugees with all the necessary social services, including drinking water, food, housing, and health care. The Institute of Public Health in Sremska Mitrovica conducts daily monitoring of the public health situation in north-western Serbia. The surveillance systems work on a daily basis. In addition, the Institute acts as a part of the local anti-crisis headquarters, which coordinates the actions of partners, including the Commissariat for Refugees, the Serbian Red Cross, the Ministry of Internal Affairs, municipal authorities, and public services (Food, Water and Health Care: WHO Reviews Basic Services for Refugees Crossing Serbia). The World Health Organization (WHO) helps the Ministry of Health and the local leadership of health services to ensure the provision of services by non-governmental organizations.

The Serbian authorities transformed the former hospital in Principapovac into a reception center, creating accommodation for up to 250 refugees in need of rest and medical care. Together with the medical center in Shide, non-governmental organizations, including the International Relief Network and the International Health Service, work in teams consisting of a doctor, two nurses, and a psychologist. In terms of the recent harsh winter, Serbian authorities are trying to relocate refugees from the undignified, unsafe and unhygienic conditions in improvised shelters (What is being done to help refugees survive winter in the Balkans?). On the border of Tovarnik and Bapska, basic services are provided by the local office of the UNHCR along with the Red Cross and the Danish Refugee Council. Thus, regional health organizations manage and collaborate with non-governmental organizations.

If the number of refugees entering Serbian territory each day exceeds 2,000 people, the state may not have enough resources to adequately manage the flow (Gutteridge). In addition to placements, these refugees need medical care, food, and special equipment. In the event that, for any reason, Western Europe ceases, or restricts, the reception of refugees, a highly complicated situation will result. In terms of the current social needs of refugees in Serbia, additional medicines and an ambulance are needed for the health centre in Sid, and a mobile medical clinic is needed for the Reception Centre in Principovac (Food, Water and Health Care: WHO Reviews Basic Services for Refugees Crossing Serbia).

Recommendations

Based on the above observations, a range of potential strategies that are likely to enhance the current situation can be recommended. For example, it may be beneficial to introduce a policy of urgent integration and share this proposal in the form of a public statement on social values (Bach et al.). At this point, it is crucial to consider the views of both citizens and refugees in order to regulate relationships between them and prevent any misunderstanding. Another recommendation that can be proposed concerns skill mismatch. Specific programs can be provided to help refugees to assimilate and find worthwhile employment, and some efforts have already been made to integrate refugees into the European society and reduce radicalization. In particular, the Law on Integration accepted by Germany presupposes the establishment of special courses for migrants ar

Introduction

This paper has proposed the USA as chosen country of expatriates living here originated from UAE for the product of Arabic style furniture. Here international business is the mode to enter into the USA for the proposed business category. Proposing country the USA has the economic strength amongst the major countries of the world. On the other side, foreign affairs between the USA and UAE are the motto that overwhelmed the business atmosphere them.

Based on purchasing power parity (PPP) the USA ranked the first and varieties of ethnic groups people migrated there to live. This country has fifty states that boundaries by 9.8 square km and are geographically placed in a significant portion. The estimated population is 306 million until October 2009. As a multicultural country, there have more than eight Ethnic groups who flight from the major countries of the world. It has surrounded by the 81.7 % are white, 12.9 % are black, Alaska native and Amerindians are 4.2 %, Asians are 1 % and 0.2 % are native Hawaiian when it has been argued as a country of migrants.

English is the Prime language of the USA that is widely spoken all over the country when a remarkable number of people use to speak in Spanish and French and placed as the succeeding administrative language. There are almost eight religious groups that are active where Protestants are accounted 52 %, Roman Catholic are 24%, 10% atheist, and the rest are the other minority groups. The currency of the country is the United States Dollar that is exchanged into 100 units of Cent. Both in the central government and at the Federal level the two most popular political parties are the Democratic Party and the Republican Party when the others are regional.

FCO, (2009) pointed out that, in order to trade, commerce, and international relation the country has been associated with United Nations (UN), the union of 191 countries of the globe when it is also concerned with NATO as well as NAFTA¹ and other regional cooperation among the neighbors like Canada and Mexico that deliberate different enjoyable trade facilities. The newly elected President is Barrack Obama the first black of history has been accompanied by Mr. Joe Biden as Vice President and Hillary R. Clinton as the foreign minister has been committed to change the politics of the USA in a new dimension. All of them were elected last November 2008 and started official performance in January 2009.

The US  UAE relationship

The bilateral relationships of the USA and UAE have faced several challenges. However, that was improving after taken some significant initiatives. Making an allowance for all of the challenges, the relation between UAE and the USA has been tagged in first-rate bilateral cooperation. Another significant issue is that UAE is a dedicated collaborator that fights against terror in a global war context. Both the countries enjoy close naval cooperation that strengthens their domestic security as well as their dedication.

Insecurity, their trade, and economic affairs not only are too strong and continue rapid growth. Since 2006, their percentage of trade growth is 40, and more than $ 13 billion that amount has been in generated from their bilateral trade. In the middle of that USA, sell to the country round about $12 billion. These are the reflection of UAE economies rapid growth as well as the significant focal point of regional logistics that represents the continuation of upward flow of the UAE. For the reason that of the UAE is flourishing its commerce and trade affiliation with USA and both the two countries are thriving their economic cooperation. For case in point, Emirates Airlines carry on a variety of new aircraft in each forty- five days that demonstrates the fast intensification of them.

