Category: Uncategorized

Introduction

Innovational Proposal

Today, data archiving processes severely slow down the data processing centers by using the tape drives, hard drives, and solid-state drives. Microsoft and University of Washington researchers, on the other hand, have developed a completely automated system that encodes and saves data in DNA for the subsequent encoding and reading.

Microsoft

Microsoft is a leader in the information technology sector, delivering a wide range of devices and services, software and IT services. It is a global company, operating in more than 190 countries around the world. The company has a product-type divisional organizational structure, where each division specializes on a certain line of products and services. Thus, the range of Microsoft products is wide for the IT industry, including a wide range of software systems, apps and digital technology in general. The official Microsoft site (2021) states that the employee count worldwide has reached the number of 182,268, with 103,894 of that count belonging to various company branches in the U.S..

As a company, Microsoft intends to keep its products both innovative and accessible, upholding the balance between costs and barriers to entry. According to Tariq et al. (2019), Schumpeters entrepreneurship theory associates the concept of entrepreneurship precisely with innovations and continuous development. Microsoft invests in innovative technologies projects from non-profit organizations such as universities, that aided the company in developing the first DNA storage device.

Microsoft Business Model

Microsoft so far has been basing its business model on both the Windows operation system and the license fees for using the Windows operating system and Microsoft Office. After years of growing futility in a race against Google and Apple, Microsoft unveiled a new vision in April 2014, instantly shifting the focus to making Windows software more compatible with competing products. Going forward, however, Microsoft has realized that paid software is harder to sell in an era of the low-cost alternatives, and focused on product integration, freemium software, and the cloud computing tools.

Environmental Analysis

Where Is the DNA Storage Now

For successful development, the organization must constantly identify the existing and potential opportunities concerning the most effective use of its internal resources  intellectual, informational, labor, material, financial, and other. According to Williams et al. (2018, para. 1), the true benefit for a firm appears to lie not in any one particular action but in a conglomeration of strategic thinking approaches. The gap between the global data center resources capabilities and the amount of data that requires processing and storing will only increase with time. Microsoft has taken a significant step in facilitating the hard drives and SSDs replacement with the DNA storage tools.

The Source of Innovation and How It Defines the Opportunities

The amount of digital data generated, transmitted, and stored on various storage drivers is growing at an incredible rate. Subsequently, these storage drivers consume an incredible amount of electricity, leaving their negative imprint on the planets ecology. At the same time, the storage period of data on such drives is calculated in years or, at best, decades, which does not satisfy the current market requirements.

A $10,000 prototype gadget developed by Microsoft researchers in cooperation with University of Washington experts can automatically convert any digital data into a DNA sequence and then read that data. The word hello was represented in binary code on a computer during a successful experiment, which was subsequently encoded into a DNA sequence, manufactured, and stored as a liquid. The DNA was then retrieved from storage, sequenced, and converted to binary code and the original word. Takahashi et al. (2019) claims that this device establishes a baseline from which new improvements may be made toward a device that eventually operates at a commercially viable scale and throughput (p. 3). The technology, on the other hand, was revolutionary in how it operated flawlessly in a completely autonomous mode without the need for human involvement.

DNA molecules can store digital information at a very high density, occupying far less physical space less than modern data centers, increasing its value for businesses. DNA storage is currently a topic of investors interest for the foreseeable future (Stanley et al., 2020). As a tool it maintains relevancy for as long as the encoded information exists, which is not the case for the potential alternatives.

MACRO Trend Environmental (PESTLE) Analysis

The study of the external environment, as well as the monitoring of the industrial market, are the most essential aspects of strategic management and planning in the firm. According to Wandhwani et al. (2020), historical assumptions are one of the most important factors in entrepreneurship study, as they provide the context necessary for any impact evaluation. The risks and possibilities that the company may face in the course of doing business are both existent in the external environment, of which the firm is a part. Rastogi and Trivedi (2016) explain that, for example, an increase in inflation rate would definitely affect the companys pricing strategy, and not in a favorable for consumers way. Qiu (2014) supplies that economic and social globalization has a positive effect in the product diversification and large corporations market value. Competitors, unethical suppliers, quickly changing tax regulations, societal cataclysms, and a variety of other things might pose an inconvenience to Microsoft in the external environment. For example, Warner (2019) states that Microsoft already has had several fines problems with the EU for abusing its market dominance. Therefore, government intervention could have a negative impact on the organization.

