Category: Uncategorized

Introduction

Men and women share characteristics that distinguish each sex from the other. These differences have been profound to the extent that comparisons have been made to imply that men and women come from different planets (Deaner et al., 2022). In scholarly research, the physical differences between both genders are rarely contested; however, the psychological variations between them have attracted controversy (Fernandez et al., 2020). Part of the contention has been in determining the right scale for measuring these differences (Warren et al., 2021). At the same time, scholars hold differed opinions on whether the differences between both genders are innate or biological (Deaner et al., 2022). These debates have morphed into questions that are centered on answering a key fundamental question  are the sexual differences between men and women innate or products of cultural socialization?

The psychology of men and women has been a common topic of discussion in academic literature. Sex differences among the genders are associated with the study of how men and women exhibit cognitive and behavioral traits (Fernandez et al., 2020). These studies stem from the influence of overt and covert differences between the sexes that have intrigued societies for centuries. Overt differences between men and women stem from physical variations between the sexes (American Psychological Association, 2020). For example, women are assumed to have warmer and friendlier personalities compared to their male counterparts do (Warren et al., 2021). Similarly, men are deemed to be more assertive and aggressive compared to women (American Psychological Association, 2020). Overall, these stereotypes stem from the manifestation of physical differences between both genders.

Media representations of men and women have perpetrated some of the above-mentioned differences with little to no evidence. Books, magazines, and Hollywood movies have also promoted the same stereotypes. For example, dating shows have consistently propagated the idea that failed relationships between the sexes are consequences of different communication styles (American Psychological Association, 2020). These perceptions affect how people view the roles of both men and women in society. For example, women who deviate from the traditional role of caregiving and nurturing tend to be treated unfairly during periods where managers look for employees to promote or undertake job evaluations (Gruber et al., 2021). Similarly, the educational performance of children tends to be negatively affected by some of the existing gender stereotypes. For example, the assumption that boys score better grades in mathematics, compared to girls, could negatively impact the ability of the latter to improve their overall performance (Fernandez et al., 2020). Therefore, the traditional perceptions of gender identity and roles continue to permeate in society, despite the progress made in promoting gender equality in different spheres of life.

Despite the glaring differences between men and women, this paper adopts an intrinsic approach to investigating the research issue by investigating differences between both genders, based on their expression of gratuity. Gratuity is a form of appreciation that people initiate when they receive a good or service (Deaner et al., 2022). This form of monetary appreciation includes offering incentives to service providers, especially in the hospitality industry, to improve or sustain the quality of their services (Fernandez et al., 2020). Tipping is a form of gratuity that customers have used to motivate employees. It is associated with improved employee morale because millions of workers worldwide depend on it as a source of income (Warren et al., 2021). Overall, tipping is a strong motivator for predicting peoples economic behaviors. Given its importance to boosting peoples morale, this paper seeks to investigate gender differences in tipping behaviors. The study is informed by existing differences in perception and ideology among men and women, which affect their economic behaviors. This analogy emphasizes the importance of analyzing peoples welfare beyond their economic interests and surroundings. Instead, more attention should be paid to understand the main issue, by reviewing the matter holistically and including social and economic aspects of development, in predicting human action.

Hypothesis

The process of understanding gender differences in tipping behaviors between men and women is complicated. This is because the psychological variations between both genders are speculated to affect their decision-making processes (American Psychological Association, 2020). In this study, it is hypothesized that men tip more than women do because they are assumed to be more generous compared to their female counterparts (Fernandez et al., 2020). Therefore, three types of hypotheses can be developed from this investigation. They are detailed as follows:

• H1  Men tip more than women do
• H2  Women tip more than men do
• H0  Neither genders tip more than the other does

Based on the nature of the three hypotheses described above, three hypotheses emerge in this investigation. Each one of them presents three scenarios that could explain possible outcomes that could emerge from the current investigations. As highlighted above, the current investigation predicts that men tip more than women do. Therefore, in this research study this hypothesis is tested.

Prior Research

The impact of gender on peoples behaviors has been explored from different perspectives. In the current study, this phenomenon is investigated from an economic perspective with the act of giving tips highlighted as a psychological/social motivation for shaping human behavior. This statement stems from then idea that people pay for tips without any legal obligation to do so. Three studies are investigated in this review to explore this topic in-depth because they share a close relationship with the current focus of investigation, which is to explore gender differences in tipping behaviors between both sexes. These studies are important to the current investigation because they explain the motivations for pursuing different behaviors between men and women.

First Study

In the first study, researchers investigated the economics of tipping by exploring reasons why people show gratitude. The study was spread across two demographic groups with the first one comprised of Americans and the second one made up of Israelis (Azar, 2020). The findings suggested that when customers develop long-term relationships with service providers, the motivation to tip is enhanced by the expectation that the act will contribute towards quality improvements (Azar, 2020). The findings equally suggested that the nature of relationship between a service provider and customer influences tipping behaviors. Particularly, it emerged that customers tip less when they do not expect to meet the same service provider (Azar, 2020). Given that the researchers focused on investigating differences in tipping behavior between Israeli and American customers, they tabulated reasons that both sets of respondents gave in expressing gratuity and detailed them as shown in Table 1 below.

Table 1. Reasons for Tipping (Source: Adapted from Azar, 2020)

A summary of the above-findings suggest that social and psychological reasons best explain peoples tipping behaviors. This outcome is enforced in the above-mentioned findings because consumers in Israel and America were not motivated to tip because of future product and service expectations. Instead, they argued that their tipping behaviors were informed by social norms and their willingness to show gratitude (Azar, 2020). These reasons point to the significant influence of psychology and social conditioning on peoples behaviors. This outcome contradicts a previously held belief that future product or service quality expectations inform peoples motivation to tip.

The above-mentioned findings provided further details to explain differences in behavior between two sets of customers. In the first case, the researcher observed that US respondents tipped above normal rates (Azar, 2020). The reason for offering high tips was to generate feelings of generosity and servitude. US customers also did so to impress others and to reinforce their social image in society (Azar, 2020). These reasons point to the role of social and psychological influences as the primary drivers of human behavior. Recent research evidence suggests that environmental reasons affecting the workplace environment could be affecting how people view the work that service providers do (Fernandez et al., 2020). For example, the hospitality industry has most recently been affected with job losses and low employee morale due to the COVID-19 pandemic and its effects. As the world resumes normalcy, it is becoming increasingly important to boost employee morale to achieve optimum performance (Fernandez et al., 2020). Therefore, the demanding nature of the workplace environment has created new stressors for employees worldwide.

Second Study

In the second study, Fernandez et al. (2020) investigated the influence of tip-enhancing behaviors on workers in the hospitality industry. These behaviors were taught in training sessions and they advocated for the adoption of friendly customer service behaviors, such as smiling, introducing oneself by name, and saying thank you to sustain customer interest (Fernandez et al., 2020). The study was designed to investigate the behaviors of two sets of respondents who received training on tip-enhancing behaviors. The first one was comprised of 74 respondents who acted as a control group to the experimental one, which was made up of 69 people (Fernandez et al., 2020). In sum, the study sampled the views of 143 respondents who worked as service attendants in 62 restaurants. After the training session, the amount of tips that the waiters received were monitored for five days. It was observed that those who applied tip-enhancing behaviors experienced a significant increase in their income. These findings of the above study suggest that training can significantly improve the number of tips a service provider receives (Fernandez et al., 2020). The implication of this finding is that employee loyalty can be enhanced through training. This is because the positive relationship between training outcomes and an increase in tips is likely to make workers stay with an employer for a long time, hence enhancing job retention rates (Fernandez et al., 2020). These findings highlight the importance of improving the workplace environment as a function of performance.

Third Study

The third study that is relevant to this investigation and that underpins the value of the current study relates to the integration of technology in customer service. Warren et al. (2021) authored this study and it was meant to understand how tips influenced a customers service requirements, and the nature of services offered in a business. Particularly, the researchers explored the role of mobile-based point-of-sale contacts between customers and their service providers to assess consumer behavior (Warren et al., 2021). The investigation mainly focused on how requesting for tips from customers at the start of the service process affected customers and their service providers (Warren et al., 2021). The influences of pre-service and post-service tip sequences were examined in this investigation using a four-stage experimental process. The first one was a natural experiment and the other three were controlled experiments. The investigation was done in the food and beverage service sectors of the economy.

The findings of the study revealed that initial requests for tips at the onset of the service sequence led to the generation of fewer number of tips compared to an alternate scenario where post-service tip sequencing was implemented. A reduced number of return retentions and a suppressed quantity of word-of-mouth communications were also associated with initial tip sequencing formats (Warren et al., 2021). In this analysis, the manipulative intent of tips is underscored as the main tool for recalibrating sequencing formats. Overall, this study suggested that emphasizing the benefits of point-of-sale service is a critical process of making sure that tips are sequenced in a manner that optimizes returns (Warren et al., 2021). Broadly, this investigation discourages service providers from requesting for tips before providing the desired service.

Summary

As highlighted in this section of the study, three studies, which share commonalities with the present focus of the investigation, were examined. The main feature that all studies share is their focus on the tipping behaviors of men and women. Particularly, the studies highlighted the importance of evaluating the psychosocial and social influences of human behavior as a predictor of their economic actions. However, these studies fail to explore gender differences in the economic behaviors of both genders. The present investigation seeks to fill this research gap by examining differences in tipping behaviors between men and women.

Method

The researcher observed the behaviors of paying customers in a restaurant by observing their behaviors in a social setting. In this regard, observation emerged as the main research design. Their interpretive discretion that researchers have when using observation gives them the power to report the behaviors of the respondents as they occur. The main drawback linked with this research design is time-management because observing the behaviors of all the respondents was time-consuming.

Sample Population

The researcher observed the behaviors of 40 subjects who represented each gender evenly. In other words, 20 men and 20 women voluntarily chose to participate in the study. These respondents were randomly selected from a larger body of respondents comprised of students who visited the school restaurant during a one-week survey period. The purposeful sampling method was used in this investigation because the researcher desired to observe the behaviors of an equal number of boys and girls (Warren et al., 2021). Overall, the student population provided a pool of people for observing tipping behaviors between both genders.

Data Collection

The researcher collected data for the current study by observing the behaviors of both men and women in a restaurant setting. Azar (2020) defines the observation technique as a mode of observing behavior, events, and the natural characteristics of a research setting to make conclusions about a research issue. The selected tipping behaviors were observed in a restaurant setting where women and men naturally interacted with waiters in a school restaurant setting. Overall, the nature of interaction between the researcher and the subjects did not involve talking; instead, behavior was merely observed and recorded.

Research Variables

It is important to understand the variables of a study to know the main issues affecting it. In the current study, two main variables affecting the probe were gender and ethnicity. Gender is a dichotomous variable in the sense that it is classified as either male or female. Alternately, ethnicity was classified into five categories: African-American, Caucasian, Hispanics, Mixed race, and Asians.

Operational Definition

• Tip: A monetary reward given by a customer to a service provider, which is above the selling price to show gratuity for services offered or goods purchased
• Man: Adult male
• Woman: Adult female
• Foot traffic: Number of customers frequenting a restaurant at a specific time

Controls

The nature of controls affecting this investigation was that they could affect the outcomes of the study. In the context of the present probe, three key factors are identified as the main controls of the investigation. They include day of the week, time of day, and location of study. Details relating to each of the controls are highlighted below.

• Day of the Week: The day of week to observe behaviors between customers and service providers in a restaurant setting affects the quality of interaction between the two parties. This is because certain days of the week register a higher rate of foot traffic of customers compared to others. For example, Azar (2020) says that, depending on a countrys culture, weekends tend to attract the highest number of customers and tips. Therefore, conducting a study during such periods is likely to yield more profound outcomes compared to any other day of the week. In the context of the current investigation, the day of the week is a controlled variable.
• Time of Day: The time of day customers visit a restaurant often varies the foot traffic numbers. For example, lunch hours attract more customers than middle morning hours. Similarly, in some restaurants, such as coffee shops, evening hours have more foot traffic compared to lunch hours (Warren et al., 2021). In the current study, observations on tipping behaviors were made during lunch hours when the cafeteria had more than 80% seating capacity filled. The aim of observing peoples behaviors during this time was to make the most notes within a short time.
• Location of Study: The location of the study was another research control variable for this investigation. It influences the demographic characteristics of people who frequent restaurants. In turn, these features affect customer attitudes and, by extension, their tipping behaviors (Warren et al., 2021). As highlighted in this paper, the current investigation was contextualized in an institutional setting where the tipping behaviors of students were observed. The implication of contextualizing the study in an institutional setting is that students have limited earning potential compared to the public. Therefore, the tipping behaviors observed in the study could be suppressed for this reason. In this regard, the location of the study was a control variable for the present investigation.

Observations

As highlighted in this study, the researcher made observations about the economic behaviors of men and women in a restaurant setting. To recap, the two main variables in this study were gender and ethnicity. As highlighted in Table 2 below, an equal number of male and female respondents took part in the investigation.

Gender

Table 2. Distribution of respondents according to gender (Source: Developed by Author)

The equal number of men and women who participated in the study represented the importance of having a gender-neutral informant group to test the hypothesis of the study. Stated differently, to understand gender differences in tipping, it was important to have equal representation of the sexes. This selection created a neutral basis for evaluating whether any of the sexes tipped more than the other did. Table 3 below highlights the behaviors of each of the two groups of respondents.

Table 3. Tipping behaviors between men and women (Source: Developed by Author)

According to table 2 above, men tipped more than women did because 12 out of 20 respondents observed in the investigation tipped the service providers, while only 10/20 of the female informants did the same. Based on these findings, it was important to undertake further analysis to estimate the overall effect that the genders of the informants affected their economic behaviors. To meet this objective, it was essential to undertake a statistical analysis based on the one-way ANOVA analysis using the Statistical Packages for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software. The findings are highlighted in Table 4 below.

Table 4. Effects of gender on tipping behaviors (Source: Developed by author)

According to the ANOVA findings highlighted above, the respondents gender shared a weak correlation with their tipping behaviors. This finding is affirmed because the significance value of this variable was less than p<0.05, which is the standard measure of significance for assessing the findings.

Ethnicity

The second variable investigated in this study related to the respondents ethnicity. As highlighted in Table 5 below, most of the informants were Caucasian. They accounted for 62.5% of the total cases observed in the study. Hispanics formed the second largest demographic of respondents and it comprised 22.5% of the total cases observed in the investigation.

Table 5. Distribution of respondents according to ethnicity (Source: Developed by Author)

The findings highlighted above are depicted graphically in Figure 1 below.

