Category: Uncategorized

Abstract

This document contains a plan for setting up and running a sensory gym for children with special needs in New York City. The target market is children below the age of 18 years, suffering from a range of disabilities, including autism, speech, and physical disabilities. Based on individualized needs assessment plans, different types of therapies will be offered at the facility, including occupation, speech, and physical therapy services. To provide optimum care to clients, this document highlights plans to hire licensed clinicians to run the sensory gym facility with the support of pediatricians, parents, teachers, and psychologists, as stakeholders involved in the provision of holistic learning. Suggestions are made to equip them with the tools and skills to cater to the unique needs of children with disability based on the administration of the three forms of therapies identified above. The new gym would be modeled as a space for children to grow and play, and learn in a safe, fun, clean, and warm environment. The idea behind setting up the facility is to provide children suffering from sensory development issues with stimuli that would help them enjoy the benefits of physical exercises in the same manner as their counterparts who do not have disability do. Such interventions can help the children to decrease their anxiety levels and make them more confident in pursuing their personal or career goals.

Introduction

Background

Physical wellness is good not only for children with special needs but also for adults as well. Studies that have focused on children with disability, as a special group of patients, suggest that regular physical activity is associated with higher levels of muscular endurance and a low risk for developing cardiovascular diseases (Lim et al., 2021; McAbee, 2017). This statement emerges from the premise that specific or resistive body movements are good for children who have sensory challenges or issues. Besides promoting the overall health and functions of the body, regular physical exercises are also associated with the slow progression of mental health diseases, which is common among children who suffer from intellectual challenges (Lim et al., 2021; McAbee, 2017). Therefore, regardless of ones disability, they should take part in physical exercises to improve their overall health and wellbeing. However, children with special needs are often disadvantaged in this regard because of spatial, cognitive, or motor limitations.

The challenges brought by special needs could be a cause of stress for families that have children exhibiting symptoms or signs of any type of disability. Their main concern is the potential inability of their children to experience major milestones in life because of their physical or mental challenges. Consequently, scholars define special needs based on what children can and cannot do (McAbee, 2017; Lim et al., 2021). Alternatively, others use supplementary sub-classifications, such as unmet milestones or experiences denied as additional criteria for defining special needs (Jacobs & McCormack, 2011). Regardless of the method used, special needs challenges could negatively affect family wellbeing. However, this outcome does not have to be the case because these children could receive support through remedial programs in specialized gym that would help them to overcome or minimize the impact of their disabilities on their health and wellbeing.

For purposes of this study, children with special needs refer to a category of people who have developmental challenges, ranging from those that can be mitigated to those that can impair their growth and development for life. Evidence from McAbee (2017) supports the view that their special needs commonly manifest in developmental challenges and mental conditions that affect their ability to learn and play like their counterparts who suffer no disability do. Consequently, a gap in developmental experiences arises among children with special needs and those who do not have such challenges.

This gap is visible in the lack of physical spaces within community settings that can accommodate their disabilities, including gyms, recreational, and sports facilities. Consequently, with the lack of spaces to exercise and play safely, children with special needs are exposed to several behavioral and health challenges that affects their wellbeing. For example, Lim et al. (2021) report that the absence of physical spaces to exercise makes children with special needs less likely to engage in sustained or vigorous exercises compared to their counterparts who do not suffer similar disabilities. Research also shows that children who have special needs tend to be weaker than their counterparts who do not have similar disabilities (McAbee, 2017). They also suggest that the affected children suffer from fatigue more than their non-disabled counterparts do.

Children with chronic diseases provide the strongest evidence of the relationship between the lack of physical exercises and poor health outcomes outcome because the failure to exercise exposes them to a litany of health conditions associated with sedentary lifestyles (Jacobs & McCormack, 2011). Therefore, the lack of physical spaces to exercise is a challenge to the health and developmental growth of children with special needs due to its association with poor mental and physical health outcomes. If this situation persists, children with special needs will continue to be excluded from enjoying the health benefits of physical exercises, which their non-disabled counterparts do, thereby further exposing them to poor mental and physical health outcomes. Consequently, there is a need to provide sensory gyms to allow children with specialized needs to exercise and play as their non-disabled counterparts do.

Aim

This thesis aims to setup a private pay and publicly funded gym facility in New York to serve the needs of children with special needs requirements. The facility will be a sensory gym for children below the age of 18 years, suffering from a range of disabilities, including autism, speech, and physical disabilities. Based on individualized needs assessment plans, different types of therapies will be offered to several groups of children at the facility, including occupation, speech, and physical therapy services. To provide optimum care to clients, this document highlights important information relating to the business plan, including an analysis of the competition, marketing activities that will be completed to support the firm, and a human resource plan for managing it.

Literature Review

Introduction

This section of the literature contains a review of what other scholars have written about the specific area of interest. Key sections of this chapter will explain concepts related to the proposed business, including the classification of special needs and legal arguments for accommodating children with who suffer from them. The aim is to understand the legal framework supporting the businesss operations, including the potential for funding its activities. In the second part of this review, a greater emphasis will be made to explain how sensory integration works and the opportunities that exist in developing a multi-sensory gym facility in New York City to cater to the needs of children with special needs.

Classification of Special Needs

As highlighted in the first chapter of this document, special needs refer to a range of disabilities affecting childrens development. It is estimated that about 18.5% of children in America have special needs requirements (PBWS, 2020). It means that they experience developmental challenges, which other students do not have to experience. According to PBWS (2020), four major types of special needs affect children and they appear in table 1 below:

Legal Arguments for Accommodating Children with Special Needs

Catering to the physical needs and requirements of children with special needs is not only a moral argument but also a legal one because America has laws to streamline learning by eliminating all bases for discrimination. These legal instruments are not only relevant to the promotion of inclusive learning in the classroom but also in the physical education setting where children are made to feel part of the greater student body. This outcome is achievable because involving children with special needs in physical activities promotes inclusion. Given that they are often unable to take part in regular physical exercises, being recruited in specialized gyms promotes a sense of inclusivity, thereby supporting their physical and emotional growth. Therefore, children with special needs require specialized services according to laid out rules and policies governing their learning and development activities. So far, about four main laws and statutes are relevant to student learning and development processes. They include:

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA): The IDEA Act prepares children with special needs to live an independent life by prohibiting schools from discriminating against them (PBWS, 2020). This law does not only apply to the education of minors in high school education and below but also to those who are seeking higher learning education and employment opportunities. The most relevant part of the law to the current context of this study is its support for health impaired children whose stamina and physical strength cannot match those of other students (PBWS, 2020). The process to set up the proposed sensory gym will be founded on this law.

Rehabilitation Act: Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act is also relevant to the setting up of an independent gym facility in New York City because it requires schools to accommodate the needs of students with special needs (PBWS, 2020). Particularly, this piece of legislation is applicable to children who have significant physical impairments that would hinder their normal functions. Nonetheless, similar to the IDEA, this law also prevents people from discriminating against children with disabilities. Therefore, setting up a gym for children with special needs in New York City promotes its main objectives.

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA): The ADA was introduced to promote the inclusion of children with psychiatric problems in school activities. Introduced as law in the 1990s, this piece of legislation ensures that children with disability do not experience discrimination at various levels of public life, including business, health, and education. Proponents of the law aim to prevent all forms of discrimination by providing the same rights and opportunities for children with special needs as those enjoyed by their counterparts who do not suffer from the same problem (ADA National Network, 2017). Therefore, it strives to promote equality among children with special needs and those who do not suffer from such challenges. The most relevant articles of this legislation that relate to the process of setting up a gym facility for children with disability are Titles two and three of the law, which focus on the provisions of public services for state and local government authorities, as well as public accommodation and services offered by private entities (ADA National Network, 2017). These areas of the law relate to schedules two and three, respectively, but the latter is more relevant to the development of physical exercising facilities in New York City because it requires private players to accommodate children with disabilities in their places of business, including, gyms, health clubs, sports stadiums, and so forth (ADA National Network, 2017). Title two of the same law also requires state and local government authorities to make their programs and services available to everyone.

No Child Left Behind Act: Introduced in 2001 as an Act of Congress, the No Child Left Behind Act is a piece of legislation designed to streamline achievement gaps between students with special needs and their counterparts who do not have such challenges. The main premise of applying the law is rooted in the development of measurable standards for achievement as a basis for promoting individual learning and developmental outcomes (PBWS, 2020). Although the Act was introduced at a Federal level, states have freedom to implement it based on their unique local circumstances. Therefore, it is relevant to the state of New York as well and provides a legal basis for the development of the proposed new sensory gym.

Sensory Integration Therapy

Sensory processing disorders emerge among the broader group of neurological problems affecting children with sensory impairments. Psychologists are yet to classify this group of disorders as a definitive diagnosis but there is evidence that children may suffer from over or under sensitivity to various stimuli (Arky, 2020). The body of evidence underpinning sensory impairment studies traces its roots to the works of Dr. John Ayres who claimed that awareness of the body and movement are two senses that needed to be added to the traditional classification of human cognition to get a broader understanding of sensory activities. Awareness of movement is more relevant to the present study because it focuses on vestibular activities, which is the basis for the provision of gym services to special needs children. For example, proprioception receptors found in the human limb enable a person to move or maintain body posture, thereby accounting for a broad sense of disabilities among children who have not fully developed these abilities. Additionally, vestibular receptors found in the human ear also help a person to know their position in space, time, and maintain their balance, thereby accounting for a broader group of disabilities associated with hearing impairments (Arky, 2020). These insights are important in understanding sensory environments responsible for various kinds of disabilities among children.

Lucy Jane Miller has added another eighth sense to the list associated with human functioning and termed it as interoception (Arky, 2020). She claims that this eighth sense works by relaying messages about the proper functioning of human organs. Nonetheless, when examined broadly, the eight senses alluded in this analysis help to explain to the human mind what is happening within and outside a persons environment. However, when these senses fail to work, the feeling can be confusing and overwhelming for a person and especially for children with special needs. Typically, victims of such disabilities may exhibit signs of defensive or compensatory behaviors (Arky, 2020). Hypersensitivity and hyposensitivity to stimuli may also cause such children to throw tantrums and when they feel neglected, they may have a meltdown.

Sensory integration therapy is at the center of gym activities because it helps to address some of the above-mentioned developmental challenges. Different steps are often followed to undertake successful occupational therapy activities and they are described below:

Evaluation: The first step that an occupational therapist would take to treat children with sensory disorders is to conduct a battery of tests to determine their sensory defensiveness. The same tests will determine their sensory cravings and treatment will happen in an environment outfitted with specialized equipment (Arky, 2020). Sensory gyms offer this type of environment and have been successfully used to help train hyperactive children by encouraging them to take part in swinging and spinning exercises to train their brains for better posture. The common reasoning behind its application is that under-sensitive children tend to seek activities that would make them active, while hypersensitive children want to engage in activities that restrain them (Arky, 2020). Sensory gyms that offer these kinds of facilities are often fitted with specialized equipment, such as weighted vests and squeeze machines to provide children with tools for exerting deep and calming pressures on their bodies, which is especially appropriate for children who suffer from tactile defensiveness.

Most parents who have taken their children through such therapies report that they were encouraged to participate in a common routine known as Wilbarger Protocol. It involves the application of pressure on the body using a small brush (Arky, 2020). Additionally, the process may be accompanied by joint compressions that may be done throughout the day. Although the Wilbarger Protocol is the standard treatment for most types of sensory disabilities, the intervention or brush protocols employed may vary depending on a childs responses or individualized developmental needs.

Competitor Analysis of Gyms in New York

The state of New York has specialized gyms, which offer support and resources for children who suffer from a broad range of disorders. According to Sokol (2015), there are eight sensory gym facilities in New York, including, Jumping Jax, Small Steps, Big Leaps, Watch me Grow, and Playworks. They are described below:

Jumping Jax: This is a sensory gym located in upper west side of New York. It provides occupational therapy services, including physical and speech therapies. The sessions are individualized but family involvement is a key part of their program development process. The gym provides swinging and obstacle courses designed to improve a childs sensory development in a fun environment where play and learning are integrated into common activities. The main services offered at the facility include the provision of vestibular, proprioceptive, and tactile experiences in the use of the gyms equipment. The therapy sessions offered at the facility are also individualized in terms of duration of treatment, but this outcome is influenced by a patients unique needs. Typical sessions take less than one hour and may happen at least once a week.

Small Steps Big Leap: The Small Steps Big Leaps gym is based in Southside New York and provides different types of therapy services, including individualized sessions managed by Sidekicks New York City. Each of the therapists who work at the facility has a certificate or license in their respective areas of practice. The competence acquired from these certifications allows the therapists to tailor interventions that specifically address a childs unique developmental learning needs in a caring and fun environment. Therapists who work at the facility operate in an interdisciplinary manner where synergy is created across different levels of therapy interventions. The goal of pursuing this collaborative strategy is to provide holistic care and services to children with special needs at the facility. Standing on more than 1,000 square feet of property, Small Steps Big Leaps does not have more than three therapy sessions occurring at the same time to create adequate room for children to play and have fun. The main goal of maintaining this space is to allow children and teachers to interact in a creative environment. Based on the minimal distractions experienced in this format of interaction, family engagement is optimized.

Watch Me Grow: Watch me grow is a pediatric therapy center located in the Upper west side of New York. The founder and director of the facility admitted that he designed it to be like an extension of a home (Sokol, 2015). Similar to other gyms identified in this report, the owner also admitted to developing a fun, creative, and professional environment for instructors and children to interact with one another and learn (Sokol, 2015). Physical therapists working at the facility provide individualized therapies, while occupational and speech therapists administer specialized care. The individualized care plans are developed after consulting with parents to identify unique needs of a child and the appropriate gym program.

Play Works: Play Works is another sensory gym facility located in Queens, New York, around the Rego Park area. The facility offers a safe place for children with special needs to improve their learning and developmental goals. The gyms design is intended to entice children to come in the facility and try out new games and activities. The equipment is set up to provide individualized exercises based on a childs developmental needs. The gyms director says that their main differentiating quality is the level of personalized care offered to the children (Sokol, 2015). Since its inception, the firm has maintained a personalized level of care for all its clients and its growth is supported by referrals generated under this arrangement. The gym also includes programs and exercises involving parents as a core stakeholder in a childs growth. By recognizing the need for children to constantly grow, the learning environment periodically changes based on a childs individualized needs. The goal is to create an environment where children can constantly grow and learn.

Theraplay: Theraplay is a sensory gym located in the Upper East Side of New York. Being a multidisciplinary sensory gym, it offers different kinds of services to children with special needs, including pediatric and occupational therapy services. The therapists working at the facility appreciate the importance of parental involvelement in a childs growth and include them at various stages of decision-making. The main goal of forging such partnerships is to ensure the gains made at the gym can be replicated at home. One of the many programs implemented at the facility is social skills development, which is a central part of its speech therapy exercises. Spearheaded by a licensed clinical social worker, the program allows children to play in a safe and secure environment and learn about appropriate social skills that would foster collaboration, while shunning those that inhibit the process. Handwriting classes are also offered at the facility and are spearheaded by the occupational therapist. The Handwriting without Tears Program accommodates most of the above-mentioned process (Sokol, 2015). Similar programs have been developed to complement other types of therapies, such as speech and physical.

Special Programs in Occupational Therapy Services (SPOTS): SPOTS has three facilities in New York located in Nyack, Manhattan, and Brooklyn Heights. The business is among the first in the Manhattan area to provide sensory gyms that help parents understand how their children sensory processing activities affect their emotions and behaviors. By tapping into the imaginative and creative abilities of children, SPOTS has designed challenges that encourage children to be focused on their specific disabilities. Each therapist working at the facility holds at least a masters degree in their relevant field of study and is committed to advancing their knowledge beyond the organizational scope (Sokol, 2015). Therefore, there is a strict recruitment policy plan for the gym, which attracts only the best talents in the business.

The Ability Center: The ability Center is another sensory gym facility in New York located in Marine Park Section of South Brooklyn and owned by a married couple who are occupational therapists. Children at the facility receive a range of services, including occupation, speech, and physical therapies. Today, the gym is a state-of-the-art facility where children can play safely with their families. They engage in different kinds of activities and games when at the facility, including zip lining, ball pits, swinging, and the likes. The main differentiating factor about this gym, compared to the others, is its enrolment policy of children under the age of 10 years (Sokol, 2015). It provides children and parents access to a safe environment where they can openly interact with one another and in a playful and safe environment.

Smile Center: Two therapists living and working in New York started The Smile Center. The 9,000 square foot facility helps children with special needs to improve their physical health using a bottom-up approach that is predicated on three pillars (i) neuro-developmental, (ii) treatment, sensory integration, and (iii) relationship-based work (Sokol, 2015). These three pillars of development are integral to a childs growth. The main differentiating feature associated with this gym is its therapy methodology; it focuses on the root cause of the problem bottom-up model of development, as opposed to the ineffective top-down model that has been practiced in the past. An early intervention program is accommodated at the facility, while employees have expletive knowledge in managing toddlers and infants.

Support by Design: Established in 1998, Support by Design is a private care facility located in Tribeca, Lower Manhattan (Support by Design, 2021). It is intended to provide evaluation and treatment services for pre-teen children suffering from physical and speech disabilities. Various kinds of therapies are offered at the location, including speech, occupational, physical-language, and speech-language (Support by Design, 2021). The organization works with partners in the business, such as early intervention agencies and the department of education, in the provision of the above-mentioned services (Support by Design, 2021). Collectively, this sensory gym, among others highlighted above, will offer substitute services to the proposed gym, thereby acting as a direct competitor of the yet to be established sensory gym.

Summary

Given the multiplicity of sensory gyms in New York, it is important to distinguish key features of the new gym and highlights its value to the overall body of rehabilitation facilities in the city designed to cater to special needs children. Therefore, there is need to create a robust plan of setting up and running the new gym in a way that adds value to the expanding network of gym services for special children in New York.

Methodology

Introduction

In this chapter, techniques used to gather and develop data relating to the development of the proposed gym will be highlighted. Key sections of this analysis will highlight the ethical considerations for obtaining research data, research design, and data collection techniques. Overall, the techniques adopted were weighed according to their relevance in gathering insights and knowledge relating to the development of gyms for children with special needs in New York City.

Design

This study will use a case study approach to investigate the research issue by focusing on New York City as the preferred locality for setting up the gym facility. Therefore, the marketing plan, including issues relating to advertisement, pricing and funding will be developed with the jurisdictional limits of New York in mind. The main aim of using the case study approach is to provide a contextualized understanding of the business based on the socioeconomic characteristics of the market.

Data

Data was collected using secondary research; meaning that information was sourced form published data. Notably, pieces of information relating to the market dynamics of New York, including the population of children who suffer from disability, availability of substitute businesses, and funding opportunities were obtained in this manner.

Ethical Considerations

Given that human subjects are involved in setting up and running the gym, the need for considering the ethical implications of their participation is critical to the success of the study. Based on this background, the confidentiality and rights of the families involved will be secured and protected. Similarly, their involvement in the gym programs will be voluntary as there will be no coercion or incentives given to the participants to take part in its activities.

Gym Plan

Introduction

This section of the document outlines key tenets of the gym plan that are relevant to processing, setting up, and running the business. Key issues highlighted will be services offered, human resource, funding, management, and recruitment plans.

Services Offered

The gym facility will offer different types of services to children with special needs, including occupational, physical, and speech therapies as discussed below:

Occupational Therapy

Occupational therapy activities include those that have assessment or intervention-based practices to help children with special needs to recover from their developmental challenges or maintain the operationalization of meaningful activities despite their disabilities. These therapy services will be offered to children who have severe motor skills and will be performed by a resident occupational therapists supported by one or more assistants. Occupational therapy services will be offered to children who have different types of special needs, including mental challenges, physical disabilities, and impairments. The gym will offer remedial services to this group of children, including injury rehabilitation to enable them participate fully in their school or educational programs. Occupational therapy interventions will include activities that take into account several factors relating to a childs developmental and learning needs. They include core body strength, gross motor skills, sensory monitoring, organization of tasks, and use of oral structures for eating. The facilities and services offered at the gym will be geared towards improving the aforementioned areas of evaluation in an age-appropriate manner. The occupational therapy services are designed to address key areas of development through playful interactions between children and teachers/therapists. School-based and home-based activities will also be included as supplementary activities at the gym facility to create a conducive learning environment both at the facility and at home.

Physical Therapy

Physiotherapy services offered at the gym will be designed to strengthen weak muscles. Additional exercises will be calibrated to correct muscle imbalances and improve neural flexibility to make the children more agile and adaptable to the proper functioning of their limbs. These types of exercises are designed to promote healing by increasing blood flow to specific areas of the body that are in short supply. From a neurological standpoint, these activities would help to rewire the brain so that children can better respond to sensory inputs. Doing so will, help them to better make sense of the world.

Speech Therapy

Speech therapy services will be designed to address the unique needs of children who have difficulty communicating, eating, or drinking. The exercises involved may include visual games aimed at improving memory and attention. The same exercises could involve games intended to generate speech. Vocal exercises and word-retrieval games will also be integrated in the gyms programs to help this subcategory of special needs stu

Introduction

Human violence and aggression are ubiquitous phenomena that cause substantial costs to contemporary society. Aggression is a grave medical challenge that places healthcare providers and patients at risk. It is defined as injurious, destructive, or hostile behavior frequently brought about by frustration. The treatment options for aggression include non-pharmacologic and pharmacotherapeutic interventions (Bhagat et al., 2020). Neuro interventions appear like an attractive option for treating violent behaviors for several reasons. First, they are cheap since they eliminate the potential costs of incarceration. Irritability increases violence, leading to imprisonment (Birks & Buyx, 2018). Second, neuro interventions help regulate the expression of various genes in the brain. Third, they can increase a persons morality and empathic capability and minimize social exclusion. Neuro interventions function quickly and are highly effective in treating violence (Ryberg, 2019). Although antipsychotic medications have been applied to aggressive behaviors, a non-invasive intervention is more humane, and a better method in the future since the harmful effects of neuro interventions outweigh the benefits.

Aggressive Behavior and Monoamine Oxidase A (MAOA) Gene

Aggression, Depression, and Violence

Aggressive behavior is a critical issue in contemporary society as it leads to multiple social problems such as theft, rape, murder, crime, and family conflicts. Violence and aggression result in adverse outcomes for individuals and society. Violence and anger may cause coronary heart diseases, while the arousal and fear caused by aggression can result in hypertension, atherosclerosis, and tachycardia. Ultimately, aggression ruins interpersonal relationships and may cause physical injuries when individuals participate in fights. Furthermore, aggression generally leads to reckless and risky behaviors like high-speed driving. Finally, aggression contributes to the worsening and onset of various mental health disorders such as anxiety and depression. In addition, aggressive behavior leads to more than a million deaths globally every year (Labonté et al., 2021). Most people turn aggressive due to biological factors such as genes and hormonal imbalance. As a result, it is critical to review how the MAOA gene is linked to aggressive behavior.

MAOA Gene and Violence

Individuals with low MAOA gene activity become more fierce than those without the MAOA gene. Neurocriminology is an emerging discipline that attempts to discover possible links between aggression, violence, criminal behavior, and genetics. Existing scholarship indicates that the MAOA gene is associated with increased levels of violence and aggression (Kolla & Bortolato, 2020). People whose MAOA gene activity is low are often hypersensitive and lack emotion when they harm others. Thus, they are more likely to be affected by adverse experiences than those who are hyposensitive (Wang et al., 2018). Furthermore, hypersensitive persons react more defensively and aggressively as opposed to those who are hyposensitive.