Microsoft is constantly introducing new technologies into its operations. Technological innovation affects the efficiency with which products can be manufactured and sold, the rate at which the product becomes obsolete, how information can be collected, stored, and distributed. The last aspect forms the base on which the marketing strategy for the DNA storage systems would be built in the future.

MICRO Trend Environmental Analysis

Dobbs (2014) explains Porters five forces as the threats posed by competitive rivalry, powerful buyers, powerful suppliers, potential new entrants, and substitute products. In modern market conditions, those that develop better information products, systems, and management technologies faster than competitors secure the advantage. For example, Kah Chon (2019, para. 2) states that, in 2013, Microsoft had problems in the field of operational risks in PC market, as the launch of Windows 8 resulted in lower profit rates. So the defining perspective development of the IT industry today is the development through establishing unique innovative products, systems and control technologies.

Alternatively, Microsoft could utilize the Porters Five Forces framework for their DNA data storage technology. This model was designed to analyze a competitive market environment and as such has identified several factors of influence: threat of new entrants, threat of substitutes, existing rivalry, power of buyers, and power of suppliers. The threat of new entrants is relatively high for Microsoft, since the data processing and storage technologies are currently on the rise. It is difficult to evaluate the existing rivalry, since the niche is still relatively new and not a lot of firms are part taking in it currently. Substitutes for the DNA storage technology are plentiful, yet none of them imitate the tools characteristics in full. Finally, the bargaining power suppliers is relatively low, considering the size and corporate power of Microsoft, while the power of buyers depends on which of the mentioned segments they belong to.

Customer Segmentation Analysis

If successful, the DNA storage technology will allow the preservation of data that is necessary for legal reasons, such as rare surveillance camera footage, medical records and historical government records. Thus, the first customer segment will be represented by governmental organizations such as health care industry, national archives, police, and penitentiary system. The segments variability is low due to the public service orientation of the stakeholders mentioned, but their position within the market is strong due to their capacity for submitting large orders.

To the second customer segment would belong large tech corporations such as Google, Apple, Amazon and Facebook. Currently, Microsoft is a pioneer and has the furthest progress in the DNA storage technology. Thus, at least for a decade, the companys competitors would have no other choice but to use Microsofts technology. This segment is more variable since the companies in question are private businesses with individual needs, and their position in the market is weaker compared to governmental entities.

SWOT Analysis

Bell and Rochford (2016) highlight the critical role of SWOT analysis in integrating internal and external analysis in the marketing strategy. It can be concluded from the analysis above that the DNA storage technology has a very good marketing potential. Microsoft holds leading positions in the IT industry, and the company has both the capital and the competencies for developing this innovative technology. Lukianov et al. (2020, para. 3) suggest that company needs to use each and every aspects of corporate governance, including risk management. The opportunities the technology presents are plenty: companys expansion in the market and attraction of both domestic and foreign investors, as well as federal investments are the most valuable among them.

The Weaknesses of Proposed Approach

One of the main flaws of the technology is the fact that, unlike silicon-based computing systems, DNA-based storage and computing systems must use fluids to move molecules. The problem is that liquids are inherently different from electrons, thus, they require completely new technical solutions. Also, Heckel et al. (2017) claim that the data on the DNA is stored without a proper order, and read by randomized sampling from the nucleotides pool. Nowadays, the main issue the innovation has yet to overcome is the automation of laboratory experiments that are currently performed manually or by expensive fluid handling robots. Businesses will be able to commercialize DNA storage only when it would be fast and relatively cheap. Researchers have been experimenting with writing data onto the genome since 2012, but today they spend 21 hours writing and reading back a 5-byte word hello.