Given that ethnicity was one of the key variables in this study, it was essential for the researcher to analyze whether this variable had a significant impact on the findings. Table 6 below shows that this variable had an insignificant effect on customers tipping behaviors because the significance value of 0.383, which was reported in the study, is higher than the p<0.05 threshold of significance. These findings were obtained after conducting a correlation analysis using the one-way ANOVA technique.

Table 6. Effects of ethnicity on tipping behaviors (Source: Developed by Author)

Overall, the findings highlighted above reveal that, although Caucasians formed a majority of observed cases in the study, their ethnicity played an insignificant role in influencing their decision on whether to tip, or not. The same logic is applicable to other ethnic groups represented in the investigation.

Control Variables

As highlighted in the methodology section of this study, factors that could have influenced the observations made in the current probe were deemed as control factors. The effects of these elements on the findings were factored in the present investigation using descriptive and inferential analytical techniques. To recap, three control variables were investigated in the study and they included time of day for observing behaviors, day of week of making observations, and the location of the study. The impact of each of these variables is highlighted below.

• Time of Day: As highlighted in Table 7 below, the time of day for making observations was included in the study as a control variable. Based on the effect that it has on foot traffic in a restaurant, the time of day for making observations was classified into three categories: morning, lunchtime, and evening. Table 7 below shows that 50% of the observations made in the study were done during lunch hours. An additional 35% of the observations recorded were compiled during the morning hours of restaurant operations. Comparatively, the least number of observations were made in the evening hours.

Table 7. Distribution of observations based on time of day (Source: Developed by Author)

The findings highlighted above are graphiclly depicted in Figure 2 below.

Based on variations of time of day for observing the respondents highlighted above, it was important for the researcher to investigate its impact on the findings. To this end, another ANOVA analysis was undertaken and the findings were similar to other variables investigated in the same manner  the time of day of making the observations had an insignificant impact on the findings. Table 8 below shows that the significance value for this variable was higher than the p<0.05 threshold.

Table 8. Impact of time of day on findings (Source: Developed by Author)

Overall, based on the findings highlighted above, it can be assumed that the time of day of making the observations did not affect the behavior of the respondents.

• Day of Week: The day of the week for making observations was another control variable in the present study. The investigation was undertaken in five days and according to Table 9 below, most of the observations made were on Friday, which is among the busiest days of the week for restaurants. The least number of observations were made on Wednesday, Mondays, and Thursdays.

Table 9. Distribution of observations according to day of week (Source: Developed by Author)

The above-mentioned findings are mirrored on the pie chart below, which appears as Figure 3.

Abstract

It is prudent to accept that the role of intoxication in the society has considerably shifted and as such the attitudes towards alcohol consumption and its role with respect to the changing landscape of leisure, work and pleasure.

From the eras of carnivalesque excess, to the acceptance of an alcoholic pressure valve to sustain the normal capitalistic week and eventually the integration of alcohol consumption into the post modern capitalist society, binge drinking and controlled alcohol consumption has grown into a marker of group or individual consumer identity on one hand while on the other hand it reflects the broader social, economic and cultural changes that the society has undergone as a whole.

This paper succinctly interweaves such changes in relation to binge drinking in the United Kingdom, alcohol consumption as a leisure industry and the incidence, prevalence and progression of socially tolerated traditional drinking sprees to the post modern sociological phenomena of binge drinking.

By analyzing the complex profiles and patterns of binge drinking across gender lines, social classes and different age group the researcher presents the types of drinks commonly consumed, the social and health outcomes of intoxication and the strategies instituted to confront binge drinking benchmarked upon the levels of social acceptability.

Introduction

Overview

Public concerns over binge drinking have grown into a form of a mild social upheaval in the United Kingdom as well as in other countries in recent times.

The ramifications of binge drinking in the public sphere and the scientifically proven negative health and social outcomes remain the main reasons behind attempts to tame the progression of alcohol consumption to levels where the habit would considerably influence societal health and consequently societal harmony.

This phenomenon of extreme drinking peaks can be marked to late adolescent periods and early adulthood. Despite public abhorrence of this trend, extreme drinking behavior has developed into a form of a culturally appropriate behavior and a sociologically recognized developmental rite of passage in early adulthood (Martinic & Measham 2008).

This sociological phenomenon typically occurs in public places such as bars, pubs, nightclubs and is usually manifested in groups as opposed to individual drinking. This practice transcends both the social class and culture.

In general, the amount of alcohol that is consumed by a single individual in a country sometimes known as per capita consumption has been an accepted measure of the extent of alcohol drinking.

However, per capita consumption as a mode of collecting relevant data is old fashioned and can only be said to be a very crude indicator when it comes to alcohol consumption.

It succeeds in providing general trends of alcohol consumption but fails when it comes to capturing the myriad ways in which persons drink (Stimson et al 2007). In other words it fails to describe drinking in contextual terms. For instance, whereas some individuals engage in rare intoxication, some engage in the pursuit of bouts of heavy intoxication more frequently.

Despite that short coming, per capita consumption hereby referred to as population level measures, provide a very important gross indicator of drinking. The per capita consumption of alcohol in England has risen from seven years where it had leveled off in approximately ten years to the current nine litres. Averagely, men consume 16 alcohol units a week while women 5.4 units (Paton & Touquet 2005).

In recent years binge drinking as a term has come to replace earlier understanding of then same phenomenon of alcohol related anti social behavior. Patterns of anti social behavior that can be explained by the modern effects of binge drinking can be traced from earlier reports in the British history.

As early as the 1854, the Worktown (Bolton) Temperance society report commented that drunkenness as a social phenomenon was painfully prevalent in Borough.

The report further reiterates that this can be confirmed by the presence of men and even women who stagger along the street after heavy consumption of alcohol, brawls, fights and even salient cases of barbarous character.

Studies indicate that in the UK, less than one in ten of thirteen year olds have not engaged in alcohol consumption while half of those between the age group 13-16 binge. The young which is inclusive of women represent the largest group of young drinkers in Europe(Ellul 2008).

While such characteristics which directly infer binge drinking have been socially accepted as British styles of drinking, they are not unique among the British populace alone, but rather such characteristics can be reproduced in several countries in the world.

Cultural ambivalence is the term used to refer to the tolerance and inculcation of heavy drinking in society and therefore while anti drinking ideologies begin to permeate the British landscape, coupled to the licensing laws the tradition still remains and therefore it continues to determine the outcome of the complex strategies that aim at inhibiting heavy drinking behaviors.

Definitions of Binge Drinking

Binge drinking can be referred to as heavy episodic drinking which involves the consumption of at least five consecutive drinks for men and four drinks for women during a two weeks period.

While this definition has been widely adopted and used by researchers, a more concise definition is given by the National Institute on Alcoholism and Alcohol Abuse which defines it as  a pattern of drinking alcohol that brings blood alcohol concentration to 0.08 grams percent or above (Schutt 2008).

However, irrespective of the definition used, binge drinking remains a sociological problem and a public health concern that needs to be addressed. There are those who argue that it is inappropriate to brand a man who has consumed just five drinks as a pathological case, especially if such consumption occurs over one evening while taking meals or just socializing.

The word binge is defined in the Oxford English Dictionary as a heavy drinking bout. The origin of the word can be traced back to the English dialect term binge which has the meaning of to soak especially for a wooden vessel. Its first recorded use was in eighteen fifty four in Miss Anne Backers Glossary of Northamptonshire Words and Phrases.

This shows how historically rooted the concept of heavy drinking has been among the English. The first use of the word appeared in the phrase a man goes to the alehouse to get a good binge, or to binge himself (Oxford English Dictionary, 2008). Throughout British history, evidence of heavy drinking and drunkenness that exhibit contemporary descriptions can be traced.

The term binge drinking is however ascribed to two separate meanings within the academic literature. It is used to describe a purposeful pattern of heavy drinking that takes place over an extended period normally defined as drinking extending beyond a day at a time.

An individual who predominantly adopts this kind of drinking characterized with intervening periods of abstinence can thus be referred to as a binge or a bout drinker (World Health Organization 1994). This definition is however attached to more clinical definitions of alcohol dependence or abuse as have been noted by Gmel et al. (2003).

Jellineks work on the classification of alcoholism which has been considered a classical work, encompasses what he describes as epsilon alcoholism, sometimes referred to as dipsomania. This is also the same as binge drinking, periodic drinking or paroxysmal (Jallinek, 2006).

Binge drinking has also been used to refer to single instances of drinking resulting into intoxication which is normally measured in X number of drinks consumed in a single occasion. There are other alternative terms that are normally used which includes risky single momentous drinking, heavy episodic drinking, heavy seasonal drinking and just heavy drinking.

All these terms refer to that degree of drinking which can be classified as binge drinking. This second meaning of binge drinking has been widely adopted by politicians and researchers over the recent years. The popularity of the term as denoted by the second use is attributed to the drinking pattern of mostly the young population. A common definition of binge drinking is the consumption of five drinks in a row within the last two weeks.

For researchers, the value of binge drinking as a concept lies in its employment as a measure of harm related with the consumption of alcohol that sees many short term harm associated with the consumption of alcohol come as a result of single instances of drinking rather than consuming more than the weekly recommended levels or the daily capacity of an individual.

In their defense of the use of the term, Wechsler and Austin (1998) argued that the definition of binge drinking as involving the consumption of five drinks in a row represents the basis for the social consequences related with alcohol consumption.

There is no agreement concerning the capacity of alcohol intake that can be rightly referred to as binge drinking within its general definition as a single session of drinking resulting into intoxication. The number of drinks which can be identifies are demarcating the cut off point for binge drinking is varied.

With this regard, the number of individuals who can be classified as binge drinkers will also be dependent upon the presumed cut offs used. As such, the definition employed has a significant effect on the production of statistics. Other factors that also complicate the situation is the variance of standard drinks from country to country which makes cross-country comparisons very difficult.

The cut off definitions are also too simplistic since it does not take into account factors like food consumption, alcohol tolerance capacity, social context and weight. Owing to this, some researchers prefer more qualitative definitions of binge drinking (Harnett et al, 2000: 61-67).

It is clear that there has been a shift in the meaning of binge drinking in recent history. The classical definition of binge drinking characterized by sustained drinking over a period of several days has been replaced by the modern definition, though not quite entirely, of binge drinking as an instance of acute intoxication.

However, within the context of alcohol, both the terms co-exist even though quite uneasily. For instance, the old definition is still being used within the lexicon of World Health Organizations terms even though it uses binge drinking in its Global Status Report on Alcohol 2004 to refer to the new definition.

Similarly, the old definition has been used by some authors and the Journal of Studies on Alcohol land Drugs until January 2007 when referring to the new concept of binge drinking. The old definition is also employed in other fields besides the alcohol field.

In two community studies conducted in the United Kingdom aimed at exploring the perceptions and definitions of binge drinking, none of the respondents gave definitions based on the quantity of alcohol consumed. However, some gave definitions related with the old definition (McMahon, 2007: 289-303)

The definitions of binge drinking as used in academic research as much as they are of great importance may not be sufficient enough to capture the whole concept. The definitions as used by the central government agencies are more significant since monitoring of targets and trends are based on the statistics generated which are basically the figures used when designing policies.

The formulation of definitions is however not very clear. As such, questions are bound to be asked on the foundation of the evidence presented and the general role of research community in the whole process.

One interesting fact is that in the United Kingdom, the official measure of binge drinking commonly cited is not actually its measure but the character of heavy drinking. The General Household Survey even though avoids the use of binge drinking as a term uses the measure of heavy drinking as its proxy.

According to McAlaney and McMahon, the official definitions of binge drinking are open to further interpretation as the official figures reflect this ambiguity. Specifically, they highlight that the United Kingdoms current understanding of binge drinking has been influenced by the two series of studies (the General Household Survey and the Health Survey of England).

Even though the two studies employed similar consumption studies and methodologies, the findings were markedly different owing to the cut offs that they adopted (McAlaney et al 2006: 3557). The General Household Survey characterized binge drinking with the consumption of more than eight units of alcohol for men and more than six for women while the Health Survey for England puts the figure at eight or more and six or more.

McAlaney and McMahon argue that a misleading conclusion can be arrived at when the difference in interpretation of the eight six definition is overlooked. This is likely to happen when assumptions are made with regard to definition employed and also when the results of the studies are laid as comparable directly.

Kolvin on the other hand argues that conception of binge drinking in the United Kingdom is varied among the key stakeholders owing to the diversity and differences in their institutional agenda (Kolvin, 2005). It is important that all these stakeholders refer to the same thing when addressing the problem of binge drinking while at the same time acknowledging the value of the different conceptions.

However, it is often the case that the stakeholders do not mean the same thing when referring to binge drinking which has the result of impeding any progress that can be made with regard to the problem. The public and the government also hold different perceptions on binge drinking and without a shared understanding , it becomes virtually impossible to develop any effective preventive measures (Coleman, 2007: 305-317).

Motivations for Binge Drinking

Youths typically accept and engage in binge drinking because it is viewed as a normative behavior that is more preferable than not drinking at all. This acceptance occurs in the face of experimented and scientifically proven understanding that binge drinking present the youth to numerous immediate effects like blackouts, hangovers, impaired motor and cognitive coordination and various forms of injury.

Additionally, delayed social consequences associated with binge drinking may also manifest after a considerable period of time. Such consequences include problems at school, at home and even at the workplace. When excessive alcohol consumption occurs in nightclubs, there is a high risk of the group resorting to violence.

It is on the basis of these negative consequences some researchers view binge drinking as a form of self destructive and unrestrained drinking which possibly occurs over a couple of days in which the drinker is heavily intoxicated to a point of blackout.

Due to this the drinker will most likely ignore responsibilities, ignore work, squander money and even engage in other potentially dangerous and undesirable risky behavior such as fights or unprotected sex(Martinic & Measham 2008).

In such a case where the drinker consumes alcohol endlessly for a period of two or more days, he does so specifically to become intoxicated. It is this definition of binge drinking that is used in clinical diagnosis of the phenomenon.

In view of the potential negative consequences associated with binge drinking it is necessary to try and enlist a number of factors that facilitate the development of this sociological phenomenon.

Drinking is a central Leisure Activity

Alcohol consumption takes pride as the central mode of spending free time among the youth. In a UK study encompassing focus groups of young adults and the youth drinking was mentioned by as the most dominant leisure activity.

For a majority, drink is nothing but a source of pleasure since it is sociable, comforting and relatively cheap (Paton & Touquet 2005).Moreover, the youth felt that there were fewer other options that could be considered as a leisure activity (Martinic & Measham 2008).