The MAOA gene is found in the X chromosome and primarily codes for monoamine oxidase A, a necessary enzyme responsible for controlling the amount of serotonin and dopamine in the brain. The MAOA gene is also called the warrior gene because its abnormal versions or mutations are often linked to aggressive behavior. Generally, deficiencies in the MAOA gene activity are identified to correlate with aggressive behaviors as well as other changes but are also affected by environmental factors (Checknita et al., 2020). For example, members of a Dutch kindred who displayed abnormal and violent behavior had low MAOA gene activity caused by a deleterious point mutation located in the genes 8th axon. Unaffected members of the same kindred did not have the mutation. Existing scholarship on investigated behavior and provocation show that people with low MAOA gene activity display higher aggression than those with high MAOA gene activity. Under comparable provocation levels, high and low MAOA activity people show similar low aggression levels. However, in highly provocative environments, people with low MAOA gene activity often display more heightened aggression than those with high MAOA activity (Chen & Chen, 2007). Furthermore, children with low MAOA genotype activity are more likely to commit a crime than those with high MAOA gene activity.

Serial Killers and The MAOA Gene

Unsurprisingly, most serial killers are found with low MAOA gene activity. Serial killers often kill more than three persons and are depicted as whites with unusual appearances and dysfunctional relationships. However, it is critical to approach the mind of serial killers openly with no preconceived assumptions. Each serial killers motive for the killing is unique depending on their history. Most serial killers have faced traumatic experiences that amplify their desire to portray their violent behaviors once in their life (Safarik & Ramsland, 2019). Low MAOA gene activity heightens their aggression, increasing their likelihood of committing crimes (Allely, 2020). Ultimately, most serial killers portray low activity in the MAOA gene, suggesting that genetics can identify them.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Current Neurointerventions

Drug Interventions

Regulation Of Gene Expression

Drug interventions are advantageous because they regulate the expression of various genes in the brain. The brain contains numerous genes responsible for multiple functions in the body. Biogenic amine neurotransmitters like serotonin and dopamine can be transmitted abnormally, often linked to schizophrenia pathogenesis. Antipsychotic drugs achieve therapeutic effects by ensuring biogenic amine neurotransmitters undergo normal transmission. The coordinated gene expression involved in the function and biosynthesis of biogenic anime neurotransmitters may explain why long-term antipsychotic treatment is therapeutic. Existing scholarship shows that long-term treatment using antipsychotics can change gene expression in biogenic amine pathways. Generally, antipsychotics regulate gene expressions in the brain to ensure that the transmission of specific genes is not abnormal, providing the body functions well (Chan et al., 2020). The clinical efficacy of drug interventions in aggression treatment targets the genes involved in controlling emotion and regulates them to facilitate the normal transmission of different genes.

Increase of mRNA Levels of Different Genes

Antipsychotics increase the mRNA level of catechol O-methyltransferase (COMT), monoamine oxidase A (MAOA), and monoamine oxidase B (MAOB) in the frontal cortex. Chen and Chen (2007) examined the effect of long-term risperidone treatment on COMT, MAOA, and MAOB mRNA levels. There was a substantial increase in the mRNA levels of COMT and MAOB in the rats frontal cortex for those injected with risperidone compared to the control subjects. Furthermore, the study investigated the impacts of long-term treatment of haloperidol, clozapine, and olanzapine on the gene expressions of COMT, MAOA, and MAOB in the rats frontal cortex. There was a considerable increase in the gene expression of COMT, MAOB, and MAOA following the long-term olanzapine treatment. However, with the chronic clozapine and haloperidol, there was no increased expression of COMT, MAOB, and MAOA mRNA (Chen & Chen, 2007). The findings offer fresh insights into the clinical efficacy of olanzapine and risperidone. The increased gene expression of various biogenic amine neurotransmitters after long-term treatment of different antipsychotics restores the abnormal transmission of neurotransmitters to a normal status (Palumbo et al., 2018). Each antipsychotic drug has differential regulation of expressions of various genes.

Olanzapine and Risperidone

There are several antipsychotic drugs, including olanzapine and risperidone. Both drugs work differently depending on the area of the brain they target. Olanzapine refers to an antipsychotic medication used for treating depression, schizophrenia, and bipolar disorder (Taraskina et al., 2017). Olanzapine achieves its functions in the brain as it influences the activity of different neurotransmitters, especially serotonin and dopamine. Serotonin and dopamine are the neurotransmitters responsible for regulating perception, thinking, behavior, and mood (Thomas & Saadabadi, 2018). Psychotic illnesses are caused by disturbances in neurotransmitter activity, particularly dopamine, in the brain (Grinchii & Dremencov, 2020). Schizophrenia is mainly treated with olanzapine and is linked to dopamine overactivity in the brain. Olanzapine prevents the action of brain receptors that dopamine influences. The blockage of dopamine receptors reduces excessive dopamine activity, helping control schizophrenia symptoms. Ultimately, olanzapine acts as an antagonist on dopamine receptors by blocking potential dopamine action (Thomas & Saadabadi, 2018). Instead, it binds loosely to various receptors as well as dissociates quickly, enabling the normal transmission of dopamine.

Risperidone is another antipsychotic drug that functions by blocking the activity of neurotransmitters. Risperidone primarily acts by decreasing serotonergic and dopaminergic pathway activity, which reduces mood disorders and schizophrenia symptoms. Risperidone binds easily and quickly to serotonergic receptors as opposed to dopaminergic receptors in the human brain (Zhang-James et al., 2019). Risperidone affinity for binding to D2 receptors is lower compared to typical antipsychotic drugs that have extremely high affinity. Schizophrenia is caused by excess serotonin and dopamine activity, leading to overactivity of mesocortical and central mesolimbic pathways, respectively (McNeil et al., 2017). Risperidone temporarily inhibits dopaminergic receptors, which reduces dopamine neurotransmission, thus minimizing schizophrenia symptoms like hallucinations and delusions.

Risperidone binds temporarily and loosely to dopaminergic receptors, with a 60-70% receptor occupancy to achieve optimal effects. The rapid risperidone dissociation from dopaminergic receptors decreases the danger of extrapyramidal symptoms with elevated and permanent occupancy blockade of dopaminergic receptors. In addition, elevated serotonergic activity in the mesocortical pathways in schizophrenia leads to negative symptoms like decreased motivation and depression. Fortunately, risperidone has a high affinity for binding to serotonergic receptors, which reduces serotonin activity (McNeil et al., 2017). The blockage of serotonergic receptors decreases the danger of extrapyramidal symptoms, potentially by increasing dopamine release in the frontal cortex.

Not All Serial Killers Have Low MAOA Gene Activity

Drug interventions cannot be explicitly used in treating aggression caused by low MAOA gene activity. Drug interventions are effective, especially when treating patients with low MAOA gene activity; however, not all serial killers or criminals have low MAOA gene activity. Such evidence suggests that drug interventions alone cannot explicitly manage aggression. Indeed, it is true that not all serial killers possess the genetic predisposition for killing. Serial killers are both made and born since genetics and other factors affect their decisions to take other peoples lives. The majority of the dangerous and prolific serial killers are genetically predisposed to have antisocial personality disorders and often grow up in environments that cultivate disregard of other individuals lives (Malizia, 2017). Although the extent to how genetics influences serial killers, most brutal murderers often have antisocial personality disorders.

The majority of serial killers manipulate and exploit others to gain an advantage. Furthermore, serial killers disregard the feelings and rights of others, morals, and social norms. They lack empathy and show no remorse to others, and exhibit hidden hostility, aggression, agitation, and irritability. In addition, serial killers do not usually fear dangerous behaviors and situations, leading to unimportant risk-taking. Serial killers often have a history of relationships that are unstable, including friendships, parental, and romantic relations. Antisocial personality disorders heritability is approximately 38 percent (Raine, 2019). Heritability refers to the proportion of differential traits caused by genetic distinction but not environmental factors in a particular population. Although serial killers have antisocial personality disorder, most individuals are not brutal serial killers. As a result, heritability is questioned since many people with antisocial personality disorder simply fail at being functional humans without committing any crimes (Reid et al., 2019). The chance that an average person with antisocial personality disorder becomes a serial killer is meager, which means that heritability or genetics cannot alone account for aggressive behaviors.

Not all serial killers are affected by low MAOA gene activity. Some are influenced by other genetic and non-genetic factors. For instance, most serial killers want to find the ultimate thrill when they torture their victims. Some are driven by the adrenaline rush of catching and stalking their victims, as well as the art of perfecting their skills. Other serial killers are encouraged by the pleasure they gain when they control entirely a persons life, including how and where they die, their feelings during their last moments, and what happens after their demise. Most serial killers feel gratified when they know they are the reason for a persons fear. After controlling citizens, media, and law enforcement, such persons obtain deep satisfaction (Raine, 2019). The existence of other factors that influence serial killing and the probability that not every serial killer has low MAOA gene activity renders drug interventions partially ineffective.

Brain Intervention

Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) refers to a non-invasive technique of neuromodulation that inhibits or stimulates a specific brain region through the increase or decrease of neuronal excitability by low and constant direct current electrodes. tDCS is a proven and effective intervention that can modify the brains activity, hence the increased interest among scholars. There are two types of stimulation within tDCS: cathodal and anodal motivation. Cathodal stimulation reduces or inhibits neuronal activity, whereas anodal stimulation acts as the excitement of neural activity (Stagg et al., 2018). Although it is an experimental brain stimulation, tDCS has various advantages compared to other techniques. tDCS is exceptionally cheap, safe, painless, and non-invasive. Furthermore, it can be administered quickly, and the required equipment is portable (Razza et al., 2020). However, tDCS has a widespread side effect because it causes slight itching on the scalp.

Enhancement of Cognitive Control

First, tDCS improves cognitive control during the regulation of emotions. The capability to have mental control over ones feelings is essential. The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) is a core brain region that primarily influences cognitive reappraisal. Emotion regulation refers to different intrinsic and extrinsic processes that help modify, evaluate, and monitor emotional reactions, specifically temporal and intensive features, to achieve a persons goals. Feeser et al. (2014) investigated the impacts of the right dlPFC stimulation after cognitive reappraisal. During downregulation, anodal tDCS led to low arousal ratings and minimal responses on skin conductance. In contrast, anodal tDCS caused high arousal ratings with improved responses regarding skin conductance. The differences between the conditions for regulation were more profound in the group with active tDCS than the one with no tDCS (Feeser et al., 2014). Such results support the idea that subjects with active tDCS conditions have increased ability to reappraise negative emotions.

In summary, the study results showed that anodal tDCS facilitates cognitive reappraisal in upregulation and downregulation. Emotional arousal was reduced or elevated depending on the condition for reappraisal. Based on the study findings, it is wise to conclude that tDCS affects the cortical excitability level because it increases the neurons firing rate in the right dlPFC (Sergiou et al., 2020). Ultimately, the study findings indicate that amplifying dlPFC activity using tDCS facilitates emotion regulation, as evidenced by alterations in arousal ratings and skin conductance response.

Improvement of Empathic Capabilities and Morality

Second, tDCS can be used as an intervention that enhances empathic capabilities as well as reduces violent behaviors in forensic offenders. The ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) is a brain region that controls empathic abilities, and it plays an essential role in aggressive behaviors in cocaine and alcohol abusers. According to James Blairs model, empathy can potentially inhibit violent behavior. Persons with reduced empathic abilities are motivated and susceptible to committing violent behaviors since their risk of aggression is increased. Existing scholarship shows that modulating specific brain areas could serve as an intervention for violent behaviors and substance abuse. tDCS is an example of such interventions targeting certain brain areas (Sergiou et al., 2020). Modulation enables tDCS to change certain brain functions because of increased susceptibility to facilitate and generate electrical impulses related to the brain.

Repeated brain stimulation sessions can achieve susceptibility. Functional changes in the brain caused by substance abuse in the long term improve with tDCS application, which reduces drug craving. The anodal tDCS influences emotional processes in the prefrontal cortex. tDCS can inhibit or stimulate emotional pain and strengthen empathy to painful experiences. Ultimately, existing research shows that the prefrontal cortexs tDCS increases the feeling of empathy and morality (Sergiou et al., 2020). Furthermore, morality and empathic capability rise when the right vmPFC is stimulated.

Reduction of Social Exclusion

Third, anodal tDCS can target the prefrontal cortex, which minimizes social exclusion and the aggressive behaviors brought about by the exclusion. In addition, anodal tDCS can decrease violent behaviors when people are unprovoked and the intentions of harboring aggression. The right ventrolateral prefrontal cortex is essential in the down-regulation of emotional responses regarding social exclusion. tDCS can stimulate the right ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, which ultimately improves the down-regulation of emotional reactions regarding social exclusion (Sergiou et al., 2020). When the right ventrolateral prefrontal cortex is activated with tDCS, it induces a powerful regulation impact on social exclusion.

No Cure for All Problems and Safety

The current interventions focused on people that have low MAOA gene activity. However, a nations population is diverse and extensive, so not every person with low MAOA gene activity will exhibit aggressive behavior. Surprisingly, contemporary society labels such people as probable criminal offenders. People living with low MAOA gene activity and a high risk of aggressive behaviors are often stigmatized. For instance, persons with psychotic diseases such as schizophrenia are portrayed as violent, dangerous, and often stigmatized. While many people suffer from differential aggression and struggle to cope with anger and violence, most do not commit actual violence. Despite such a discovery, the pervasive image of individuals perceived as violent remains unchanged.

Furthermore, if individuals exhibit the genetic factors for aggression in prisons, they are automatically presumed to be violent and dangerous. Like any other system plagued with stigma, most prisoners and civilians who suffer from anger issues and aggressive behaviors feel unsafe because of violent peoples prejudice and negative image. Fostering a hazardous environment for civilians and the incarcerated has devastating effects on society. For instance, such people do not seek help from hospitals and other medical assistance. Instead, they are ashamed of their conditions, which may ruin their lives. When such persons do not seek treatment, violence and aggression are likely to increase and could have been prevented if not stigmatized (Sabatello & Appelbaum, 2017). It is critical to comprehend that most people with high MAOA gene activity labeled as potential offenders are humans who have simply failed to function normally. Thus, they should not be stigmatized and presumed guilty without committing crimes.

Ethical Issues

Coercive Treatment

Imprisonment is always lawful because it is provided for in the constitutions of different countries. However, neurointerventions face several ethical problems that undermine their effectiveness. First, coercive treatment undermines the principles of ethics. Coercing began in the 1920s in the narcotic farms that provided treatment for non-criminal volunteers and offenders who accepted medical interventions instead of punishment. When medical treatments are offered for penal reductions, such a phenomenon is called coercive treatment (Ling & Raine, 2018). The significant reasoning is that such treatments are coercive because they violate the validity and requirement of consent. The issue of consent in coercive treatment is highly controversial. However, consent is required to be freely given and informed. The voluntariness clause is violated when the alternative to neurointerventions is a shortened incarceration period.

The informed consent doctrine needs a voluntary and knowledgeable decision to proceed with the proposed treatment. However, offering an incarcerated person castration to replace a long jail time constitutes a coercive practice that makes sincere and voluntary consent impossible. Similarly, offering neurointerventions for a reduced prison term does not give the offender a real choice. Rationally, people are programed to select the option that benefits them the most. However, offenders choosing capacity is overwhelmed when the choice involves a reduced prison sentence for neurointerventions (Ryberg, 2019). There is nothing they can do since the probability of voluntary consent is undermined.

Compulsory Treatment

Second, compulsory treatments raise the issue of moral acceptability. Many people worry if neurointerventions adhere to conventional and accepted standards. They are morally acceptable because often they are necessary for the betterment of the incarcerated and do not contradict the freedom objection. For example, an offender possesses the thinking capacity to break into a persons home and steal their electronics. However, he does not understand the real consequences of a break-in and assumes that the act will have no stressful effects on the owner. Such a criminal would require compulsory treatment to regain his cognitive skills to think rationally. Morality is expressed as an act accepted by many people and considered right (Ryberg, 2019). Thus, mandatory treatments are only morally acceptable when they make sense in terms of the widely accepted rights and wrongs.

Treatment As Punishment

Third, neurointerventions can constitute punishments if they are appropriately imposed. The first property of punishment is the harm requirement, which argues that discipline should do something burdensome to the receiver. Punishment may cause pain, unpleasantness, and suffering. Furthermore, punishment should cause an individual to be in a bad state. For instance, compulsory treatment satisfies the harm requirement because it is undesirable to the offender. The incarcerated are compelled to complete the intervention, and some procedures may entail aspects of suffering, such as surgery (Birks & Buyx, 2018). Another property is the retribution requirement that potentially is taken because the recipient is a criminal. For instance, a person found guilty of a crime is treated using specific interventions to satisfy retribution punishment (Ryberg, 2019). Another property is the authorization requirement carried out by doctors in various treatments and punishments such as the death penalty.

Role of Physicians

Fourth, doctors and scientists are part of the criminal justice system as they play several roles and deal with legality problems. Doctors and scientists have researched new ways to carry out the death penalty. More humane methods have been implemented by utilizing medical research. However, the participation of physicians in the death penalty arouses the question of legality. Their participation is morally wrong since the act is a lethal injection which seems cruel. In addition, doctors are bound to the Hippocratic Oath, which aims to preserve human life and does no harm to patients. Ultimately, medical skills should not be utilized to fulfill outside standard clinical treatment purposes (Ryberg, 2019). Using neurointerventions in criminology could be extremely dangerous for prisoners in a dystopian future. They would be watched, their rights disregarded and forced to undertake compulsory treatments.

Better Ways

Aggressive Behavioral Control (ABC) Program

The ABC program was started at a regional psychiatric center located in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. The regional psychiatric center is an accredited, forensic, and maximum-security psychiatric hospital in Canada. It is responsible for providing high-intensity treatment programs focusing on cognitive behavioral therapy. The intervention is designed for high-need and high-risk offenders, particularly those showing low responsiveness to rehabilitation. Its duration is approximately six to eight months and is efficient for chronically and impulsively aggressive lawbreakers with an extensive history of violent crimes. The ABC program has high levels of success as overall criminal recidivism is reduced among those treated (National Gang Center, 2021). Thus, the intervention can potentially reduce criminal recidivism among the incarcerated. Furthermore, the program identifies the risk factors of aggressive behavior, helping society understand the phenomenon.

Family Tree

The intervention is based on the association of MAOA gene and environment interactions, antisocial behavior, and maltreatment exposure. The MAOA gene is essential in studying gene and environment interactions among people who face childhood maltreatment. Those with low MAOA gene activity and who were maltreated during their childhood had a high chance of reporting antisocial behaviors. Other outcomes reported by the same individuals include conduct disorder symptoms, hostility, and violence. Generally, the study shows that people with low MAOA gene activity are responsive to childhood maltreatment and exhibit antisocial behavior (Fergusson et al., 2011). As a result, an intervention can be formed based on family traits. Despite being non-invasive, the intervention creates stigma.

Conclusion

Although antipsychotic drugs have been applied to aggression treatment, a humane and non-invasive method is better since their drawbacks outweigh the benefits. The MAOA gene is linked to aggressive behaviors since people exhibiting low gene activity depict extreme violence. Drug and brain interventions effectively treat aggression; however, they cannot eliminate all problems. Furthermore, not every individual with low MAOA gene activity commits a crime. In addition, current neurointerventions have several ethical issues of morality and legality. Better aggression interventions include the ABC program and the family tree.

References

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Raine, A. (2019). Posted in Uncategorized

Abstract

Membrane filters are in growing popularity all over the world. These types of filters have found various uses in many industries and sectors. One notable use of membrane filters is in the treatment of water for drinking and domestic use. Membrane filters offer cost-effective and practical solutions to drinking water quality issues. Membrane filters are able to remove impurities and microorganisms from water samples. There are different types of membranes with each type having its unique pore size and purification abilities. In most practical applications, more than one type of membrane is often used as each has its own abilities and operational parameters.

To prevent clogging and operational issues, the pore sizes are usually reduced gradually in filtering processes. This study will attempt to create an understanding of the different types of membrane filters and their individual characteristics. The abilities and limitations of each type of filter will also be assessed. The different types of materials used in membrane filters have also been analyzed and appropriate recommendations are given.

There are two notable types of membrane filters namely inorganic and organic filters. This study attempts to investigate whether inorganic filters are more suitable for industrial and water treatment processes when compared to organic filters. Membrane filters have been found to be beneficial to society both as a method of providing clean and safe water but also as a provider of proper solutions to separation and purification problems in all fields of life.

Introduction

Water treatment is a vital need of any city and urban population. This is because water is a basic amenity that supports animal and plant life. Contaminated water has serious effects on the health of people and is known to cause death and damage to human bodies. Water is the foundation on which cities and towns are built. In earlier civilizations, towns and trading centers were built around waterholes, rivers and water masses. This is because life cannot exist without water. (7)

This principle still holds true and the quality of life in any city or urban center in the modern world is greatly dependent on the water resources available and on the quality of these water resources. For city planners the biggest headache is usually in ensuring that there is sufficient amount of water available for a citys inhabitants and that waste water will be easily eliminated to avoid contamination of the city.

Water is becoming a scarce resource with the earths fresh water resources being on a steady decline. This poses a great risk for future generations as there is a possibility that they may lack enough resources to use. It is due to this knowledge that scientists have devised means and ways that could be used to recycle and purify waste water and create utility for it. (10)

The world is being overpopulated and the available fresh water is becoming impure and unclean for human use. Fresh water springs are being polluted by industrial wastes, rivers are being flooded with runoff from farms due to over-cultivation and in general, the clean water reserves that were once present do not exist anymore. This has brought about the need for the development of purification and treatment systems that are geared towards reclaiming impure water and making it safe for human consumption.

Water is known to harbor diseases and pathogens that are very dangerous. Examples of water borne diseases include amoeba infections, cyclosporiasis, microsporidiosis. Such diseases cause effects such as vomiting, diarrhea, vomiting and loss of weight. Contaminated water can cause diseases when used to prepare food in households. The capability of water to act as a vector for harmful diseases calls for proper treatment of water resources.

The end objective of any water treatment process is to remove contaminating substances from the water and to make it safer for human consumption. There are four steps that are usually taken in a water treatment process. The first step in any water treatment process is to settle huge and heavy particles. This is usually done in huge settling tanks where the water is allowed to stay still without disturbance to allow for heavy particles to settle to the floor of the tank.

The second step is to filter lighter particles that have failed to settle at the bottom of the tank. Filtration is done by fine filters that capture microscopic particles that are suspended in the water. There are various methods used in the filtration of water for human use namely membrane filtration through the aid of pressure pumps, rotary filters, filters using vacuum drums, and sand filters. Other methods such as chlorination and the use of ultraviolet rays are very commonly used in water purification processes. (11)

This study will focus on water purification using pressure-driven membrane processes. These types of filters operate on the principle that when a liquid is forced through a membrane that has small pore sizes the membrane can trap impurities and unwanted particles thus resulting in a purified solute. A setup that involves the use of a pressure-driven membrane filter must-have pumps that create high pressure at one end and force the liquid to flow through the membrane leaving behind captured particles. The membrane material used is sometimes made up of polymers. The pressure membrane filter casing is usually made of steel or hardened plastic.

Such filters have an inlet and outlet pipe. The inlet pipe delivers untreated water to the membrane and the outlet pipe delivers filtered water from the membrane to the outlet. The filter is divided in to two cavities, one for unfiltered water and another for purified water. The membrane is what separates these two cavities. The membrane is usually folded / coiled so as to increase its surface area of contact with the fluid. The membrane coils are carefully placed into the casing and leakages in the membrane are checked to ensure efficient performance. The casing properties must also be put into consideration so as to ensure that the casing has the ability to withstand high pressures that may be needed so as to ensure that the fluid flows through the membrane.