In Middle East region the prevalent buyer of US goods is the UAE as well as their involvement is elevated in relation to the grouping of Turkey as well as Egypt. On the concern of this USA has well thought-out of UAE as bigger export-market other than India as well as Spain. Being has the appearance of excellent economics, logistics, transportation and communications the UAE titled as an outstanding business-hub by above 700 US trades.

According to Lavin, F., (2007), though there are few dilemma in diversity of culture issues but working environment in the UAE is too inviting that labeled them as worlds best business platform. Through out an uncountable diverse way and undoubtedly their base of economy are natural resources that move to an oasis of desert and all of these helps the community to contribute and to advantage US economy. Creation of entire of the Emirates encourage other seek to emulate. UAE and the Emirates is the witness of harmony that executed- technology, tradition and tolerance.

Challenges

Though there have a lot of opportunity but there also have few challenges as follow-

• After 9/11 visitors to the US suddenly has dropped and since 2004, it has cut down by 44 % though US continuously serve a welcoming atmosphere. With the vision to go further the US working hard and soul and there have 1300 Emirate student that make them very proud.
• There have a few modes that could be flexible by UAE in terms of trade and investment. Regarding this affiliation between two countries would go forward.
• In controlling export issues Emirates needs to enlarge their port activities like- volume and the size of the port considering the increasing demand. On the other side, export control laws are required to implement for a committed working environment and effective system establishment in order to execute their forward vision.
• Shift the transit for selling and manufacturing counterfeit goods and services from the block of free trade zones and the territories of the UAE to the different destinations.
• For trade affairs, US evolved in such business environment that continuously developed. This requires full ownership of the assets by foreigners through amend the Company Law. There have another requirement is that most companies have the right to concur UAE agent for operating approaches. These two are the forces that would foster and hold the business centre as leader.
• Lead those toward a bilateral Free Trade Agreement (FTA) both of the countries are committed to minimize their trade barriers. Taking into account the regions- Israel, Bahrain, Jordan, Oman and Morocco they already have passed a few steps though there have to need some reformation and preferable regional status.

Invest in US initiative

According to Lavin, F., (2007), in the major economies, the US government has no programme to encourage foreign investment as well as retain that inward but it should change its strategy for recession. In order to encourage Foreign Direct Investment, all of the major-economies utilize tools for example- investment promotion actions and investment boards. In viewpoint of US, there have numerous challenges in investment because global financial crisis has changed customer demands.

Recently there has been proposed to the federal government that with the purpose of facilitating FDI launched program for Investment in America. A set of reasons played behind those initiative programs as bellow-

• Global investment activities enlargement,
• Establishment of new markets that increase competition,
• Politicization free of the investment process is the most significant and utmost desire of this program.

American Business Group of Abu Dhabi, exhibits interest to invest in USA and for their investment partners they left a message that- US is open for investment. Besides these, they concentrate how foreign investments contribute in their economy and also encourage their people to get that. Presenting a substantial nature of FDI and seldom its scopes would be a hot case.

Over Dubai Ports World during 2006, a controversy held for the desire of such outreach. Base on a straightforward commercial deed US wants to avoid politics free investment decisions. This exhibits that there would have a role of the federal government in investment decision process. Views of attraction under the investment program are as follows-

• Secure and open markets: Buy and sell of assets are easy and also inputs are flexible to acquire.
• Establish reward considering the economic size and strength.
• Motivate investment and continuous product development there have low tax facilities.
• Availability of productive and flexible workforces,
• Irrespective of background, open society system easily attracts top talent and has the capability to retain that.
• Level of transparency stayed at high level.
• In order to protect intellectual property legal systems are effective and user friendly to in developing business.
• Both logistics and economics availability of world-class communications and infrastructures,

If the atmosphere does not exhibit, any welcoming gesture aforesaid forces would not have any significance.

Concentrate on above all the program

The Invest in America Initiative was designed under the Department of Commerce of US which emphasize on three major movements narrate as follow-

• Access into the international community: In order to directly engaging potential investors US globally employ their commercial attaches, as it should be.
• Dish up the international investment community in Washington prefer ombudsman concept: For investment facilities along with the Federal Government US emphasize on address impediments and red tape.

Lavin, F., (2007) has reported that there have an open business scope in the United States. Regarding these investors has numerous scopes to invest and some times FDI brought long term and strategic decisions. For the international investors business atmosphere of US serve a guaranteed low risk and outstanding approaches. Hitt, M. A., Ireland, R. D., & Hoskisson, R. E., (2001) added that cooperation between US and the UAE get benefited both of their investors. Make more attractive the US business; they pay attention more to get trust from the outsiders in order to build a strong relationship.

Competitive analysis

Get greater appreciation from the desired industry executives should analyze the competitive forces of the firm. Competitive analysis varies on the answer of the following forces-

• Current and potential competitor of the company,
• Vision, mission, goal, objectives, firms internal resources,
• Strategic intent of the firm,
• Strategies of the firm,
• Place and tools of competition

Industry analysis is complemented through competitive analysis. Pay attention on the major rivals and evaluate strengths and weakness of the firm ought to focus by the mangers. Major areas of the competitive analysis are as bellow those helps to analyze companys essential portions to foster forward.

• A distinctive competence: Compare to the rival a firms position is superior is the activity of this term.
• A competitive advantage: To achieve higher profitability could be ensured the firms superior position than its competitor. To do this, first the firm need to develop distinctive competencies and make use of it as for creative compete.