New Opportunities

However, it must be noted that in 2001, the decoding of the human genome took several years and cost $100 million, while today it can be done in two days and for less than $1,000. Liu et al. (2020) emphasize that DNA storage has all the potential of replacing silicon-based materials as the next generation of information storage technology. The technology has already been improved, and it would continue to evolve, resulting in lower costs and faster results. SathyaBama (2019) states that Microsoft and the U.S Biotech Company Twist Biotech have already successfully stored 400 megabytes of data on the DNA.

Innovation and Marketing Plan

Business Proposition

The technology of DNA storage continues to be improved, but the concept itself has already been proven. Microsoft hopes that this will lead to the development of information storage technologies using DNA, thus further enhancing the field of data processing-focused products (Sorescu, 2017). Modern competitive advantage in a highly contested industry depends on a firms opportunity to predict, incorporate, and monetize innovations, regardless of the initial costs their establishment might cause.

Target Market

The concept of target audience refers to characteristically unified group of people potentially interested in companys proposal that the marketing proposal needs to prioritize. To improve the overall efficiency, marketing strategy should take into account customer expectations and customer satisfaction (Kanten and Darma 2017).) Modern firms possess the opportunity to access and analyze the customers social media thus learning the first-hand information aobut Subsequently, target market for the DNA storage technology would be the ever-growing field of IT innovations of almost any kind  seeing as nowadays, big data storage is strictly required for every device. Microsoft currently occupies the role of one of the leading suppliers of this innovative tool, together with Illumina, Twist Lead and the University of Washington. The technology is to be distributed by current channels typical for biotechnology and high-tech data processing tools.

Key Planning Assumptions

Goela and Bolot (2017) state that, as the cost of DNA synthesis and sequencing decreases, ultra-dense DNA storage emerges to become a leading storage technology. Peng et al. (2021) support that claim, adding that the DNA storage technologies provide a viable biological encryption process, which contributes to the issue of data protection. However, Yazdi et al. (2017) claim that, in order for the technology to become marketable and competitive, it first needs to meet several requirements. These requirements are: the reduced synthesis cost, random access possibilities, enabled portable readout system, and extreme decrease in error rates.

How the Innovation Links to the Microsoft Business Model

Microsoft is a company that was build and continues to develop through innovative technologies. Kra[nicka et al. (2017) states that innovation supportive culture stimulates the generation of new solutions or their absorption from the outside and contributes to the more effective implementation of creative ideas (p. 745). The innovative technology of DNA storage fits the companys current business model perfectly. Taran and Boer (2015) supply that innovation-based business model becomes increasingly important due to the globalizing competition. It addresses the key challenge the company has faced in the last decade  the need to create a unique competitive advantage that no other IT company has yet.

Resources and Competencies for Implementation  Do They Exist?

Nikolau et al. (2021) suggest that biology proved to be one of the key methods to enhance entrepreneurship. Microsoft has an extensive research and development division that continues to work in the direction of DNA data storage. Moreover, Ji and Yoon (2021) also suggest that organisational competitiveness comes from the utilization of strategic human resources nowadays, which the company also constantly enhances. Welter et al. (2016) provide an insight into the entrepreneurship behind the Microsoft type of company, claiming that it continues to strongly shape the field of research and implementation means.

Action Plan

Product / Unique Value Proposition

In the heart of any marketing strategy lies a value proposition. The value proposition is a summary of the properties of a product that are the most beneficial to a certain customer. The creation of a value proposition is a strategic task, and the results of its implementation will directly affect the sales results of the product by influencing customers in the purchasing decision process (Guven, 2020; Nadella, 2020). For this innovation proposal, a value proposition lies in the creation of affordable portable DNA storage units. Stanley et al.s (2020) research shows that, as key opinion leaders claim, in 4 to 10 years the technology would successfully enter the market.