A membrane filter is measured by the size of pores of its membrane. In the design of a membrane filtration system it is very important to properly determine the desired particle size so as to be able to make an informed choice of the type of membrane filter to be used. The type of membrane filter used is also dependent on the properties of water being filtered and its source. Water that has small particles suspended will require smaller membrane pores compared to water that has larger particle suspended.

Membrane filters may employ a successive layer of membranes that are gradually decreasing in pore size. Such an arrangement increases the useful life of the membrane compared to filters that only use one membrane that is expected to produce the required water purity. This is because of the reduced cases of clogging and obstruction of the pores of the membrane. There has been an increased usage of the membrane filtration method in the past 10 years. This is because people have realized the benefits and simplicity of this technique compared to other methods. (13)

Types of Pressure Driven Membrane Filters

There are various types of pressure driven membrane filters. Each type has its own unique properties and areas of application. There are four notable types of membrane filtration processes namely, nanofiltration, ultra filtration, microfiltration and reverse osmosis.

Microfiltration

Microfiltration is a process used to remove contaminants from a solute and produce a purified product. This type of filtration process can both be used for liquids and gases. Examples of micro-filters that are used for gaseous purposes include gas masks and filters. This type of filtration is able to extract impurities that are larger than the pores of the filter membrane. Impurities that happen to be smaller than the filter membrane undergo partial filtration and may at times go unfiltered. It is due to this reason that multiple membrane layers are usually employed so as to capture any small particles that may escape through the membrane

The average size for the pores of microfilters is usually between 0.1 to 10 micrometers. Due to the size of the pores of micro membranes, they are able to capture microorganisms such as bacteria and remove them from the fluid matter. However micro filters are not able to filter viruses because viruses are very small in size and tend to pass through the membrane pores.

Micro filters are used to filter solutions that have concentrations of between 2 to 3 percent of unwanted large matter. If the recommended concentration of the large matter is exceeded the filters tend to clog and a great reduction in operational efficiency is noted. This type of filtration process is very suitable as it is cheaper compared to the other membrane filtration techniques. The reason for this is because the fluid in micro filters do not necessarily have to be pumped so as to go through the membrane. This is because micro filters have relatively larger pores compared to other membrane filters.

Microfiltration could also be done with the aid of pumps in instances where high flow and filtration rates are required. However in some instances this is not necessary; is an increase in the overall costs of the system. This filtration technique is commonly used in filtering drinking water and for use in laboratories and industries. Micro filters are commonly used in mineral water preparation plants as this method is able to separate harmful pathogens at minimal pumping or low pressures. This method was initially used for treating municipal water supply lines without chemical treatment. However, as water became more contaminated and unsafe chemical treatment and microfiltration had to be incorporate to ensure public safety and health.

Micro filters are most common type of membrane filters in use in industries and water treatment plants. This is because they are easy to construct, and cheap to maintain.

Ultra filtration

Ultra filters on the other hand have pores of sizes between 0.001 and 0.1 micrometers. Ultra filters are more refined compared to micro filters as they are able to remove smaller matter as compared to micro filters. The ultra filtration setup is able to remove substances such as colloids, polymeric molecules of both organic and inorganic nature and viruses from a solution. However colloids and polymer molecules that have low molecular weights are allowed to pass through the membranes. (20)

Because of the relatively small sizes of the pores of micro filters they employ the use of hydrostatic pumps that generate a high pressure so as to create a flow of fluid from high pressure regions to low pressure regions; leaving behind matter with high molecular weights. Ultra filtration is known to be a safe and sure way of treating water. Unlike other methods such as micro filtration that allow viruses to pass through, ultra filtration filters up to viruses and ensures that drinking water is safe.

Benefits of using ultra filtration as a water treatment process include:

• Water that is of high quality and safe for human consumption can be produced
• Water of consistent quality and purity can be produced using the method
• Lower costs involved in the purification process and there is no use of expensive water treatment chemicals
• Good for the environment as the use of chemicals is minimized
• Ultra filters are compact and easy to install

Ultra filtration is commonly used as a pretreatment process for water before nanofiltration and reverse osmosis. This is done to reduce the impurity content in water before it undergoes the later processes. Pretreatment by ultra filtration is done so as to eliminate the possibilities of damage to nanofilter and reverse osmosis membranes.

Pretreatment processes are also done before any ultra filtration process so as to protect ultra filter membranes. Filters with pore size of between 0.5 and 1.0 millimeters are used. All pretreatment processes are done to protect membrane filters from damage that may arise due to clogging, rapture of membrane surface due to sharp objects and deformation of the filter membranes.

There are different types of ultra filter membranes namely; hollow fiber membranes, tubular membranes and spiral wound modules. Hollow fiber membranes are made up of membrane tubes of diameter between 0.6 mm and 2.0 mm that filter solutions and allow the permute to flow into a cavity around the fibers. Tubular membranes on the other hand involve a membrane core that filters the solution and releases the solute into an outlet tube.

Tubular membranes maintain high flow of the solution and this minimizes instances of clogging making tubular membranes suitable for viscous fluids and those that have high amounts of impurities. The last type of ultra filter is the spiral wound membrane type. This makes use of a long film of membrane that is wound to form wavy coils. The advantage of the spiral wound membrane is that it is compact and there is increased surface area for the filtration of the solute. This means that this type of ultra filter is able to produce more volumes of solute per unit area compared to the other types. However the spiral wound membrane is prone to clogging and damage in cases where the solute quality is low. (17)

Factors that affect the performance of ultra filters include the flow rate of the solute, the temperature of the solute and the operating pressure of the system. When the velocity of flow of the solute is increased the amount of permeate increases and vice versa. The amount of permute produced also increases with an increase in temperature or pressure. However these two factors must be kept in check as excessively high pressures result in clogging / compaction of matter on the membrane. Excessively high temperatures also result in damage of the membrane.

Nanofiltration

Nanofiltration is mainly used for softening drinking water, removal of microscopic contaminants and elimination of unwanted coloring from water. Nanofiltration is able to remove coloring compounds from water. In industrial setting, nanofilters are used to remove dye coloring from water. Nanofiltration is a pressure dependent process and cannot function at low pressures. The pressure is responsible for forcing the water molecules in the solute to flow in to the permute.

Nanofilters are also able to select salt ions and control their flow. This type of membrane filter allows monovalent ions to pass through it but rejects multivalent ions. The average pore size of a nanofilter is approximately 1 nanometer. However unlike micro filters and ultra filters, nanofilters are classified according to the molecular weight ratings of the filter. Nanofilters make use of anti scaling compounds so as to prevent damage of the delicate membranes.

Applications of nanofilters

Nanofilters are used in a wide range of applications such as :

• Filtration of dangerous chemicals from ground water
• The extraction of dangerous and harmful heavy metals from water. Examples include lead and mercury elements
• Softening of water
• Treatment of water contaminated with agricultural chemicals such as nitrates from fertilizers
• Removal of phosphates and soap compounds from water. This can be used in the treatment processes of laundry water

Nanofiltration offers realistic solutions to water treatment problems all over the world. This is because of the reliability of the process and its ability to remove discoloration and soften drinking water. This technology is widely used in developing nations where water is a serious problem. Examples where nanofilters are in large scale use is Africa where access to clean water is limited. Nanofilters are provided to the people with the aid of humanitarian organizations and governments in an attempt to improve the quality of water available to the people as well as the quality of life.

Reverse osmosis

This type of filtration process is applied in areas where the operator intends to remove the ions present in a solute. (2)

The principle behind reverse osmosis is that it makes use of a pressure difference between the solute region and the permute region. This causes flow of fluid from the solute side to the permute side. However, unlike other filtration methods, reverse osmosis does not allow the flow of ions through the semi permeable membrane. (2)

This type of filtration is done in instances where pure water that is free of ions is needed. However reverse osmosis cannot be used as an exclusive water treatment option and it has to be used in conjunction with other water treatment processes such as ultra filtration and nanofiltration.

The difference between reverse osmosis and other methods of filtration is that it makes use of high pressure, difference in concentration levels and diffusion to separate water molecules from a solute. Other methods of filtration on the other hand use the size difference between the molecules and the pores so as to separate contaminants from the solute. Such methods are independent of factors such as salt concentration and diffusion. (19)

The reason for this dense barrier is to enable it to withstand high pressures that may be imparted on the membrane. Reverse osmosis cannot occur in the absence of high pressure since the pressure is what forces the fluid particles through the membrane. The membrane in its structure is designed to allow fluid particles to go across but prevent salt ions from flowing. Reverse osmosis is mainly used in the purification of water for various uses namely:

• Extraction of drinking water from sea water with high salt concentrations
• Preparation of purified water for use in treating wounds in hospitals
• In lead acid batteries to avoid the reaction of salts in the water with the battery components
• Treatment of water to be used in boilers to avoid formation of salt deposits in piping and tanks
• Treatment of water for industrial cooling purposes
• Used to remove salts from effluent water
• Applied in the concentration of juices and foods. Examples include fruit juices that are concentrated so as to minimize transportation and handling costs
• Used in the manufacturing process of whey and concentrated milk solutions
• It is applied in hydrogen formation processes and helps to avoid the mineralization of the electrodes

Materials of Filter Membranes

Inorganic membranes

This type of membrane is made up of material that is not of biological nature. Inorganic membranes may be made up metal or ceramic compounds. Inorganic membranes can be defined as those that do not have covalent carbon bonds.

Inorganic membranes are cost effective and cheap to maintain. This is the reason for their increased use in industries and science laboratories. Inorganic membrane development processes are underway in an attempt to produce better and more effective membranes for use in industries. (1)

The two most common types of inorganic membranes in application are ceramic and metal membranes

Ceramic membranes

Ceramic membranes are mainly made up of glass, zirconia compounds, titania and alumina. This type of membrane is used in hostile environments that would otherwise damage organic membranes. Ceramic membranes are known to withstand high acidity and tolerate high temperatures. The main factors that affect the choice of a membrane in industries is the ability of a membrane to withstand harsh operating conditions and the amount of repair and maintenance that the membrane needs. Ceramic membranes require minimal maintenance and are easy to install. (5)

Membranes of ceramic nature usually filter out solutes and produce purified permutes as they have small pores that strain the solute. These membranes are also produced from carefully selected materials and thus are not harmful to the users or the environment. Ceramic membranes are the most environmentally friendly type of membrane that are in production. Inorganic membranes are also known to have a longer working life compared to organic ones. The long working life coupled with resistance to high temperatures, physical stability, chemical stability and continuous operation abilities make the ceramic membrane the best choice in modern industrial applications.

The ceramic membranes can also be sterilized using steam as they are not temperature sensitive. They are also resistant to abrasion and can therefore be used on solutes that portray abrasive properties. Another advantage of ceramic membranes is their ability to produce high amounts of permute per unit membrane area; high flux. Ceramic membranes are also resistant to bacteria attacks and are able to filter solutes that have high bacterial contents with minimal damage to the membrane. Lastly ceramic membranes when not in use can be dried and stored. Unlike other types of membranes, ceramic membranes do not undergo any damage due to dry storage. (6)

Shortcomings of ceramic membranes include high transportation and storage charges due to the high weight of the membranes. Ceramic membranes are also costly to produce and manufacture as they are made up of expensive components.

Applications of ceramic membranes

• Treatment and purification of waste water
• In chemical factories as a separation and cleaning agent, catalyst separator, removal of salts from solutes and in the recycling of industrial solvents
• In metal factories as a treatment option for oil emulsions, a means of extracting heavy metals from solutes, treatment and filtration of industrial waste water.
• In paper factories as a means of removing salts from solutes, extraction and removal of fats from emulsions and separation of yeast.
• In food industries as a juice concentrator, in milk sterilization, whey sterilization, filtration of juices and wines and in the removal of water from food so as to increase shelf life.
• In recycling and treatment facilities as a separator of water and oil in emulsions, removal of chemicals from solutes, removal of living microorganism from domestic use water, in sewage treatment facilities and in swimming pools as a cleaning agent for the water.

Metal membranes

Metal membranes are usually made up of alloys of platinum and palladium elements. The membranes are then casted to form plates of the elements. These plates are then oxidized to form oxides of the period 3 elements. The plates are then sintered to form membranes that are suitable for filtering water. (9)

Metal membranes were widely used for hydrogen separation in the 1950s. Its ability to maintain a high flux rate in hydrogen separation processes made it very favorable for use in hydrogen involved industries. However a major setback that hindered and caused the slow development of metal membrane technology is the exorbitantly high cost of these membranes.

Recent developments on the metal membrane technology include the development of an ultra thin metal membrane that involves the coating of a thin palladium coating on a polymer skeleton. This is said to reduce the overall cost of the membrane and improve on hydrogen flux. Another development is the use of cheaper elements for the membrane such as tantalum and vanadium and then coating these elements with a thin film of palladium.

Metal membranes are mainly used for hydrogen separation processes. This is because of the relatively high hydrogen flux rates that these membranes provide. Metal membrane technology is still a relatively expensive method of extracting hydrogen as it requires high temperatures of up to 370 degrees Celsius and high feed pressures so as to function as intended. It is due to these reasons that the use of metal membranes and the development of these membranes is on a limited scale. In the near future replacements shall be found and this will be an obsolete technology. (8)

Metal membranes are also used in ultra filtration of fruit juices and wines in food industries. Although there are cheaper alternatives some manufacturers still prefer metal membranes compared to ceramic ones.

Organic membranes

The term organic membrane refers to membranes that are formed due to the covalent bonding of long carbon chains. Organic membranes are membranes that are made up or from living matter. Living matter refers to plant or animal tissue / matter. Organic membranes are not preferred as they are sensitive to heat and harsh conditions as compared to inorganic membranes. The most common type of organic membranes are polymeric membranes.

Polymeric membranes

Polymeriuc membranes can be designed to have different pore shapes and sizes. This makes this type of membrane flexible and able to assume different functions. For example an oval shape of pores can be created to fit a specific type of solvent. Studies have shown that irregular membrane pores tend to release more particles compared to even ones. Recent technology has enabled the easy production of even pores that could be customized to produce any shape with ease. (12)

The means of operation of polymer membranes is through diffusion, particularly Knudsen diffusion. The Knudsen theory proposes that diffusion occurs in such instances due to the collision of the fluid particles with the walls of the pore and thus this facilitates the movement of the particles. The average pore size of polymer membranes is usually between 3 and 45 nanometers. (15)

Polymeric membranes are used for the enrichment processes of natural gases, separation processes of oxygen and nitrogen and extraction of organic substances. Below are the shortcomings of organic membranes:

• They are sensitive to abrasion
• Cannot be used in acidic and highly basic environments due to their tendency to become corroded
• Are sensitive to clogging and compactions in unsuitable fluids
• Are not durable and have a short life span
• Require complex maintenance activities to be carried out to avoid fast wear of the membranes
• Cannot be subjected to dry storage

Composite membranes

Both inorganic and organic membranes each have their own limitations. It is these unique limitations and strengths that have prompted scientists to develop better and improved types of membranes. Composite membranes are made up of both organic and inorganic membranes and are proving to be better than each individual type of membrane when used on its own. Composite membranes are usually made up of alternating layers of organic and inorganic membranes that are joined together to form a membrane. (16)

Composite membranes may also be made up of alternating layers of polymer and reinforcement membranes. An advantage of composite membranes is that they can are usually thin than other types membranes. This improves the flux properties of the membranes and makes them more efficient. (14)

Advantages and Disadvantages

Economical aspect

Membranes filters are known to be effective and efficient ways of waste water treatment. This is because of their ability to separate various fluids and elements according to the desired parameters. Membrane filters are also known to have a long working life as compared

Abstract

The COVID-19 pandemic was a global event that significantly disrupted the established order of life. In addition to its obvious economic and political consequences, the pandemic has also shown significant effects on the social sphere. This laboratory report critically examines the effects of strict isolation and social distancing on perceptions of self-satisfaction. Personal characteristics of the individual, such as extraversion and belonging to social groups (social connectedness), are used as predictors. It was shown that connectedness is a significant predictor of life satisfaction, and a drop in this parameter negatively affects satisfaction. Thus, this paper characterizes relevant and useful academic material, highlighting the statistical studys course and critically evaluating the results obtained.

Summary

Qualitative studies of life satisfaction are fundamentally important for the psychosocial sciences, as they allow not only to find resources for improving living conditions but also to identify the predictors responsible for this satisfaction. There is no doubt that the mentioned characteristic is a subjective perception of the environmental reality in which an individual is brought up and works. Since the perception is primarily influenced by the criteria of need satisfaction, emotional balance, and accessibility of necessary infrastructures, comprehensive sociological studies of satisfaction are most relevant. Nevertheless, it is a mistake to assign to this perception of the environment the features of only subjective attitude since there are examples of global events that qualitatively change entire communities lives.

In the context of this psychological study, such an event is the COVID-19 pandemic, a viral disease that disrupted the stable order of life in a large number of human communities. The pandemic has severely affected states economic and political relations, but the actual range of effects is much broader. More specifically, among most of the adverse effects, special attention should be paid to societys structures since the pandemic has put tremendous pressure on the social ties between individuals (Okabe-Miyamoto et al., 2021; Modersitzki et al., 2020). Large numbers of blockages, broken transport chains, distancing, and remote work have caused changes in societys composition in the context of an individuals social activity and life satisfaction.

In this context, the most intriguing research questions are to determine the degree of connection that exists between the emergence of the pandemic, and hence the establishment of social restrictions, and the degree of life satisfaction. Since this term is entirely subjective, the study of satisfaction can be conducted through the categories of extraversion and social connectedness. Extraversion in this laboratory report refers to such a psychological property, which characterizes the outward orientation of personal attitudes (Watson et al., 2019). On the other hand, social connectedness is defined as a factor that complements spatial development and reflects the formation of new socioeconomic communities in spatial settings (van Tilburg et al., 2019). Thus, it is clear that both criteria are strongly associated with community engagement, and thus it is reasonable to expect that the proliferation of restrictive measures related to COVID-19 had a severe effect on them and life satisfaction in general (Wijngaards et al., 2020). Consequently, the working hypothesis assumes that the categories of extraversion and social connectedness lead the individual to major psychosocial problems related to life satisfaction, triggered by the widespread implementation of strict restrictive measures in relation to the COVID-19 pandemic. The purpose of this laboratory report is to summarize and critically analyze the findings in order to confirm or refute the stated hypothesis.

Method

Since the authors of this report recognize the subjective nature of the perception of life satisfaction, a structured sociological survey was chosen as the primary research tool. More specifically, the survey was created on an online platform and was sent out to a large group of people with no sample limit on the number of participants. The survey was structured into five sections: introductory questions, extraversion/introversion scale, social connectedness and environment, life satisfaction, concluding paragraphs thanking respondents, and mentioning contacts for collaboration. To test the validity of the responses, participants were offered interim controls to determine the relevance and reliability of the collected results at a later date. Most questions consisted of a numerical scale with linked verbal descriptions so that the participant could label the answer to the proposed question with a number, where the smallest number, 1, characterized strong disagreement with the statement (the text of the questionnaire is provided in Appendix A).

Because each value in the response pool was assigned a numerical value, results were processed using quantitative statistical analysis tools. Specifically, Descriptive Statistics Tables were created to show overall trend measures in each of the three key sections of the social experiment. In addition, correlations between the two criteria and life satisfaction separately were examined. To process the data, it was used standard MS Excel software, automatically calculated the necessary criteria and values.

Participants

Because the online questionnaire did not regulate the number of participants, each of the study authors sent a link to participate through social networks. Thus, a central proportion of participants were acquaintances, relatives, and friends of the researchers who independently completed the online form. No demographic characteristics were collected either through the survey or in person. At the end of the response period, the final number of participants was 174 who responded to all questions.

Experimental Design

In this study, respondents were not divided into any groups or samples. In addition, no control group was created. This was done intentionally because the social opinion survey involved filling out the forms individually without outside support. On average, it took about twenty minutes to complete and did not cause any discomfort to the participants. The latter assertion is supported by the respondents personal statements at the end of the test and the trend of the responses to the checkpoints regarding the emotional connotations of completing the form (see Appendix A). For the total number of participants, those who answered all questions thoroughly were examined, as the consistency and systematicity of completing the questionnaire mattered. For this purpose, summary response statistics were examined in detail, and any forms that were partially or not at all answered were not used for further study.

The extraversion and social connectedness criteria established earlier in the second and third sections of the online questionnaire were used as independent variables for this trial. Since it was expected that these very parameters directly influence the psycho-emotional state of individuals in conditions of restriction, the degree of life satisfaction acted as a dependent variable. It was measured using statistical tools built into MS Excel, including correlation models reflecting the correlation between the independent and dependent variables.

Materials and Measurements

Materials

• Online questionnaire form sent via social contacts to a large number of respondents.

Measurements

Psychological testing involves measuring primary states of interest among respondents by reformatting verbal expressions into numerical notations. Thus, the measurement of psychosocial tendencies was carried out through in-depth statistical processing of numerical data. It was carried out through the functionality of MS Excel:

• Descriptive statistics.
• Paired correlation analysis.
• Linear regression modeling.
• Residual analysis.
• ANOVA test.
• Collinearity diagnostics.
• Single-tailed Reliability Analysis.

Procedure

The starting point for initiating the study was the authors personal motivation to explore the relationships between the criteria under discussion. The first step in conducting this laboratory test was a detailed review of the existing scientific literature, more broadly revealing the problem at hand. Once the literature review was completed, the examiners formed a working hypothesis and determined the format that was subsequently used to collect the data. Preparation of the online questionnaire form took time because academic sources describing grading scales were used to develop it (Oliver & Soto, 2015; Lee et al., 2001; Diener et al., 1985). Participants had approximately seven days to complete the survey, and the response function was closed at the end of the deadline. The next step was to analyze the summary statistics of respondents responses to exclude any irrelevant material and filter out only those data that were useful. As mentioned above, partially completed or blank forms were removed from the responses. The collected data, which underwent initial filtering, was loaded into the MS Excel environment, in which statistical analysis of several directions was performed. At the end of the analysis, a complete check of the results and corrections, if necessary, was performed. Finally, the laboratory studys final step was to document this report summarizing the trial and summarizing the key results.

Results

Since the methodological part of this study focused on several objectives in sequence, the statistical processings central results were the overall measures of trend, correlation, and regression analysis, combined with reliability checks of the results and analysis of variance for each section of the questionnaire. Thus, descriptive statistics for the overall data collection results were analytically prepared first (Table 1). It was shown that the highest mean value for responses was characteristic of the social connectedness scale, although this measure is explained by the total number of discussion questions, namely 12:19:5 for the variables, respectively.

Table 1. Elements of descriptive statistics for each of the three key sections of the questionnaire

Upon completing the primary data processing, a bivariate linear correlation analysis of the numerical arrays through the Pearson coefficient was implemented both through tabular forms (Table 2) and a visual depiction of dependency plots (Figure 1), was conducted. More specifically, a weak correlation was found between extraversion and individual life satisfaction (PCC = 0.164, p-value = 0.030). More intriguing results were found for the relationship between social connectedness and life satisfaction (PCC = 0.381, p-value <0.001) and between the two independent variables (PCC = 0.524, p-value <0.001).

Table 2. Results of correlation analysis by Pearson coefficient

An alternative hypothesis test was performed using a linear regression model to determine the possibility of assuming a linear relationship between the parameters under study. The analysis results are reflected in Table 3, which critically compares the regression results for the null and alternative hypotheses regarding the relationship between extraversion (H₀ model) and social connectedness (H₁) of the subjects and the degree of life satisfaction. Based on the data obtained, it can be established that the regression model for the relationship found between social connectedness and life satisfaction is linear, and its equation might look as follows:

Table 3. Linear regression analysis outputs for two measurements

The results obtained can lead to intriguing conclusions, but it is necessary to verify their reliability. For this purpose, statistical tools such as the ANOVA test of variance (Table 4), refinement of regression through multicollinear analysis (Table 5 and Table 6), residual analysis with the construction of a residual distribution chart were used consistently: Figure 2, Figure 3, and Figure 4. Furthermore, as a final check, Cronbach coefficients for each dimension were calculated through a single reliability test: this is shown in Table 7 and Table 8, and Table 9.