Process of competitive analysis

Competitive analysis is involved in a complex procedure described as bellow-

• Industry boundary and serve market selection: Sketch the boundaries of the industry is the first step of the competitive analysis. Then that based on customers need segmenting market for desired product and services. For more clarification, a graphical presented is given in bellow-

Evaluate industry life cycle

External factors turned an industry into an existing form and this form is continuously changed with change of time. Managers have to understand these changes throughout the sequential phase or stages of the industry life cycle as follow-

• Introduction or emergence: In this stage, technology of the firm is not well developed and offer products for a large market.
• Growth: In an industry life cycle this is an exciting phase and from this stage a firm start fighting to survive, gain profitability, market share acquiring and build brand name.
• Shakeout: A large range of change has manipulated here. Factors of shakeout are- industry saturation, evaluate industry growth rate and radical change forced by competitive factors.
• Maturity: In this stage, firm would breed to consider new factors. Kotler, P., (2004) argued that aggregate marketing process determines success of the firm.
• Decline: According to Kotler, P., (2004) a new phase of evaluation is entered termed as decline. It is a great challenge for an industry competes as declining industry.

Analysis the structure of the industry

Analysis of industry structure is fostered by following factors-

• Barriers to entry and exit: First entry into a market is a great challenge for a new firm. This barrier is of two types- tangible and intangible. On the other hand, exit from a market is a managerial decision examined because of market demand,
• Product differentiation level: Johnson, G. Seholes, K. & Whittington, R., (2006) argued that product differentiation is ensured through developing technology and aggregate marketing tasks.
• Concentration level: Increasing dominating sales portion of the industry is the concept of the concentration level.
• Scope of economics of scale: Economics of scale is a significant factor that patronizes large scale of production at a lower cost.

Evaluate the dynamics of the competition

In the phase competition dynamics is evaluated through five factors, define by Michael Porter. Five factors are-

• Potential entry: Porter, M. E., (2004), argued that potential entry is controlled through a number of variables those act as threat of entry into industry and reduce potential entry. Such variables are distribution channel, capital requirement, rules and regulation.
• Buyers bargaining power: Saloner, G., Shepard, A., & Podolny, J., (2001) stated that bargaining power capable a buyer influence the production capability of the industry.
• Suppliers bargaining power: Hill, C., and Jones, G., (2007) argued that suppliers influence an industry when they are few at numbers, lacking of substitute product, product price system.
• Threat of substitute product: Products that has the ability to fulfill same purpose is termed as substitute product. Exist of substitute product affects competitive dynamics and rivalry intensity.
• Existing competitors rivalry: Several equal balanced company, competition diversity, and slow growth rate, high fixed costs etc. are the forces that control Existing competitors rivalry.

Analysis of issues of the proposing countries

Making international business strategy considerable issues are described as bellow-

• Form of business: With the purpose of trade in USA, here selected form of foreign business is composed as- International Business. Arabian style furniture for the expatriates of UAE in USA business activities has conducted through- licensing, franchising, foreign direct investment (FDI), exports and imports.

Five drivers of international business

• Political: Both of the countries the US (host country) and the UAE (mother country) have continued stable federal governments that strictly govern by democracy. On the other side, with in seven Arabic Sheikh Kingdom only the UAE is structured its politics under federal government. Not only political design but also both of them continues a warm trade affairs that are benefited both of them.
• Technology: Both the countries have world-class logistical infrastructure and technological support. Exchange between them would brought enlighten trade affiliation and magnify this at utmost level.
• Market: Target market of the business is the expatriates of UAE who live in USA. Among them households, educational institutes and business holders are the clients of the product- Arabic style furniture of their demand for interior decoration. Market segmentation of this business could be showed through following table under product specialization strategy.

• Cost: One of the most significant factors of any kind of business as well as international business is cost of production. The Quality of a product and services floors on costs of production. Relationship between cost and quality of a product has describes in following figure-

Arabian style furniture requires high cost of production as an exclusive product. Not only production cost but also transportation, advertising are the factors of costs. These forces determined the value of an enterprise described as following figure-

Environmental forces

Under environmental force, two broad categories are involved as described follow. These categories of environmental forces evaluated the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of the firm.

External forces

Factors those are not under direct control of the organization as well as its industry and consist of competitors including outside factors are identified as external force. Factors of external environment profoundly influence the industry and the organization. Under strategic management, a critical component is environmental analysis that examines sufficient information for the future. Environment is also significant for environmental changing that capable the organization has benefited. Griffin, R. W., (2006) argued that for an organization, environmental analysis is helpful for identifying threats, opportunities and competitive analysis.