Price

Determining the value of a product is an important step in predicting its success on the market. Carayannis et al. (2015, p.1) also add that the capacity to introduce new products in the market anticipating their competitors, earning in this way significant shares of sales, constitutes a big competitive advantage for companies. Katsikeas et al. (2019) emphasize on the importance of internet research in determining the worldwide price medium in the industry. The initial price determines the level of interest in the product and the market segment it gets positioned in.

However, as the technology of DNA data storage is yet relatively new and expensive, it is hard to determine the price range. Metallo et al. (2018) state that the Internet of Things, where this technology is the most applicable, evolves constantly. In the long term, the market infiltration also maximizes sales in the short term and achieves a high market share, which then would gently lead to increase in prices.

Place

The sales area for the DNA data storage technology would be relatively narrow at first. The organizations who require such technology would need to place direct orders and negotiate contracts with Microsoft. Farooq et al. (2021) add that to one of the two goals of stabilizing a digital business is to shift operations towards a digitally supported system, which may require the establishment of the additional branch.

Promotion

By understanding the positioning of competitors, the company can develop a way to stand out in relation to them and show the unique offer of DNA data storage to the consumers. Hole et al. (2018) add that more impactful promotion programs are accessible through service marketing due to its distinctive approach. Horst and Murschetz (2019, p.1) also highlight how the convergence of strategy and entrepreneurship adds to organizational success through developing visions, exploring and exploiting opportunities, managing people, building networks, driving creativity, and facilitating strategic planning. Furthermore, the social media and the real-time feedback exchange between customers currently became a very influential force of increasing sales and promotion (Soegoto and Utomo 2019). Promotion of DNA data storage devices would include such marketing communications as advertising, promotion at points of sale, search engine optimization, PR, and direct marketing.

Evaluation

Measurements of Performance

Sales strategy is a plan for the development of sales in a company, which contains a set of activities and checkpoints to control their effectiveness. As diversification is Microsofts strategic approach to the DNA storage technology, the firm needs to invest extra heavily into market research and pre-launch testing, increasing its expenses (Dawes, 2018). Financial analysis provides insights into the companys sustainability in the current situation and its plans for strategic growth and risk assessment (Malozyomov et al., 2018; Vernimmen et al., 2018). Microsoft should consider adapting its sales strategy, given that financial data included in the appendix showcases the revenue decrease from Windows and its simultaneous increase from other digital and hybrid products. This could mean the shift in consumer priorities, market trends and general efficiency in the brands value proposition in different segments.

Furthermore, a cash flow statement is highly necessary in an annual financial analysis since the terms income and expenses used in the general report do not directly reflect the actual cash flow. According to Purba and Bimantara (2020), the companys financial performance can be estimated through the analysis of profits. Other KPIs relevant to the financial data on the firm may be derived from its expected return on the market and systemic risk estimation, demonstrating the level of reputation the company holds within its field.

Additionally, the company is expected to aim to calculate a break-even point for its new product, thus estimating the necessary profitability threshold. The break-even point occurs when a firms total revenue is equal to its total expenses, and therefore ensures the company is not faced with financial loss. Based on the previous years, Microsoft can expect its break-even point to occur at 694 units, with each unit contributing $4.90 and having a marginal cost of $7.60 (Facts about Microsoft, 2021). This margin can therefore allow the firm to plan the pricing an the production output accordingly.

Recommendations for Future Actions

The main KPIs Microsoft should prioritize moving forward are revenue growth rate, employee engagement, website search traffic and digital marketing performance. Jankoff (2021, para. 3) states that a risk-averse or too process-driven organizational culture discourages employees from acting as entrepreneurs. It would be useful for the company to ensure that its organizational culture properly addresses needs and ambitions of the employees so that they would be able to perform better (Jakub et al., 2015; Morgan et al., 2018). Additionally, according to research, companies have different benefits from adopting open innovation strategies (Busenitz et al., 2014; Saebi and Foss, 2015). Furthermore, only the systematic analyses of these different approaches and methods can provide the company with the insights into the product development consistent with the evolving demands of the market.