Table 4. Results of the ANOVA dispersion test

Table 5. Data from the coefficient analysis of collinear statistics

Table 6. Collinear diagnostic results

Table 7. Results of the single reliability test for extraversion

Table 8. Single reliability test results for social connectedness

Table 9. Single reliability test results for life satisfaction

Discussion

This studys fundamental core was the need to critically evaluate the potential relationship between an individuals personality states and the limitations initiated by the COVID-19 pandemic. The central index in any individuals life is satisfaction with the quality of ones own life. It should be understood that this measure is a subjective reflection of realitys perception, and therefore directly depends on the personal qualities of the subject. This idea was used in an experiment that evaluated the relationship between extraversion and social connectedness under pandemic conditions. Consequently, it is appropriate to state that this work was created in response to a research request for a qualitative assessment of the correlations between the criteria above.

The following causal relationship has been hypothesized in this study. Restrictive measures caused by the requirement of social distancing and isolation resulted in those with solid extroverted traits and those more in need of social belonging (social connectedness) experiencing the most pressure, which means that subjective perceptions of life satisfaction were hurt (Folk et al., 2020). The experiment conducted in this paper aimed to measure the degree of correlation and determine the possibility of linear regression for the dependencies of life satisfaction on two predictors. The test results were statistical calculations highlighting the components of descriptive statistics, bivariate correlation analysis, linear regression analysis and measurement of reliability results, ANOVA variance test, and one-way reliability testing (hence, using Cronbachs coefficients).

Specifically, it was shown that the highest correlation

Introduction

Cornea is a major area of interest for ophthalmologists as they seek to advance current refractive procedures. It is referred to as a viscoelastic system that can be described using its physical features (central corneal thickness (CCT)) and behaviour (biomechanics) (Dana et al. 2015). Studies, for example, Visual Hypertension Treatment, demonstrate that CCT represents a risk factor for the advancement of glaucoma independent on the IOP (Dana et al. 2015). Corneal hysteresis (CH) does not account for natural corneal property. Rather, it evaluates the capability of the cornea to ingest and disperse energy. Along these lines, CH can assist doctors to foresee how the eyes will respond to high intraocular pressure (IOP) and which eyes are more prone to optic nerve head harm and adverse visual field outcomes (Dana et al. 2015). Estimations of central and peripheral corneal curvature are valuable for detecting and examining corneal conditions, for example, keratoconus and for observing corneal shape after visual surgery or refractive processes, such as orthokeratology (Chen and Lam 2009).

Consequently, structural features of the central and peripheral cornea are extremely important for endothelial function for diagnostic purposes or before different surgical interventions to correct a defect. The measurement of CCT and peripheral corneal thickness (PCT) is used for health interventions. Corneal health can be assessed by gauging corneal thickness. Any changes in the corneal could indicate various pathologies. Hence, in clinical practices, it is recommended to get the most precise corneal pachymetry value for every patient (Ortiz et al. 2014). Additionally, corneal thickness also plays a vital role in intraocular pressure measurement, or when corneal refractive surgery is scheduled. That is, the value obtained determines whether the patient requires a surgery, the choice of a specific surgical method, follow-up planning, and/or the challenges related to postoperative outcomes. According to Ortiz et al. (2014), multiple factors could affect the thickness of the corneal pachymetry, and they include age of the patient, the presence of any corneal deterioration, time of the day, and the use of contact lenses (p. 44). It is also imperative to understand that corneal thickness may also experience refractive error. Intraocular pressure is a major risk factor linked to the start and the progression of glaucoma, which is a disorder that results in severe visual challenges that eventually causes blindness if not managed effectively (Yamashita et al. 2011). Hence, precise measurement of intraocular pressure is extremely useful for effective treatment of glaucoma patients.

The assessment of corneal parameters is imperative in ophthalmic reviews. Ophthalmologists use these parameters to acquire valued information on potential causes of glaucoma, to determine the right power of intraocular lens, monitor and to evaluate refractive conditions. Pentacam is a non-invasive equipment that ensures a thorough assessment of the morphological features of the corneal by applying a 3-D model depicting the thickness, volume, and spatial segment. Pentacam uses the Scheimpflug imaging technique to evaluate the corneal thickness and curvature (Gunes et al. 2015). In Ocular Response Analyser (ORA), four parameters are generated, including corneal hysteresis (CH), corneal resistance factor (CRF), Goldman-correlated IOP (IOPg) and corneal-compensated IOP (IOPcc) (Osman et al. 2016, p. 123).

Aim

The research aims to investigate the influence of central and peripheral corneal thickness and curvature on intraocular pressure and corneal biomechanics using two different machines  the Ocular Response Analyser (ORA) with parameters: IOPg, IOPcc, CRF and CH, and Pentacam (Scheimpflug imaging) CCT, PCT curvature of the cornea.

Hypothesis

Alternative hypothesis (H1)  there is a relationship between morphological features of the central and peripheral cornea on ocular response analyser measures of IOP and corneal biomechanics

Null hypothesis (H0)  there is no relationship.

A Review of Literature

The IOP observation is vital following penetrating keratoplasty (PKP) since extreme IOP can cause the graft to failure, and it is common in transplanted eyes with rates as high as 42% (Al Farhan 2016). The Goldmann applanation tonometry (GAT) has always been used as the gold standard for gauging IOP, but high astigmatism and irregular surface after the PKP can affect the precision, and reduced rigidity of the ocular wall in some instances, including keratoconus, could lead to poor measurement of the IOP using GAT (Feizi & Pakravan 2012, p. 20). Consequently, there have been efforts to circumvent the issue facing the gold standard in grafted eyes to get an ideal option (Al Farhan 2016).

Ocular Response Analyzer (ORA) Measurement

From a broader point of view, available evidence suggests that corneal morphological features influence outcomes of different ocular measurements and processes (Zhang et al. 2013). It has however been difficult to evaluate biomechanical properties of corneal features in vivo. New developments have eliminated such difficulties. For instance, the use of the Reichert Ocular Response Analyzer (ORA) has provided an immediate clinical assessment of the corneal biomechanical reaction. Consequently, ophthalmologists now have novel methods to apply in preoperative screening of refractive surgical procedures in patients. The ORA depends on speedy air gust to distort the cornea and captures data of the two corneal biomechanical parameters known as corneal hysteresis (CH) and corneal resistance factor (CRF) (Zhang et al. 2013). The CH is generally used to demonstrate the vicious features while the CRF is understood to show the overall viscoelastic resistance of the cornea.

Most researchers have widely applied the ORA to assess biomechanical features of the cornea, and they have demonstrated that various clinical diseases could affect corneal biomechanical properties, for instance, the decline in CH with keratoconus and corneal surgical procedures (Zhang et al. 2013; Ortiz et al. 2014). Further, some studies have attempted to explore the precise clinical factors and value of CH and CRF as corneal biomechanical parameters (Zhang et al. 2013). Recent findings demonstrate that CRF has a strong correlation with corneal spherical-like aberration, particularly in serious cases of keratoconus, which means that it is a vital factor for consideration in keratoconus qualification (Zhang et al. 2013). Further, keratoconus is a condition that affects the cornea through a progressive thinning and anterior extension, finally causing asymmetrical conical change of the shape of the cornea. Results demonstrated that the corneal biomechanical properties have corresponding association with spherical aberrations noted in individuals with keratoconus, and to a larger extent could be associated with the corneal difference according to inherent keratoconus disease factors.

The ORA, developed by Reichert Ophthalmic Instruments, Depew, New York, is a latest non-contact tonometer gadget that evaluates response of the cornea to indentation through rapid air pulse (Zhang et al. 2013; Feizi & Pakravan 2012). It is developed to generate two types of measurement for corneal biomechanical properties, namely corneal hysteresis (CH) and the corneal resistance factor (CRF) (Zhang et al. 2013) and measures IOP, independent of corneal thickness and rigidity. The corneal hysteresis occurrence emanates from the viscoelastic stifling in the cornea. That is, the capability of the tissue to absorb and dispel energy is reduced. On the other hand, the CRF optimizes the relations to CCT, showing the entire biomechanical strength of the cornea based on the enhanced corneal biomechanical parameter.

Apart from CH and CRF measurements, ORA analyses also include the Goldmann-correlated IOP (IOPg), corneal-compensated IOP (IOPcc) (Al Farhan 2016). The IOPcc measures IOP, which is less influenced by the corneal features relative to Goldmann applanation tonometer (GAT) (Al Farhan 2016).

Once the cornea has deformed inwards due to air pulse, it undergoes inward applanation (Feizi & Pakravan 2012). After few milliseconds following the inward applanation, the air puff closes off, creating low pressure in a balanced manner. In this period, the cornea regains its normal shape. Further, during the same process, the corneal once more go through an outward applanation (Feizi & Pakravan 2012, p. 20). An electro-optical collimation detector system is responsible for evaluating any corneal curvature changes in the three-millimetre diameter for both inward and outward applanation. It also depends on a random coefficient to change these distortions into two applanation pressures. From a theoretical standpoint, both pressures should have similar values, but this is not observed. Hysteresis, which is a factor of corneal viscosity, is the variation between outward and inward applanation pressures (Feizi & Pakravan 2012). Corneal thickness and rigidity generally affect hysteresis. The CRF, as measured by the ORA, is seen as influenced by the elastic features found in the cornea, and it seems to be a measure of the total perceived resistance of the cornea. That is, the CRF measures the aggregate outcomes of both the elastic and viscous resistance met by the air puff while deforming the surface the cornea (Al Farhan 2016). The Goldmann-related IOP (IOPg) is usually derived from the average of these two applanation pressures while cornea-compensated IOP (IOPcc) is used to gauge IOP values independent of corneal properties, such as central thickness (Feizi & Pakravan 2012, p. 20).

A study conducted by Ostadimoghaddam et al. (2012) revealed that positive association existed between CH value and CCT. Additionally, positive correlation was also observed between superior corneal thickness, inferior corneal thickness, and central corneal elevation (Ostadimoghaddam et al. 2012). There was also positive relationship between CH and corneal volume. Anterior chamber, however, yielded significant negative correlation on CH value, volume, depth, and angle. The shape feature also had negative correlation. Finally, there was no significant association noted between CH and other corneal parameters (Ostadimoghaddam et al. 2012).

Ostadimoghaddam et al. (2012) also observed positive correlation between CRF and corneal topographic parameters. According to the findings, significant positive association was observed between CRF and central, superior and inferior corneal thickness while significant negative correlation was also noted between CRF, superior, and inferior corneal power (Ostadimoghaddam et al. 2012, p. 13). Other parameters did not indicator any important relationships.

Further, Ostadimoghaddam et al. (2012) noted positive correlation between intraocular pressure and corneal topographic parameters. Significant correlation of IOPg was present in central and thinnest corneal thickness, superior corneal thickness, minimum posterior power, and maximum posterior power. However, significant negative correlation was noted between central corneal power, inferior and superior corneal power. Other parameters did not present any significant correlation with IOPg.

Finally, corneal compensated intraocular pressure had significant correlation with corneal topographic parameters (Ostadimoghaddam et al. 2012). Significant correlation was determined between IOPcc with anterior chamber volume and anterior chamber depth. There was however no significant correlation between IOPcc and other parameters.

By focusing on the variation between the outward and inward applanation pressures, CH attempts to show the damping process in cornea (Ostadimoghaddam et al. 2012, p. 14). In this case, findings demonstrate that CH is a positive measure of corneal biomechanical features. Normal values for CH range between 8 mmHg and 15 mmHg. Most studies also find values within this range (Ostadimoghaddam et al. 2012), and researchers have used such values to conclude. Consequently, they have concluded that CH has a positive correlation with CCT. Further, Ostadimoghaddam et al. (2012) claimed that an increase in CCT was associated with overall resistance to cornea deformation, which also increased. Hence, these changes led to higher levels of CH. It is observed that about 90% of the corneal thickness is made up of stromal layer. As such, corneal stroma is a major factor in determining biomechanical and refractive characteristics of the cornea. For the most part, the thickness of the cornea can be a vital factor for consideration when deciding corneal biomechanical features. The ordinary human corneal stroma when affected could be identified with the biomechanical unsteadiness of the tissue (Ostadimoghaddam et al. 2012). Different reviews have found that the particular engineering of the most foremost section of the corneal stroma (100-120 ¼m) controls the dependability of the corneal shape (Ostadimoghaddam et al. 2012).

Nevertheless, the outcomes in this study by Ostadimoghaddam et al. (2012) uncovered a more grounded positive relationship of CRF than CH with CCT. Ostadimoghaddam et al. (2012) also noted that previous findings additionally expressed that CRF had a solid positive relationship with CCT assessed with ultrasonography in the typical group, but CH had a lower association. Then again, other past studies also found that hysteresis and CRF evaluated using the ORA have a positive yet modest relationship to CCT  higher value for CCT are associated with the higher value for the hysteresis (visco-flexibility) and CRF (versatility) (Ostadimoghaddam et al. 2012, p. 14). In concurrence with conclusions from these studies, Ostadimoghaddam et al. (2012) additionally showed that corneal thickness has a vital part in the damping procedure, especially in the versatile properties of cornea. Despite the relationship seen between CCT with CH and CRF in this research, some findings revealed that eyes with the similar CCT yielded fluctuating levels of CH, suggesting that other unknown variables might affect corneal biomechanics. For instance, El-Malah (2013) found that CH value was low in research participants who had cases of glaucomatous eyes relative to others who had normal eyes. CH depicts a dynamic property of the cornea to resist changes. It is observed that more elastic or distensible ocular morphological features perhaps are linked to development of glaucoma lesions, and based on the findings of El-Malah (2013), lower biomechanical condition of the cornea be associated with weaker lamina cribrosa.

The modest levels of relationship found in this study between these factors propose that other obscure biomechanical variables should likewise contribute towards the qualities of CH. Such obscure variables could be linked to damages or changes in the optic nerve head, which confirm damages related to glaucoma (Nongpiur et al. 2015). As results by Ostadimoghaddam et al. (2012) showed, one of these elements may be corneal volume. Findings of this review indicated positive relationship between corneal hysteresis and corneal volume. However, there was no any noteworthy relationship between CRF and corneal volume. Evidence likewise showed that corneal volume was somewhat an enhanced indicator for CH but not CRF, alluding that CH may mirror more composite effect of corneal thickness and layer difference (Ostadimoghaddam et al. 2012). Corneal volume is a 3-D parameter and, therefore, it can assume a more compelling role than corneal thickness, the 2-D parameter, in evaluating biomechanical features of cornea (Ostadimoghaddam et al. 2012). Other findings illustrated the critical role of corneal volume in distinguishing keratoconus (Tafti et al. 2010). Tafti et al. (2010) recommended that Pentacam determined parameters like corneal volume dispersion and rate increment in volume can be useful in identifying gentle and modest types of keratoconus from ordinary corneas.

Results presented by Ostadimoghaddam et al. (2012) uncovered the negative relationship between CH and corneal shape figure. The higher negative curvature feature values were related with the higher estimations of corneal hysteresis and as it moved near zero, lower figures of CH result were observed (Ostadimoghaddam et al. 2012). Bearing in mind this relationship, nearsighted people may have diverse corneal hysteresis compared with hyperopic individuals. Ostadimoghaddam et al. (2012) observed a negative association between CH and volume, angle, and depth of the anterior section. Reduced levels of corneal hysteresis were linked to deeper anterior chamber depth (Ostadimoghaddam et al. 2012). Different reviews have revealed the relationship of CH with corneal diameter (Ostadimoghaddam et al. 2012). Subsequently, it may be expected that longer separation between corneal top and limbus is comparable with other lower segments of the cornea (Ostadimoghaddam et al. 2012). As per the results of the study by Ostadimoghaddam et al. (2012), IOPg had a negative relationship with dioptric force of all sections of frontal cornea, and a positive association with corneal thickness and power in posterior of the cornea that ought to be examined in future reviews. Finally, Ostadimoghaddam et al. (2012) found no significant relationship between IOPcc and CCT. Specifically, as findings demonstrated, IOPcc had an insignificant effect from other influencing corneal features, and in those vital relationships, no solid stronger coefficient existed. This shows IOPcc may be an autonomous measure of IOP from other corneal components. In addition, CCT did not have any significant relationship with anterior chamber depth or angle when measured with Pentacam Scheimpflug imaging, and it was an independent factor (Liu, Ferri & Lazzaro 2011).

Pentacam Scheimpflug Imaging

The Pentacam was initially presented as an anterior section analyser that uses the Scheimpflug photography technique (McAlinden, Khadka & Pesudovs 2011, p. 7731). In a more current model, specifically the Pentacam high-resolution (HR) tomographer, the resolution of images has improved, and more data from various sources are now processed (McAlinden, Khadka & Pesudovs 2011). Amid image acquisition with the Pentacam, which lasts about 2 seconds, a pivoting Scheimpflug camera takes images from cross-segments of the front part, which are lit up by opening lights at various meridians (McAlinden, Khadka & Pesudovs 2011). Since every one of these openings overlaps in the focal point of the cornea, the exactness of focal estimations is enhanced. The software analyses all information from all areas, remakes a 3-D representation of the foremost segment, and creates readings of various parameters. Pentacam Scheimpflug is currently considered superior and capable of delivering quality images of the cornea, anterior chamber, and lens, offering a wide range of assessments across the anterior part. Hence, it is vital in measuring corneal thickness and assessing their relationship.

Utilising the information from the two corneal surfaces, the Pentacam evaluates the thickness of the cornea at all areas of interests. This tool has been shown to produce exceptionally repeatable and reproducible pachymetry readings contrasted with ultrasound pachymeters (Hashemi & Mehravaran 2010). Pentacam estimations of the corneal thickness are practically identical with ultrasound values, and the concurrence between Pentacam and ultrasonic values is superior to that of the Orbscan, particularly in post-surgical eyes (Hashemi & Mehravaran 2010, p. 44). With regard to the display, the Pentacam produces colour-coded pachymetry maps that one may fuse in the 4-map displays. Like in other measurement gadgets, numeric aspects can be overlaid to encourage auditing of the maps (Hashemi & Mehravaran 2010). On the side box, the thickness qualities and areas of the student focus, zenith, and most slender purpose of the cornea are displayed. An innovative display choice, nevertheless, is the relative pachymetry map where corneal thickness information is created utilising a toric ellipsoid reference surface (Hashemi & Mehravaran 2010). Based on the map, the thickness of any given indicator is compared with the ordinary thickness at that point (Hashemi & Mehravaran 2010, p. 44). This implies that a typical map indicates 0% at all areas, despite the fact that the thickness increases at the edges. The corneal thickness spatial profile and the rate of increment in thickness from the narrow part of the cornea towards the end are distinctive between keratoconic and typical corneas. The Pentacam programming uses such examination in the Refractive and Pachymetric presentations to help recognize ectatic challenges and distinguish them from alterations observe following keratorefractive surgery.

Hashemi and Mehravaran (2010) compared Orbscan II and Pentacam to determine their accuracy on corneal curvature and power. Notably, the Orbscan II is furnished with a Placido plate, and it can quantify the corneal curvature straightforwardly. The Pentacam, on the contrary, is just height based and subsequently curvature and power information are obtained from elevation data. Corneal power display alternatives with the Pentacam incorporate the sagittal (pivotal) and unrelated curvature of the foremost and back corneal surfaces, and also the actual net power, the keratometric control deviation, the refractive power, and the corresponding k-reading power. In most pre-defined displays, for example, the topometric, refractive, and distinctive 4-map displays, the sagittal power map is shown. Notwithstanding, the tangential power is recognised for having less pivotal inclination and a superior apparatus for distinguishing unusually steep areas of the cornea, for example, a keratoconus cone. When observing the map, a close steepness exceeding 48.0 D can be a characteristic of keratoconus (Hashemi & Mehravaran 2010).

Various studies have attempted to identify the best Pentacam power values for intraocular lens power evaluation in post refractive surgery eyes (Hashemi & Mehravaran 2010). A few reports recommend utilising the Holladay corresponding keratometry reading (EKR) or the actual net corneal power. An essential part of the structured display is the EKR appropriation chart, which can be an indicator of postoperative result in which low ranges and sharp pinnacles support better results. In any case, alert is required in the utilisation of the Pentacam information because irrespective of higher precision, the data ought to just be utilised as a part of specific estimation equations, for example, the Holladay 2 and the BESSt algorithm (Hashemi & Mehravaran 2010).

Nguyen, Liu, and Liu (2016) demonstrated that Scheimpflug gadgets can give exceptionally repeatable CCT estimations that are analogous to, but not likely substitutable with, ultrasound pachymetry CCT. Earlier research has demonstrated that profoundly reproducible CCT estimations can be attained using the Pentacam, Sirius, Galilei, and Corvis ST (Nguyen, Liu & Liu 2016). Among these gadgets, the Galilei has reported the highest score for intraoperator repeatability. This might be to a limited extent owing to its double rotational camera feature, which can control the CCT gauge from two distinctive Scheimpflug cameras. Nevertheless, it is imperative to recognise that various findings generally detail different CCT measurement results for different devices. A review focusing on CCT estimations recorded from Scheimpflug devices with ultrasound pachymetry has been distributed already. A few examinations have revealed no variation in mean CCT attained through either ultrasound pachymetry or with the Pentacam. Conversely, a few different reviews have shown a huge contrast in the mean CCT measured by Pentacam and by ultrasound pachymetry (Nguyen, Liu & Liu 2016). Additionally, the Sirius-CCT estimation is comparable, however, fundamentally not the same as the ultrasound pachymetry CCT. Despite sharing a typical imaging technology, different Scheimpflug gadgets seem to acquire CCT estimations that are statistically not quite the same as each other. Although these variations might be small, care is required when comparing CCT values across various evaluation tools. It remains to be cleared up whether these variations might be adequately small for them to be considered unimportant or negligible in clinical settings (Nguyen, Liu & Liu 2016).

While different corneal parameters might be related with glaucomatous risk freely of their impact on IOP measurement, the investigation of corneal biomechanics may help in better comprehension of factors that contribute to estimation errors. IOP is an adjustable risk factor seen as closely related with glaucomatous advancement. A desired objective in glaucoma administration is estimating IOP, as close as could reasonably be expected, to the actual IOP (Nguyen, Liu & Liu 2016). An intracameral gauging of IOP might be the most precise technique for accomplishing this goal, but it is clinically unfeasible. Along these lines, different methodologies have been proposed and presented to help stabilise impacts that biomechanical elements of the cornea have on IOP estimation. Regression approaches have been developed with standard corrections for estimates derived through applanation tonometry, considering the impacts of CCT. However, studies now emerge with evidence that corneal biomechanical properties, for example, corneal hysteresis, may better clarify the source of estimation error in tonometry than CCT (Nguyen, Liu & Liu 2016).

Discussion and Conclusion

Evidence available demonstrates that there is a relationship between morphological features of the central and peripheral cornea on ocular response analyser measures of IOP and corneal biomechanics. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected. The ORA, one major common tonometers, has become the most preferred clinical gadget for assessing biomechanical properties (Zheng et al. 2016). In spite of the fact that multiple factors can affect CH and CRF, for example, corneal health condition, corneal thickness, IOP and the properties of the entire eye, they are broadly acknowledged as vital factors for understanding the biomechanical condition of the cornea and clinical assessment of eye diseases.