Features of external environment

For initiating external analysis of an organization, it requires to understand a number of features that ground external environmental analysis. Narrative form of this are-

• Type of external environment is not same for different organization but they are almost similar.
• For same product or services provider here Arabic furniture are same segment of market face different competitive external condition.
• External environment analysis should focus or tailor for such organization those yet not formulate strategy.
• It is also considerable that relationship, conditions and events are not static though they build the organizations unique environment.
• Small number of organizations faces same categories of factors for a long time at same importance magnitudes.
• Legal obligations, customers tests and change of restraints make an organizations position different compare to its competitor.
• Political environment is an important factor that influences all level of business by means of special interest group.
• Less predictable factors are-consumers demographic feature, alteration of society that are closely relate to value and attitude alteration.
• Distribution channel of these countries mostly prefer seaport specially Dubai Port World. Other than this, airways, roadways, order and payment by online or Internet are the modes of distribution channel.
• Economically both the countries are enough strong and it is mentionable that the USA has the most strong economy by purchasing power parity (PPP). On the other hand, the UAE has the world fifth largest oil stock that enriches its natural resources.
• Legal boundaries of the countries are flexible to trade and free trade agreement (FTA) including another 22 Arab countries is a significant scope that helps to continue their trade affairs.
• Logistics is another force that fluent the trade ways of these countries. Tools those used in this trade affiliation are considered as logistics.
• Labor of the both countries is efficient and productive so that they produce a high quality of products and services though they demand a high rate of wages.

Internal forces

Kotler, P., Armstrong, G., (2006) argued that strengths and weaknesses evaluation requires considering several relevant factors. Firms long-term survival and success manipulate by these factors. Common areas that are include in analyzing are as follow-

• Financial position: Ball, D. McCulloch, W. H. & McNett, J. M. (2008) argued that cash flow statement, balance sheet, financial ratio analysis and income statement are tool or techniques of financial analysis. These methods are useful to compare and capable available financial resources to utilize, examine financial position and took necessary steps in decision-making.
• Product and service position: Awareness of product and service position in market makes a business successful. For an international firm it is an important managerial task to categorize market share according to the market segment.
• Product and service quality: Another key issue of internal analysis is evaluating product and service quality. Continue survive and growth of a product and service prove guarantee of its high quality at a reasonable price.
• Marketing capability: Marketing capability make sure to deliver right product or services at required price in the right place. Regarding this marketing is the task or societal process that includes-product, place, people, promotion, distribution channels, market demand, market positioning and segment, advertising and target market.
• Research and development (R & D) capability: For new product development, todays organization needs to adopt R & D either formally or in an informal way, moreover for an international firm it is difficult to survive avoid of advance technological involvement and practice of R & D.
• Organizational structure: For product manufacture and get in a market place there need to have an organizational structure. Corporate-level, business-level, functional-level and operational-level are the four essential layer of an organization and a multi-product firm should follow strategy considering diversification of the business. These layers are the gateway to assess internal strengths and weaknesses of the firm.
• Human resource management (HRM): Condition that ensures the competitiveness of the firm is providing proper facilities to the employees and proper utilization of the resources. Human resources are the employees who work for the organization where as human resource management would place right people in the right place. HRM also involve in all management practice and decision making that directly affects the organization.
• Project objectives and strategies: Previous and on going goals as well as policies are instruction or principles for future goals & strategies. That is why, internal environment analysis would be ideal if the firm consider previous and on going objectives and strategies as the indicator of future.
• Organizational culture: Culture of an organization composed because of national culture and this is the background why organization in different countries has diverse from each other.

  • Domestic: As the consequence of this paper, the UAE is the domestic country. Culture of this nation is conservative as a Muslim state. An official hour of this country has been determined by the Muslim traditions. In the period of Ramadan, all of the office has closed their activities before evening.
  • International: Probable host country for the international business is the USA who follows an open culture everywhere in their nations. On the other hand, a multicultural country practices secular approach though there have a significant discrimination between black and white. However, in the last election they start to alter this trend by electing an African as their President for the first time.
  • Decision making process: This international business of the UAE would make decision by following the sequential steps of figure drawn in bellow. This figure has described all of the points that require an international business as well as domestic.

Impact on business functions by culture

Anywhere in the world, all categories of business activities should consider the local culture of that country. Following are the issues that considered under culture of all forms business-

Socio-cultural forces

Whole USA is composed through 50 states. Aesthetics, attitudes and beliefs, Music and folklore, Religion, Education and Language all are affect the market.

Foreign direct investment (FDI) and international trade

Foreign direct investment (FDI) and international trade between UAE and USA has executed under a Free Trade Agreement (FTA) since March 2005. With the aim of liberalize bilateral trade barriers both countries agreed to operate businesses in both nations. Among the GCE countries, the government structure of UAE is different from others and it is ruled by federal government out of seven autocratic sheikhdoms. It is essential to mention that amongst them Dubai and Abu Dhabi has the largest oil reserves as well as most significant source of the UAEs oil which is the fifth biggest in the world.

Unexpectedly, the discussion of free trade has been postponed because in 2006, the UAE agreed to sell Dubai Ports World that permits to run terminal operations at United State port under block-port agreement after congressional-efforts. The MEFTA² has been proposed by the Bush government in order to connect twenty Arab nations with in the year 2013 and it has close connection because of free trade pacts with Bahrain, Jordan & Morocco. At this time, Oman the neighbour of the UAE is predicted that congress will pass the contract by vote in congress to broaden relationship. The business connection between UAE and US is enhancing day by day and in 2005, almost $10 billion traded between them, which was hold the third largest position; however, Israel and Saudi Arabia hold first and second position accordingly.