Conclusion

It is data that is the connecting link for all areas of business today. Whether it is peoples daily activities or worldwide work to solve global problems, data complements and empowers human intelligence. DNA can change the data storage business. As the humanity generates more and more data, the value of alternative approaches will grow as the capacity of data centers depletes. Thus, the desire for constant development might become a basis the innovation implementation and integrate the DNA information technology into business operations.

Reference List

Bell, G.G. and Rochford, L., 2016. Rediscovering SWOTs Integrative nature: A new understanding of an old framework. The International Journal of Management Education, 14(3), pp.310326. Web.

Busenitz, L.W. et al., 2014. Entrepreneurship research (19852009) and the emergence of opportunities. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 38(5), pp.120.

Carayannis, E.G., Samara, E.T. and Bakouros, Y.L., 2015. Innovation and Entrepreneurship Theory, policy and practice, Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.

Dawes, J., 2018. The Ansoff Matrix: A Legendary Tool, But with Two Logical Problems, SSRN

Drucker, P.F. and Maciariello, J.A., 2015. Innovation and entrepreneurship, Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge.

Dobbs, M.E., 2014. Guidelines for applying Porters five Forces framework: A set of industry analysis templates. Competitiveness Review, 24(1), pp.3245. Web.

Dybek, M., 2021. Microsoft Corp. (NASDAQ:MSFT): CAPM. Stock Analysis on Net. Web.

Farooq, M.U. et al., 2021. Supply chain operations management IN PANDEMICS: A State-of-the-art review inspired BY COVID-19. Sustainability, 13(5), p.2504. Web.

Goela, N. and Bolot, J., 2017. Advances in DNA storage. 2017 Information Theory and Applications Workshop (ITA).

Guyader, H. and Piscicelli, L., 2019. Business model diversification in the sharing economy: The case of GoMore. Journal of cleaner production, 215, pp.1059-1069. Web.

Guven, B., 2020. The integration of strategic management and intrapreneurship: Strategic intrapreneurship from theory to practice. Business and Economics Research Journal, 11(1), pp.229245.

Heckel, R. et al., 2017. Fundamental limits of DNA storage systems. 2017 IEEE International Symposium on Information Theory (ISIT), pp.31303134.

Hisrich, R.D. and Kearney, C., 2014. Managing innovation and entrepreneurship, Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.

Hole, Y., Pawar, S. and Bhaskar, M.P., 2018. Service marketing and quality strategies. Periodicals of Engineering and Natural Sciences (PEN), 6(1), p.182.

Horst, S.-O. and Murschetz, P.C., 2019. Strategic media entrepreneurship. Journal of Media Management and Entrepreneurship, 1(1), pp.126.

Jakub, S., Viera, B. and Eva, K., 2015. Economic value added as a measurement tool of financial performance. Procedia Economics and Finance, 26, pp.484489. Web.

Jankoff, C., 2021. Leading innovation and change. The Risk Doctor. The Risk Doctor. Web.

Ji, Y. and Yoon, H.J., 2021. The effect of servant leadership on self-efficacy and innovative behavior: Verification of the moderated mediating effect of vocational calling. Administrative Sciences, 11(2), p.39. Web.

Kah Chon, O., 2019. Impacts of firm-specific factors and macroeconomic factors against Microsofts performance. Munich Personal RePEc Archive. Web.

Kanten, I.K. and Darma, G.S., 2017. Consumer behavior, marketing strategy, customer satisfaction, and business performance. Jurnal Manajemen Bisnis, 14(2), pp.143165. Web.

Katsikeas, C., Leonidou, L. and Zeriti, A., 2019. Revisiting international marketing strategy in a digital era. International Marketing Review, 37(3), pp.405424. Web.

Khajezadeh, M. , Niasar, M. , Asli, S. , Davari, D. , Godarzi, M. , Asgari, Y. (2019), Application of Neural Network in Portfolio Product Companies: Integration of Boston Consulting Group Matrix and Ansoff Matrix, World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology, Open Science Index 150, International Journal of Economics and Management Engineering, 13(6), 821  825.