Corneal thickness and peripheral corneal thickness had a compelling part in influencing biomechanical properties of this tissue. Furthermore, significant correlation between CH and corneal volume was also determined (Ostadimoghaddam et al. 2012). Since corneal volume is a 3-D parameter, it can assume a more compelling part relative to corneal thickness, a 2-D parameter, in presenting biomechanical properties of cornea. It is presently acknowledged that IOP can have imperative impacts on most corneal biomechanical measurements obtained from the ORA, as specified in past research. Hence, it is conceivable that this IOP variation may have added to the noted variations in the ORA measurements. CH had a low correlation with IOP while a strong positive relationship was found between CRF and IOP (Zheng et al. 2016). In any case, the findings presented in some studies were not quite the same. These variations might be brought on by differences in techniques of measuring pressure, experimental species and the kind of mount utilised as a part of the trial set up. For example, the present review specifically measured IOP using a pressure transducer while other studies used transcorneal pressure.

The values for CH and CRF were almost consistent in other studies. CCT had a positive correlation with CH. From a broader perspective, the thickness of the cornea can be a vital factor in evaluating corneal biomechanical properties. In the ordinary human corneal stroma, any adjustment of the standard orthogonal structure of the fibrils in keratoconus might be identified with the biomechanical unsteadiness of the tissue (Ostadimoghaddam et al. 2012).

It was also imperative to recognise the differences between normal eyes and eyes with existing conditions. For instance, (Zheng et al. 2016) showed that the measurements of CH and CRF in left eyes were less than values noted in right eyes, but Et was higher in the left eyes when contrasted with right eyes. Intraocular biomechanical variations extended with the increase in IOP, an observation that could be associated with corneal oedema.

With an IOP of 40 mmHg and a temperature around 15 °C, the corneal imbibition pressure may lessen and draw water into the corneal stroma (Zheng et al. 2016). The subsequent increment in water volume can change corneal biomechanical properties without clear morphological impacts. Given that the border pressure instigating this outcome is marginally unique for every cornea, the impact created by the expanding IOP can change for corneas and incite increased variation between eyes at high levels of pressure. Additionally, Medeiros et al. (2011) also observed a significant strong correlation between the CCT and PCT. Appropriately, it might be inferred that the thinning or thickening of the cornea (with or without keratoconus) is a normal occurrence and ought not to be restricted to a specific area (for instance the central segment of the cornea) (Sedigh & Shenasi 2011). Biomechanical effects may also be relevant in determining changes in the curvature (Medeiros et al. 2011). It was also established that Pentacam Scheimpflug Imaging was exceptionally repeatable and reproducible pachymetry and, thus, provided reliable measures relative to other tools.

References

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Chen, D & Lam, AK 2009, Reliability and repeatability of the Pentacam on corneal curvatures, Clinical and Experimental Optometry, vol. 92, no. 2, pp. 110118. Web.

Dana, D, Mihaela, C, Raluca, I, Miruna, C, Catalina, I, Miruna, C, Schmitzer, S & Catalina, C 2015, Corneal hysteresis and primary open angle glaucoma, Romanian Journal of Ophthalmology, vol. 59, no 4, pp. 252-254.

El-Malah, MA 2013, Evaluation of corneal biomechanics using ocular response analyzer for normal and primary open angle glaucoma eyes, Journal of the Egyptian Ophthalmological Society, vol. 106, no. 4, pp. 249-252. Web.

Feizi, S & Pakravan, M 2012, Comparison of intraocular pressure measurements by the ocular response analyzer and Goldmann applanation tonometer after penetrating keratoplasty in keratoconus patients, Iranian Journal of Ophthalmology, vol. 24, no. 3, pp. 19-26.

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Hashemi, H & Mehravaran, S 2010, Day to day clinically relevant corneal elevation, thickness, and curvature parameters using the orbscan II scanning slit topographer and the pentacam scheimpflug imaging device, Middle East African Journal of Ophthalmology, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 44-55. Web.

Liu, MP, Ferri, S & Lazzaro, DR 2011, Relationship between corneal thickness, anterior chamber depth and angle using Scheimpflug imaging, Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science, vol. 52, no. 14, p. 3025.

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Nguyen, AT, Liu, T & Liu, J 2016, Applications of Scheimpflug imaging in glaucoma management: Current and

Introduction

In the present day, cultural competence in multiple spheres of life attracts societys particular attention. A considerable number of studies emphasize its significance and the importance of the inclusion of ethnic, racial, and socioeconomic identities in various processes, including education and language learning. The LGBTQ community may be regarded as a formation that not only unites people from various backgrounds on the basis of their sexual orientation and gender identity regardless of their age, race, ethnicity, education, and socioeconomic status but has a distinct culture and values. As the dominant culture becomes more and more accepting, the number of LGBTQ individuals who uncover their identity is growing.

At the same time, regardless of new social norms that promote the necessity of diversity, inclusion, and respect for human rights, discrimination against LGBTQ individuals still exists in multiple spheres of human lives. This study addresses the issue of the LGBTQ communitys underrepresentation in English language learning classrooms and in the curriculum. The significance of this research is determined by the fact that LGBTQ people who are forced to pretend and hide their identity within the framework of heteronormativity in education become particularly vulnerable to bullying, homophobia, and violence that lead to mental health issues, substance abuse, homelessness, and suicide. The paper will provide general information related to the LGBTQ community and culture, analyze the issue with factors that indicate the necessity of changes, and describe potential solutions. The study includes the analysis of used sources and the works implications as well.

General Background

Standing for lesbians, gays, bisexuals, transgenders, and queers, LGBTQ may be regarded as an umbrella term that covers gender and sexual identity as two distinct and important aspects of human identity. All people have a sexual orientation, however, it may differ on the basis of sexually attractive individuals gender. In other words, lesbian and gay people are mostly attracted to people of the same sex, romantically and sexually, while heterosexuals are mostly attracted to people of the opposite sex (Margolies & Brown, 2019, p. 34). In turn, bisexual individuals are attracted by both men and women. At the same time, sexual orientation does not coincide with sexual behavior, and LGBTQ persons may be sexually active either single or in monogamous or consensually non-monogamous relationships.

At the same time, all people have gender identity as well. Thus, while cisgender people identify with the sex they were assigned at birth, transgenders identify with the sex opposite to their own (Margolies & Brown, 2019, p. 36). Finally, gender queer, or non-binary, people have an identity that is neither male nor female. While gender identity and sexual orientation are distinct aspects of a personality that do not presuppose each other, the members of the LGBTQ community are united with a particular culture that makes them distinguished.

Throughout history, people formed communities on the basis of their sexual orientation and identities that were viewed positively or negatively in different time periods depending on existing social and religious norms. However, in the United States, the formation of the LGBTQ community nationwide and the movement for its members civil rights appeared in the second half of the 20^th century (Murphy & Bjorngaard, 2019). In the present day, the exact numbers of LGBTQ individuals are unclear. For instance, according to the National LGBTQ Task Force Policy Institute, the LGBTQ population constitutes 5-10% of the general population (Margolies & Brown, 2019). At the same time, the Williams Institute estimates 3.5% of Americans who identify as LGB individuals and 0.3% of Americans who identify as transgenders  all in all, there are approximately 8 million people in the LGBTQ community (Margolies & Brown, 2019). However, in the present day, surveys demonstrate the increased numbers of its members.

This tendency may be justified by modern social changes that emphasize Tolerance and common human rights as more accepting culture facilitates young peoples coming out. Thus, according to a 2017 Harris Poll, 20% of Americans between 18 and 34 years old identify as members of the LGBTQ community (Margolies & Brown, 2019). However, the study conducted by the trend forecasting agency J. Walter Thompson Innovation Group in 2016 indicated that less than a half of American adolescents and young people between 13 and 20 years old reported their exclusive heterosexuality (Margolies & Brown, 2019). Nevertheless, data collected shows that sexual orientation, gender identity, and associated problems should be considered and addressed.

Meanwhile, the LGBTQ community may be regarded as a formation that not only unites people from various backgrounds regardless of their age, race, ethnicity, education, and socioeconomic status but has a distinct culture and values. In general, the LGBTQ culture was shaped and enriched by the activities and works of historical figures identified as LGBTQ individuals and includes distinct symbols and norms (Murphy & Bjorngaard, 2019). In particular, the colors of the LGBTQ flag that was created by Gilbert Baker in 1978 symbolize sex, life, healing, sun, nature, magic, serenity, and the spirit as every persons elements (Melendez, 2017). In addition, the members of the LGBTQ community value identity, collectivity, solidarity, and the significance of resistance against all types of violence and discrimination. Finally, people who belong to the LGBTQ community and people who support and ensure their inclusivity share the same PRIDE values that stand for Professionalism, Respect, Integrity, Diversity, and Excellence (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Resource Center, n.d.). In other words, they aim to be ethical, reliable, trustworthy, tolerant of peoples differences, confident, innovative, attentive to others interests and demands, polite, and sincere.

At the same time, regardless of new social norms that promote the necessity of diversity, inclusion, and respect for human rights, discrimination against LGBTQ individuals still exists in multiple spheres of human life, including education. According to Short (2017), while bullying is a common phenomenon in a considerable number of schools across the country, LGBTQ students are more vulnerable to it, along with harassment and the risk of exclusion. These findings are supported by Pryor (2018), who discovered that the institutional spaces in colleges and universities continue being unwelcoming for the LGBTQ community due to their organization along the gender binary (p. 32). At the same time, the same tendency may be traced not only in the environment but in the curriculum as well.

In the United States, the majority of high and middle schools are heteronormative in nature. In other words, students are automatically regarded as heterosexual and heterosexual practices are privileged  thus, schools heteronormativity presupposes the exclusion of everything that does not relate to heterosexuality (Block, 2019). At the same time, heteronormativity does not imply discrimination and a negative attitude to the members of the LGBTQ community. However, it is associated with an absence of LGBTQ individuals in the curriculum as they are not addressed by social studies and instructional practices (Block, 2019). In addition, by accepting heterosexuality and gender binary behavior as a norm, heteronormativity indirectly makes LGBTQ students less valuable than other human beings.

In turn, as heterosexuality cannot be regarded as a norm for every person, the curriculum that embeds it does not reflect reality. In social studies, while Supreme Court decisions are examined, decisions related to LGBTQ peoples human rights, such as Obergefell v. Hodges Supreme Court decision of 2015 that supported same-sex marriages, are not included (Block, 2019). In addition, textbooks that traditionally represent the curriculum in schools leave out information related to the LGBTQ community. Moreover, a substantial number of textbooks depict sexual minorities inaccurately or in perverted ways (Block, 2019). While the curriculum is controlled by teachers, and some of them understand the significance of inclusivity in placing LGBTQ individuals in studies and subjects, a change of the whole system is required.

LGBTQ Community in English Language Teaching

Similar to education in general, the sphere of applied linguistics and English language teaching (ELT) has always been regarded as a monosexual world. Although the social turn slightly improved the situation and introduced a small body of LGBTQ-related literature, in the present day, sexual minorities remain underrepresented in ELT (Paiz, 2019). However, while some teachers include LGBTQ individuals in their classroom discourse, the situations with transgenders and their identities are even more disastrous. In turn, the non-inclusion of these people in ELT contributes to the ignorance of this issue and their marginalization and stigmatization by wider society (Paiz, 2019). That is why the application of queer-informed approaches and the creation of inclusive classroom spaces may be regarded as great opportunities within the field of ELT.

As textbooks are the source of heteronormative discourses within the classroom, the inclusivity of their content should be considered as well. In the present day, mainstream curricular materials are produced by commercial publishers who establish particular identity options for all students while alternative voices are silenced. On the one hand, textbooks are regarded as a minor concern  while materials are traditionally used as a starting point in the process of learning, further perceptions are formed by in-class activities and discussions organized by teachers.

On the other hand, textbooks may not only impact students results but reinforce the target cultures norms being the source of identity options. For instance, according to Shardakova and Pavlenko, who conducted their research in 2004 in order to evaluate textbooks normalizing function, in the majority of them dedicated to Russian as a second language learning, the dominant character type was youthful, fashionable, white, and presumably middle-class  as they were studying abroad in Russia (Paiz, 2019, p. 4). In this case, within the framework of other options absence, students may feel that if they do not fit the suggested option, they will not be successful in learning, and their identities are not valuable for the second languages culture. In addition, in many cases, topics such as love, romance, dating, and family may introduce the aspects of LGBTQ culture that are either avoided or discussed within the norms of heteronormativity.

In addition, teachers attached to heteronormativity may create additional challenges for the inclusion of LGBTQ students in the educational process and limit the representation of the LGBTQ community in the classroom discourse. For them, those individuals who try to express their identities are viewed as incapable of understanding instructions and providing correct answers. For instance, a gay man who uses masculine forms to describe his partner in a language that has genders could be misunderstood by a teacher, and his speech or writing would be corrected (Paiz, 2017). In other words, for a heteronormative educator, a persons masculine form will be regarded as a mistake rather than the expression of his gay identity. In addition, the absence of appropriate common policies and approaches to the issue of the LGBTQ communitys underrepresentation in ELT makes students dependent on a teachers decisions. For instance, if a teacher is tolerant or belongs to the LGBTQ community or realizes the necessity of diversity and inclusion, his student will have more opportunities to discuss gender- and identity-related topics in the classroom.

The issue of discrimination against the LGBTQ community remains crucial in both ELT for native speakers and teaching English to speakers of other languages (TESOL). In TESOL, it was initially introduced by Cynthia Nelson  in her article, Heterosexism in ESL: Examining our attitudes, the researcher challenged heteronormativity in the classroom and the inappropriateness of the systems automatic attitude to all students as straight (Paiz, 2017). At the same time, this approach leads to multiple negative consequences for both students and practitioners if they belong to the LGBTQ community, as it contributes to their inaccessibility and invisibility. In her subsequent research, Nelson provided a draft of gay-friendly pedagogies focusing on their methods and outcomes (Paiz, 2017). The purpose of gay-friendly pedagogies was to provide communicative competence for LGBTQ students and teach them to interact with other LGBTQ individuals on a daily basis, critically analyze the representation of the LGBTQ community in popular media, and express their identities within the second languages linguistically meaningful ways.

It is essential to address the queer theory in order to understand how sexual identity may be implemented in the framework of ELT for its improvement. In general, the queer theory may be defined as a particular approach to sexuality and gender as culturally and socially constructed concepts and the rejection of the binary system (McCann & Monaghan, 2019). Theorists suppose that a persons gender identity and sexual orientation are determined by the sociocultural environment and the peculiarities of upbringing rather than biological features. Thus, being constructed, human sexual identities have fluid nature and impact peoples social identities, human interaction, and language learning. While a considerable number of studies emphasize the significance of cultural competence and the inclusion of ethnic, racial, and socioeconomic identities in the educational process, the LGBTQ community deserves representation in the language learning curriculum as well.

An area of research that has been ignored is how teachers can help promote the LGBTQ culture in the classroom, particularly concerning increasing the feeling of acceptance and pride among ESL students and newcomers to the USA who identify as LGBTQ. Friendly student groups, supporting school staff, and holistic, supportive practices can effectively create a welcoming school atmosphere for new LGBTQ students (Hanna, 2017). These school-based resources may provide official procedures and frameworks for resolving LGBTQ-related concerns in schools, leading to improved academic results and student welfare.

Student organizations that tackle challenges relating to gender identity and sexual orientation, and embodiment create a safe place for ESL LGBTQ students and their supporters to congregate, mingle, and lobby for improvements in their educational institutions and local communities. Typically, such clubs are called Gender and Sexuality Alliance or Gay-Straight Alliances (GSAs (Kosciw et al., 2017). The presence of a GSA may also contribute to a more respectful student body by raising awareness of LGBTQ issues and demonstrating to LGBTQ students that they have allies in their schools. There is empirical evidence to support the claim that LGBTQ students who attend schools with GSAs are less likely to hear anti-LGBTQ statements, less likely to feel uncomfortable due to their sexual orientation, and less likely to suffer severe victimization (Kosciw et al., 2017). Accordingly, new LGBTQ learners will be motivated to participate in school activities without feeling ashamed of their identity. Therefore, educators should encourage the development of GSAs and the participation of new students in the clubs as they make schools safer and more welcoming for LGBTQ persons.

Schools gender-inclusive policies, practices, and resources help LGBTQ students feel valued. For example, having designated facilities such as gender-specific bathrooms and locker rooms can increase new students feelings of belonging. New ESL students may face severe consequences if their gender orientation is incongruent with their assigned sexuality when bathrooms are open only to those who identify as male or female. According to Collins and Ehrenhalt (2018), 68% of transgender persons reported verbal abuse in restrooms, and almost 10% reported violent attacks. People afraid of being harassed frequently avoid using the washroom altogether, putting their health in danger. The experiences and identities of intersex ESL students are frequently completely ignored by bathroom norms. They may be required to use amenities that do not match their gender identification due to birth certificates or biological requirements, which may infringe on their privacy and make them reluctant to use these amenities completely. Such policies can negatively message new ESL students that they are not appreciated for who they are. In other words, schools should give people a choice to use a more private facility if they feel uneasy in a communal place for any reason.

Students come from different backgrounds and hence have different abilities heavily influenced by their gender orientation. In short, children may want to engage in gender-specific extracurricular activities, although this may conflict with school policies. Through participating in their preferred sports, for instance, LGBTQ persons learn to concentrate on their talents and abilities rather than their competitors. Many states in the United States have inclusive sports organizations that enable trans and intersex student-athletes to compete alongside teams that align to their gender orientation while requiring no hormone therapies or related procedures (Collins & Ehrenhalt, 2018). Such rules are critical for all students since, in addition to assisting kids in academics, schools are also responsible for assisting them in developing in other areas of life, such as talent acquisition. ESL students should be given opportunities to participate in extracurricular activities that suit their preferences. When schools restrict what activities LGBTQ students can partake in, they may become dormant or inactive.

LGBTQ students usually agonize internally while adhering to the gender-specific clothing restrictions at school. Wearing uniforms, which are ostensibly intended to foster a feeling of inclusivity amongst students, may negatively affect some learners mental health, particularly LGBTQ students. According to Brown and Diale (2017), per students constitutional rights, institutional dress code regulations should let learners to freely express themselves, especially their sexual orientations and pride in their LGBT identities. This includes never demonizing the identity of individual kids with the clothing code. If the gender manifestation or attire adorned by LGBTQ students is causing harassment, distraction, or occurrences of bigotry, this is a school environment issue. In other words, it is not a matter that can be remedied most effectively by penalizing LGBTQ students and limiting their liberties to creative expression. Therefore, school administrators should develop uniform policies that consider the diverse categories of gender expression.

When LGBTQ students do not receive adequate support from school administrators, they may choose to isolate themselves from the rest of the school population. Unfortunately, most educators are reluctant to implement LGBTQ-inclusive curricula and practices out of dread of backlash (Collins & Ehrenhalt, 2018). Administrators can give educators tools and continuing professional development on LGBTQ+ topics to increase school personnels cultural competency. Through professional development, teachers may learn how to address LGBTQ+ issues in the classroom in a manner that is developmentally relevant in order to foster a climate of tolerance and acceptance for all students. Professional development may increase staff understanding of the language used by ESL LGBTQ+ students to define themselves. These strategies may be advantageous for these adolescents and result in favourable educational results, such as enhanced school punctuality.

Instead of fostering an atmosphere of silence, schools should strive to create conditions that foster open dialogue regarding various sexual orientations and gender expressions. A conviction that such encounters need to be kept quiet is given credence by societys refusal to have a discourse on the experiences of LGBTQ persons. Due to the stigmas often attached to the LGBTQ community, new ESL students exposed to diverse cultures may find it difficult to openly express their genders. Acculturation, on the other hand, is made much simpler when the individual finds communities that support them and encourage open conversations on LGBTQ-related topics. As a result, educators need to utilize political occurrences as opportunities to empower queer students to express their authenticity and as possibilities for all students to comprehend the repercussions of judicial rulings and legislative acts.

It should go without saying that the atmosphere at schools may serve as a possible safeguarding factor for LGBT young people. All individuals have the right to be educated in a safe and nurturing atmosphere, irrespective of their sexual orientation and how they identify or represent their gender. There is a correlation between inclusive programs that tackle gender identity and sexual orientation and school cultures that are more welcoming of LGBT young people. These particular policies are directly correlated with a reduction in the number of students absent from school and an increase in the number of students good school experiences and perspectives.

Reasons for Inclusion

There are several reasons why the LGBTQ community and LGBTQ culture should be included in ELT. First of all, a substantial number of students are ready to engage with LGBTQ+ issues and content in the language classroom (Paiz, 2019, p. 3). Some of them belong to the LGBTQ community and share its culture and lived experiences, others have relatives and friends who are LGBTQ individuals, and even if people are not connected with sexual and gender minorities, they have a wish to know more about them and implement their knowledge in their daily activities. According to the study conducted by Moita-Lopes in 2006 that involved a group of middle school students from Brazil, the majority of them wanted to discuss LGBTQ-related issues during English language classroom discussions, however, teachers ignored their desire or canceled their conversations (Paiz, 2019). This approach frequently leads to discrimination as it taboos LGBTQ culture by excluding it from the normative discourse. In addition, when students are not allowed to discuss any subject in the classroom, they may have related conversations in locker-rooms, hallways, playgrounds, and other places where the absence of adult guidance may lead to disrespectful interactions with the use of homophobic language.

At the same time, the intentional avoidance of the LGBTQ communitys presence in the curriculum is associated with even more devastating results, especially for LGBTQ students. Fearing bullying, beatings, forced coming out, and ostracization by teachers and peers, they prefer to hide their identity by pretending to be a person suitable for the schools norms. As teachers are not properly prepared, they cannot create an inclusive space where all identities will be visible. In turn, when LGBTQ students constantly feel unwelcome and unwanted in the educational process and in ELT, in particular, they become highly vulnerable to bullying, homophobia, and discrimination that lead to depression, substance abuse, and suicide attempts.

Finally, it goes without saying that a comfortable environment and a welcoming community stimulate learning and lead to positive results of it. Thus, when LGBTQ students feel valued and included in ELT, they will be motivated to learn English (Kaiser, 2017). On the one hand, the inclusion of LGBTQ students allows them to speak honestly in relation to any subject connected with their identity. In turn, even the safest interpersonal questions about out-of-class activities or weekends within the framework of English learning may be stressful for LGBTQ people if they are forced to hide their sexual orientation or gender identity. On the other hand, a prepared teacher will not only improve their cultural and sociolinguistic competence but become more sensitive, especially in relation to those students who have a fear of being excluded from the learning process. In other words, they will be able to understand whether a person is honest or hiding his identity and help overcome concerns.

Potential Solutions

The most obvious solution that presupposes several essential strategies is queering ELT. Paiz (2017) defines queering as creating spaces where all sexualities and their ecosocial and cultural relevance can be engaged with in a manner that is both respectful of individuals and critical of all identity positions and subjectivities (p. 7). According to this perspective, sexual identities play an important role in educational interventions and impact a persons almost all aspects of life. On the basis of the queer theory, sexual identity is shaped by socially significant factors and may be affected by the fear of marginalization and ostracization. Meanwhile, in relation to language learning, a persons identity may impact the choice of an additional language and the means through which it will be acquired. In addition, as previously mentioned, the welcoming environment and inclusive atmosphere in the classroom are associated with greater motivation and more successful results in language learning. That is why the development of a particular program for the implementation of LGBTQ culture in the curriculum may be regarded as beneficial as it will contribute to all peoples general well-being by minimizing fears and raising their commitment to learning.