International economic analysis

• Uncontrollable significant economic forces: Following economic forces present the rece

Introduction

Conspiracy theories have been around for as long as humans have had the ability to question authority. They are generally associated with events of such a sheer magnitude that seemingly have to be part of a secret plot. Conspiracy theorists usually stick together in the fact that they associate themselves with others sharing the same beliefs (Shrira, 2008). Some recent commonly known theories include; the JFK assassination, the 9/11 attack on the twin towers, waging war for profit, and the New World Order. The New World Order, or the NWO, is probably the most common. This theory has been around a very long time, and is regarded by many as the most important one. Some people are even equating the NWO with the end of times. Skeptics have been trying to debunk this theory numerous times to no avail. It seems as if every time people begin to get comfortable with this only being a theory, new information or events occur, that adds fuel to the conspiracy. With virtually no information disproving the theory, the NWO could be much more than a conspiracy theorists dreams come true. It could soon become a reality.

New World Order

The idea of the New World Order is to abolish all current governments and establish one centralized world government ruled by a select few social elites. It is obvious that control is necessary, as the human race will self destruct being left unchecked. Therefore it only makes sense that someone somewhere, would begin an organized leadership in an effort to take complete control of the entire world. The most likely beginning of this alliance falls in the hands of Mayer Amschel Rothschild. In 1773, he assembled twelve of his most prominent associates and convinced them to pool their resources together and begin the process of taking over the world (Michael journal, 2010). This appears to mark the beginning of what is now deemed the New World Order.

NWO

The beginning of the NWO is associated with the term illuminati. Illuminati are defined as any of various groups claiming special religious enlightenment (Merriam-Webster, 2010). Mayer Amschel Rothschilds candidate to lead the organization was Dr. Adam Weishaupt (Michael journal, 2010). His perspective was that human society had grown hopelessly corrupt and could not be saved by anything less than a complete overhaul (Lamb, 2007)l. Adam, in essence, is credited with being the first Utopian to think on a global scale. In 1776 he formed a group in order to bring about Novus Ordo Seclorum (new order of the ages) (Lamb, 2007). This was the secret society that became known as the Illuminati. The five main goals were to; abolish all governments and monarchies, abolish all private property, abolish nationalism, abolish family and education, and abolish faith. Adam went as far as possible to urge his followers not to refrain from committing acts of violence in order complete Illuminati goals (Trainor, 2005). They intended to take all the riches, influence, and power in order to overturn all the European governments. They would then extend forward to conquer the whole globe until they have weakened mankind to utter pandemonium (Barruel, 2006). At which point they could institute an unchecked power to rule the world.

During the many centuries that the Illuminati have been with form, there is yet to be a single defector. This can be accredited to the fact they actually operate undetected within other secret societies. An example being the Illuminati could be considered the hand while the Freemasons are the glove. History has, however, given the world one glimpse into some Illuminati secret plans. In 1785 a courier for the Illuminati was struck by lightning and killed Lamb, 2007). After Bavarian officials examined the contents of his bag, they found plans detailing the upcoming French Revolution (Michael journal, 2010). No one has ever opened their mouth regarding their involvement with the organization. This may be attributed to the perversities that have been alleged the society engages in. Brice Taylor is one woman that has stepped forward to expose the bond that holds the Illuminati secret. She claims to have been used, from when she was a child, to fulfill sexual needs for countless world leaders. This plot was used by the Illuminati to blackmail leaders after engaging in compromising situations. Although more importantly, bonding members together under a blanket of pedophilia, mind control, rape, and torture, to assure their union remains a solid one (Makow, 2007).

Freemasons

The Freemasons are an organization prominent in the United States today and have long been associated with several conspiracy theories. They are an extremely secretive organization making it easy for people on the outside to tie them to conspiracies. Freemasonry is the oldest and largest fraternal organization (Ask A Freemason, 2010). The goal of freemasonry is to promote brotherly love, achieve higher learning and to make good men better (Ask A Freemason, 2010). There is a lot of controversy surrounding the creation of Free Masonry, however some scholars believe the organization can be traced to the construction of King Solomons Temple. At that time, there were only rough-masons who worked with hard stone. It wasnt until the eighteenth century the modern Freemasons arrived on the scene. The term free mason was derived from freestone mason. Freestone masons differ from rough-masons in that they used softer materials and created more intricate designs. This skill set was highly valuable and in order to keep it that way, the free masons established their own guild to separate them from the rough masons. They created lodges so they could socialize, store their tools, and eat, and discuss their trade.

In the beginning of Freemasonry, only men within the trade could join the guild, but as time passed it was no longer necessary to be an actual mason. This is when then Freemason guild began turning into a social gentlemans club that began practicing religious tolerance due to the strict rules of the Catholic Church. When Freemasonry opened its doors to all men, the organization saw a rapid growth in members. This growth in turn created a need for more lodges and a governing body for those extra lodges. This governing body was called the grand lodge. The first official grand lodge of freemasonry was established in England, but several countries soon followed. Since the Freemasons were so secretive and liberal in their religious views, the Catholic Church became very suspicious of the organization and threatened the churchs members with excommunication, if they were to join. Facing intense persecution from the church and government, a group of colonists eventually journeyed to America in order to set up lodges and continue their work. These lodges remained underneath of the English grand lodge until after the American Revolution when they separated to form their own state grand lodges (Watson, 2008). This separation brought about two forms of freemasonry in the United States, the Scottish Rite and the York Rite. Both are very similar organizations, but the Scottish Rite has 33 degrees while the York Rite only has 13 and tends to follow French traditions.

Freemasons in the New World Order

The involvement of the Freemasons in the New World Order can be as vast as ones imagination will allow it to be. Freemasonry and Illuminati symbols can be found on almost all of Washington D.C.s original architectures and in its history. These symbols include the All Seeing Eye (Eye of Horus), the compass, the pentagram, and the square to name a few. It is said that every corner of the nations capitol has a Masonic sign where a ritual took place. Along with the architecture, the countrys leaders also have Masonic roots.