Extreme drinking occasions are never accidental or unintended since they are always planned in advance. often in a big night out, getting drunk is always the goal and to reach such a goal the youth engineer the progression to acute intoxication by consuming large amount of alcohol beverages with relatively high alcoholic content within the shortest time possible.

Although the young often point out the gal of binge drinking as being of social aspects such as social facilitation and enjoyment, a select majority who have been addicted to binge drinking derive their enjoyment from feeling drunk. Feeling drunk has been developed as an ideal form of having a good time (Coleman & Cater 2005). There is exists a relationship between the pursuit of ecstasy and binge drinking among the youth (Miller & Caroll 2006).

Drinking as a way of facilitating peer relations

Peers play an integral role in providing identity and social support. Cultural norms are a factor in the development of peer groups and therefore a factor in the promotion of binge drinking. Since excessive drinking has been accepted as a rite of passage on one hand and a normative habit on the other, the youth engage in it as a means of getting fun and bonding with their friends. This is true for students enrolled in universities and colleges.

Moreover, much of the drinking is carried out along social milieus. The linkage between alcohol use and relationships is very complex but what is certain is that getting drunk is one form of developing intimate relationships.

Because adolescence and young adulthood is a time where the formation of sexual relationships and romantic relationships is prevalent, alcohol use facilitates flirtation which is a key ingredient in the formation of relationships. The opportunity for interaction and the confidence to effectively pursue an interaction is provided by intoxication and the group (Martinic & Measham 2008).

Drinking as a means of coping with problems

Ideally development processes and transitions are always marked by continuity and discontinuity. The period of adolescent have always been described as a naturally turbulent period where adolescents develop problems with their parents, school teachers and even with their intimate partners.

When it is understood that this period also marks the period where individuals experiment with almost every thing be it drugs, alcohol or positive experimentation such as counseling and other stress management methods, it becomes relatively easier to understand why adolescents and the youth in particular resort to the use of alcohol as a means of solving their problems.

Since consumption of alcohol occurs in groups and that such groups not only function as a formidable social cycle but also as a source of comfort. Moreover, the group may advise an individual that alcohol consumption is ideally the best way of dealing with such problems.

Methodology

The purpose of this article is to shed light on the concept of binge drinking, the popular contentions with regard to its definition, patterns and the commonly consumed drinks. It is based on informal interviews conducted in pubs and bars within a sample town and academic materials written on the topic.

Among the people interviewed are managers, customers and staff. The material is also based on public analysis on the same topic with emphasis on policy and policy effectiveness. A sample unit of one hundred individuals was interviewed which involved the following categories:

Pub managers and senior staff: the interview focused on their perception of binge drinking, the prevalence of such behavior, the population that exhibit such behavior (for instance, class, age, gender, race, et cetera), the type of drinks purchased during different periods of evening or night, how their behavior impact on the management, if there are extreme circumstances associated with drinking that called for the intervention of medical services and the general strategies for handling specific conditions.

It also included questions on what the government can do to improve conditions not only for the management but also for their clients.

Bar staff: the focus of the interview was mainly on their experiences with binge drinkers, the drinks that are most preferred by the binge drinkers and the patterns of drinking.

Customers: this was based on the type of drinks they prefer, the quantity or amount they consume within given times, their experiences with drinking and their perception on binge drinking.

Customers that could be classified as binge drinkers: this focused on their motivation to engage in drinking, the amount of alcohol consumed within specific periods of time, the preferred brands, their perception of binge drinking and their experiences.

Public authorities: the focus was their take on the practice of binge drinking, their definition and actions to be taken with regard to it.

In each of the location, observational work was conducted which focused on the quantity and type of drink consumed binge drinkers.

On top of this, other interviews were conducted among police officers, medical practitioners and resident representatives on their view of binge drinking and whether any of them had engaged in the practice. Academic articles were also searched in order to see if the binge drinking can is considered in academic field.

Patterns of drinking

Alcohol consumption elicits salient patterns that are not only determined by the social structure , religious attitudes but also demography and ethical attitudes. A simple illustration supporting this fact is the differences in drinking patterns between the Mediterranean and the British.

Among the British, people generally drink in pubs while their Mediterranean counterparts mainly consume alcohols as an accompaniment to meals. In the United Kingdom it has been established that the amount of money spent on alcohol is in excess of any other commodity (Paton & Touquet 2005).

Generally, drinking patterns offer a description of three crucial aspects of the consumption of alcohol. For instance; populations; this describes the nature of the individuals or groups who possess common traits or drinking practices, contexts of drinking and behaviors that may be exhibited during drinking that may bear on the overall outcome of binge drinking (Stimson et al 2007). Drinking patterns also encompass a number of facets;

1. The quantity of alcoholic beverages in relation to their alcoholic content consumed per occasion
2. Duration and the frequency of alcohol consumption
3. Types of alcoholic beverages consumed
4. Individual characteristics of drinkers
5. The settings of consumption and the activities that accompany the consumption of alcohol and,
6. The role pf culture in alcohol consumption, the significance of alcohol consumption and the social mores surrounding alcohol consumption

Populations

We cannot analyze drinking patterns and consequently the effects they have on outcomes unless we understand, the population structure of alcohol consumption. Such a population structure is variable from country to country.

The dimensions of population structure that determine binge drinking and correlate it with possible outcomes are generally classified into the broad categories of gender, age, education level, socioeconomic factors and individual factors such as health and genetic predisposition.

Gender

Gender as an integral population dimension plays a central role in the determination of drinking behavior. Men are generally more predisposed to the acquisition of drinking behavior as opposed to women. Moreover, men consume a comparatively high amount of alcohol as compared to women(Stimson et al 2007).

This difference is attributable to a set of social and cultural factors that determine the extent of tolerance of some behaviors in the society. Additionally, physiological differences give men more advantage when it comes to the rate of metabolism of alcohol.

Because women are physiologically smaller in size when compared to men, they experience the effects of alcohol at a faster rate due to higher rates of absorption into the circulatory system. However, as gender roles continue to evolve, women are challenging some of the deep seated social and cultural roles that discouraged their consumption of alcohol(Stimson et al 2007).

Age

Age is another integral component of population that influences the nature of alcohol consumption. As humans continue their developmental process, transitions are reached. These transitions determine a set of physical and behavioral characteristics that can either be beneficial to the normal development of an individual or detrimental depending on the manner in which such transitions are navigated.

The youth are generally more prone to binge drinking because of their relative inexperience with alcohol consumption, general propensity for taking risks and the physiological susceptibility inherent in that stage of development(Stimson et al 2007). Physiological susceptibilities play a role in modifying alcohol consumption patterns among the youth.

As people advance in age, they tend to drink less as compared to the youth. Moreover, older people have undergone several changes in life such as retirement, life partner loss and transformations in lifestyle necessitated by old age. Such factors have the ability to modify drinking habits.

Research has also demonstrated that older members of the society who continue to consume alcohol moderately are comparatively more active, less likely to develop cognitive impairments and possess stronger social networks when compared to their counterparts who do not drink. Physiological changes, medications and underlying health status also limit the level of alcohol consumption among the aged.

Social and Economic Factors

The interactions of social class, ethnicity, marital status and education possess a strong influence in determining the different drinking patterns exhibited in different cultures all over the world. These interactions play a pivotal role in determining the how people drink, the role of drinking in the society, the views on alcohol, and even the outcomes that are to be expected upon intoxication.

It is on the basis of these interactions that social and economic status influences the shaping of drinking behavior. Certain forms of cultures profoundly glorify some drinking behaviors because of the belies that they reflect manliness, upward social mobility, valor and even determine ethnic boundaries(Stimson et al 2007)

Economically, the affordability of alcohol can be closely associated with the development of certain patterns of drinking. For example when the consumption patterns of developing countries are critically analyzed, it is possible to discern the preference of western imported beverages by the affluent urban populations.

Traditionally brewed beverages are predominantly confined to the rural populations and urban poor because they can not afford the preference of the affluent. In developed countries, higher incomes have been linked to the high frequency of alcohol consumption even though this does not necessarily translate to heavy alcohol consumption.

Moreover, individuals who are married and possess a stable job are more prone to frequent alcohol consumption though not necessarily heavy. On the other hand, it has been established that individuals in the lower socio economic class are more likely to consume alcohol less frequently but in these few occasions they generally engage in heavy drinking and that such occasions are likely to occur in groups (Stimson et al 2007).

Context

Settings and Venues

Consumption of alcohol occurs in a variety of settings and venues. Such settings and venues include private homes, pubs, bars, taverns, sporting events, restaurants and during public celebrations.

The distinction between private consumption and public consumption of alcohol is important in determining the patterns of alcohol consumption and consequent outcomes that may arise after intoxication. Some cultures have inculcated drinking into a necessary and routinely observed action that occurs in everyday interactions such as social gatherings and meal times.

In the United Kingdom and Ireland, drinking mainly occurs in the pubs and taverns which have traditionally been modeled into primary drinking avenues. The characteristics of such drinking avenues or settings have a profound influence in shaping the drinking patterns.

For instance, architectural and aesthetic features that characterize lighting, crowd control, seating, availability of different beverage types and food determine the level of consumption of alcohol and the consequent outcomes after intoxication.

While venues such as restaurants promote drinking at a comparatively leisurely pace, pubs and bars encourage faster and heavier consumption of alcohol. Since settings and avenues where alcohol is consumes have to be compliant to a set of governing regulations which prescribe licensing hours, such places greatly influence both the concentrations absorbed and the outcomes of binge drinking (Stimson et al 2007).

Just like food service establishments, drinking avenues are built according to target clientèle. Live music as a form of entertainment has been used to lure the young to such premises. The varying p

Plate Tectonics and Continental Drift

Within the framework of modern geodynamics, it is proved scientifically and empirically that the surface of the Earth is divided into several plates. The Earths exterior looks like a mosaic embracing eight large and six small plates completely covering it.

The boundaries of the lithospheric plates are expressed by active seismicity and magmatism and do not always coincide with the boundaries of the continents. For instance, the plate covering North America (the North American Plate) spreads not only across the North American mainland but also across the western area of the Atlantic Ocean.

Plate tectonics is a geodynamic concept based on the concept of the Earths lithosphere as a collection of moving lithospheric plates, which continuously interact with each other in the process of moving. The plate movement is controlled by convection mantle flows; this movement is an element of the heat transfer system from the Earths center to its surface. The lower layers of the lithospheric plates are formed by the rocks of the mantle; the upper ones are the crust of either only oceanic type or both oceanic and continental. The oceanic crust has an average thickness of no more than 7 kilometers and consists mainly of basalt and rocks of similar composition. The continental crust is much thicker: from 35 to 70 kilometers. This type of crust consists of a wide range of rocks, among which, however, granites predominate. The interaction of moving plates leads to the formation of zones of seismic and volcanic activity at the boundaries between them.

Tectonic processes began to play a significant role in the paleogeography of the Earth, apparently at about 3.2 billion years. Global reconstructions of tectonic history using a complex of geological and geophysical (paleomagnetic) data obtained from continents and from the ocean floor are limited to the nearest 200 million years. This is the maximum age of the oceanic crust since the older ocean floor is absorbed in the subduction process of one plate under or beneath another one near convergent boundaries.

The ratios of the plates are determined by three main types of boundaries  divergent, convergent and transform. Specifically, a divergent boundary is the one that is located between two diverging lithospheric plates. In the ocean, they are expressed by mid-ocean ridges, which, depending on the spreading rate, have a different morphology.

Lately, in the mid-ocean ridge located at the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean, a new oceanic crust is being formed. Within this process, the floor of the Atlantic expands evenly. In other parts of the world the opposite process takes place  for example, in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, the oceanic crust moves under the continent of Eurasia and plunges into the Earths mantle. As a result, the total surface area of the Earth does not change, as the expansion of the floor in the Atlantic is balanced out by the contraction of the Pacific Ocean.

The horizontal shifts of the plates occur because of the mantling of heat-gravity flows (this process is called convection). The mantle consists of silicate rocks rich in iron and magnesium in relation to the overlying crust. High temperatures in the mantle make the silicate material plastic enough to allow convection of material in the mantle, which emerges to the surface through faults in tectonic plates. There is a significant difference between temperature (that equals approximately 5000°C) between the planets central areas and the temperature of the Earths surface. This very differentiation of temperatures is the source of energy for these gravity flows. Heated structures expand in the significant Earth zones, but the density rate declines. These structures rocket to the surface, making way to the getting down of heavier and colder masses, which have shared part of the heart waves to the Earths crust.

Thermal convection in the mantle material acts out as an effective mechanism for the transfer of thermal energy from the Earths core. This mechanism is called convective cells, which can grow up to several thousand kilometers in size. Above the ascending flows of mantle matter which are hot and less dense, there are zones of spreading of the ocean floor. In the zones of the subduction process, there are the descending currents of denser and cooled mantle matters spreading along with the lithospheric plates. The plate movement is the result of the dense adhesion transpiring in the upper mantle matter. This movement is carried out convectively on the lithospheres uneven base.

Riftogenesis is the horizontal stretching process occurring in the lithosphere. Oceanic basins are the places where riftogenesis boundaries are attached to mid-ocean ridges and continental rifts. The definition rift is used to detect linear and formed structures during the process of the Earths crust stretching. Rifts forming either in oceanic or continental crusts can create a complete global system relatively oriented on the geoid axis. It is a case of the continental rift evolution entailing the continuity rupture of the continental crust. This phenomenon might cause the continental rift transformation within the oceanic rift matter. The plate-spearing process in mid-oceanic ridge zones is followed by the mechanism of creating a new oceanic crust happening under the influence of the magmatic basaltic melt. In the process of plate-spreading, every single extension impulse is backed up by the supply of an additional matter of mantle melt. If the issue is solidified, it can strengthen the plate edges that diverge from the mid-ocean ridges axis. The formation and creation of new oceanic crusts are taking place precisely.

In case an oceanic plate and continental one collide with each other, such a phenomenon as the subduction happens due to merging the heavier plate (oceanic) with the continental scale. In other words, when two oceanic plates come into collision, the older and cooler scale is immersed into the newer plate that is less dense. Wang Wenzhong et al. (2020) study suggests that the presence of subducted oceanic crust could provide good explanations for some lower-mantle seismic heterogeneities with different length scales (1). Subduction areas are adjusted to the axial zones of deep-sea currents that are correlated to island arcs.

These specific zones are characterized by the particular structure, where significant components are back-arc basins, volcanic island arcs, and deep-sea trenches. As to an oceanic trench, it is formed in the curved bent in the subducted plate. The more it sinks further, the more water the subducted plate loses. This plate lacks water minerals and sediments, which causes the reduction of the melting indications in the core structure. Jones et al. (2020) state that long-term oceanic crust formation and recycling leads naturally to the formation of relatively dense thermochemical piles in the lowermost mantle (10). There might be some stretching in the back of the volcanic arc; the extension sets a back-arc basin formation.