An essential step in this initiative is the queering preparation of teachers. In general, cultural competence-related courses are included in teacher preparation programs. However, while teachers have an opportunity to choose various disciplinarily relevant topics to facilitate the acquisition of professional identities, LGBTQ studies are frequently not included in the syllabi, for instance, in TESOL core courses (Paiz, 2017, p. 8). The article of Schieble and Polleck (2017) supports this tendency stating that specific topics related to LGBTQ populations are overwhelmingly absent across programs of teacher education, even in courses that focus on multicultural approaches (p. 167). In this case, even when LGBTQ-related conversation may be initiated by a teacher, it may be limited by institutional forces as well. Thus, it is clear that topics connected with the LGBTQ communities, the peculiarities of their members, their cultural values, the principles of queer-applied linguistics, and the queer theory should be included in teacher preparation programs.

Equipped with knowledge related to the ESL methodology, queer TESOL, and queer pedagogy, teachers should know how to lead their practice regardless of their own sexual orientation and gender identity. It is highly essential to avoid the notion that only LGBTQ teachers can understand and teach LGBTQ students. In addition, they should know how to create lesson plans that will respond to the standards of inclusivity with the LGBTQ community presented in them. Moreover, teachers education should include reflective exercises that will help educators perceive students identities.

Another aspect that should be considered in the process that aims to raise LGBTQ students inclusivity is the quality and content of textbooks and the introduction of queering classroom materials. In general, these materials should reject the idea that education and language learning should correspond with heteronormativity and the existence of the binary gender system. Moreover, new materials should be critically and thoroughly examined in order to avoid stereotypes and the negative representation of LGBTQ individuals and their culture Batchelor et al., 2018). All in all, textbooks should be regarded as reliable sources of information about the LGBTQ community that allows its members to be involved in the language learning process in the most comfortable way.

The inclusion of LGBTQ individuals in ELT may be provided through new practices and classroom activities. For instance, students may be asked to conduct interviews with the LGBTQ communitys members to evaluate how their views on particular matters may differ from straight peoples perceptions. Another essential technique is described by Ryan and Hermann-Wilmarth (2019)  LGBTQ-inclusive books may be read aloud in the classroom and discussed by all students. This approach not only helps improve listening skills essential for language learning but organizes meaningful work related to social justice.

Moreover, students may participate in the process of inclusion as well through the elimination of prejudice and stereotypes related to sexual minorities. For instance, they may be provided with texts that represent LGBTQ individuals or the aspects of their culture in inappropriate ways and asked to correct them (Paiz, 2017). Kedley and Spiering (2017) suggest using LGBTQ graphic novels to combat homophobia and spread awareness of LGBTQ cultural values in a comprehensive way. In addition, students may be proposed to prepare a lesson plan in accordance with LGBTQ peoples inclusion in it. For example, common topics related to the family, hobbies, or traveling may be changed by students to become more inclusive. These activities not only ensure that all people may be represented in the curriculum and have a great potential in language learning but minimize the expressions of homophobia and violence on the basis of gender identity and sexual orientation.

The necessity of LGBTQ students representation in the curriculum and education facilities is supported by the majority of researchers who address this subject. Thus, according to Maddah (2018), the enforcement of inclusions presupposes the absence of stereotyping in textbooks, the provision of knowledge that would reflect LGBTQ individuals in positive views, and a clear statement that discrimination against

Introduction

Communication is crucial in shaping and reflecting relationships in a family. It is through conversations that one can identify the relationship that exists among family members. Furthermore, communication enables one to negotiate relationships with family members and outside individuals. Engaging in talks indicates the state of the relationship between family members and other people. It is through family communication that the members can interact with each other sharing their meanings. Every family has a multigenerational communication pattern that influences the members, their future families, and their generation.

The goals of the current analysis are to investigate the concept that is portrayed in a family through interview analysis. Furthermore, to identify how family communication is significant and is used in handling various issues, such as conflict. The studies use interviews that involve the researchers parents. The researchers father is industrious and ensures that the family remains intact by resolving issues. The researchers mother is a social person who believes interaction is useful in building and maintaining human relations. The mother portrays communicative skills by responding effectively to the questions asked during the interview. This research covers various family communication concepts such as family conflict, power and influence, and family system theory.

Method

The interview process involved involving the parents of the researchers in a conversation. The conversation was made open to give parents room for good responses. The researchers first created a good communication environment with the parents to ensure they could provide the necessary information. The interviewer focused on questions that portray the nature of family communication. The questions focused on the significance of having a family, conflict in the family and its importance, factors that result in conflict and how they are resolved, the people they look up to, family differences, and communication within the family. The question on the significance of the family was asked to set the onset of family communication. Subjects that caused conflict were used to identify the issues resulting in conflicts in the family. The parental position with siblings was asked to identify how they set boundaries with their siblings and how power was evident in their family. Questions on conflict were used to identify how conflict is present in every family and how they are resolved.

The interview process brought about various issues, such as family togetherness and how they support each other. Surprisingly, the researchers mother had a family that supported each other in many ways. For instance, the father was not always around, but the cousins, sisters, and uncles helped the mother and were able to do everything together. This portrays that the familys communication was strong and positive as they could stay together.

Main Analysis

Concept 1: Family Conflict

Conflicts in family settings arise from diverse issues and can be addressed in different ways with various success degrees. Although conflicts are unavoidable in families, they do not always translate to negative outcomes (Galvin, Bylund, Schrodt, & Braithwaite, 2019). Moreover, the absence of conflict in the family does not mean it functions perfectly. Additionally, conflict avoidance can result in negative long-term outcomes affecting the quality of relationships (Persram, Scirocco, Della Porta, & Howe, 2019). In an attempt to make a family system seen as balanced, a strong sibling or parent may avoid or suppress the arising issues, which is not healthy. With time, the suppression can result in negative consequences, with the family stuck in an endless cycle of conflict, devastating at least one family member.

As much as dysfunctional and functional families encounter conflict situations, functional families face the problems more positively and constructively. Therefore, this means that a functional family setting counter conflicts in ways that model their differences to be more bearable. Communication is vital in family conflict resolution during interactions (Persram et al., 2019). Thus, the way the family will get to have a similar understanding is significant, and conflict will be less disastrous if more members agree. Conversely, how individuals disagree in a family setting is equally vital, where some deal with issues openly while others end up hurting each other. Moreover, a perception may be perceived as rational in one family yet irrational in another. Furthermore, every single family member contributes positively or negatively to control pressures generated by conflict.

Conflict is regarded as an articulated struggle, indicating that it cannot be considered an interpersonal issue when all parties do not know of its presence. An individual may feel angry or frustrated concerning something, but it cannot be taken as a conflict if not communicated to the rest of the family (Galvin et al., 2019). Moreover, involved parties need to be interdependent, which is a view that aligns with systems thinking. This means individuals cannot experience interpersonal conflict when the consequences do not impact other parties in the family, and conflicts can stem from following diverse viewpoints (Della Porta, Howe, & Persram, 2018). For instance, an individual may believe that the level of intimacy required of them can potentially smother them or needs more of them than they are willing to provide. Conflicts can also arise following a difference in the values or attitudes of individuals.

Conflicts can also be associated with limited resources and goals. Family members are bound to have separate goals at different periods, which is unavoidable. The means that parents use to manage conflict and communicate in the family significantly impact children and their associations with the rest of the members, especially when they are older and have to form close relationships. Children raised in step or single-parent families are often subjected to intra-household conflicts in their homes and experience interpersonal fighting with their biological parents living in a different home (Devakumar et al., 2021). On the other hand, children of divorced families tend to feel trapped between their parents.

Family Conflict Description

The current interview outlines various areas of family conflict in both conversations. The talk with the researchers father shows that conflict is always present in families and that having it is a good thing. This is evident in sentence 6, where the interviewers father claims, I think its healthy to have a difference of opinion. The family conflict is portrayed in the fathers conversation with siblings, who have different opinions on certain subjects. This is shown in line 9 oh, for sure like college football see I am attacked as a longhorn fan, and my daughter is a tcu horned frog fan.

The conversation with the researchers mother also shows that conflict cannot be avoided in a family system. The mother argues in line 48 that conflict must be available since, in the family, the members are usually with each other most of the time, which may result in challenges that lead to conflict development. Family conflict resolution involves listening, which shows that one party is interested in the issue. In line 12 of the interview, the father claims that resolving conflict involves sitting down and calmly discussing our differences and working through the problem. Additionally, line 50 shows that communication is basic in handling conflict. The mother claims, the best way to do it is to sit down and have open communication and talk it out occasionally&. The researchers mother shows constructive conflict as the relationship in the family strengthens despite engaging in conflict. It has also helped the mother strengthen the relationship with the younger sibling as they could solve their problems openly through listening and negotiations.

Family Conflict Analysis

The conflict portrayed by the respondents families shows that it is normal for families to have conflicts driven by various factors. The conflicts are usually constructive as it helps reinforce family security. Managing family conflict involves identifying the two-fold responsibility, including meeting needs and extending the family system (Galvin et al., 2019). Both interviewees portrayed the same method in handling family conflict and proving its effectiveness in strengthening the family bond. The interview has shown that collaboration in the family is vital. It is a key aspect in conflict resolution since, through listening and collaboration, both parties can discuss their issues with fairness leading to satisfaction in the family. Family conflict informs the concept of family dialect in that the relationship in families is usually dynamic as it keeps on changing, which can be joyful, complex, and difficult at certain time periods.

Concept 2: Power and Influence

Power and influence exist in every human interaction and relationship. Power entails changing the behavior or action of a member of the family. Every family member has the chance and ability to use power and influence others (Galvin et al., 2019). In a family setup, power is transactional in that no one owns it, and it keeps rotating from one individual to another through negotiations. This implies that power is only available when other individuals are in the family (Galvin et al., 2019). Having power and influence in human relationships, including family, is essential as it involves negotiations. It is believed that power in the family is only meant for the heads of the family and adults. However, power in a family is dynamic as it relies on dimensions in the family system that change with time. The variations are due to developmental stage, family economics, intellectual resources, family structure, cultural issues, and external stressors. Exercising power varies from one family to another since they are rooted in family history, values, and culture, resulting in different operations.

Family power is based on the foundation of resources that members have put forth to enable them to have control in a particular way. The resources include factors that are rewarding to the parties involved. It is an aspect that one of the members provides to the other to ensure that goals are achieved or satisfied. Good communicators in a family are aware of the processes of power integration and converse in a way that is flexible, competent, and appropriate (Galvin et al., 2019). These factors ensure they can adapt their communication to different areas and situations. Family members tend to have power bases, but it requires good communication to ensure they can be used effectively. A powerful family member may communicate using verbal and non-verbal cues, such as speaking most in an interaction (Galvin et al., 2019). Family power includes children as it affects family activities, interaction, and the development of rules that guide family behavior. Although legal measures outline that parents are responsible for controlling the childrens behavior, children are usually negotiated for power. Influence occurs through bargaining, ingratiation, moral appeal, and distributive communication.

Power and Influence Description

The concept of power and influence is evident in the current interview. The researchers father portrays power in this conversation. The father claims that being the oldest sibling, certain moves were made, and, in the process, the other siblings resented certain things. This is evident in line 37, which portrays the influence older family members use to ensure that others can act or behave in the way they want. It shows that the father implemented aversive stimulation and manipulation based on being the oldest. Other family members, such as uncles, also influence the family.

The conversation revealed that the fathers uncle, who was successful in oil and gas, was influential in the family to the point that the father wanted to be like him. Line 14 of the interview shows that moral appeal is crucial in power and influence as it makes one live up to certain standards. The researchers mother also shows the concept of power and influence in their family. In line 52, the researchers mother looked up to her mother because of the moral appeal. The mother ensured that every family member stayed together in every situation, which made a good impression.

Power and Influence Analysis

The interview has portrayed that power and influence are present in families. It is a key aspect of the family, considering they stay together, interact and share a common cultural identity. It is crucial in managing multiple issues within the family as power can be used to guide the familys morals and accomplish certain tasks. Power and influence rely on family communication for effectiveness, as one has to express views through conversations to achieve dominance. Communication forms the basis of all types of power and influence, as everyone can discuss their issues through negotiations (Galvin et al., 2019). The family has a hierarchy that establishes power guidelines, which are useful areas such as conflict. Power orchestration varies from one family to another depending on their hierarchy. This gives certain members of the family the power to handle and control various issues in the family as well as decision-making.

The decision is usually critical to the family as it affects their lifestyle. They are entitled to important decisions that may be received positively or negatively. Individuals orchestrating power may choose to have an ambassador in the family who might be the eldest son or marriage partner. The ambassador uses this opportunity to implement power by making specific decisions. Power is influence used for achieving specific purposes or goals. When power sources are unshakable in times of conflict, negotiations are used to create a mutual benefit. Individuals of the family who hold standard positions usually wield great power (Galvin et al., 2019). The power and influence concept influences the concept of communication and family roles. Power shapes family roles in that the member grows up knowing the roles they have been assigned, their expectations, and their performance. The roles are dependent on the communication processes since they are the one that develops them. A family member learns ones position through communication feedback received.

Concept 3: Family System Theory

People come together to form relationships that are usually larger and more complex compared to individuals. Families are developed from peoples interaction patterns, resulting in family systems. The systems perspective sheds light on the communication patterns in families. Family system theory provided critical insight into understanding multifaceted organizations such as families (Galvin et al., 2019). The behavior patterns in a family keep changing, making it challenging to predict. Family members tend to portray family patterns unconsciously because of the interconnection. A system is identified as interconnected components resulting in a functional unit. A change in one of the components affects the whole system. In a family setup, individual behavior changes result in a significant change in the family. Communication forms the boundary of the family system theory as it shapes how family relationships are developed, managed, and altered among people when interacting (Galvin et al., 2019). A persons behavior is comprehensible based on the human system, which locates the family position.

Family system theory employs characteristics such as interactive complexity, wholeness, patterns, complex relationships, interdependence, openness, and equifinality. Interactive complexity entails comprehending families using the systems perspective without the use of factors affecting behavior. A persons action is a response and stimulus in previous and future actions, respectively. Wholeness implies that the family is similar to a system as it involves the characteristics of the family members. Patterns result from the interaction and coordination of family members, which cannot be created independently. Every family has a communication pattern that makes it easy to predict life. Complex relationships result from structures and interaction patterns that can only be comprehended through individual relationships (Galvin et al., 2019). The traditional hierarchy shows that power is based on age. Interdependence is portrayed by the family system, where components rely on each other for functionality. When a member experiences a problem, it affects the other family members, although it depends on the individuals relationship. Openness occurs through interrelationships which makes the family system functional. Equifinality results from accomplishing tasks differently, reaching the same outcome.

Family System Theory Description

Family system theories and their characteristics are present in the current interview. The researchers mother portrays the characteristic of equifinality in line 54 as the family could accomplish the task from various perspectives. The mother claims that the family operated in unison to the point that when their father was not around, uncles and aunts helped solve problems. Line 54 also portrays interdependence as the family relies on each other for support. When one person is unavailable, the other ensures that everything operates normally. The respondents mother relied on sisters, brothers, and cousins for transportation and other crucial requirements and needs. The conversation with the mother in line 54 also depicts the family system theory, which claims that the family operates like a system and that any problem with one of the components significantly affects the other part of the system.

The respondents mother portrays a pattern repeated in the family. For instance, a special pattern includes communication roles that are evident in the conversation. The mother argues that the family communicated well in line 55 despite lacking the latest technological innovations, such as social media. Phone call conversation was used to strengthen the family system, helping them solve problems and challenges. The pattern is also repeated in the current family of the researcher as the mother claims in line 58 that communication has not changed. The interviewers mother says that communication is handled the same way as before and that no changes are needed. Wholeness is portrayed in lines 52, 64, and 72, which shows that the family of the interviewers mother can be categorized as hardworking, considering that the parents and the family are all industrious. They are engaged in multiple business activities, which has been a trend. Complex relationship in a family system is evident in 37, where the father used to take care of the siblings. This shows that power in a family is dynamic as it depends on the situation and goals.

Family System Theory Analysis

Family system theory sets the background for the family through its characteristics. It shows that the family is like a system that relies on its components to ensure that it is whole. A change in any of the parts affects the entire systems functionality. It is shaped by communication as it relies on how family members interact. The communication pattern enables the family to have rules specific to every family member (Galvin et al., 2019). The roles shape power in the family since it is transient. Members of the family can maintain a constant behavior deemed acceptable in that family system. The theory uses change-promoting feedback, which is used to guide individuals toward change. Communication rules are usually set over time, and the family regulates its behavior reflecting on conformity with the regulations. Changes result in recalibration, where new rules are set for adherence. Interdependence promotes communication in the family as a problem facing one member is perceived as a general issue. The family expands its communication in such periods, enabling them to operate as a system.

Family system theory informs concepts such as communication patterns and the creation of family identity. The identity of a given family is reliant on the communication pattern they exhibit. Patterns give meaning to family functions as it is through conversation that family members can manage their day-to-day activities and construct identity (Galvin et al., 2019). Family rules are designed through communication, making family system theory critical. The theory also sets a framework for family communication, as the family is perceived as a communication system.

Conclusion

Family communication is the basic unit of the family, as every aspect is rooted in how the family can talk about the issue. The findings from the analysis show that the concepts present in the researchers family include family conflict, power and influence, and family system theory. These concepts are useful in shaping the identity of the researchers family. Family conflict arises through conversation as individuals in a family are close to each other, and at one point, conflict may arise. However, the solution to the communication problem is communication, as family conflicts are managed through listening and negotiations. Power and influence are also evident in the researchers family, as older individuals use power to influence other family members. The researchers family is a system that is interdependent on family members. It involves other features such as wholeness, patterns, and equifinality.

References

Della Porta, S., Howe, N., & Persram, R. J. (2018). Parents and childrens power effectiveness during polyadic family conflict: Process and outcome. Social Development, 28(1), 152-167.

Devakumar, D., Palfreyman, A., Uthayakumar-Cumarasamy, A., Ullah, N., Ranasinghe, C., Minckas, N.,& Mannell, J. (2021). Mental health of women and children experiencing family violence in conflict settings: A mixed methods systematic review. Conflict and Health, 15(1), 1-9.

Galvin, K. M., Bylund, C. L., Schrodt, P., & Braithwaite, D. O. (2019). Family communication: Cohesion and change (10th ed.). New York: Routledge.

Persram, R., Scirocco, A., Della Porta, S., & Howe, N. (2019). Moving beyond the dyad: Broadening our understanding of family conflict. Human Development, 63(1), 38-70.

Appendix A

Interview Questions

1. I was going to ask you a couple questions so the first question I have for you is do you find family important?
2. Are there certain subjects that caused conflict in your family?
3. How do you resolve your family conflicts?
4. Do you have someone you looked up to as a child in your family?
5. When you were younger did your family get along?
6. Did they communicate well as a family?
7. How many siblings did you have?
8. Do you communicate better or worse with your immediate family vs the family you grew up with?
9. Do you ever think about wanting to fix things with your family from your childhood?
10. What has helped you guys stay close if you were?

Appendix B

Interview

With dad

1. Speaker 1: I am talking with my dad,
2. Speaker 2: Hello I am Chris Tynes Caroline Tyness father.
3. Speaker 1: I was going to ask you a couple questions so the first question I have for you is do you find family important?
4. Speaker 2: Oh, for sure theyre the most important thing in my life
5. Speaker 1: okay good, do you think that all family conflict is bad?
6. Speaker 2: no, not at all, I think its healthy to have a difference of opinion.
7. Speaker 1: I agree with you
8. Speaker 1: are there certain subjects that caused conflict in your family?
9. Speaker 2: oh, for sure like college football see I am attacked as a longhorn fan and my daughter is a tcu horned frog fan
10. Speaker 1: ha-ha okay, are there certain subjects that caused conflict in the family?
11. Speaker 1: how do you resolve your family conflicts?
12. Speaker 2: by sitting down and calmly discussing our differences and working through the problem
13. Speaker 1: And do you have someone you looked up to as a child in your family?
14. Speaker 2: yes, my uncle AC he was a very successful oil and gas man out of which it falls in Texas. I grew up loving and respecting him and wanting to be just like him when I got older.
15. Speaker 1: aww how sweet.
16. Speaker 1: when you were younger did your family get along?
17. Speaker 2: yeah, we did, we had our differences. I was the oldest so I had to take care of me and my sisters that were younger than I.
18. Speaker 1: did they communicate well as a family?
19. Speaker 2: yes, for the most part
20. Speaker 1: why the most part?
21. Speaker 2: well, we disagreed Im older male and they were younger females
22. Speaker 1: how many siblings did you have?
23. Speaker 2: three
24. Speaker 1:do you communicate better or worse with your immediate family vs the family you grew up with?
25. Speaker 2: I communicate much better with my immediate family
26. Speaker 1: why?
27. Speaker 2: because Im with them every day
28. Speaker 1: Do you ever think about wanting to fix things with your family from your childhood?
29. Speaker 2: ah sometimes
30. Speaker 1: Were your parents married?
31. Speaker 2: both my mother and father are no longer with us they have passed on but they were married then divorce
32. Speaker 1: what has helped you guys stay close if you were?
33. Speaker 2: trying to make the effort to call each other at least once a month
34. Speaker 1: okay thats nice
35. Speaker 1: What do you think has hurt your relationship? Speaker2: with your siblings?
36. Speaker 1: yes, with your siblings
37. Speaker 2: Probably with us, my parents being divorced when we were older and me having to be the older sibling and having to take care of them, they sometimes resented that.
38. Speaker 1: that is the end of our conversation thank you

With mom

1. Speaker 1: I am Caroline tynes and I am here with my mom
2. Speaker 2: hello I am Michelle tynes
3. Speaker 1: I am interviewing her today, so the first question I have for you, do you find family important?
4. Speaker 2: oh yes very much
5. Speaker 1: why?
6. Speaker 2: Well, I think that gives you a sense of security. I think family are the people that love you unconditionally. We all need support. We all need a sense of love and family gives that to you versus just strangers. We all know each others history and so it makes it a tighter closer bond that we all need.
7. Speaker 1: I would agree, do you think all family conflict is bad?
8. Speaker 2: no, I think all families if they dont have conflict, theyre probably not being open with each other. I think conflict comes with an open relationship because were not always going to agree on everything and so conflict can be very positive and healthy in a good way.
9. Speaker 1: are there certain subjects that caused conflict in the family?
10. Speaker 2: Of course, I mean with family you are with each other 24/7 so there is a lot of time together and so theres lots of little issues that cause conflict, some being messy, some not. the simple typical little conflicts and then theres the big conflicts like money issues respecting each others privacy respects each other space so when you live with somebody and your with somebody all the time or not even being with them just being that close there is always going to be conflict of things that are going to come up but like I said part of becoming close as working out this conflict and realizing that you really need each other and we all know each others problems we all know each others difficulties we know what were able to share our faults with each other so that becomes a positive issue
11. Speaker 1: good. How do you resolve your family conflicts?
12. Speaker 2: well, the best way to do it is sit down and have open communication talk it out occasionally now and then it gets heated I sometimes walk away and come back when all the emotions are calm and try to just sit down and have a true open conversation and try to be fair with one of another and try to see each others points
13. Speaker 1: as a child in your family did you look up to anyone?
14. Speaker 2: Yes, my mother was a very strong hard-working woman. She really kept the family together very unselfish and always put our needs in front of hers. So, my mom would probably be the person I looked up to.
15. Speaker 1: aww so sweet hahahah umm when you were younger did your family get along?
16. Speaker 2:oh yes I mean you know like every family we have our conflicts but we were a very close family not just with our immediate family but with our cousins and our aunt and uncles we were a family that we did everything together so we would travel together and vacation together so it was a big ummm my father traveled a lot with business and my mom depended a lot on her brothers and sisters and cousins for transportation you know for all kinds of needs so we spent a lot of time at our cousins aunt and uncles houses we were very tight niche family that we did everything together.
17. Speaker 1: Thats good Im guessing they communicated well as a family?
18. Speaker 2: Back then we didnt have social media so everyone spoke on the phone all the time. We were always at each others houses because we lived right by each other.
19. Speaker 1: so, do you communicate better or worse with your immediate family versus your family you grew up with?
20. Speaker 2: I would say its pretty equal my brothe

Introduction

It is usually dangerous to give out a new medication to people without checking its safety levels. The outcomes are catastrophic since the drug may be poisonous to individuals, leading to severe illness or death. There is a significant similarity between humans and animals, making it necessary for experimental studies to consider the use of animal subjects in medical experiments. Mammals are usually the common animals used in these experiments because of their similarities in major organs such as the brain, lungs, and hearts. Most of these mammals include pigs, mice, rabbits, and rats. Furthermore, they are preferred because they provide a reasonable idea regarding the outcome of the drug when used by humans. Simple animals such as worms and fruit flies are also used to predict the outcome of lab experiments on humans, especially in genetic research. The biological content passed down from one generation to another helps determine humans characteristics and immune systems. This essay focuses on the necessity of animal testing by showing the success of its use and also its failure and bringing out the need for other alternatives.