Out of the countries presidents, 16 of them were masons. Out of all the symbolism that can be linked to the Masons, the one dollar bill is by far the most controversial. President Franklin Roosevelt, a 32^nd degree Freemason, was the one who approved the current U.S. Dollar design. The designs on the reverse side of the dollar are Masonic and Illuminati. There are several locations where the number thirteen appears. Originally the number was said to represent the thirteen original colonies but, evidence of Masonic symbolism proves otherwise. The unfinished pyramid has thirteen levels and an all-seeing eye (Eye of Horus), the same number of levels in the York Rite. The number 13 has been referenced to the thirteen bloodlines of the Illuminati and the thirteen Tribes of Israel.

There are also thirteen stripes in the shield, leaves on the olive branch, arrows in the claw, stars within the Star of David (Seal of Solomon), and pearls to the left of the seal. The Great Unfinished Pyramid of Egypt is also known as Eretz Israel or Greater Israel (Lamb, 2007). Greater Israel is the land that is to be split up between the thirteen Tribes of Israel (The Masonic foundations Of The United States). Interestingly enough, the bible states that the end of days will come when a false prophet from Israel arises. This prophet is known to be a descendant from King Solomon.

The Roman numerals on the base of the pyramid stand for 1776, the year the United States declared independence from Great Britain, also the year the Illuminati was formed (Lamb, 2007). However, the most important item on the dollar is without a doubt the saying, NOVUS ORDO SECLORUM (Lamb, 2007). For many years the Illuminati are said to have been operating within the Freemasons. Dr. Adam Weishaupt was actually operating as a Freemason until the lodge discovered his plot to create the New World Order. With all of this information it would be hard to argue against the Illuminatis presence in Freemasonry.

Order of the Knights Templar

The Order of the Knights Templar is a very interesting group within the Freemasons hierarchy. It is the highest level one can achieve in the York Rite. The original Knights Templar was a group of French monks armed with the purpose of defending Christians making the journey to the holy land, Jerusalem. The organization was said to have been created around 1118 following the first crusade (Snell, 2009). The Knights Templar started with nine original members but grew to 13 in 1126. They were required to take an oath of poverty and relinquish all personal property upon joining the group. Because they were so poor and could not afford their own property, they lived in King Solomons Temple (Middle Ages, 2006). Many people believe that the Templars found a great deal of treasure in Solomons Temple which later led to their arrest. In the book Solomons Treasure, author Tracy R. Twyman proposes a different theory. She explains that what the Templars found was most likely not gold, but a formula to create money. This formula was passed on to Freemasons somewhere down the line which initiated the creation of the United States banking system (Twyman, 2007). The Knights Templar ended up becoming extremely wealthy due to donations from nobles and privileges from the Pope.

They eventually took part in Usury which was an early form of money lending. This form of banking only added to the wealth of the Templars. King Phillip IV frequently borrowed money from the Templars and acquired a huge amount of debt. When he asked for another loan and was denied, he simply ordered the arrest of the Templars. On Friday the 13^th, October 1307, the Templars were arrested in Paris coining Friday the 13^th the title of unluckiest day (Middle Ages, 2006). The order was dissolved and anyone found sheltering a Templar was threatened with of excommunication. At this point the Templars are said to have gone underground (Middle Ages, 2006).

Many subject matter experts believe that the Templars still remain behind the scenes and operate through the Freemasons. This is evident in that the Freemasons of the York Rite have taken a lot of their French traditions from the Templars. The fact that the highest degree Mason is a Master Mason in the Order of The Knights Templar should be enough to convince anyone of the connection. Even some historians state that the Freemasons and the Illuminati played a big role in the French Revolution stemming from the burning of the Templars Grand Master Jacques de Molay.

Discussion

The origin of the Freemasons is still obscure but they still exist in various parts of the world. Current estimates show that the Freemasons have a total membership of 6 million, with the majority of them existing in Scotland and Ireland. Other important strong holds of the Freemasons are England and United States where more than two million people are registered as Freemasons. There are also a number of groups of the community and all of them have their own independent form of administration. Their system is dubbed as a system that is based on morality which is covered in allegories and the foundation of the system can be illustrated by symbols of different kinds (Basham, 2001).

Basically, men can be members of the coveted society but in some exclusive cases women became members of the Freemasons cult. In the pages of history we have the name of Elizabeth Aldworth who was a member of the society. But some mainstream direct Masonic bodies offer membership to both the sexes. There is a group called Anti-Masonry who opposes the concepts of the Freemasons and consists of many diverse groups who are directly hostile to any form of free masons. The group consists of people ranged from politicians to diverse cultural people who have only one aim, to stop the occult of the Freemasons (Räikkä, 2009).

Knights Templar is one of the most important of the Freemasons. By the power of the Papal Decree, all the property belonging to the Templar organization was transferred to the Order of Hospitallers (Sunstein, 2009). The Order of Hospitallers brotherhood also took many members of the Templars into their brotherhood as a part of the Papal decree. Two rival orders got merged only due to the dissolution of the Templars. Many other groups have used the image of the Templars only to enhance their image in the world. There is no historical link between them in any case. The Templar knights have always been linked with the popular culture in many aspects (Fenster, 2008).