Kra[nicka, T., GBód, W. and Wronka-Po[piech, M., 2017. Management innovation, pro-innovation organisational culture and enterprise performance: Testing the mediation effect. Review of Managerial Science, 12(3), pp.737769. Web.

Liu, S., Ye, Z. and Chen, M., 2020. Next generation information storage technology. Proceedings of the 2020 12th International Conference on Machine Learning and Computing.

Lukianov, D. et al., 2020. SWOT analysis as an effective way to Obtain primary data for mathematical modeling in project risk management. EasyChair Home Page. Web.

Malozyomov, B.V. et al., 2018. Consideration of risk factor impact on efficiency of innovative projects by calculating breakeven point in high-tech fields of economy. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 194, p.062021.

Martins, A., 2021. Scenarios and Ansoff Matrix: an application to the future of hotel investment in Portugal. [online] Hdl.handle.net. Web.

Mehmood, T. et al., 2019. Schumpeterian Entrepreneurship Theory Evolution and Relevance. Academy of Entrepreneurship Journal, 25(4), pp.110. Web.

Metallo, C. et al., 2018. Understanding business model in the internet of things industry. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 136, pp.298306.

Microsoft, 2021. Facts about Microsoft. Microsoft. Web.

Microsoft, 2021. Microsoft Earnings Release FY21 Q4. Microsoft. Web.

Microsoft, 2021. Microsoft Investor Relations. Microsoft. Web.

Mitra, J., 2020. Entrepreneurship, innovation and regional development an introduction, London, UK: Routledge

Morgan, N.A. et al., 2018. Research in marketing strategy. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 47(1), pp.429.

Nadella, S., Microsoft annual Report. Microsoft 2020 Annual Report. Web.

Nicolaou, N., Phan, P.H. and Stephan, U., 2020. The biological perspective in Entrepreneurship Research. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 45(1), pp.317. Web.

Peng, W., Cui, S. and Song, C., 2021. One-time-pad cipher algorithm based on confusion mapping and DNA storage technology. PLOS ONE, 16(1). Web.

Purba, J.H. and Bimantara, D., 2020. The influence of asset management on financial performance, with panel data analysis. Proceedings of the 2nd International Seminar on Business, Economics, Social Science and Technology (ISBEST 2019). Web.

Qiu, T., 2014. Product diversification and market value of large international firms: A macroenvironmental perspective. Journal of International Marketing, 22(4), pp.86107. Web.

Rastogi, N. and Trivedi, M.K., 2016. PESTLE technique  a tool to identify external risks in construction projects. International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) , 3(1), pp.384388. Web.

Quiring, E., Pirch, L., Reimsbach, M., Arp, D. and Rieck, K., 2020. Against All Odds: Winning the Defense Challenge in an Evasion Competition with Diversification. arXiv preprint arXiv:2010.09569.

Saebi, T. and Foss, N.J., 2015. Business models for open innovation: Matching heterogeneous open innovation strategies with business model dimensions. European Management Journal, 33(3), pp.201213. Web.

SathyaBama, S., 2019. A survey on recent trends in digital data storage on DNA. International Journal of Emerging Technology and Innovative Engineering, 5(2), pp.7982. Web.

Soegoto, E.S. and Utomo, A.T., 2019. Marketing strategy through social media. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 662, p.032040.

Sorescu, A., 2017. Data-driven business model innovation. Journal of Product Innovation Management, 34(5), pp.691696. Web.

Stanley, P.M. et al., 2020. Decoding DNA data storage for investment. Biotechnology Advances, 45, p.107639. Web.

Takahashi, C.N. et al., 2019. Demonstration of end-to-end automation of DNA data storage. Scientific Reports, 9(1). Web.

Taran, Y., Boer, H. and Lindgren, P., 2015. A business model innovation typology. Decision Sciences, 46(2), pp.301331.

Vernimmen, P. et al., 2018. Corporate finance: Theory and practice, Chichester, UK: Wiley.

Wadhwani, R.D. et al., 2020. Context, time, and change: Historical approaches to entrepreneurship research. Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal, 14(1), pp.319.