The largest number of volcanoes is located on the Pacific Ocean periphery, forming the so-called Ring of Fire, which is confined to the active continental margins. Island arcs and the North and South American Cordilleras lie on these margins  structures separated from the ocean by deep-sea trenches. There, inclined zones are traced from the trenches towards the continents, within which the foci of numerous earthquakes are located. Such zones are labeled as seismic focal zones; they interact with lithospheric plates causing the possibility of earthquakes and volcanic activity.

The subduction of oceanic plates under the continents, if it is not compensated by their expansion in the mid-ocean ridges, usually leads to a gradual closure of the ocean. This process is also accompanied by a collision of the continents that frame it, as well as the occurrence of a collision fold belt along the moved-under zone of the plate. A credible example of that is the Alpine-Himalayan mountain belt, which arose on the site of the ancient ocean Tethys. The process of plate thrusting continues to this day, which is evidenced by the increased seismicity of this region. Therefore, the Alpine-Himalayan mountain belt can also be considered a convergent or collisional border of the plates.

Dark Colored (Mafic/Basaltic) Igneous Rocks

Basalts formed in different geodynamic settings quite often bring to the surface deep mantle xenoliths. These formations contain information on the composition and conditions of existence of mantle rocks. Study of peridotite xenoliths found in the provinces of modern suprasubduction volcanism is extremely relevant for comprehending the overall structure of the lithospheric mantle and reconstruction of processes occurring over subduction zones.

Olivine  The Green Peridot

Olivine is a mineral, magnesium-ferruginous island silicate from the peridots group. At present, the name refers to the isomorphic series of forsterite-fayalite with the general formula (Mg, Fe) 2 [SiO4]. The content of Fe and Mg varies between two end members: forsterite with the formula Mg2 [SiO4], and fayalite  Fe2 [SiO4]. The color range of olivine varies from colorless to black, yellowish green, olive and bottle green. The minerals hardness is around 6.5-7, and the specific gravity is 3.27-3.37 g/cm3. There are continuous granular masses or crystals and grains usually included in the rock. In rocks, the mineral forms irregularly shaped grains with a strong glass luster, its inner structure is rhombic. The characteristic form of olivine separation is the hexagonal or diamond-shaped crystals.

Olivine composes basic and ultrabasic effusive igneous rocks, and is very widespread in the mantle: the mineral is present in kimberlites (diamondiferous rocks), komatiites (ancient high-temperature lavas), and basalts. It is usually created due to the differentiation of magmas, and is one of the first to emerge, being one of the richest minerals on Earth. Olivine can be often found in contact marbles and magnesium skarns, as well as in regional metamorphisms and metasomatic formations associated with intrusions of ultrabasic and alkaline rocks. Under the action of hot aqueous solutions coming from magma chambers, olivine transforms into serpentine or talc. This process, known as serpentization, is very characteristic of olivine-bearing rocks.

Pyroxenes

Pyroxenes is a group of rock-forming minerals of the subclass of chain silicates. They form prismatic crystals with an octagonal cross-section, columnar and radial-radiant aggregates, confluent fibrous and granular masses, or disseminated grains of white to brown and black. However, most pyroxenes are green in various shades. A perfect cleavage along the prism at an angle of 90° for orthopyroxenes, or about 87° for clinopyroxenes, is very characteristic. The mineral has the rate of hardness of 5-6, with density around 3100-3600 kg/m3. Magnesian orthopyroxenes are found in many ultramafic rocks (peridotites, picrites, some pyroxenites), and mafic rocks (norites), as well as various metamorphic rocks of the granulite facies. When it was established that igneous rocks of basic composition are widespread in the Earths crust, it turned out that pyroxenes are one of the main components of these rocks.

Thus, pyroxenes are high-temperature intrusive minerals that are part of igneous and deepest metamorphic rocks, as well as skarns. Spodumene is a characteristic mineral of granite pegmatites, while aegirine and aegirine-augite are alkaline rocks. Pyroxenes are typical chain silicates: their crystal lattice is built of simple single chains of silicon-oxygen tetrahedra, between which cations of metals are located. These crystals have a prismatic appearance  from short-prismatic in diopside to acicular in aegirine, but always with a clear elongation in one direction. This is an extremely characteristic feature of pyroxenes, distinguishing them from similar and equally widespread amphiboles. In cross-section, pyroxene crystals have a rectangular, almost square, or octagonal shape, which also distinguishes them from amphiboles.

The color of pyroxenes is determined mainly by the amount of iron in them. Usually it is dark green to black, but sometimes it lightens up to white or almost colorless such as in diopside or spodumene. Some varieties of spodumene are even colored pink, lilac or green due to impurities of manganese or chrome. The luster of pyroxenes is usually glassy, sometimes pearlescent  in spodumene, for example. During hydrothermal alteration, they are replaced by serpentine, uralite, or an aggregate of epidote and chlorite. When weathered, they decompose into iron hydroxides, opal, and clay minerals.

Vesicular Basalt

Basalt is a kind of volcanic rock formed under the influence of basaltic lavas. According to the chemical mineralogy assessment, vesicular basaltic rock is supposed to be a natural and effusive stone typical of gabbro. This rock is effusive, the main minerals contained in this rock are clinopyroxene and phenocrysts. Some swellings formed in the upper part of the basaltic lavas were created under the influence of the evaporations of gas elements and water. These swellings are a place where some minerals, such as native copper and calcite, might be gathering. These formations of minerals entail the process of amygdaloidal basalt creation. Particular components of vesicular basalt rocks are so tiny that they can be observed with the help of a microscope. Vesicular basalts possess a porphyry structure that enables an observer to view all crystal-line components in them. Visible crystal components embrace porphyry phenocrysts formed from augite or plagioclase.

Very often, vesicular basalt consists of the same minerals, which are glassy magnetite, having a crystocrystallinized porphyry or aphyric structure. Referring to the porphyry variations, small phenocrysts of isometric crystals that are greenish-yellow or olivine are visible due to black pyroxene prisms. The phenocryst size is about several centimeters in length, and it is 20-25% of the rock mass. The vesicular basalt texture and structure might be massive, dense, porous, and amygdaloid. The vesicular basalt currents are detected by the columnar jointing transpiring because of the process of rock cooling. When it comes to marine basalts, they are formed due to the rapid cooling of the lava flow surface merging with water.

Vesicular basalt is the most common effusive rocking matter in the Universe. The basalt bulk is created in mid-ocean ridges and the process of oceanic crust formation. Additionally, vesicular basalts are typical environments full of rifting, active continental margins, and magmatism. During the formation process of crystallized basaltic magma, layered instructions such as the Bushveld and Norilsk are formed. The color scheme of this effusive rock ranges from a dark gray to a greenish-black tone with a glassy structure. As a rule, the color range of basalt is narrow; it is rich in a distinctive black shade. The design of vesicular basalt is considered to be glassy and well-grained.

Scoria

Scoria is an effusive volcanic large-porous loose rock with a spongy structure and dark color, consisting of volcanic slags. Unlike pumice, scoria is formed from more fusible magma, which had a more liquid consistency during the eruption. Scoria cones on the sites of volcanic eruptions can reach 1000m in base diameter, and height up to 260m, with sediment volume up to several million cubic meters. Thus, scoria deposits sometimes occupy tens of square kilometers with a capacity of up to several tens of meters.

In regards to basic structure, scoria is a loose pyroclastic mixture of sand and gravel. Its color varies widely: from purple, red, and orange to yellow, pink, brown, sometimes gray, and black. Scorias fragmented porous structure can reach up to 40% of vesicles rate, due to which it has a low thermal conductivity. Moreover, scoria is largely characterized by the fact that, against the background of a mass with a porous structure, fragments of various sizes, different shapes and different colors are scattered. Thus, it is concluded that the rock is heterogeneous. The specific gravity of scoria reaches 1.4-2.5 g/cm3, with compressive strength up to 60 MPa, and Mohs hardness rate of 3.

More than half of the chemical composition of this rock is formed by silicon oxide and aluminum oxide. In addition, the composition of the scoria includes oxides of iron, magnesium, potassium, sodium, and other chemical elements in minor amounts. It happens because of fact that scoria is created by mixing liquid lava with sand particles and volcanic ash. Physical and mechanical characteristics might fluctuate in relevance with the type of stone. For example, the degree of sintering, depending on which caked and cemented varieties are distinguished, determines the strength parameter.

Light Colored (Felsic/Granitic) Igneous Rocks

Granite

Short Description: coarse-grained (phaneritic), intrusive, light-colored/felsic crystalline igneous rock.

Granite is considered to be an equigranularity and felsic rock that has an intrusive and light-colored structure. Generally speaking, this rock is one of the oldest stone matters on Earth. Granite is famous for its abundant makeup full of sedimentary components covering most of the continents. This rock is formed in primary volcanic arcs, and the production of this rock is the result of the collision and merging of two continental substances or masses. The first-ever continental substances or masses were the outputs of the cumulation of the volcanic arc matters. It predisposes the location of granite in the cores of all-natural grounds. Granite is supposed to be the plutonic substitute for rhyolite.

• Color generally light-colored;
• Texture hard-grained (phaneritic);
• Mineral make-up plagioclase, orthoclase, quartz, small quantities of biotite;
• SiO 2(Silica Content)- approximately 70%.

Obsidian

Short Description: felsic volcanic glass

Obsidian is an igneous rock existing as a natural glass formed during the rapid process of cooling of viscous lava occurring from volcanoes. This rock is abundant with silica (SiO 2), and silica content equals 65 to 80 %. Obsidian chemical make-up and composition can be compared to rhyolite, as they have similar components in their make-ups. Obsidian lacks water in its chemical composition, but it possesses a glassy shining. However, the obsidian color tone is characteristically jet-black. Iron oxide (hematite) is the primary component of the obsidian component, and it creates brown and red color variations. Small gas bulbs that are included in the obsidian contest might produce a golden luster. As to its water inclusion, it consists of only 1 % of water. The surface eruption, where pressure is not so high, prohibits the volatile water from fading away, and this process stimulates the increase of the melt viscosity. The increased level of density hinders the process of crystallization, as the lava hardens as a glass.

Pumice

Short Description: glassy, felsic, igneous rock  frothy  75-90% vesicles/ frozen bubbles

Pumice is a kind of volcanic rock primarily consisting of vesicular glass with a rough texture. This texture might be comprised of crystals, but also it might lack crystals. Typically, it is light-colored and has thin vesicle walls. Pumice is formed under the influence of the ejection of highly pressurized and superheated rocks from volcanoes. The foamy pumice format transpires due to rapid depressurization and cooling at the same time. The depressurization forms bulbs via declining gas solubility (embracing CO2 and water). These gases are disintegrated in the heat temperatures of lava, which makes these gases bar the regulating of gases. This process can be compared to the appearance of CO2 bubbles predisposed by an available carbonated drink. In the matrix, the bubbles are frozen through simultaneous depressurization and cooling. Tiny crystals of several minor minerals might be observed in most pumices; the most major are augite, zircon, feldspar, hornblende.

Silicate Minerals

Labradorite

Short description: (CaNa)Al1-2Si3-2O8, with Na 30%-50%, Ca 70%-50%}  a sodium-rich plagioclase feldspar series  coarse-grained (phaneritic), intrusive, igneous rock; famous for the labradorescence (prismatic sheen) on the polished surfaces.

Labradorite is considered to be a significant mineral of feldspar matter. Feldspar rocks consist of about 40% of the mainland crust of the Earth in terms of evaluating the weight of feldspar rocks. The labradorescence issue in their make-ups can characterize labradorite rocks. It stimulates the creations of these stone shapes: tubular and thin. As to the color range, these stones have several tones, such as blue, green, grey, yellow, and sometimes brown. The crystals of these rocks have a serene pearly luster that creates the schiller effect. The gravity of this stone equals approximately 3%; it is a hard stone. In accordance with the Mohs of hardness, its hardness rates 8.

Mica

Short Description: coarse grained igneous or metamorphic rocks (AB2-3(X, Si)4 O10(O, F, OH)2) (mica series includes biotite (gold-brown), muscovite (white), lepidolite (purple), phlogopite (green).

Biotite, muscovite is commonly black and abundant with phlogopite (black-colored) and paragonite. Paragonite is an element that can hardly be observed macroscopically, as it is invisible. The most significant characteristic of mica is that its crystal structure can be easily split into elastic slides(plates). This rock is characterized by perfect basal cleavage. The rock solidity is the medium level as it can be easily disintegrated. In accordance with the Mohs of hardness, its hardness rates 6.

Milky Quartz

Short descriptions: SiO2, milky quartz (white, translucent to opaque).

Quartz is a hard and crystallized mineral consisting of silicon dioxide (silica). Behind feldspar, milky quartz is the second abundant mineral in the mainland crust on Earth. Milky quartz is chiral structured and exists in two variations: the high-temperatures and the regular quartz. Milky quartz is a semi-precious gemstone. In accordance with the Mohs of hardness, its hardness rates 7.

Mitosis and Meiosis

Mitosis

Mitosis is the process of cell reproduction or duplication while one cell stimulates the rise and development of two identical daughter cells. In this process, diploid somatic cells are produced as the result of replication of nuDNA and chromosome distribution; these structures have the genetic information of a cell. The divided cells that carry the data are the result of the merging of centromere and chromatids. As a rule, mitosis is characterized by the interphase of the S stage that is preceded by cytokinesis and prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

Meiosis

Meiosis is a kind of cell division of sexually reproducing microorganisms liable for haploid gametes production (egg cells and sperm). It is a case of two circles of cell division of parental cell copies that have homologous chromosomes in their make-ups (the process called synapsis). To form a new code, combinations of maternal and paternal copies of chromosomes cross over with each other. While fertilization, the haploid cells start to create diploid zygotes. In this kind of cell division, nuDNA replication is followed by two circles of cell division. Meiosis can have two subtypes, Meiosis 1 and Meiosis 2, that can be divided into Prophase 1, Metaphase 1, Anaphase 1, Telophase 1, and cytokinesis for Meiosis 1. The same components (Prophase 2, Metaphase 2, Anaphase 2, and Telophase 2 and cytokinesis) are typical of Meiosis 2.