Animal Testing Based on History

Animal experiments have been significantly used throughout biomedical research. It was first used by Greek scientists such as Aristotle, Erasistratus, and Galen. Its use has a significant impact in the current medicine areas as it is the source of pathology, pharmacology, physiology, and anatomy. Animal testing importance is traced back to Ibn Zuhr, an Arab physician in Spain. Ibn Zuhr identified the need to conduct animal testing experiments in surgical procedures before being applied to human patients (ProCon, 2021). In the current years, there has been a wide criticism regarding animal testing in biomedical research by groups that protect animal rights. Various laws have been passed to ensure that the procedures are conducted humanely. These ethics began as early as the 17th century, and regulations were at the peak during the 19th century.

In the 20th century, animal testing was an essential practice in biomedical research. In 1937, the pharmaceutical industry in the United States of America came up with sulfanilamide using diethylene glycol (DEG), leading to mass poisoning (Snellings et al., 2017). The manufacturers of the drug were not aware of the issue. This led to the act of Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act requiring safety in 1938, which required the drugs to be tested on animals before being marketed for human consumption. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, drug fiasco was used as a painkiller and tranquilizer for headaches, coughs, insomnia, and colds. The drug was also identified to significantly reduce morning sickness among pregnant women, and most of them used the drug. The effects were catastrophic as more than 10,000 babies born had malformations such as missing limbs. The drug was later withdrawn from the market from 1961 to 1968. The above cases show the importance of animal testing on a historical basis. It is imperative to note that drugs need to be tested before being consumed by humans to prevent tragedy.

The Need for Animal Testing

Major medical breakthroughs in the history of medicine have been achieved through animal testing. In the 1920s, relieving diabetes symptoms was found by a surgeon. The surgeon discovered that the high level of sugar in an individuals blood is because the pancreas is not able to produce the required level of insulin or the cells of a person are not properly responding to the produced insulin. The surgeon later injected the insulin into various dogs and studied the outcome (Tanner, 2018). The results were positive, which has saved many lives since the finding of the drug. Animals form a significant part of the medical industry as most medical trials are first carried on them. Various diseases that pose a substantial threat to human existence have been battled with the help of animal testing procedures. Additionally, these tests have helped develop critical medical practices that save many lives worldwide. The simple practices include using anesthetics during medical surgeries, the treatment of cancer, and antibiotics. The discoveries in animal experimentation have significantly promoted individuals life spans.

Successful Case Studies on Animal Testing

Ebola

Ebola is deadly virus that affects animals as well humans. In 2014, there was an Outbreak of Ebola in West Africa, which claimed more than 11,310 lives and infected approximately 28,000 people (Animal Research Achievements, 2022). The virus causes hemorrhagic fever in both humans and some mammals. Many scientists worldwide have tried to create the vaccine, and the preliminary outcomes have proven successful through animal research. The successful nature of the trials is because the virus originates from primates. The virus is the primary cause of death among the primates such as gorillas and chimpanzees; hence the role of animal testing in the development of the vaccine cannot be rolled out (Animal Research Achievements, 2022). In 2013, a trial of the Ebola vaccine was conducted on six chimpanzees, and the outcome was fruitful as it was safe and effective in creating an artificial immune response. However, the outcome in monkeys was a bit different as they only had partial protection, which lasted for about ten months after the introduction of the vaccine in their body (Bausch, 2021). This has resulted in expanded studies on the area to develop lasting protection, hence the prospects for creating booster shots.

In 2015, a discovery was made, which entails using inhalable vaccines administered to the macaques monkeys. The vaccine was effective as it neutralized the Ebola virus by producing the immune response in macaques monkeys respiratory system. Previously, the vaccine has proven to be effective among monkeys and not humans. This has provided the researchers with hope, as most monkeys could not survive the effects of Ebola (Walsh et al., 2017). The use of aerosol vaccine does not require expertise in the medical area; hence can be easily used by anyone following the instructions. The continued experiments on non-human primates are critical in enhancing the safety of the vaccine. Ebola virus continues to evolve, hence the need to monitor the changes via monkeys to prevent further spread. Rhesus, marmosets, and macaques have the same Ebola infection as humans, thus providing significant test subjects for the Ebola virus vaccine (Gross et al., 2018). This provides a promising future for the virus and the possibility of its eradication.

Artificial Blood

Fresh blood requires proper storage measures and the maximum days that it can be stored is 42 days hence the need for regular blood donation. Currently, artificial blood is being created to become substitutes for the natural blood for transfusions, especially during emergencies such as trauma patients, those that have been injured and require blood transfusion urgently, and the patients undergoing complex or lengthy surgeries. Identification of the blood substitute has been a challenging issue (Haldar et al., 2019). However, animal testing and experimenting have proven to be effective in this project. For decades, mice and rats have been significantly used to provide the necessary information concerning blood components. In 1968, perfluorochemicals (PFC) were used as a blood substitute in mice experiments. The PFC is a vital blood alternative that has been approved by the FDA because of its efficiency, although it is not widely used. The improved version of the PFC is being developed by blood scientists, and mice and rats are used to test the bloods effectiveness.

A significant challenge in this research is the protein hemoglobin. The red blood cells have hemoglobin, which transfers oxygen from the lungs to other body parts. However, when it is not properly isolated, it could damage the blood vessels and the tissues (Animal Research Achievements, 2022). This has made the researchers come up with hemoglobin that is encased in synthetic polymers (Shaffer, 2020). The effect of these synthetic polymers is being studied on rabbits to identify their impact on the aorta to develop identical reactions when introduced to the human body. This has to be proven successful in animals before significant trials on humans. Another avenue for artificial blood is stem cell-based blood. These trials have been conducted on humans after a series of successful experiments of animal tests.

Polio

Between the 1940s and 1950s, more than 35,000 people were infected with polio every year. It is among the horrifying diseases that were not known to be infectious until Ivar Wickmans discovery in 1905. Wickman tracked its spread, which appeared controversial, but in 1908, Edward Popper and Karl Landsteiner found out the specific cause of polio through the use of monkeys. This led to the development of the polio vaccine by using cows, mice, and monkeys (Tzeng et al., 2018). The disease has been known to be devastating as it circulated at a lower level. However, polio reached an epidemic in the early 20th century, which prompted critical research to curb the disease. Several vaccines were tried, but the outcomes were unproductive.

In 1935, multiple teams tried the vaccine with humans and chimpanzees without success, and in 1954, an inactive polio vaccine was created through the kidney cells of the monkey. The vaccine was proven effective, and approximately 2 million children were vaccinated (Guindo et al., 2018). With continuous use of animal testing, an oral polio vaccine was developed by Albert Sabin in 1960 with the help of about 150 chimpanzees, 9,000 monkeys, and 133 humans who volunteered to be part of the research. The global campaign to eradicate polio was first initiated in 1988 to eliminate it in developing nations. Currently, more than 99% of polio incidences have been eliminated (Thompson & Kalkowska, 2020). This portrays how animal testing is important in managing life threatening infections.

Parkinsons Disease

More than 1 million people in the United States of America are diagnosed with Parkinsons disease every year. The current population with this disease from a global perspective is approximately 10 million (Animal Research Achievements, 2022). The outcome of this disease varies from one person to another making it difficult to identify the exact cause of the infection. Numerous research is still ongoing for possible treatments despite the condition being associated with environmental and genetic effects (Kin et al., 2019). The use of animal models in the study of this disease has proven effective, and certain findings are associated with the possible treatment of Parkinsons disease. The most common animals used include the mice, as it has helped understand the treatment of one symptom. Additionally, the rabbits have also proven to be effective in that Avid Carlson identified the significance of dopamine in regaining movement control in the brain (Buhidma et al., 2020). Carlson discovered that when a rabbit is injected with the L-dopa, the brain is able to control movement. However, the effect fades with time, resulting in the need for further studies.

Monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitor was identified, and when administered on marmosets and rats, it was able to improve the effectiveness of the L-dopa. The use of deep brain stimulation (DPS) was approved by the FDA after successful implantation in monkeys. This technique involves regulating the nerve circuitry that later creates symptoms vital in treating the disease among individuals who have not shown positive results with drugs. This method has helped more than 80,000 patients having the disease. The model has been extended with trials on rats and monkeys, where gene therapy is used to promote the enzyme secretion in the brain that alleviates the symptoms (Barker & Björklund, 2020). The current development of the disease has focused on the alpha-synuclein protein, which is common in some patients with Parkinsons disease. Initially, this protein was found in monkeys, and the study was extended to humans. The outcome is satisfactory as it has helped create a blood test to identify this disease at a primary stage for early treatment administration. Despite the disease not having a cure at the moment, animal research has proven effective in relieving some symptoms, hence showing a promising future.

Drawbacks of Animal Testing

Every year, millions of animals such as birds, monkeys, hamsters, rabbits, dogs, mice, frogs, fish, guinea pigs, rats, and cats are killed in the research laboratories for drug, cosmetic testing, medical training, experimentation, and lessons. Before the animal is killed, they are subjected to inhumane conditions such as drilling holes into their skulls, crushed spinal cords, inhaling toxic chemicals, burning skin, and being immobilized inside devices for a significant time (Animal testing facts and statistics, 2022). Additionally, the animals are deprived of natural conditions that are important for their survival. The animals are treated as laboratory equipment which will be disposed of after use. The People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) produced a documentary to provide the public with the necessary information regarding animal testing. This documentary film shows how animals are mistreated to enrich the medical research area (Lockwood, 2019). Furthermore, it showed that animal testing is considered mandatory for students who want to complete their diplomas hence being forced to conduct deadly experiments on animals. The documentary also portrays that apart from the physical pain the animals undergo, they suffer from psychological trauma.

Limitations of animal testing

Various reasons explain the failure of animal testing regarding results translation from animals to humans. It is in conjunction with the animal models used and how the animals are used to generate the required results. The biochemistry surrounding animals and humans in metabolism, distribution, and absorption forms a critical difference (Knight, 2019). This affects the mechanisms of action and the biological effects hence the variation in the organ systems and the magnitude of the effects. The animal characteristic also poses a significant challenge in that they usually do not have the human risk factors resulting from the complex system in the human body. The toxicity test in animals is based on the maximum doses that can be tolerated, resulting in chronic dosing (Fontana et al., 2020). The condition in which they are subjected also explains the varying outcome as the environment plays a critical role in the effectiveness of the doses, which makes outcomes of experiments to have false-positive results (Pound & Hoitinga, 2018). The compounds that are not usually considered toxic have positive results during the animal tests, which affects the validity and reliability of the affirmative results attained from the experiments.

The routes of exposure are also a significant issue among the animals. This includes the inhalation used by animals and humans tend to differ significantly, and in the process, the drugs tested in animals that require extrapolation have resulted in uncertainty. The animals are subjected to stressors that affect the outcome of the experiments (Norman, 2019). These stressors include the dose administration process, where the tube is used to administer toxic chemicals into the esophagus. The effect of stressors is that it alters the animals hormonal and immune system, making the outcome of experiments unpredictable (Hartung, 2019). This promotes the alteration of drug effects while monitoring the animals progress. The issue is critical, especially when the process requires accurate identification of the animals cognitive, behavioral, and psychological characteristics.

It is noted that the experimentation on animals is done with the view that animals are a critical factor in the progression of medical research. Most of the experiments conducted on animals do not significantly contribute to human health improvement, making animal use in medical experimentation questionable (Knight, 2019). Most of the artificially induced diseases in animals, such as mice, rats, and monkeys, are significantly different from those that affect humans. The success of these experiments has been problematic because animals differ from humans in multiple biological processes. This has made the application of animal testing findings challenging. Many instances have occurred where the cure that has been positively tested among the animals does not significantly affect humans.

Failed Case Studies on Animal Testing

HIV/AIDS vaccine

More than 85 vaccines for HIV/AIDS have been developed and have proven to be successful among non-human primates. None of those vaccines has been effective among humans (Barouch et al., 2018). Additionally, the vaccine has been identified to make the human immune system susceptible to the virus (Ibeh & Ashano, 2018). This shows a significant failure of animal testing despite the animals being subjected to various mistreatments (Pollara et al., 2019). The amount spent on developing this vaccine is significantly large, hence the need to eradicate animal testing.

Stroke Research

A stroke is a condition that affects the brains functionality through interference with the supply of blood to the brain leading to neurologic impairments. The effect of stroke is dependent on the part of the brain that has been affected. The cerebral blood supply is affected because of ischemia or hemorrhage (Narayan et al., 2021). Stroke is ranked among the leading causes of death and long-term disability among older people. In the study of stroke models that could help identify the treatment of the condition, the human stroke is dissimilar among people making it difficult to identify a single animal model that could help understand its effect (SchmidtPogoda et al., 2019). When studied in animals, the impact of stroke on the animal brain has a varying effect making it ineffective to be used in humans. Furthermore, the nervous system in humans is more complex than that of the animals such as mice and rats.

The rodents used have a Gyrencephaly trait, while the humans have a lissencephalic trait in their brain. The grey matter of the brain also poses a significant challenge as 90% of the brain tissue of the rodents is composed of grey matter while that of humans is only 50%. The subcortical white matter strokes are prevalent and account for 25% of the strokes (Kringe et al., 2020). This makes it challenging as animals have a significant low content of the grey matter. The posterior communicating arteries diameter (CoA) of animals such as pigs and sheep are similar to the anterior cerebral arteries. However, the CoA diameter is half in humans, reducing the blood flow in the posterior CoA among humans than in animals (Narayan et al., 2021). The baboons also differ because their bilateral anterior cerebral arteries are linked with numerous arteries, while it is only a single vessel in humans. This affects the understanding of the stroke effects in humans, thereby affecting the efficacy of the developed treatment or drug.

Arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a disorder that attacks the joints and has affected more than one percent of the worlds population. The disease causes deformity in humans, and multiple studies have been conducted on animals to identify suitable treatments (Keen, 2019; Wang et al., 2021). Treatment was effective among the green monkeys and other animal species. The rofecoxib (Vioxx) drug used in monkeys was effective, and in humans, it caused heart in more than 140,000 people and deaths ranging from 60,000 to 100,000 (Leenaars et al., 2020). The drug was withdrawn from the market in 2004 after massive adverse effects (Goll & Kvien, 2020). The outcome of this drug has shown that animal testing is not significant in determining the effects of drugs hence the need to identify other methods for medical research.

Funding and Accountability

The members of the public fund animal testing through various ways such as taxations, purchase of lottery products and consumer goods, charity, and donations. The government funding and granting agencies such as the NIH form the largest fund source for animal testing and experimentation programs. More than 47% of the NIH funding projects involve animal testing, and in 2020, there $42 billion was allocated to the research and development area which conducts experiments on animals (Animal Research Achievements, 2022). Others, such as the American Cancer Society, utilize donations to fund animal testing. Furthermore, most of the projects financed by the National Multiple Sclerosis Society projects involve animal experimentation (Animal Research Achievements, 2022). Despite the public being the top sponsor of animal experiments, they are provided with less information regarding the outcome of the animal experiments. Most laboratories keep the sensitive information regarding animal experiments hidden to prevent the public from knowing the effects the project has on the animals.

The 3RS

Animal research results in various drawbacks such as physical pain and psychological trauma. However, sometimes it is impossible to avoid animal experimentation hence the need for the 3RS, which guides how animals are treated in the laboratory. The 3RS includes the replacement, reduction, and refinement, which help in experimentation (Tanner, 2018). Replacement involves the identification of the various option that could be used in the place of animals. Reduction entails developing multiple methods that help lower the number of animals used in the experiment (Díaz et al., 2021). Refinement focuses on improving the condition of the animals by reducing the suffering conditions that the animals face during the experimentation. Although the work of the 3RS is declining with time, various organizations focus on ensuring the success of these programs.

Replacement

Organ on Chip Technology and Human Tissue

The organ-on-chip replacement of animal testing works with the cell and tissue culture. The organ-on-chip is the latest innovation from developing the vitro cell culture technology. The technology is also used in cosmetics to test the effect of new cosmetics. It provides a significant outcome in testing the new drug and therapies in the medical area (Wu et al., 2020). Research shows that the vitro test is more powerful than animal testing because of the high predictive power. The organ on chops is designed such that they are able to recreate the human bodys natural physiology and the functionality of the body cells (Taylor, 2019). The human living cells are placed on the chips together with the fluidic channels that represent the blood in the same way as the body. Its flexibility enables the chips to be able to create breathing movements as well as the contraction and relaxation of the muscles. Every chip has an organ such as the brain, lung, intestine, or liver. The chips are made transparent to enable the medical researcher to perceive the organ responses in terms of behavior and functionality at the cellular and molecular levels.

The growing need for the organ-on-chip method is because of the failures accompanying animal testing and the regulations requiring care for the animals being used in biological experiments. However, despite the breakthrough in using the vitro cells as a replacement for animal testing, the models do not significantly display the outcomes expected in the human body. This has resulted in misleading results which are being generated from the experiments. The use of animal cells is because of its convenience rather than scientific (Wu et al., 2020). The human cells are very difficult to generate from the human body, with few donors. There is a significant problem with the human cells cell lineage, hence having a significant outcome with the human tissue. Testing the drugs efficacy with these cells leads to misleading results, hence the need for better predictions. The key challenges include biological, practical, scale, and economic requirements.

First, the biological requirement entails the retrieval of the cells. It is easier to extract animal cells than human cells, making it ineffective as the animal cells have a problem with the drugs efficacy. The human tumor cells derived are not helpful because they do not represent healthy tissues. The stem cells provide significant results, but they are costly, complex, and require a lengthy procedure to ensure their success (Wu et al., 2020). Despite having various donors for the human tissue, there is a significant problem with the cryopreservation tone able to match the required time for experimental analysis. However, cryopreservation affects the functionality of the cell.

Secondly, practical requirements focus on the technology that makes up the procedure. For new technological innovations in the medical area to attain regulatory acceptance, it has to fulfill repeatable and robust methods. This makes it challenging as most of the organs on chip have not met this target. Additionally, setting up this method requires complex procedures, making the procedures only be conducted by the design companies (Wu et al., 2020). However, promising research in this area is not yet successful. Kirkstall laboratory has developed an organ-on-chip stationed in more than 70 research centers such as educational institutions. Third, the scale requirement is based on the differing nature of the organ on chip discoveries. There is a significant divergence in the requirement of scale rating on the screen because of the numerous compounds. This makes it difficult for the researchers to test the compounds (Wu et al., 2020). Lastly, there are few products in the markets resulting from the organ-on-chip. This makes it challenging to assess the possible cost of replacing animal testing with this method.

Cells and Tissue Cultures

The cell and tissue culture are used together with the organ-on-chip, which entails the growth of cells outside the body of an organism. They are kept in an environment suitable for their survival for medical research instead of using animals. The cells and tissue cultures are significant in the testing procedure of drug efficacy before being administered to humans (Uysal et al., 2018). For example, skin cells test whether the drugs lead to irritation. In producing the monoclonal antibody, vaccine, interleukin, and hormone, cell and tissue cultures have proven effective. Toxicology reports are currently dwelling on these cultures as they promote the success of new drugs.

Reduction

Biomedical researchers are focusing on developing experiments that use few animals. For example, groups of mice to test the effect of drugs are reduced. However, reducing the number of animals tends to affect the research outcome since some drug experiments require repetition to ensure success (Tanner, 2018). This has brought the need to maximize the findings of the research to reduce the chances of using other animals for clarifications (Díaz et al., 2021). When studying tumor, scientists may use more than a single animal every week to identify the variation of the tumor (Tanner, 2018). This can be reduced by scanning the animals instead of killing the animals to understand the effects of the tumor. It is also advised that scientists researching a given area share the outcome of their findings by writing articles and providing presentations, reducing the chances of repeating the same experiments. Scientific journals help lessen the effect of killing animals as the research findings are recorded and kept for future reference.

Refinement

The refinement process focuses on reducing the pain that the animals face by making the animals have good health and happiness. This is done by ensuring that the animals are placed in comfortable housing almost similar to their natural surroundings, such as having nests, hiding areas, socialization, and gnawing. Various rules help guide the development of the cages that the animals use in the laboratories. Institutions such as the University of Liverpool have focused on creating cages suitable for rats and mice by placing burrowing materials and climbing opportunities.

Furthermore, other experiments have been developed in the current period, such as imaging technologies for analyzing the internal structures of the animals. This picture provides a good background for analysis, reducing the number of animals subjected to pain (Tanner, 2018). The techniques developed include ultrasound and X-rays for internal analysis. This has reduced the number of surgeries to study the internal spread of infections. The pictures of the internal organ of the animal are taken while the animals are in good condition hence not altering their psychology which affects the outcome of the vaccine or drug (Tanner, 2018). Various chemicals are used to enable the internal parts of the animal to glow during scans. This has eased the way cancerous tumors are monitored within an animal (Díaz et al., 2021). Furthermore, the movement of drug traces is also studied through this method. This has made animal experiments easy as well as painless.

Successful Use of Animal Testing, Human Volunteers, and Cell and Tissue Culture

In late December 2019, COVID-19 was identified as a respiratory infection in Wuhan, China, and has claimed more than six million deaths and infected approximately 510 million people worldwide. The virus was ranked as the top severe respiratory infection after leading to massive deaths and infections in less than two years. However, biomedical researchers managed to develop a vaccine for the infection (Fitting vaccine research into one year, 2021). Four effective vaccines were developed from the research, which has significantly helped in curbing the spread of this infection. During research to identify the vaccine for this deadly pandemic, vitro methods such as the organ on chip involving the cell and tissue were effective. This technology was vital in bringing out the vaccine within a limited period. The vaccines efficacy was the top priority and hence the need for a combination of technological innovations, animal testing, and human volunteers (Fitting vaccine research into one year, 2021). The patients data provided significant input in accelerating the research and the data sharing among the scientists. The animal safety procedures were significantly followed to ensure that they were not subjected to inhuman treatments before taking them to the trials. Animal testing was necessary to ensure that the developed vaccine is safe for human use.

Animal testing and human experiments were conducted in line with organ-on-chip to provide quality results for the research. Animal data provided the researchers with evidence of safety to progress the vaccine trials to humans. The toxicity of the vaccine on the reproductive and developmental areas of the vaccine enables the scientist to extend the research and identify a possible solution to the case when used in humans (Fitting vaccine research into one year, 2021). The animals used in this study include hamsters, non-human primates, pigs, mice, rabbits, ferrets, and rats. The information regarding the use of these animals was provided publicly, and it showed that the animals were treated with ethics.