Warner, J.P., 2019. Microsoft: A Strategic Audit. Undergraduate Honors Thesis. Lincoln: University of Nebraska-Lincoln.

Welter, F. et al., 2016. Everyday entrepreneurshipa call for entrepreneurship research to embrace entrepreneurial diversity. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 41(3), pp.311321. Web.

Williams, R.I.

Introduction

Positionality is a concept that plays an integral part in an individuals day-to-day life. Misawa (2010) defines this concept as, the power inherent in an individuals immediate respective social positions. This concept is founded on the assertion that any persons identity is not fixed but depends on their position in constantly shifting relationship networks. This position can easily be analyzed or shifted. This concept posits that in the view of society, every individual has a race, a class, or gender. Although these qualities play a great role in establishing our identity in public, they are not fixed qualities. Instead, they are relational qualities that are hence complex. To be precise, the concept of positionality posits that our summed-up identities are mere reflections of socially established positions and our relationships. Given this automatic characterization, an individuals access to certain essential services could be hampered or enhanced just as a result of their social identity. Among these essential services is education.

Given that positionality is an automatic categorization, minority groups in contemporary society have to face the unavoidable reality of being marginalized and discriminated against. Without a doubt, sexual orientation is a significant element that determines our social identity. Although the topic assumed a low profile some decades ago, the 1960s witnessed a louder and more aggressive approach towards this subject. The Stonewall riots opened the eyes of the public over the issue of sexual orientation. Although the issue has witnessed several policy changes leading to tolerance, there still exist some instances of discrimination and marginalization the world over.

In contemporary American society, the LGBT society had to endure great instances of discrimination in terms of service provision. The society that viewed them from a somehow unwelcome perspective had subjected this minority to poor quality services for essential services. In the education sector, the LGBT minorities were identified as one of the most disadvantaged groups. The established identity within the institutions of higher learning barely recognized the special needs of this group. As a result, the pedagogical policies and other institutional resources never had provisions that would assist this group of students to access good quality education like other members of the society. However, contemporary society has embarked on serious efforts to ensure that the LGBT minorities are accessing fair treatment in higher institutions of learning. Physical facilities and policy changes that aim at promoting the lives of this minority are witnessed throughout American schools.

Given the unique needs of this subculture, this paper has, as its main objective, the need to show that in contemporary American society, the LGBT minority has witnessed increased attention. It aims to highlight that the field of higher education has taken notice of the needs of this particular population and has responded, especially within the past fifteen years. Expanded services on universities across the United States include establishing GLBT offices that focus on student services for this subculture. In this literature review, the author will explore what has been said about GLBT students and what their needs have been established as, whether all these needs are being addressed at universities currently, knowledge for universities who are looking to further assist these students, and what questions remained unanswered about this population of students.

Literature Review

There is no doubt that that the lives of Americas GLBT population have improved drastically over the past twenty years (Cook, 2002). Although there is still much to be addressed, the higher education concern on LGBT minorities has been evidenced in the increase in the number of centers that address their issues. Travers (2006) points out that the number of LGBT staffed centers in college campuses around the United States of America was only fifteen in 1992. The number doubled up to thirty in 1996 before an incident where a young boy was killed by the mob because of his sexual orientation in 1998. This triggered a series of activism by LGBT organizations. By the year 2006, more than 100 such centers had been established throughout America. Although the trigger of this substantial improvement could have been riots and other violence associated with failure to recognize the needs of these students, recent research shows that the contemporary development of staffed LGBT centers is founded on the effectiveness of such centers in the academic performance of a college. The increase in the awareness of LGBT issues crops from frequently exposed GLBT issues and people in the media, which has led to greater acceptance of different sexual orientations (Cook, 2002; Tinto, 1975).