DNA Replication

DNA replication is the process when DNA molecules(double-stranded) are divided to create or produce two similar DNA molecules. DNA replication is supposed to be the most typical basis transpiring within cells. Every time a cell is split or divided; two daughter cells produced via its division possess DNA (the genetic information). The genetic information daughter cells carry is the same as parental cells have. DNA replication transpires in three significant steps. At the beginning of cell division, the DNA separation and the double helix strand are produced. After it, the separation starts, and DNA polymerase (enzyme) stimulates the production of the new DNA strands. Two steps characterize the beginning of DNA replication. The first step occurs when protein dismantles a short DNA double helix stretch (short sequences of DNA nucleotides are called Okazaki fragments). Then this protein (helicase) starts to affix to and disintegrates to create RNA primers. While the helicase moves toward the DNA molecule, it starts to split the two nucleotide chains. The nucleotides forming new strands are attached to partner nucleotides in the sample strand.

This biological phenomenon is called complementary base pairing, entailing the formation of the DNA complementary strands. Pairing structure is the basis of a nucleotide sequence located in the current sample strand attached to a new sequence called an anti-sequence of the recent sample strand. Further, after the new strand is replicated itself, its new strand will embrace the typical sequence of the current sample strand (LCR- ligase chain reaction). In this case, the DNA replication occurs in several sequence series and anti-sequence series that copy and duplicate the original DNA codes. Polymerases of DNA duplication lead DNA to the 5 and 3 direction, where the DNA helix is antiparallel.

DNA and Protein Synthesis

Protein synthesis occurs in cells of every living being; this process embraces two significant functions, such as translation and transcription. Transcription occurs in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. During this transcription, DNA is some sample or template to modify a molecule as a messenger RNA and nuDNA (mRNA). The mRNA molecule stimulates the translation process when it moves to a ribosome. The biological scheme of protein production and its code is DNA ’ RNA ’ Protein.

The translation is the other significant part of the prot

Introduction

Child sexual abuse (CSA), which is common in sub-Saharan Africa, infringes on childrens rights and dignity. It entails the sexual exploitation of underage boys and girls for commercial gains. CSA has been attributed to four causal factors: poverty, poor living conditions, migration, and economic and social insecurity (Kistner, Fox & Parker, 2004, p. 6).

Moreover, child welfare programs are inadequate in sub-Saharan Africa, which makes children vulnerable to sexual exploitation and the impacts of HIV/AIDS infection. Globally, South Africa is ranked among countries with the highest cases of child sexual abuse and rape. Kistner, Fox, and Parker (2004) divide the CSA risk factors into two groups: (1) causes related to inadequate child health care programs and (2) those associated with children vulnerability to sexual abuse.

Child vulnerability entails those factors that make children prone to CSA perpetrators, i.e., individuals who seek sexual gratification from children. Many of the perpetrators have diagnosable psychological disorders. Nevertheless, other factors besides the criminal psychopathologies of the perpetrators can explain the high CSA cases in sub-Saharan African countries such as South Africa.

In South Africa, child sexual abuse has been associated with a number of factors, including socioeconomic problems (extreme poverty), the disintegration of the family unit, single parenthood, inadequate and erratic primary care, and foster childcare.

In particular, the apartheid practices created social and economic disparities between the different races, disrupted families due to labour migration, and centralised migrant workers into dormitory townships (Kistner, Fox & Parker 2004, p. 11). Some of these practices still exist in South Africa. Currently, flourishing informal settlements in major cities such as Cape Town have robbed families of social cohesion that is characteristic of African families.

This has resulted in fragmented or unregulated child welfare plans, which exposes children to sexual abuse and HIV/AIDS. Young children have to migrate from their rural homes to the informal settlements where their parents reside. This makes children insecure and vulnerable to abuse due to unstable child care plans.

HIV/AIDS is one of the effects of sexual abuse of children. In particular, the vulnerability of orphaned children places them at a greater risk of contracting HIV because of unstable child care plans. Adopted children or those under foster care are also prone to maltreatment and sexual abuse.

Moreover, children who lack parental of foster care end up in city streets where they may engage in prostitution, which exposes them to the risk of contracting HIV/AIDS. Child prostitution, as in other poor countries, is rife in South Africa and it involves young girls. The girls come from economically poor families or neighbourhoods.

Any sexual act involving underage children (below 18 years) amounts to abuse because it does not involve consent. Children, unlike adults, are not considered able to make informed decisions. Therefore, child sexual abuse is considered an abuse of power, as the adult and the child have differential levels of knowledge, age, and gratification (Kistner, Fox & Parker 2004, p. 9).

It has been found that child rape is largely motivated by power and dominance, not sexual gratification (Kistner, Fox & Parker 2004). In this regard, child sexual abuse is a form of violence against young children by adults.

This essay analyses CSA in South Africa in relation to the disempowerment of children in socioeconomic and psychological terms, which makes children vulnerable to HIV/AIDS infection. In particular, the paper examines the relationships between CSA, child vulnerability, and HIV transmission. This three-dimensional approach differs from the psychopathological perspective commonly employed in similar analyses. The psychopathological approach is grounded on the evaluation of the abusers psychological status to explain his or her actions.

In this paper, the psychological and sociological factors that underlie child sexual abuse will be examined in the context of disempowerment. This will allow a detailed analysis of the specific relationship factors that predispose children to sexual abuse.

It will examine how the failure to meet childrens needs within a familial context increases the risk of child prostitution, which leads to high HIV/AIDS transmission incidences. The paper will also explore how traumatic experiences endured by child victims of sexual abuse affects their ability to form trusting relationships later in life.

Review of Evidence

Definition of Childhood and Child Sexual Abuse

Child sexual abuse describes the participation of minors in sexual acts, which they do not understand, agree to, or ready to engage in. In most countries, a child or a minor is a person who has not attained the age of 18. This age is the legal age that most countries use to describe a person who has the capacity to make informed decisions or give consent to sexual acts in which he or she is involved. This age limit is meant to protect children from exploitation and thus, sexual intercourse involving a minor is illegal in most countries.

In South Africa, child protection laws are rather weak. For instance, a minor, aged 14 years, can give consent to terminate a pregnancy with no parental involvement (Kistner, Fox & Parker 2004, p. 13). Moreover, the South African child protection policy illegalises rape and sexual exploitation involving children under the age of 16. The Sexual Offenses Bill further illegalises sexual intercourse involving a minor (below 16 years) and a person who exceeds him or her by three years or more (Kistner, Fox & Parker 2004).

This law applies to all instances regardless of whether consent was given or not. Thus, in South Africa, the legal age, which a person can engage in sexual acts, is 16 years (Kistner, Fox & Parker 2004). Childhood is defined as the age characterised by rapid growth and development in a persons life (Kistner, Fox & Parker 2004, p. 18). This period is also marked with heavy parental dependence for basic needs, including clothing, food, and shelter, as well as for emotional support.

Thus, childhood is essentially the age in life where a person (minor) undergoes rapid growth, develops psychologically, intellectually, emotionally, and socially to become an adult. The growth and development are highly influenced by the social and economic contexts in which a minor is living. Thus, social and economic factors of the households influence a childs growth and development, as well as his or her psychological wellbeing in adulthood.

Therefore, CSA can be described as the sexual violence meted against children by someone who wields more power than they do (Kistner, Fox & Parker 2004). The children in this case are considered vulnerable since they lack the capacity to object to sexual advances made by a person of high authority. Thus, CSA involves a misuse of power by an adult for his or her own sexual gratification. From a psychological viewpoint, CSA is a form of social control over children.

As aforementioned, in South Africa, the statutory law requires that no adult should engage in sexual acts with a minor (below 16 years), nor should the age difference exceed three years (Kistner, Fox & Parker 2004, p. 21). The recommended age difference is grounded on social power and control dynamics. In the South African context, it is considered rape to engage in sexual intercourse with a minor who is three years your junior, regardless of whether consent was given or not.

From a psychological perspective, the reason for committing sexual violence against young children is the desire to exercise dominance and power over them. In this regard, social dominance makes children vulnerable and exposes them to the effects of sexual intercourse, including HIV/AIDS. Thus, CSA can be defined as the inducement of sexual activity in children for the gratification of individuals who are in powerful positions (Kistner, Fox & Parker 2004, p. 25).

It includes acts such as:

1. masturbation involving a minor and an adult;
2. sexual acts that do not involve penetration;
3. touching of a childs genitalia;
4. sexual advances or threats;
5. child pornography;
6. child prostitution, among others.

Sexual coercion and incest are also considered forms of child abuse. Forced marriages, abortion, contraception, rape, and genital viewing or contact also amount to sexual abuse.

In most cases, the perpetrators of CSA are people close to the child, such as a relative, foster parents, or family member and friends. It may go unnoticed for a long time exposing the child to the trauma and sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Chronic sexual abuse may leave the child with psychological and emotional wounds, which may lead to psychological disorders like posttraumatic stress disorder or PSTD later in life. Moreover, it may be difficult to detect child abuse if the perpetrator is a family member of a person close to the child.

It is important to note that both young boys and girls are at risk of sexual abuse. Often, victims of CSA are believed to be young girls with adult males considered the perpetrators (Kistner, Fox & Parker 2004, p. 22). However, research evidence shows that male children are also at risk of sexual abuse. This underscores the fact that all children are vulnerable to the CSA, which increases their risk of contracting HIV/AIDS.

Child Sexual Abuse: a Historical Perspective

Child sexual abuse is a product of the interactions between the state, social agencies/institutions, and the individual (Kistner, Fox & Parker 2004, p. 27). It is a product of the social problems, which, historically, have been attributed to inadequate social protection policies.

Kistner, Fox, and Parker (2004) attribute the social problems to moral panic that engulfs a society rendering it unable to address emergent issues. They define moral panic as the stereotypical representations, which form the basis of sustained social regulation (Kistner, Fox & Parker 2004, p. 33). Social regulation entails the treatment of a deviant act in a way that reflects the needs and interests of the public.

Moral panics are constructs of the media, which tend to refocus our attention to or away from the problems affecting the society. In this regard, an adult who perpetrates child sexual abuse is labelled as a person with deviant behaviour, a paedophile, or a pervert who threatens the moral fabric of the society (Kistner, Fox & Parker 2004). In social terms, such persons are considered outsiders who should be removed from the society.

This shows child sexual abuse is culture specific. Child sexual abuse is a relatively new phenomenon, which emerged in the 1960s. Before this period, child abuse was considered a form of cruelty to children (Kistner, Fox & Parker 2004, p. 36). Historically, this vice was prevalent among the lower middle-class citizens. It was considered a threat to national stability because abused children often exhibited criminal tendencies later in life.

However, in the 1960s, child abuse was identified as a widespread social problem requiring urgent psychosocial interventions. This new approach was accompanied by a rise in juvenile delinquency and deaths. As a result, paediatricians investigated child abuse incidences in Denver. They concluded that a battered child is likely to perpetrate violence against minors as an adult.

However, in the 1990s, researchers found no correlation between an abused child and child violence perpetration. It is important to note that before 1970s, child abuse did not encompass acts of sexual violence; instead, it denoted any form of bodily harm inflicted on a child. It was in the late 1970s that a broad definition, which included sexual violence, was included. In particular, in Britain and the US, the traditional meaning of child abuse was expanded in the 1990s to include vulnerability.

It was noted that income poverty exacerbates vulnerability to sexual abuse. Moreover, lack of primary care services predisposed children to sexual abuse. In this regard, a nation with inadequate social welfare programs for children was found to have high child abuse incidents. Disintegration of families due to rural-urban migration has also been associated with immorality among adults, which exposed children to early sex.

CSA in South Africa

CSA in South Africa can be explained in the contexts of models, media depictions of abuse, and the effectiveness of the interventions. It was not until the 1980s that South Africa identified child sexual abuse as an infringement upon childrens rights and dignity. Subsequently, policies were adopted to protect the children against sexual exploitation and violence. Before then, CSA was rare and the perpetrators were people with psychiatric problems.

In 1984, a statutory body, the South African Society for the Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect was founded with the sole mandate of protecting children against acts of violence and sexual abuse. In 1987, the issue of CSA took centre stage in South African politics following a media revelation that child abuse increases the risk of HIV/AIDS transmission among minors. Consequently, Child Protection Units were formed in poor neighbourhoods in cities such as Pretoria, Johannesburg, and Cape Town (Kistner, Fox & Parker 2004).

However, due to the political upheavals of 1980s, many minors were unlawfully detained for security reasons. At the time, the detention of children was not considered unlawful. Nevertheless, the media began a spirited campaign to secure the release of children under detention claiming that they were being abused sexually. To improve the public image of the police, the government raided various detention centres to investigate the allegations of child pornography.

The intention was to protect the society from such vices, as it was believed that abused children would turn to be perpetrators of the same crime in adulthood. As the apartheid era neared its end, the belief that children were the victims of abuse shifted to minors as the sexual violence victims. HIV/AIDS has been linked to the rise in cases of child sexual violence.

In some studies, the spread of the disease has been associated with traditional myths whereby black South Africans rape young children in a bid to cleanse themselves of HIV. Moreover, adolescents engage in risky sexual behaviours because the society portrays them as hypersexual, which, according to Kistner, Fox, and Parker (2004), is one of the leading causes of the HIV/AIDS epidemic in South Africa.

Vulnerability among South African Children

The causes of vulnerability (among children) to sexual abuse are many. In most countries, including South Africa, a child is considered vulnerable to abuse. South Africans Department of Social Development considers children who are sick, orphaned, or abandoned as prone to acts of sexual violence by adults (Kistner, Fox & Parker 2004, p. 31). In particular, child-headed homes or street settlements expose children to substance abuse and trafficking, and other related vices such as teenage sex.

In a bid to make a living, they engage in child labour or prostitution in the city streets. Research has found that children of a single mother are more prone to teenage sex, as the adult parent cannot raise enough income to provide for them. Children under foster parenthood are also vulnerable to maltreatment and sexual exploitation because in such households primary care is often inadequate.

Abused children are at risk of contracting sexually transmitted infections (STIs), including HIV. Those affected or infected by the disease are disadvantaged with regard to education, primary health care, nutrition, growth and development, and shelter (Kistner, Fox & Parker 2004, p. 31). The children also suffer from grief and stress following the loss of a parent. They are at a greater risk of developing psychosocial disorders, which will prevent them from leading a normal life in adulthood.

As aforementioned, children who are orphans, disabled, destitute, and under foster care are vulnerable to CSA and HIV/AIDS infections. Orphans are children who have lost a mother, as the primary caregiver (Kistner, Fox & Parker 2004). Often, the loss of a mother has significant emotional and psychological effects. In contrast, the death of a father has significant economic impacts on the family unit.