Conclusion

In conclusion, animal testing is a significant aspect, especially in the current period where various diseases arise daily. Animal testing has proven to be significant in history of humanity as there are certain infections whose cure could not have been identified without animal testing. The most commonly used animals include pigs, mice, non-human primates, monkeys, hamsters, ferrets, rabbits, and rats. When testing a new drug, it is necessary for it to be used in animals before being marketed for consumption by humans. Without these procedures, the outcome is deadly. This is proven by multiple

Introduction

Since early 2020, the coronavirus pandemic has posed serious challenges to individuals and institutions globally. Academic life has been dramatically changed, as universities and colleges replaced traditional in-person learning with virtual classrooms or hybrid models. Many students had to leave residential campuses, which disrupted their academic and social lives. Continuous lockdowns and stay-at-home orders triggered anxiety, loneliness, uncertainty, and cuts in campus support, contributing to financial insecurity for most learners. Disparities in enrollment and completion rates deepened during the pandemic period, as opportunities for minority students declined. This paper examines the extent of the pandemics effects on various aspects of college students lives, including their academics, mental health, and financial insecurity outcomes.

Impact on Students Academics

The rapid spread of coronavirus may have jeopardized academic progress in colleges and universities. Many governments implemented strict containment measures to curb transmissions that posed a risk to healthcare systems. Such actions included movement restrictions, isolations for those arriving from hotspot areas, school closures, secure physical distance, limited business hours, lockdowns, and stay-at-home orders (Gostin and Wiley 2138). These measures impacted college education negatively, especially when campuses moved to online instruction to limit instructor-student contact. Most institutions did not have a virtual learning infrastructure, which affected the continued learning after the shift.

One area that was affected by the pandemic-related college closures is learning and achievement. Online classrooms through videoconferencing apps such as Zoom were developed to support virtual learning (Gostin and Wiley 2137). They were deemed to be an effective alternative to in-person learning that was no longer tenable under the pandemic situation. However, many countries faced a challenge implementing this new strategy due to issues of limited access, cost, flexibility, and pedagogical methods (Pokhrel and Chhetri 136). Unstable connectivity and inadequate digital devices also made learning impossible for students, especially in the developing world.

The impact of these challenges on student learning experiences has been significant. Academic performance is predicted to decline because of insufficient contact hours with instructors when struggling to understand key concepts (Sintema 6). Learners are now being assessed virtually, a new approach that may be prone to mistakes and uncertainty and may disadvantage those with poor computer skills. Further, frustration, anxiety, and increased absenteeism by vulnerable students struggling with lost livelihoods also contributed to their low educational attainment (Sintema 7). Thus, the lockdowns affected the learning opportunities and experiences of many students.

Cancelation of examinations also impacted negatively students academic achievement and progress. The unprecedented college and university closures disrupted assessment methods and schedules for exams offered by national professional institutions; for example, entry exams (SAT) were suspended in most U.S. universities (Pokhrel and Chhetri 137). As universities adjusted to the new learning environment and assessment approaches, plagiarism became problematic. Opportunistic online tutors could illegally sit exams for students without detection (Sintema 4). This practice threatens quality standards and the expertise needed in the industry.

The rescheduling or dropping of entry tests has also affected enrollment rates. The abrupt changes in admission dates contributed to a reduction in the number of new students enrolling in colleges. According to Pokhrel and Chhetri, college enrollment rates for high school graduates (18-20 years) declined by 7% nationally in 2020 compared to 2019. Prospective students cited high costs and location as the main reasons for deferred admissions.

Community colleges have experienced low enrollment and a drop in low-income students. The retention rate for learners with caregiving responsibilities was also consistently low. Aristovnik et al. found that student caregivers faced many challenges such as financial constraints, stress, and limited access to food during the pandemic. They included undergraduates taking care of their children or ill parents. The demands of the caregiving role forced them to sacrifice their academic goals to cater to more urgent family needs. Some learners from low-income households and students of color dropped out or failed to enroll at all. In 2020, enrollment declined more sharply for Hispanic students (18%) and African American females (26%) and males (35%) than whites (17%) (Aristovnik et al. 8). These statistics indicate that the pandemic disproportionately affected access to college education.

Increased Financial and Food Insecurity

For financial reasons, many learners had to defer their college plans to a later date or discontinue their education during the pandemic. Increased deferrals raise the possibility that those students may not complete their academic programs on time. The financial constraints are an outcome of mass job losses due to pandemic effects on various sectors of the economy. According to the Department of Education, 43% of college students were employed full-time, while 80% of them were working part-time. However, after the pandemic hit, most of these learners lost their employment, which affected their ability to finance or complete their degrees. Further, institutions of higher learning nationally dismissed about 650,000 employees in 2020, with most of them being students (Department of Education). The cancelation of on-campus jobs affected their ability to pay for college education.

The pandemic-related job losses also heightened the students financial concerns and insecurity. Lost opportunities created economic strains on college students, including those with educational loans, affecting their livelihoods and repayment capacity (McCoy et al.). The financial constraints were particularly severe among low-income groups in America. Students from minority families, including Blacks and Hispanics, faced challenges accessing food, shelter, and the internet for online learning (Sintema 6). The pandemics disproportionate effect on minority students, as they experienced difficulties meeting basic needs. In addition, transitioning to distance learning was a problem due to limited access to digital devices and the internet. The vulnerability affected their capacity to complete coursework, leading to poor academic outcomes.

The financial constraints contributed to food insecurity in campuses dominated by low-income students. Aristovnik et al. state that over 35 million people in the U.S. experienced food insecurity in 2019, but this number doubled after the pandemic hit the country. As a consequence, accessing adequate food was a challenge for most households. Among the groups most affected by the food crisis were students in universities because of persistent and unaddressed nutritional needs. The Department of Education further notes that though the Supplemental Assistance Program covers this population, it is about to be terminated. Thus, many vulnerable college students will be left with fewer options for food.

Before the pandemic struck, a significant number of students were food insecure. However, since 2020, this population has grown exponentially, with racial minorities being the most affected. It is estimated that 38% of college students studying two-year programs have been food insecure over the past month, up from 30% before the pandemic (Baker-Smith et al. 51). This report also found that the most affected group includes minority students. Specifically, 75% of Native American and 70% of African American students were struggling to feed themselves during the pandemic, compared to 53% of White college-age persons. A key reason for the food insecurity included the absence of food assistance after campuses were closed down. In addition, unemployment was more prevalent among people 18-24 years (Department of Education 62). Therefore, characteristics, such as low-income status, joblessness, and minority background enhanced the susceptibility of students to food insecurity.

Financial, housing, and food insecurities coupled with anxiety affected student achievement during the pandemic. According to McCoy et al., food-insecure learners are likely to record poor grades because of poor class attendance. They are also prone to poor physical and psychological health outcomes due to depression and consumption of cheaper, unhealthy food options. Food-insecure students face a high risk of obesity that impacts their self-esteem and educational outcomes (Department of Education). Therefore, without adequate federal responses, financial and food insecurities are bound to persist, affecting success in college.

Effect on Mental Health

The coronavirus pandemic and related containment measures have been linked to poor mental outcomes. In the US, the number of people seeking help for anxiety-related disorders increased by 1000% during the lockdowns (Gijzen et al. 9). Thus, the pandemic affected the mental health outcomes of individuals, partly due to job losses and social isolation. Death by suicide and substance rose exponentially after March 2020, with socially and economically disadvantaged groups being most affected (Browning et al. 8). College students are a vulnerable population predisposed to poor mental health outcomes during the pandemic.

Students globally were forced to return home or shift to online learning following college closures. An immediate impact of this change was heightened anxiety and uncertainty about educational success, career prospects, and lost socialization opportunities (Aristovnik et al. 16). As a result, they experienced psychological problems, substance abuse, and sometimes suicidal ideation requiring professional services that were availed through dedicated hotlines. The anxiety and stress were linked to social isolation, loneliness, boredom, and sedentary lifestyles (Huckins et al. 13). In addition, the lockdowns reduced opportunities for interpersonal interaction and physical activity and promoted eating disorders, including binge drinking increased during this period.

Several factors could account for the poor mental health outcomes among college students during the pandemic. Browning et al. identified comorbid conditions as a key risk factor for psychological disorders in this population. The authors explain that reduced preparedness for disasters meant that such individuals were likely to be more affected by the pandemic than older demographics. Students aged 18 to 24 years exhibit elevated anxiety about their academic success, career, and capacity to finance their education (Aristovnik et al. 11). The level of exposure to pandemic-related stories is high among college students than older individuals. Since coronavirus was a dominant topic on social media channels, heavy users of these platforms were likely to be exposed to risk-elevating information, fuelling their anxiety (Browning et al. 12). Thus, excessive exposure to negative messages regarding pandemic-related morbidity and mortality affected the psychological outcomes of this vulnerable population.

The psychological effects of coronavirus on college students were exacerbated by limited outdoor time during the pandemic. Opportunities for outdoor recreation diminished following the implementation of lockdowns and travel restrictions in different countries. Browning et al. found that increased screen time due to stay-at-home orders negatively impacted the students mental health. Conversely, outdoor activities may have a protective effect on stressors that affect the psychological outcomes of individuals. However, social gatherings and interactions were banned during the pandemic, reducing recreational opportunities that improve the students psychosocial wellbeing.

As aforementioned, the COVID-19 pandemic occasioned an unprecedented economic crisis globally, with vulnerable groups, such as low-income groups and those living with disabilities, being disproportionately affected. The main root causes of this problem were the measures taken to curb its spread. Ellis et al. note that lockdowns, movement restrictions, and other actions taken to stop COVID-19 transmissions caused unemployment and loneliness, which contributed to poor psychological outcomes, especially among adolescents. These public health interventions were also a barrier to accessing mental healthcare by individuals in need of such services.

Poor psychological outcomes were reported at the height of the coronavirus crisis. In the U.S., the prevalence of depression and anxiety in the adult population rose to 40% from the pre-pandemic rate of 10% (Panchal et al. para. 6). This exponential increase is attributed to economic and social disruptions caused by the pandemic. In addition, insomnia, unhealthy eating habits, binge drinking, and drug abuse increased among adolescents as a way of coping with anxiety (Panchal et al. para. 17). Young people were particularly affected, given their vulnerability to substance abuse. It is estimated that 56% of college-age individuals (18-24 years old) struggled with depression and anxiety syndromes and were more than twice as likely to engage in drug abuse and suicidal ideation as older adults (Department of Education). Therefore, the pandemic exacerbated the risk factors for poor psychological health among adolescents.

Increased Substance Use Disorders

College-age individuals faced various stressors unique to this group during the pandemic. Puberty is a vulnerable life phase in which the risk of drug abuse is high. The anxiety and boredom experienced by people aged between 18 and 24 years during the pandemic drove many young people into substance use as a coping strategy (Aristovnik et al. 12). For students, on-campus job cuts by colleges disrupted their livelihoods and social lives and caused depression. Many adolescents experiencing psychological distress are likely to abuse drugs and develop substance use disorders. Therefore, binge drinking and the use of narcotics and sedatives by students grew exponentially during the pandemic.

Vulnerability to illicit drug use is a notable effect of coronavirus on college students. The pandemic impacted each demographic differently, but young people faced a higher risk of substance use disorders than older adults (Dumas et al. 360). College closures and movement restrictions contributed to anxiety and made students vulnerable to solitary drug abuse. This effect was particularly pronounced among those with caregiving responsibilities as parents or guardians. It is estimated that 27% of young people with parental roles experienced chronic depressive symptoms and were likely to engage in binge drinking primarily due to lost employment (Dumas et al. 361). A secondary cause is disrupted social life and lifestyle after lockdowns and stay-at-home orders were implemented.

Two factors explain the inordinate levels of drug use among college students during the pandemic. First, depression and anxiety were exacerbated by stay-at-home orders. As a result, many students were confronted with increased parental supervision like never before (Panchal et al. para. 12). In addition, they experienced isolation from friends and boredom, increasing their vulnerability to solitary drug use to cope with the changes in their social and academic lives. Second, college closures and the rapid shift to online learning limited extracurricular opportunities, which have protective psychological effects (Browning et al. 15). As a result, idle students were vulnerable to illicit drug use in their homes.

Some research evidence suggests that the pandemic had a protective effect on illicit drug use. Chaffee et al. note that the banning of social events reduced opportunities for engaging in risky practices such as substance use. Peer interaction was minimized by the lockdowns, which increased parental supervision and limited the students involvement in drug abuse. In addition, access to illicit drugs during the pandemic was difficult because of travel restrictions. The reduced availability of narcotics may have also contributed to a decline in substance use among students (Chaffee et al. 5). Thus, parental involvement in cessation programs is critical to curbing drug abuse by college students.

Comparing the pre-pandemic and post-pandemic prevalence of substance use in the coronavirus will help determine the protective effect of coronavirus. A cross-sectional study of Canadian students reported a drop in e-cigarette and marijuana consumption during the pandemic (Dumas et al. 359). In addition, binge drinking among these students decreased, while others reported quitting smoking. These findings suggest that increased parental supervision and decreased peer interaction during the pandemic positively impacted substance use among college students.

Social and Emotional Impacts of Coronavirus

Coronavirus affected the social and emotional facets of peoples lives significantly. On the positive side, the pandemic provided students with opportunities to connect with their parents and siblings (Aristovnik et al. 2). The stay-at-home orders meant that people spent hours indoors with their families, which strengthened relationships. Social and religious holidays were celebrated under lockdowns with close family members. This situation encouraged socialization, collective prayers, reunions, and bonding between students and their parents.

In most cases, the pandemic negatively impacted the students social and emotional wellbeing. Increased concerns about being a burden on parents or guardians were reported by unemployed college students (Department of Education). The anxiety associated with loneliness and social isolation also led to poor emotional states such as anger and frustration. In families with elderly relatives, the students were overburdened with caregiving roles as an obligation (Browning et al. 11). Those caring for relatives infected with coronavirus were particularly vulnerable to poor emotional outcomes. College students were also worried about the possibility of infecting elderly family members with the deadly virus.

Effect on Spiritual and Societal Aspects

Coronavirus was associated with a spike in morbidity and mortality globally. It ravaged families and caused pain and grief that transformed peoples perception of life and death (Browning et al. 2). These negative impacts also forced students to reorganize priorities in their lives. Caring for critically ill relatives, some of whom succumbed to the virus, influenced young people to appreciate life and family (Department of Education 16). The despair that was associated with coronavirus complications and death drove many into seeking spiritual intervention.

The stay-at-home orders and the shift to online learning meant that people had a limited need for physical movement. Increased use of digital devices to work or study remotely helped reorganize many students priorities during the pandemic. Traditional physical meetings and interactions became virtual, forcing young people to explore new opportunities for connecting online and entertaining themselves (Department of Education 40). These trends increased the need for solidarity, positively impacting the societal facet of the students lives. It enhanced the global community connectedness in the face of hardships occasioned by the pandemic.

The coronavirus pandemic also impacted the environmental facet of peoples lives. Public health guidelines promoted hand hygiene and sterilization of living spaces to curb community transmission of the virus (Browning et al. 4). Governments conducted huge sanitation campaigns in public areas reporting high infection rates, such as markets, schools, and offices. The media messages about maintaining a hygienic environment, wearing masks, and social distancing became more common than before. As a result, students were influenced to keep a clean environment, contributing to the collective effort of curbing transmissions.

Impact of Online Study

College closures after the coronavirus outbreak were followed by a shift to remote learning. Videoconferencing applications such as Zoom, Discussion Boards, and Google Teams were adopted by campuses as tools for instruction and learning during the pandemic (Department of Education). Classes and pedagogic activities were designed to make them as closely similar to physical classrooms as possible. The primary aims were to enhance student engagement, access to learning materials, and interaction with instructors. However, the social environment in physical classrooms could not be replicated perfectly in the online platforms (Brown para. 2). Thus, peer and student-instructor interactions that are crucial for effective mentorship were affected by the transition.

The students social presence was largely lacking in virtual classrooms. In addition, online study limited the capacity of instructors to assess the preparedness of students and provide key resources and support for struggling learners (Brown para. 6). Thus, the virtual environment may not give optimal learning experiences as physical classrooms do. However, according to Sintema, the various communication channels provided during the pandemic supported positive interactions between students and teachers. In this regard, enhancing online contact or collaboration was the main advantage of virtual classrooms.

Various technologies were deployed to support interactions and ensure quality learning experiences. Throughout the lockdown period, videoconferencing applications became the primary means rather than supportive tools for distance learning (Department of Education). They included features that support peer collaboration and replicate classroom conditions as much as possible. In this regard, virtual study enhanced social interactions in ways physical learning did not. Students could ask each other questions, reply to posts, and give their perspectives on various topics on discussion boards.

The positive impact of the online study mode on student interactions depends on the quality of the infrastructure for online learning. In a survey of 432 American college students, more than 50% of them reported that interactions in online educational platforms were absent, with another 12% complaining about slow internet in their homes (Brown para. 5). These findings suggest that the quality of the infrastructure provided for online study influenced how students perceived the system as supporting their interactions with peers and instructors. Virtual education negatively impacted practical learning (Brown para. 8). Some courses that require practicum experiences may not be offered online given the limited capabilities of the current technologies.

Impact on Students with Disabilities

Coronavirus had disproportionate impacts on students living with disabilities (SLWDs) in colleges. They encountered significant barriers that affected access to learning resources and basic provisions. SLWDs constitute about 19% of the students at the undergraduate level (Department of Education). This population faced major hardships trying to adjust to the pandemic-related restrictions that disrupted life on campus. Persistent barriers have contributed to disparities in academic outcomes for SLWDs, which were exacerbated by the pandemic. Before coronavirus struck, SLWDs did not have adequate accommodation, responsive classroom and instructional resources, and supportive on-campus programs (Sintema 9). They also faced prejudice and negative interactions with other students on the academic and extracurricular fronts.

These challenges became more pronounced during the pandemic, with new barriers appearing. Transitioning to online study was more challenging to SLWDs than non-disabled students (Department of Education). They struggled with reporting the nature of their disability for special support to be availed. In addition, because of their vulnerability, SLWDs were disproportionately affected by coronavirus. The financial impact of the pandemic was particularly significant; SLWDs needed more resources and support to learn remotely than non-disabled students did.

Social isolation, especially among SLWDs, was exacerbated by the pandemic. For these students, feelings of belongingness to the campus community declined, with some of them raising concerns about the lack of the needed support (Department of Education). SLWDs were also more food insecure than non-disabled students during the pandemic because of the significant financial hardships they faced. Those diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder could not stay focused and complete assigned projects within their home environment (Sintema 7). In addition, students with depressive syndromes faced greater solitude during the pandemic. SLWDs were also prone to anxiety disorders because of the confusion surrounding the transition to online study.

SLWDs are a highly vulnerable population both economically and socially. During the pandemic, SLWDs were more likely to be laid off (47%) than non-disabled students (26%) (Department of Education 50). This trend means that coronavirus had a severe financial impact on SLWDs. Their expenditure on technology also grew exponentially because the learning aids and supports on campus were lacking at home. More importantly, the rapid college closures forced SLWDs to move to less secure living spaces in their communities. Therefore, they were at risk of physical or emotional abuse during the pandemic.

Widening Disparities for Minority Students during the Pandemic

Although the pre-pandemic race-based gaps existed in access to college education, these disparities have increased during the pandemic. Disparate effects are evident in deaths and socioeconomic costs of coronavirus between majority and minority students. It is estimated that parents of over 37,300 children succumbed to the disease nationally by January 2021; 20% of them were African Americans (Department of Education 11). These statistics show that minority students were faced an inordinate amount of grief and depression, which may have affected their learning.

Small businesses, which are dominated by minority workers, were the first ones to close down during the pandemic. Lost incomes exposed Black and Latinx households to food insecurity and homelessness (Department of Education 28). Thus, minority students faced a greater risk of being homeless and going without food due to the pandemic compared to their white peers. These challenges show that coronavirus had worse socioeconomic impacts on students of color.

While the pandemic had significant psychological effects on the population, there were racial disparities in access to mental health care. According to Brown, minority students highly depend on their campuses for psychological or counseling services. Therefore, college closures meant that such individuals could not access the mental health care resources that they need. This scenario exposed students of color to poor psychosocial outcomes compared to their white peers that could receive such services within their community.

The pandemic also exacerbated disparities in access to education and learning experiences. In-person teaching was replaced with online study during the pandemic. Financial constraints occasioned by coronavirus affected the ability of minority students to invest in the technology required for participation in distance learning (Department of Education). They were less likely to enroll in a program due to technological barriers, affecting their academic progress and achievement. The technology gap also resulted from limited access to reliable internet by minority students (Brown para. 7). Thus, federal funding to schools and colleges was increased to reduce this disparity.

Impact on Sexual Minorities

A college is a place where students express their sexuality overtly. Those who identify themselves as lesbian or gay face significant barriers while on the campus. The pandemic may have exacerbated some of these challenges, affecting the educational outcomes of this population. Campuses are an important source of psychological services for sexual minority students; therefore, college closures predisposed them to poor mental health outcomes (Ellis 182). As individuals in the early stages of sexual identity formation, they faced the possibility of rejection by family members upon returning home.

The poor mental outcomes disparately affected the academic performance and social lives of sexual minorities. According to the Department of Education, one-third of LGBTQ students indicated that their social relationships with heterosexual individuals deteriorated during the pandemic. This outcome was aggravated by the absence of mental health services tailored for their needs, which led to persistent depressive symptoms. The poor social relationships subjected LGBTQ youth to isolation and loneliness.

Stay-at-home orders heightened the mental health burden of minority students. The primary reason for this outcome is the unavailability of supportive sexuality alliances, friends, instructors, and counselors that would ameliorate the feelings of seclusion (Brown para. 6). Hostility from relatives could also have impacted the mental health outcomes of LGBT students negatively. They could not express their sexuality openly and lived in stressful and unsupportive home environments during the pandemic. Further, most online learning platforms did not include counseling or support services to students learning remotely, resulting in worse outcomes for LGBT youth.

Reduced sense of security in the community could have also impacted the mental health of sexual minority students. The risk of harassment or threat of harm on LGBTQ youth raised safety concerns, even in the pre-pandemic period (Browning et al. 13). With college closures, the students were likely to experience hostility and violence from conservative members of the community. In addition, homelessness may arise when LGBTQ youth run away from their homes to avoid victimization and aggression.

Conclusion

This research has examined various effects of the coronavirus on college students. This vulnerable group was disproportionately affected directly by the pandemic and indirectly through the interventions taken to curb transmissions. In particular, college closures and the shift to online study had a major impact on the academic, social, and economic aspects of the students lives. They experienced poor mental health outcomes, anxiety, and depression compared to the pre-pandemic period. These effects were more pronounced among racial and sexual minorities and SLWDs.

Works Cited

Aristovnik, Aleksander, et al. Impacts of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Life of Higher Education Students: A Global Perspective. Sustainability, vol. 12, no. 20, 2020, pp. 1-18.

Baker-Smith, Christy, et al. Real College 2021: Basic Needs Insecurity during the Ongoing Pandemic. Web.

Brown, Carolyn. Barnes & Noble Education Survey Reveals College Student Preparedness Split: Technically Ready for Online Learning, But Emotionally Unsure. Business Wire. Web.

Browning, Matthew et al. Psychological Impacts From COVID-19 Among University Students: Risk Factors Across Seven States In The United States. PLOS ONE, vol. 16, no. 1, 2021, pp. 1-16.

Chaffee, Benjamin, et al. Electronic Cigarette and Moist Snuff Product Characteristics Independently Associated with Youth Tobacco Product Perceptions. Tobacco Induced Diseases, vol. 18, 2020, pp. 1-8.

Department of Education. Education in a Pandemic: T