Illuminati, on the other hand can be referred to as not a single but several groups and many of them are even fictional too. In the pages of history it directly refers to the Bavarian Illuminati formed in 1776. In recent cases some times the group is believed to be secretly working as a shadowy power behind the governmental rules and thus directly controlling the order of the world with the help of the political leaders who are directly involved with the brotherhood. According to the conspiracy theorists, members of Illuminati are behind most of the events that will finally complete the New World Order. Dr. John Coleman, a research scholar, in his book dealing with the players in the Illuminati circle talks about the real agenda of the society, A One World Government and one-unit monetary system, under permanent non-elected hereditary oligarchists who self-select from among their numbers in the & Privately owned firearms or weapons of any kind will be prohibited (Sunstein, 2009).

Apart from these two very important concepts we have also a number of concepts that are available in recent times which deal with the aspect of New World Order (Sunstein, 2009). Another division of New World order conspirators were vehemently believed in the end time and due to their belief in the theory, they were popularly known as End Time. Basically the theorists of the concept always feared of a worldwide conspiracy that will ultimately prove the apocalyptic prophecy in The Bible, especially found in the Book of Daniel and the Book of Ezekiel (Sunstein, 2009). The concept says that in the end time there will a reunion between human and the agents of demon (Coady, 2006).

The books mentioned that the alliance will ultimately lead the human world to a Satanic ideology and it will form the ultimate unholy trinity which is between the Satan, the Antichrist and the false prophet. Antichrist is the leader of the End Time. The biggest power of Anti Christ is that he is quite same like Christ and he also provides the people with all their needs. But, as Jesus will provide the ultimate salvation if one follows the path of Jesus while Anti-Christ will not provide salvation but finally deceit his followers (Räikkä, 2009).

According to popular beliefs the false prophet will be the last Pope of The Christian World (descendant of Solomon). In recent times all the players in the trinity have been deciphered into different names as the world has been changed. Believers of End Time say that he can be a guru from any religion; they even say that any head of fundamental Christian based organizations can be changed into the false prophet. It is interesting to know who according to them can be the Antichrist. According to the theorists who are the believers of End Time, the Anti-Christ will be either the leader of the European Union or a Supercomputer existing in the world (Sunstein, 2009).

Other concepts like Open Conspiracy and Alien Invasion have also dominated the theory in recent times. Open Conspiracy theory was promoted by the great writer and philosopher H. G. Wells. He tried to develop an aspect of cosmopolitanism and even he thought about the blue print of a revolution that will go on to establish a scientifically managed world of political stability and subsequent development of socialist economy. The Alien Invasion concept is a relatively new concept in the field. The theorists believe that alien invaders are living among people for a very long time and they are manipulating the system in a very secretive way. They believe that given a chance the aliens who have taken human form will control the Earth (Basham, 2001).

James Dean, dedicated conspiracy historian of Kolkata University, India, mentioned that New World order is one of the most fascinating concepts and discussions in recent times. There are a number of dimensions that are associated with the concept. He earlier mentioned all of the recent historical happenings, it may be the assassination of JFK, or the attacks on the Twin Towers, all can be attributed on the New World Concept in many ways (J. Dean, personal communication, August 27, 2010). The New World conspirators try to manifest their action only by controlling humans in an effective way. In the aspect fear plays the most powerful factor in their favor. With a lot of corporate backings in their favor, the conspirators are getting more active in recent times and this can provide some sort of direct headache to the World Leaders (Fenster, 2008).

There are been past references that if a political leader is not a player in the aspect he or she should be taken out by any means even like assassination. The list of assassinated world leaders is not short either. The two most recent assassinations were of William Colby and Admiral Borda, who were on the issue that they are not willing to help along the conspiracy to destroy America. JFK and Abraham Lincoln both tried to make America debt-free and were coincidently both assassinated. It is also said that most wars and other important aspects that shook the world in the last 100 years are carefully backed by these exclusive forces only to prevent the reigning order of the world. The power machinery of the groups is not resting and they are surely planning some new plots to destroy the balance of the human race (Coady, 2006).

Analysis

Current New World Order strategists create problems in order to ascertain more power. This is accomplished by leveraging NWO power prior to creating turmoil. The solution then resides in sending peace keepers to fight wars with no end and search for stuff that is never found (Three World Wars, 2010). This resembles the systematic procedure for eventually procuring complete totalitarianism. Interviews from all over the country have found that people will rapidly abandon freedoms in exchange for more security. Surveys have even found that citizens under thirty have little to no understanding of the key that freedoms guaranteed by the Constitution (Weyrich, 2002). The Federal Emergency Management Agency is an organization not created under constitutional law, but through a Presidential Executive Order. Its sole purpose when created was to assist the United States government in the event of a nuclear attack. It has since been added with the task of coordinating additional emergencies such as hurricanes, floods, and earthquakes. FEMA is unchecked by Congress and has crept into the private citizen lives. In addition to being given control of state defense forces, it has become the most powerful organization in the US (Martin, 1995). The control FEMA possesses is necessary to the survival of the country, but it makes a conspiracy theorist to question.