In South Africa, unlike other developed nations, orphaned children (those whose parent has died from AIDS-related complications) are not beneficiaries of the Child Support Grant. This leaves them vulnerable to exploitation because of lack of child support. The death of a parent(s) leaves the orphans under the care of relatives. In South Africa, the enumeration of orphans during national census is often poor because they are considered members of the extended family.

Kistner, Fox, and Parker (2004) outline four factors that contribute to the inaccurate enumeration of orphaned children nationally. First, social stigma associated with foster care makes their enumeration impossible since they are often moved to distant households for care. Second, some children become parents before attaining the legal age of 18 and thus, do not qualify as orphans. Third, over-enumeration can also arise when households headed by a single mother give incorrect information in the hope of getting state assistance.

Fourth, under-enumeration can also arise when an orphan is defined as a child who has lost a mother, not a father. Kistner, Fox, and Parker (2004) estimate that underestimation of South Africas orphans ranges between 40 and 70 percent. In South Africa, single-parent families are many.

This has been attributed to a range of factors, including teenage pregnancy, low rates of marriage, and absent parents due to labour migration (Kistner, Fox & Parker 2004, p. 37). In this view, by focusing on single-parenthood alone may not give a true picture of the number of orphan children in South Africa.

Besides orphans, children are vulnerable to HIV/AIDS infection when they assume the responsibility of caring for a parent, who may be infected. The illness or death of a parent, as the breadwinner of the family, may affect the childrens education, as they are forced to drop out due to non-payment of fees. Moreover, researchers establish a positive correlation between disability among children and vulnerability (Kistner, Fox & Parker 2004).

Thus, disability and the death of a parent affect social cohesion, which makes young children, especially girls, vulnerable to sexual abuse. On the other hand, boys are prone to abuse as child labourers, which affect their psychological and social wellbeing.

They suffer from stigma, stress, anxiety, and loneliness, which hamper their growth and development. It is important to note that, unlike in the past where the extended family system was the norm, current households tend to be nuclear due to economic constraints. Thus, often, the needs of orphaned children go unfulfilled, which places them at a greater risk of abuse.

Disabled children constitute the other category of minors prone to abuse. They can be abused sexually, emotionally, or physically because of their complex care needs and overreliance on others for support. The Department of Welfare reports that up to 12% of the citizens in South Africa have at least one form of disability (Kistner, Fox & Parker 2004).

This proportion of the population is vulnerable to violence due to high poverty rates and overdependence on others. Normal persons perpetrate the abuse because the disabled rely on them for care and support.

In this regard, disabled people, and especially children, are vulnerable to abuse because they cannot defend themselves or object to sexual advances made by their primary caregiver. In 1998, about 60 percent of South African children were from poor families (Kistner, Fox & Parker 2004). In provinces, such as the Free State and Eastern Cape, the proportion of minors living in poverty was over 70 percent.

The large proportion of poor children in these provinces is attributable to HIV/AIDS pandemic. Infected parents die, leaving the children with no support or care. It is estimated that about 13% of children between the ages of two and fourteen belong to a single parent household or are orphaned (Kistner, Fox & Parker 2004, p. 41).

In cases where both parents have died, children (below 18 years) take up the responsibility of caring for their younger siblings. It is estimated that South Africa has approximately 885,000 orphans aged 18 years and below with a majority of them (38%) being left alone after the death of both parents due to HIV related complications.

The records about sexual abuse of South Africans children are scanty because most cases go unreported. Children fail to report cases of molestation to the authorities because the abuser is often a relative. Besides, even if the cases are reported, the police may not investigate it further for fear of subjecting the victim to trauma.

It is believed that child abuse has been on the rise since 1998 where 5,500 cases of sexual abuse were reported (Kistner, Fox & Parker 2004, p. 44). In 2000, 8,044 cases were reported (Kistner, Fox & Parker 2004). The increase in the number of cases reported is attributable to enhanced awareness regarding the vice, education, and expansion in child welfare programs.

Due to enhanced awareness, more cases of CSA are reported monthly in most communities. Social welfare organisations record high cases of child rape and sexual abuse. Baby rape has also been on the rise in rural areas such as Mpumalanga, where at least one case is reported after every two months.

Increased media coverage of cases of child rape has enhanced public awareness and contributed to improvements in reporting of such incidents. More black females (28%) than males (17%) in South Africans report that they engage in sex against their will, which indicates that males often perpetrate CSA.

CSA Reporting in South Africa

Often, CSA cases go unreported because the perpetrator is relative or a person close to the minor. Thus, a child victim may not report sexual abuse because the experience may be scary and traumatic. Furthermore, some children may not understand that they have been sexually abused and thus, may fail to report it. Threats from the perpetrators also make the child not to disclose sexual abuse meted on him/her. They are told to keep the sexual abuse secret lest they are physically harmed.

Moreover, the perpetrators use gifts to lure the children into engaging in sexual acts with them. The child may feel that he/she consented to sex by accepting the perpetrators presents. When the child reports cases of abuse, not many people believe him or her, which promotes repeated CSA. The child may also feel that by revealing sexual abuse he or she may be rejected by the family members. In this regard, if the abuse involves a family member, as the perpetrator, the child may be pressured not to reveal CSA to the authorities.

Kistner, Fox, and Parker (2004) identify sexual abuse risk factors as poor mother-child relationship and overdependence on the perpetrator for care and support. Such children are prone to sexual abuse and emotional maltreatment. Most CSA victims identify teachers, family member, and friends as the perpetrators of the vice. Although cases of sexual abuse are high, few children inform the authorities. Most individuals deny being victims of abuse or retract earlier reports of abuse.

This makes it difficult to keep correct records of CSA in South Africa. The authors identify two ways that children disclose CSA: intentional and unintentional. Most cases of sexual abuse are identified unintentionally when the child complains of health problems that require medical attention. A healthcare professional can also check for physical injuries, which indicate child abuse.

CSA can also be identified unintentionally through sexualised behaviour exhibited by the child (Kistner, Fox & Parker 2004, p. 43). The offender may also confess to others about his or her actions.

In Alexandra, a small urban centre in South Africa, the number of children infected with STIs was found to be high. In this case, unintentional disclosure (STIs) indicated rampant child sexual abuse in this township despite many cases being unreported. Learning, child welfare, and religious institutions can encourage children to report cases of abuse or seek medical treatment when sexually molested. Family support is essential in allowing the child to cope with the CSA experience.

The interaction between the child and family, peers, and teachers at school determines his/her ability to cope with the trauma associated with CSA. If the child does not interact freely with the others, he/she may not get social care or medical treatment. On the other hand, the lack of social and legal services and medical care can hamper the childs recuperation from CSA.

Kistner, Fox, and Parker (2004) outline five reasons why most CSA cases in South Africa are not reported. First, the criminal justice system in upcountry areas does not provide mechanisms for confidential reporting. Thus, child victims may fear reprisals from perpetrators. Second, CSA often involves family members who may prevent the child from reporting to the authorities. Instead of pursuing legal recourse, CSA cases are resolved through consensus within the family unit.

Third, since children depend on parents or family members for care and financial support, they feel that feel obligated to protect the perpetrators from legal action. Fourth, in most cases, the perpetrators pay money to the victims family as a compensation for the abuse committed and thus, no legal action is pursued. Fifth, sometimes the child may feel that he/she contributed to the abuse and as a result, fail to disclose it.

Underreporting of CSA cases is also attributable to the inadequate criminal justice system. Often, the police have been blamed for being insensitive to the child victims. Victimisation of abuse victims also deters them from reporting rape cases to the law enforcement officers. They are subjected to verbal abuse, intimidation, and other acts of aggression when reporting such cases. Children are also reluctant to inform the police because the case may not have sufficient evidence that can lead to the prosecution of the offender.

In 2000, about 45% of CSA cases were brought to the attention of the police with over 40% of them being drawn because they did not meet certain evidential threshold (Kistner, Fox & Parker 2004). The common argument advanced by perpetrators is that minors have poor memory and thus, can give incorrect information regarding the assault. Nevertheless, research evidence indicates that the minors memory is reliable and thus, the information given by a child is truthful (Kistner, Fox & Parker 2004).

CSA Risk Factors

Several factors predispose a child to sexual abuse. The authors divide the risk factors into two groups: availability of quality care and child support factors. Income poverty due to unemployment makes children vulnerable to sexual abuse. Violence within the home creates conditions that do not favour CSA reporting and thus, a risk factor for sexual abuse. Another risk factor is family breakdowns, which deprive children of social and emotional support.

Substance abuse involving a parent can also make children vulnerable to sexual exploitation and abuse. In most rural communities, child welfare and protection programs are lacking. In this regard, the children cannot report cases of sexual abuse since the reporting channels are absent. Cultural customs that do not protect the rights of women and children is another CSA risk factor. Other risk factors include limited economic, educational, and social opportunities for children and women, and absence of parental support.

CSA is common among children who are from single parent households, lack primary care services, and live in foster homes. In particular, orphans whose parents have died from HIV/AIDS are highly vulnerable to abuse. The WHO outlines the criteria for evaluating the risk of CSA. The robustness of a countrys criminal justice system, the cultural norms that define interpersonal relationships and the poverty levels are some of the predictors of the level of CSA in a given place.

Other predictors include political instability, the presence of organised criminal gangs, and lack of child support systems. Most sexual violence victims belong to the lower middle class because they lack primary support services. Overall, in South Africa, CSA transcends racial, economic, and social lines.

CSA offenders exhibit certain behaviours that set them apart from the other members of the society. They are often protective and strongly attached to the child (Kistner, Fox & Parker 2004, p. 53). They also tend to be drug addicts and are sexually suggestive to the child. Victims of child abuse often become the perpetrators in adulthood. In other words, most CSA perpetrators experienced sexual molestation during their childhood. Nevertheless, not all offenders were victims of CSA during their childhood.

Some just witnessed sexual abuse being perpetrated on other children. In South Africa, over 60 percent of CSA offenders are family members, teachers, or friends (p. 56). With regard to family members, fathers, stepfathers, brothers, and other males known to the child are the leading abusers. Abuse by family members is often repeated for a long time, as the child victim may be afraid to report the abuse.

Often, the abuser is the breadwinner of the family and thus, child victims may find it difficult to report him or her. Prolonged abuse of a child by a family member increases the risk of contracting HIV and other STIs. Teachers can also perpetrate child abuse. Teachers exercise power and control over children in schools. Parental control in schools is minimal or absent. Teachers can access the childrens dormitories and thus, students are vulnerable to abuse.

Teachers can also seek sexual favours from underperforming students to give them better grades. In some schools, sexual abuse incidents are not reported because of most principals reluctance to address such cases. Instead, they refer abuse victims to police stations. Cover-ups are also common when the perpetrator is a teacher, which means that less cases of abuse can be pursued at the school level.

The South African Council for Educators (SACE), a non-governmental organisation involved in child welfare, reports students engaged in a sexual relationship with their teachers are at a high risk of contracting HIV (Kistner, Fox & Parker 2004). The agency further reports that teachers in rural areas are at a greater risk of contracting the disease, as their income levels are relatively high.

Besides teachers, other students in a school can also perpetrate child sexual abuse. In 2001, about 43 percent of CSA offenders in Durban were children below the age of 18 (Kistner, Fox & Parker 2004). In schools, children are vulnerable to rape and sexual assault by classmates. Teenage dating can also lead to sexual abuse, especially when one of the partners is not ready for sexual intercourse. Often, boys harass girls sexually in hostels, hallways, or classrooms.

The absence of elaborate systems to monitor harassment cases result in underreporting of assault cases. CSA

Introduction

While there are various schools of thought regarding codependency, the general consensus is that a codependent person is one who perpetuates dependence of another person on the abuse of a chemical substance such as narcotic drugs or alcohol [WHO]; and thus standing on the way of recovery of this person from this addiction (ARB, 2007).

The codependent person lengthens the period of addiction of the person through the mechanism of enabling; this is through either making excuses for the behavior of the person, by cushioning these people from experiencing the consequences of their behavior or through direct control of the addicted person. This situation has potential for physical, psychological and social ill-effects for both the dependent and the codependent parties.

Contrary to chemical dependency, that only affects only the addicted party in regards to health and social harm, codependency causes harm to both the parties in the relationship; as such, this is a very serious condition.

Codependency has been characterized into a set of behavior that can point to a situation standing in the way of recovery of an addicted person; such include having an attitude of absolute control over the life of the dependent party, a sense of distrust by the codependent party over interaction that the addicted person may be having with other people; and thus hyper-vigilance and fussing over the needs of the person. The codependent party is usually permanently worried over the welfare of the addicted person; and may, with time develop physical illness caused by stress; such include hypertension, ulcers and heart disease (Rice, 1996).

In addition to this, the codependent party is more often that not diagnosed with clinical depression; this is attributed to the sentiment of frustration at their inability to change the person and end the addiction; combined with love for the person (Wiseman, 1991). The codependent party also frequently changes their mind, line of thought or opinion to conform to that of the dependent person; especially in regards to the reasons of their dependency, and their ability to end it; in a manner of speaking, the person takes to accepting the excuses of the addicted person as truth despite their common sense and consistence telling them otherwise; for example, in a marriage where the husband is an alcoholic, the wife may take to saying that the husband is ill in periods where he has hung-over from an episode of drunkenness. This also applies to the feeling of shame over the conduct of the person; and the inclination to make excuses for the conduct of such.

In such a family setup, such a codependent person will have managed to diffuse the tension created by an event in the short-term; whoever, as the dependent party will engage in such activity in the future, the long-term outlook is not favorable as the situation is only bound to get worse; this is because the dependent party will only be encouraging (thus enabling) the dependent party to remain in addiction.

In a relationship where one party enables the dependence of another, the enabler may resist the recovery of the dependent person from the addiction as it threatens his/her position as stable and responsible partner in the union, and may unconsciously stand in the way of the recovery of such.

Codependence is a treatable condition; the first step however for successful resolution of the condition involves the person recognizing that they have the condition, accepting it and seeking help to resolve it. Treatment involves seeking psychotherapy which may be individual, group or both. In addition to this, the person may receive chemical therapy for treatment of physical and psychological illness that has been caused and accompanies the codependence.

It is prudent to mention that codependence is not synonymous with care giving. A close relative to a person with a chemical addiction will most definitely be inclined to give care to such a person during the period where the effects of chemical abuse are severe; or when the after-effects cause physical incapacitation. This should not be classified immediately as pathology. As such, a caregiver may not require the rigorous treatment indicated for a codependent person; and the less comprehensive assertiveness training may be sufficient to set the stage for the recovery; such would enable the caregiver to let the addict take more responsibility and manage (and end) their dependency (Affleck et al, 1987; Moos, Finney & Cronkite, 1990).

In situations that are not categorized as being pathological, codependency has been shown as resulting in favorable outcomes in a family setup (Layne et al, 1998); as such, some schools of thought do not view codependency as a pathological condition; and as such, does not require formal therapy. On the contrary, this school views the condition as a favorable personal character whose extent goes too far in a situation of chemical addiction. Such example is that where a person survives a tragedy or life threatening condition; and gains a positive personality change or experience changes in priorities; additionally, other persons caring for such survivors experience a similar effect (Affleck, Tennen & Rowe, 1991). The initial classification of codependence as a disease has resulted in the language surrounding it suggesting a patho-physiology; this has not been substantiated. As such, several users of the concept opt to discuss it as a family dysfunction rather that a medical condition.

Since its recognition as an important concept to the recovery, the subject of codependency has generated a large volume of both scientific and lay work; additionally, many programs have been developed as supports for others aimed at treating recovery. The benefits of joining these programs as a solution for codependency and as advertised by the providers or facilitators are yet to be documented by empirical scientific studies. Such claims are based on fashion or faith (Gordon and Barrett, 1993; Kaminer, 1992).

On the other hand, enabling has dual definition depending on the situation [Elinewberger.com]. There are many situations where enabling is a positive attribute both for a single family unit and the society at large. In the situation of chemical dependency and codependency, enabling has the effect of perpetuation the problem even further [Elinewberger.com, ARB, 2008]. As such in this situation, the enabler takes undue responsibility and/or blame; and makes excused and/or accommodations for the unfavorable conduct of the other person. It is important to note that in the part of the enabler, no malice is intended; and indeed that the enabler wishes to help the dependent person and attempts to do it how they know best; other motivations for codependency are insecurity or fear.

The codependent party usually has the misconception that some of their actions are for the benefit of the dependent one; for in the example of the alcoholic husband and the codependent wife, the latter might take some measures such as calling in sick for the drunken husband at work. As such, she will have shielded her husband from the repercussions of not attending work without a good reason. Additionally, she might make the habit of giving excuses for some of the behaviors that her husband is engaging in such as offending people or assaulting them during one of the drunken stupors. As such, the wife will have prevented the husband from taking responsibility for these actions; and she will be, in a manner of speaking, cleaning up the mess in his wake. The consequence of this is that the enabled person will not develop psychologically; the person will not view his/her condition as affecting other people and will not take responsibility for his/her addiction (and life). In addition, the psychology of the enabler will also be negatively affected and will eventually develop into pathological codependency.

More often that not, the enabler has weak personal boundaries thus allowing other people, and particularly the enabled person to infringe and take advantage of this albeit unconsciously, to perpetuate the dependency. The enabler also usually has low self esteem and has serious problems with being assertive when interacting with other people in the social unit.

Enabling usually has a subtle beginning with both parties responding to each other during their interaction; with time such develops to levels that require professional intervention to remedy. For example, in the first instance, a child may demand to eat ice-cream for breakfast; the initial natural reaction by the parent would be to deny this request. The child goes ahead to throw a tantrum- the parent has two choices, either to maintain the earlier decision or to give in to the antics of the child; if the parent unfortunately makes the latter choice; s/he has set the stage for development of enabling. This is because the child will have learnt that by throwing a tantrum, s/he can manipulate others to give in to all of his/her demands. This will also have effects of missing the opportunity for the child to learn delayed gratification; and will have less respect of authority of any form. Additionally, the child will have learnt the skill of effectively breaching the personal boundaries of other people s/he interacts with.

While the parent will have achieved a short term goal, that is, getting the child to calm down, the long-term effects of this enabling will be undesirable. As such, the feeling of satisfaction that the enabler gets is not worth the future trouble that the situation will precipitate. Alternatively, avoiding enabling a dependent person will result in some difficulty; however, such a person will have gained an opportunity to develop further psychologically and hopefully to pull themselves out of their harmful dependency.

Society and codependences

In todays society, there are numerous opportunities for the development and perpetuation of codependent relationships as many practices result in development of social values that eventually result in a dependency. Some of them include

Materialism; many of todays practices and beliefs emphasis on ownership of materials things; and individual worth is measured by how much one has accumulated these things. As such, a person comes to believe that they are valuable because of how much money they have rather than who they are. When faced with a problem that money cannot solve, the person may degenerate into a relationship that is potentially harmful.

Perfection; today, perfection is seen as a situation which one can achieve if they tried hard enough; these include the family, physical appearance, academics and profession. The truth of the matter is that one can never be perfect; indeed, while one can excel in one area, this is usually at the expense of another. As such, such a person, who is bound to fail in the quest for perfection, has difficulty accepting (them)-self, resulting into a codependent relationship.

Separation of emotions and rational thought; todays society emphasizes on thinking rather that feeling; and many scenarios are descried as if these two processes are independent; and as if the former is superior to the latter. As such, it is easier for a codependent person to deny their emotions since they perceive them as not being important; and they try to rationalized issues even though their feelings tell then otherwise.

Codependency and chemical dependency

Abuse of chemicals is a major problem both in the developed and developing world; various steps have been taken to mitigate this both to prevent and reverse the harm that this dependency has on the individual and to prevent societal problems that arise and are associated with this dependency. Additionally, many civil authorities are desperately seeking to offload some of the immense and growing burden on their respective healthcare system; and view health problems caused by chemical dependency as a possible area where the burden can be reduced.

It is usually easier to control the use of some of the substances involved in addiction since they are illegal, such as narcotic drugs, and legal repercussions of possessing these substances often results in the interruption of their use for example during a period of incarceration, thus breaking the addiction (at least for the period). It is, however, often more difficult to control addiction from completely legal substances, such as alcohol, as it require a personal effort without the intervention of civil authorities.

As such, alcoholism remains a major problem in the united states and indeed the world; initial figures put the number at 10million over two decades ago in the united states alone (Woodside, 1982). Of bigger interest, however, is the fact that during this period, there were over 28million people who were family members of a family with at-least one alcoholic; these figures are very conservative since they represent only the people who formally sought help for this condition through various government and community bodies in the country.

From these figures and considering that other chemicals have not been factored in, the sheer (combined) magnitude of the effects of the fall-out of an individuals dependency on his/her immediate family; and the interaction between the dependent person and the immediate family has created an interesting subject for study; and has resulted in generation of a lot of information regarding this issue.

A lot of work, for example has been done on the subject of addiction on alcohol; and some of the well known trends today were documented. A good example is the disproportionately high incidence of alcoholism among sons who had alcoholic fathers (Cotton, 1977; Goodwin, 1976; Tarter, Hegedus, Goldstein, Shelly, & AIterman, 1984); and the increase incidences of truancy in adolescents with alcoholic parents (Schuckit and Chiles, 1978). The tendency of wives with alcoholic husbands to opt for treatment for a variety of psychosomatic complaints caused by the situation in the family (Cocores, 1987); and the common occurrence of depressive symptoms in the female relatives of male alcoholics (Goodwin, Schulsinger, Knop, Mednick, & Guze, 1977); are other well known patterns. Similar works have been done from dependencies based on other chemicals.

Many studies are however based on clinical samples, that is, they only study situations where the dependent person and/or the family has formally sought help in a medical facility; as such, the external validity of the outcomes is questionable- additionally, such studies lacks the benefits of having a credible control group.

The occurrence and the effects of substance abuse both to the individual and the family have been attributed and associated with many things; some of these include similar or previous abuse by other members of the family especially the parents; family stressors such as a dysfunctional marriage between the two principles, lowering of the socioeconomic status, and inconsistent expression of affection and/or discipline. Of all the factors surrounding chemical dependency, the concept of codependency appears to be relatively new.

As mentioned before, subject has generated many scientific and lay publications; the latter in particular have been pivotal in shaping the perception of the public regarding the subject. Many of them, mainly targeted at consumers who have experienced, either in childhood or marriage, a situation where there was a person with a chemical (or any other) codependency , and who now find themselves in a dysfunctional relationship; and have linked this to their previous experiences.

Among the earliest works regarding codependency were developed in the context of alcoholism; whereby the condition was described as a situation where the behavior of the immediate family and/or friends of a person addicted to alcohol tended to encourage such a person to persist in his/her dependent state (Cocores, 1987). The term itself was however coined among the circles of Alcoholic Anonymous and its satellite programs targeted at more specific groups within the persons seeking to end their dependence through the program such as adult children of alcoholics. From then, the term and discussions surrounding the condition have been widely featured in psychological literature. However, a lot of the information was for a long time not based on empirical study to show or explain codependence. The term has been adopted to as a catchphrase to describe a situation where a person is involved in a continuous dysfunctional relationship that does not seem to be improving both for the person and the other party which is causing the problems; as such, the term has also been used on relationships that are not necessarily afflicted by substance abuse; but that have another issue such as physical abuse.

Due to the large amount of non-scientific opinion regarding the issue in the public domain, and the motivation from some quarters to make financial gains out of selling either literature or providing services that claim to resolve codependency issues, the definition of the term is more often than not determined by the product that such person/organization is seeking to sell.

Some of the commonly cited symptoms of codependency include having turmoilous relationships; having a constant feeling of not to be left alone, and taking drastic steps to prevent this; a feeling of lost purpose and emptiness; giving up ones ambitions and personal needs for those of which they have a dysfunctional relationship with; an elevated desire to be accepted and loved; low self esteem and being in a constant state of denial (Schaef, 1986; Wegscheider-Cruse, 1984; Woititz, 1983).

A lot of the evidence to support the concept of codependency appears to be anecdotal; since the pathway of development has not been subject to scientific consensus. Due to the lack of a theory to clearly define the problem, and in addition to the fact that many lay person have delved into the issues thus generating a lot of noise that is difficult to separate from empirical material, it is easy to explain the immense popularity of the concept.

It is safe to assume that the natural reaction of many people faced with a situation whereby a loved-one is enslaved by a debilitating chemical dependence would easily be classified as a codependency, as such a person would not be expected to be completely objective due to the emotional ties they have with the addict. The point, however, where such a reaction becomes morbidity is arguable (Rotunda et al, 2003).

The universal agreement, however, is the loss of self esteem by the codependent person; a situation that inevitably results in such a person denied their personal ambitions and needs in favor of those of the dependent person. Such has been recognized in children in a family whereby one or both of the parents are substance abuser; in such cases the effect is so profound that such a child will give up their will completely to that of such parents (South et al, 2003).

Such a person, may it be a child or a spouse, is trapped in a dysfunctional relationship which they perceive as normal; and they learn to respond accordingly to abusive or manipulative behavior intended to elicit caring reaction. This mechanism has been used to suggest that grown female children of dependent parents are attracted to men who tend to go into substance abuse similar to their parents. This is explained by the hypothesis that such a person can only define their self worth through the lens of a dependent person; and that they enter into this relationships to define themselves (South et al, 2003). Such a person will be inclined to help the dependent person by responding to their every need up-to and past the point where the relationship becomes manipulative and/or abusive. This would mean that in such a scenario, the dysfunction did not start with the inception of the relationship but came with one or both of the parties as part of the arc of a vicious cycle from their respective families.

Treatment of codependency

Traditionally, and expectedly, the major focus on energy in the treatment of chemical dependency has been the addicted person; and with a concurrent (more or less) ignorance of the effects of this condition to the persons around him/her, especially the family members (Rotunda et al, 2003). This is largely due to the failure by the medical professionals to acknowledge that the interaction of such a person with those in his/her vicinity has had profound and negative effect on them (Johnson, 2003). Notwithstanding the fact that these people may not be having the dependence themselves, more often that not, they develop behavior patterns that are harmful both to themselves and to other people who they might enter into a close relationship with in the future. As such, when treating a case of chemical dependency, it is prudent to treat the family as a unit (Guajardo et al, 2004).

The unique structure of a family, whereby people have strong emotional ties; and are naturally inclined to take care of one of their own if s/he is afflicted with any condition offers fertile ground for the development of codependency.

Recognizing codependency

The first step for the treatment of any disease is recognizing that it is present; this is both for the person who is giving the treatment and the one receiving (South et al, 2003). As with any other disease, there are groups of people who are disproportionately represented in cases of codependence; and that are designated as being high-risk. Among the most important of these is spouses married to persons who are chemically dependent. Others include people recovering from chemical dependence and adult children of parents who were substance abusers. Among this group is a unique set of people; medical professionals working with chemically dependent people; continuous and/or repeated contact with addicts may lead to development of codependency in a health worker as easily as it would in a member of the persons family (Rotunda et al, 2003).

Some of the characteristic that one should look out for in order to detect a codependency include the following:

Low self esteem and External Referencing

It is important to note that codependent persons are also addicts. In a manner similar to which people who are dependent on a chemical substance end up using the chemical again just to get the pleasurable feeling, codependent persons get their high from the feeling of self-worth they get when they enable a person with an addiction. In addition, these people learn or opt to ignore their internal feelings and opinions; and respond to external cues only (South et al, 2003).

Clinging relationship

A person observing a dysfunctional codependent relationship may wonder why one of the parties is not quitting since such a situation is inevitably psychologically and/or physically harmful. However, in the true sense, each of the parties in a codependent relationship is a slave of the other; the enabler, usually gains a sense of security and being needed even though such sentiments can only have poor results in the long run (Rotunda et al, 2003).

Poor keeping of personal boundaries

A codependent person usually looses most of his/her individuality; and cannot separate the lives and existence from that of the person they are related to. Additionally, these people project the emotions of the dependent person rather than their own; more often that not, such a person is not aware of this situation; but they may be slightly aware that some of their desires have been repressed. However, they easily justify this repression for the sake of their dependent partners (Rotunda et al, 2003).

Impression management

It is important to note that while the relationship is going on, the codependent person is acutely aware that the situation is not ideal; and they sincerely would like their partner to overcome their dependence (but may unconsciously stand in the way of such recovery so as to maintain their position) (Guajardo et al, 2004). Since they cannot manage to singularly execute this, they result to impression management.

This involves taking steps to present themselves to the society as having a good relationship devoid of any troubles. It also manifests as lying about or making excuses for the behavior of the dependent person; and trying to control such a person more in issues that would show a bad picture than in ending his/her dependency.

Mistrust of perceptions

A person who is codependent on another with a chemical dependence tends to mistrust their own impression of a certain scenario regarding their relationship unless these are confirmed by those of another person. This is even in situations where such a scenario would have naturally elicited such an impression from an average person. The codependent may abandon a correct line of thought for another suggestion that may be grossly misleading (South et al, 2003; Rotunda et al, 2003).