The Federal Reserve has long been a topic of controversy in the United States. From the creation to the execution it has been fundamentally flawed. The United States Federal Reserve Act was established in 1913 and approved by President Woodrow Wilson (Lamb, 2007). The idea of the Federal Reserve came to be after the national money panic in 1908 which was supposedly created by J.P. Morgan. In 1910 a small group of extremely powerful bankers led by Senator Nelson Aldrich met on Jekyll Island to discuss what would become the Federal Reserve (Pounders, 1996). Article 1, section 8, of the Constitution states: The Congress shall have the power to coin money and regulate the value thereof. It does not give congress the authority to allow private bankers to do so. Even though the FED was approved unconstitutionally by congress it is entirely owned privately and cannot be ratified by the President of The United States. The current ten banks that make up the FED are;

Rothschild Bank of London, Warburg Bank of Hamburg, Rothschild Bank of Berlin, Lehman Brothers of New York, Lazard Brothers of Paris, Kuhn Loeb Bank of New York, Israel Moses Seif Banks of Italy, Goldman, Sachs of New York, Warburg Bank of Amsterdam, and Chase Manhattan Bank of New York (Bagwell, 2004).

All of these banks are owned by the Rothschilds. Interesting enough, the Rothschilds had made an attempt control the monetary system once before with The Bank of United States. This bank was abolished by President Andrew Jackson because he thought it was trying to control the government (Pounders, 1996). This can be seen in the famous statement by Mayer Amschel Rothschild, Give me control of a nations money and I care not who makes the laws (Lamb, 2007).

Another secretive organization stemming from Woodrow Wilsons tenure was the Council on Foreign Relations. At the end of WWI the several countries attempted to form the League of Nations, of which the United States did not wish to take part in. Displeased with the lack of involvement in the League of Nations and understanding the need for an international organization, a group of prominent Americans formed their own private club in 1921. The international organization that emerged was called the Council on Foreign Relations (Hutchings, 2003). It served as a forum for very powerful world leaders to discuss issues and agendas. The founding members soon wanted to expand so they began printing a quarterly magazine to extend to a much larger audience. Realizing the foreign policies that lay in the hands of the current President, it became obvious to the CFR that there was a need for a consistency in foreign policy. A more controlled approach was what they were looking for. Even though the CFR started predominately as a magazine publication until the late 1930s, it grew into something much more (Bundy, 1994). The directors began to sway towards setting up smaller cells around the country to infiltrate government organizations more easily.

Each independently run group quietly became forces within their communities to gain a better understanding of international affairs. This structure began working very well. The original 13 cells soon became 37. The war and peace project was initiated in September of 1939. Within a week of the war outbreak, the CFR were in Washington offering their skills to place their people in jobs helping the government. This intensified the role of the CFR when the United States went to war two years later (Bundy, 1994). The CFR inadvertently have strategically placed themselves as an important assistant of the government. There are well documented statements by prominent members of the CFR, proposing the surrender of nationalism and the constitution to a New World Order when convenient. This is deemed necessary to ensure mankinds future. The means become justified as long as a utopian existence is realized (Hutchings, 2003). One notable member of the CFR is Vice President Dick Cheney. He has been a long time member of the CFR and has even held the title of director. James Warburg, former chairman of the Council on Foreign Relations is quoted as saying, We shall have a world government whether or not you like it. By conquest or consent (Watterson, 2008). This quote was taken while he was speaking before the Senate. In addition to his duties within the United States Government he was also a banker for the German government.

There are a couple ways to look at all of this; the religious way, and the common sense way. It is very interesting when one thinks about how all of this ties together using common sense. It started with money and banking, but it wasnt to create wealth, it was to gain control. When there is one government, money will be absolutely useless. Interestingly enough, all of the organizations that everyone knows very little about seem to use the number 13 quite frequently like the 13 bloodlines of the Illuminati, Tribes of Israel, Knights Templar and levels of Freemasonry in the York Rite. Could it be a coincidence? Sure but given all of the information, it would be highly unlikely. The idea is the New World Order will be run by a few social elites. How do the 6 million Freemasons fit into this plan? It has been said by the Illuminati that the world with only 6 million people in it would be ideal. Remember that there will be no more privately owned firearms when the plan is in place. This should be no surprise. The European Union was either the testing ground or the first major step in this process. No weapons and one money system. Who is behind this money system? The Rothschilds come up quite often when talking about money. They have an enormous amount of it and their name is practically on every piece of this conspiracy pie. Even the current generation of Rothschilds is involved in the cap and trade. The concept is, keep everyone in debt to you and you control them. Remember JFK and honest Abe? Many believe that the Illuminati fund wars on both sides to further gain power. The Iran-Iraq war can be a good example of such a war as per conspiracy theory. Conspiracy theories will be around as long as people have the ability to think and question authority. However, this theory has quite a bit of substantial backing to it. If one were to look just a couple of decades back they would notice some huge changes promoting a one world government. The North American Free Trade Agreement is a huge catalyst in America. While some states are trying to shut down their borders the government is opening them up. This is basically how the European Union was created. Pretty soon the good old American dollar with its crazy Masonic designs will be the currency of all North America.

Conclusion

If one were to look at this from a religious standpoint, they might reach a similar conclusion as the common sense people. The earliest form of lending was called Usury. When the Catholic Church ruled everything, they did not allow anyone to collect interest on a loan. The Jewish people however did not fall under the Catholic Church. Usury allowed the Jews to amass an enormous amount of money which in turn created power. Believe it or not, the Rothschilds are Jewish. Jerusalem is the home of Solomons Temple which was also the home of the Templar. The End Times will come when a false prophet arises. That prophet is said to be a descendant of King Solomon.

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