Caretaking

A combination of two previously mentioned characteristics that is low self esteem and being externally oriented contribute to another characteristic; caretaking. The codependent person seeks to cater for every need of the dependent person; and at the expense of the persona welfare of the former. The dependent person is not allowed to care for themselves thus cementing further their dysfunctional relationship (Rotunda et al, 2003).

Addictions

A codependent person may develop an addiction of his/her own. This may be a chemical dependency similar to that of their partner. On the other hand, these people may become addicted to other forms of release such as food; however, the mechanism of addiction is the same. If such an addiction is diagnosed it is important to treat such an occurrence as a condition by itself giving it enough merit; and allocating enough time and resources for such treatment.

Feelings

In a dysfunctional codependent relationship, all the feelings expressed are premeditated at the expense of suppressing the expression of others; as such, feeling of compassion will be readily expressed and those of anger, disappointment, frustration or sadness are ignored (South et al, 2003). Families in a dysfunction relationships afflicted by alcohol addiction often complain of living in an environment were feelings are frozen. As such, the magnitude of the reality of the situation is never fully appreciated.

The road to recovery

Professional therapy

As mentioned before, the most important step of recovering from codependency is accepting that one has the condition; and agreeing to seek professional help to remedy the situation. Treatment off codependency ideal involves a combination of both professional therapy and self care (Guajardo et al, 2004).

As mentioned before, not all medical professionals agree with the concept or the construct of codependence (Wegscheider-Cruse, 1984); additionally, due to the relative newness of the concept and the facts that the theory surrounding it has not been fully developed, it is inevitable that not all medical professionals may have sufficient knowledge and/or experience in dealing effectively with the condition. It is therefore uttermost importance that when choosing a therapist, to select the one who has the required expertise to handle both the individual and the family for maximum benefits (Johnson, 2003).

There are four general stages of treatment and recovery from codependence:

1. Denial stage; in this stage, the codependent person refuses to acknowledge that they are in a relationship with the dependent person that is harmful both for themselves, the addict; and other members of the family of present. As such, the person will deny that they have a problem. Some individuals may go even further and deny that a state of chemical dependency exists in his/her home.
2. Acceptance stage; the codependent person starts to see that the situation that he/she is living in with the dependent is actually harmful. Additionally, the person acknowledges that some of his/her behavior patterns have contributed significantly both to the development of the codependent relationship and the perpetuation of the dependent state of the addict; and takes responsibility for these events. More importantly, the person that s/he can no longer manage his/her current situation; and that outside (and preferably professional) intervention is unavoidable.
3. Core issues stage; this involves shedding of some of the responsibilities that the codependent person had given him/herself; and giving more independence to the dependent party to run their own lives. This stage requires the person to accept that they cannot control the conduct of others; thus allowing them to let go.
4. Reintegration stage; as mentioned before, one of the trapdoors that lead to codependency is seeking self-worth that is otherwise missing. This stage aims at restoring this self-worth; key to this is letting them see that they dont have to earn this self-worth by letting other people exploit them; and that it is innate in every person if they just learn to appreciate themselves better.

It would be prudent that when treating the codependent person, treatment be instituted to initiate the recovery of the chemically dependent person. As such, the codependent would have to deal with less of a burden of caring for the person during and after treatment (Johnson, 2003). Additionally, the risk of these two people relapsing into their harmful relationship will be reduced.

Self care

As mentioned before, treatment involves an aspect of self care; these are the steps that a person should take individually so as to improve the outcome of the therapy; and to completely break from the harmful relationship. Such include the following:

1. Detachment; as mentioned before, in a codependent relationship, the boundaries separating the individuality of the person are usually weak; and easily and frequently breached by the exploitative dependent person. One of the crucial events that must take place for effective recovery is the reinforcement of this boundary and the rebuilding of the individuality of the person. As such, the person will learn the extent to which s/he should intervene to help the addict; thus giving him/her more time to work on personal recovery.
2. Removing the victim image; also due to weak personal boundaries, the individuality of the codependent person merges with that of the addict; thus they view themselves as also suffering from the harmful effects of the chemical; that is, they view themselves as victims. For effective recovery to take place, it is important for this image to be shed completely. The person should learn to sympathize rather than empathize with the addict.
3. Independence; the codependent person must learn to live a life independent from that of the addicted person; and must be able to take care of such a person without being sucked into a dysfunctional relationship which will cripple the intended recovery of the addicted person (South et al, 2003).
4. Reconstruction of the individuality; as mentioned before, the individuality of the codependent party tends to deteriorate at the expense of that of the dependent person; and that the feelings and desires of the latter are expressed in the stead of those of the former. As such, it is important for the codependent person to reconstruct his/her personality. They

Introduction

Regression analysis is a statistical tool that is used to develop approximate linear relationships among various variables. Regression analysis formulates an association between several variables. When coming up with the model, it is necessary to separate between dependent and independent variables. Multiple regression analysis focuses on the regression between the dependent variable and several explanatory variables. The paper carries out a multiple regression analysis between the average free-flow speed (kph) and several explanatory variables such as the proportion of heavy vehicles, bendiness measure (degrees turned through per km), visibility, carriageway width (m), hard strip width (m), verge width (m), number of junctions per km and hilliness measure (meters of rising or fall per km).

Scatter diagram

A scatter diagram is a graph that plots two related variables on a Cartesian plane. The independent variable is plotted on the x-axis while the dependent variable is on the y-axis. In this case, the average free-flow speed (kph) is plotted on the y-axis while the other explanatory variables will be plotted on the x-axis. Scatter diagram tries to establish if there exists a linear relationship between two variables plotted on the diagram. This can be observed by looking at the trend of the scatter plots.

The correlation coefficient = 0.070015.

The correlation coefficient = -0.77625.

The correlation coefficient = 0.59998.

The correlation coefficient = 0.504263.

The correlation coefficient = 0.45776.

The correlation coefficient = 0.310631.

The correlation coefficient = -0.05523

The correlation coefficient = -0.26919.

Points on the scatter diagram for the various diagrams slope in different directions. The table below summarizes the correlation coefficient for the various explanatory variables.

From the summary above, the visibility has the highest positive correlation coefficient of 0.59998. This implies that visibility will contribute by a large extent to increase in speed. On the other hand, bendiness has the highest negative correlation coefficient (-0.77625).

Simple regression analysis of speed and bendiness

The dependent variable is the mean free-flow speed, while the independent variable is the bendiness.

The regression line will take the form Y = b₀ + b₁X

Y = Mean free flow speed

X = Bendiness (degrees turned through per km)

The theoretical expectations are b₀ can take any value and b₁ < 0 (negative).

Regression Results

From the above table, the regression equation can be written as Y = 84.45057  0.11647X_. The intercept value of 84.45057 denotes other variables that affect the average free-flow speed but are not included in the modelling. The coefficient value of -0.11647 implies that as bendiness increases by one unit, the average free-flow speed decreases by 0.11647 units. When the regression equation is compared with the scatter diagram, there is an indication of consistency. The graph of average free-flow speed (kph) and bendiness shows a downward trend with a correlation coefficient of -0.77625. The regression equation above also yields a negative slope. Thus, it is clear that the regression equation is sensible.

Evaluation of regression model

Evaluation of the regression model can be done by testing the statistical significance of the variables. Testing statistical significance shows whether the explanatory variable is a significant determinant of average free-flow speed. A two-tailed t-test is carried out at a 95% level of confidence.

Null hypothesis: Ho: b_i = 0

Alternative hypothesis: Ho: b_i ` 0

The null hypothesis implies that the variables are not significant determinants of demand. The alternative hypothesis implies that variables are a significant determinant of demand. From the table above, the values of t  calculated are greater than the values of t  tabulated. Therefore, the null hypothesis will be rejected, and this implies that bendiness is a significant determinant of the speed. Thus, it is statistically significant at the 95% level of significance. The value of the intercept is not relevant when testing the significance of the regression variables. Since the explanatory variable is statistically significant, it implies that the regression line can be used for prediction.

R-square value

The value of R² is 60.26%. It explains 60.26% of the variation in free-flow speed. It is an indication of a strong explanatory variable. Also, the value of adjusted R² is low at 59.26%. The value of R² can be improved on by adding more variables in the regression model.

Analysis of variance

From the table, it is clear that the explained sum of squares (60.26%) is equal to the value of R² discussed above (60.26%).

Unusual observations

Some of the unusual observations are summarized in the table below.

There are four outliers in the regression equation. Removal of these points will improve the regression line.

Simple regression analysis of speed and visibility

The dependent variable is the mean free-flow speed while the independent variable is the visibility.

The regression line will take a linear form Y = b₀ + b₁X

Y = Mean free flow speed

X = Visibility

The theoretical expectations are b₀ can take any value and b₁ > 0 (positive).

Regression Results

From the above table, the regression equation can be written as Y = 64.42415 + 0.067293X_. The coefficient value of 0.067293 implies that if visibility increases by one unit, the average free-flow speed will also increase by 0.06793 units. The positive value of the coefficient implies a positive relationship between the variables. When the regression equation is compared with the scatter diagram, there is an indication of consistency. The graph of average free-flow speed (kph) and visibility shows a positive trend with a correlation coefficient of 0.59998. The regression equation above also yields a positive slope. Thus, it is clear that the regression equation is sensible.

Evaluation of regression model

A two-tailed t-test is carried out at a 95% level of confidence to test the significance of the variables

Null hypothesis: Ho: b_i = 0

Alternative hypothesis: Ho: b_i ` 0

From the table above, the values of t  calculated are greater than the values of t  tabulated. Therefore, the null hypothesis will be rejected, and this implies that visibility is a significant determinant of the explanatory variable (average free-flow speed). Thus, visibility is statistically significant at the 95% level of significance. The value of the intercept is not relevant when testing the significance of the regression variables.

R-square value

The value of R² is 36.00%. This implies that visibility explains only 40% of the variation in free-flow speed. It is an indication of a weak explanatory variable. Also, the value of adjusted R² is low at 34.39%. The value of R² can be improved on by adding more variables in the regression model.

Analysis of variance

From the table, it is clear that the explained sum of squares (36.00%) is equal to the value of R² discussed above (36.00%).

Unusual observations

Visibility is commonly known to be a significant determinant of average flow speed. The result above is contrary to the common knowledge as indicated as the weak regression line. The regression line has several outliers, and this contributes to the weak model. Removal of the outliers will strengthen the regression equation.

Simple regression analysis of speed and hilliness

The dependent variable is the mean free-flow speed while the independent variable is the hilliness

The regression line will take the form Y = b₀ + b₁X

Y = Mean free-flow speed

X = Hilliness

The theoretical expectations are b₀ can take any value and b₁ < 0 (negative).

Regression Results

From the above table, the regression equation can be written as Y = 80.1933  0.20343X_. The coefficient value of -0.20343 implies that if hilliness increases by one unit, the average free-flow speed decrease by 0.20343 units. The positive value of the coefficient implies a positive relationship between the variables. When the regression equation is compared with the scatter diagram above, there is an indication of consistency. The graph of average free-flow speed (kph) and hilliness shows a negative trend with a correlation coefficient of -0.26919. The regression equation above also yields a negative slope. Thus, it is clear that the regression equation is sensible.

Evaluation of regression model

A two-tailed t-test is carried out at a 95% level of confidence to test the significance of the variables

Null hypothesis: Ho: b_i = 0

Alternative hypothesis: Ho: b_i ` 0

The table below summarizes the results of the t-tests.

From the table above, the value of t  calculated is less than the values of t  tabulated for visibility. Therefore, the null hypothesis will not be rejected, and this implies that hilliness is not a significant determinant of the explanatory variable (average free-flow speed). Thus, hilliness is not statistically significant at the 95% level of significance. The regression model shows that the slope is weak and cannot explain the variations in speed.

R-square value

The value of R² is 7.25%. This implies that hilliness explains only 7.25% of the variation in free-flow speed. It is an indication of a weak explanatory variable. Also, the value of adjusted R² is low at 4.92%. The value of R² can be improved on by adding more variables in the regression model.

Analysis of variance

The table below summarizes the analysis of variance.

The RSS is greater than ESS by a large margin. From the table, the explained sum of squares (7.25%) is equal to the value of R² discussed above (7.25%). It shows that the model is irrelevant in determining the variations of speed. In real life, technology has lead to innovation of high power car such that hilliness cannot cause a reduction of speed.

Unusual observations

Over 90% of the observations are outliers. Thus, the removal of all these points would amount to eliminating the variable from the regression model.

Multiple regression regression results

The regression line will take the form Y = a₀ + a₁X₁ + a₂X₂ + a₃X₃ + a₄X₄ + a₅X₅ + a₆X₆ + a₇X₇ + a₈X_8. This section will summarize the results of various iterations of multiple regression analysis.

First regression  speed and proportion of heavy vehicles

The variable is not statistically significant at the 95% level of confidence.

Second regression  speed and proportion of heavy vehicles and bendiness

The additional variable is statistically significant, and it improves the value of R² to 61.36%.

Third regression  speed and proportion of heavy vehicles, bendiness and visibility

The additional variable improves the value of R² to 64.85%

Fourth regression  speed and proportion of heavy vehicles, bendiness, visibility and carriageway width

The additional value reduces the values of t  computed, but it increases the R². It is not statistically significant.

Fifth regression  speed and proportion of heavy vehicles, bendiness, visibility, carriageway width and hard strip width

The additional value reduces the values of t  computed, but it increases the R². It is not statistically significant.

Sixth regression  speed and proportion of heavy vehicles, bendiness, visibility, carriageway width, hard strip width and verge width

The additional value increases the values of t  computed for other variables, and it also increases the R². It is not statistically significant.

Seventh regression  speed and proportion of heavy vehicles, bendiness, visibility, carriageway width, hard strip width, verge width and number of junctions

The additional value reduces the values of t  computed for other variables, and it increases the R². It is not statistically significant.

Eighth regression  speed and proportion of heavy vehicles, bendiness, visibility, carriageway width, hard strip width, verge width, number of junctions and hilliness

The additional value reduces the values of t  computed for other variables, and it also increases the R². It is not statistically significant.

From the regression analysis above, only the variables are significant, and they lead to an increase in values of t  calculated these are, bendiness, visibility, and hardship strip. The variables increase the values of t  computed. The variables also increase the amount of R² by a large margin. All the other variables should be dropped from the regression model.

Alternative models

There are several modelling techniques that can be used apart from the regression model. Some of them are polynomial models, logit and probit, among others. An example of the polynomial regression is shown below.

Y = a₀ + a₁X₁ + a₂X₂ + a₃X₃² + a₄X₄ + a₅X₅ + a₆X₆ + a₇X₇