However, the challenges faced by GLBT students are still extremely disheartening. According to Brown, Clarke, Gortmaker, and Robinson-Keilig (2004) Reviews of published campus climate studies for GLBT students universally indicate that these students experience discrimination, harassment, and fear and that the campus climate for them is chilly at best. (p.8). Research shows that almost all LGBT college students have heard or directly experienced offensive anti-LGBT commentary (94-98%), creating feelings of hostility in their educational communities (Horne, Rice & Israel, 2004). Davis (2006) on the other hand points out that the disparities of health between straight and gays vary greatly. The LGBT minority is faced by far much more health challenges as compared to straight people. For instance, he argues that people involved in same-sex relationships stand a double chance of contemplating suicide as compared to their heterosexual counterparts. In addition, he points out that women involved in same-sex relationships stand a chance of developing generalized anxiety disorder three times more than heterosexuals. It is three times easier for men engaged in the same sex to abuse drugs as compared to heterosexual men. These are just among the health challenges that LBGTs face that require special treatment. Sadly, very few institutions have tried to put up centers that have services that meet all these special needs.

Harley, Nowak, Gassaway, and Savage (2002) paint another gloomy picture of challenges faced by the LGBT minority. In their discussion, they highlight the point of multiple identities. Being an LGBT while at the same time possessing some form of disability is a great challenge to several college students. Inadequate knowledge on the needs of these students hence plays a role in this. Most of the practitioners do not identify the diversity of LGBT students. They regard them as one group without identifying some specific differences that would lead to variability in challenges. For instance, race or disability on the LGBT member can greatly change societys view of him. This means that there are likely to be differences in needs of the LGBTs that have other differences like gender and race. Being that the student affairs profession is committed to advancing student development through tolerance and acceptance of differences, this issue must be addressed within the field to create the best environments possible for these students.

GLBT established needs come from research that has been done on the subject. The most commonly expressed need is a positive/healthy homosexual identity, with particular importance being coming out at GLBT publicly (Dilley, 2005). The political and psychological ramifications of coming out lead many GLBT students to keep their true identity secret or in denial, making them an invisible minority in some cases (Jones, 2006). Patrick Dilley defines a healthy homosexual identity as being composed of three elements, senses, experiences, and sensibilities (Dilley, 2005). Senses relates to how the individual perceives themselves, experiences relates to how they behave, and sensibilities to the values and contexts of their senses and experiences (Dilley, 2005). Dilley explains the six identities as the relation to the concept of social change, and they are homosexual, gay, queer, closeted, normal, and parallel. Homosexual refers to acknowledging feelings/attractions but not necessarily telling others and keeping it private; gay referring to publicly acknowledging/announcing feelings or attractions and being publically socialized with other non-heterosexuals; queer referring to being very publicly open about sexuality and being in opposition to straight culture; closeted referring to recognizing the feelings and acknowledging the meanings but not telling many people or anyone at all; normal as identifying as heterosexual and participating in homosexual activity has no effect on identity (cognitive and emotional dissonance); and parallel as identifying and behaving as straight in everyday situations and contexts but identifying and behaving as homosexual in those particular situations and contexts, keeping the two worlds separate (Dilley, 2005; Smith, 1998).

The campus environment greatly affects non-heterosexual identity. Cognitive and emotional dissonance is not ideal or considered mentally healthy. The campus environment and university should encourage GLBT students to have a healthy identity related to their sexuality, avoiding dissonance. The best way to be able to foster healthy sexual identities is for there to be an increased understanding of why these different identities happen and encourage students to explore themselves and understand their sexuality. It is important for all GLBT students to feel safe with their identity on their college campus to have healthy self-esteem and to avoid dissonance.

There is also research supporting evidence that shows that involvement on-campus supports identity development in students, about many specific elements of identity, including sexual orientation (Renn & Bilodeau, 2005). Therefore, a need for GLBT students that administrators should address is that of ensuring that identity-based leadership experiences so that these students are assisted with developing a healthy GLBT identity.

Whether or not these needs are being met across colleges and universities in the United States is an interesting topic to explore. With regards to forming a healthy GLBT identity and supportive campus environment, the route some universities have chosen to take is establishing a professionally-staffed office just for GLBT students. The distressing fact is that relatively few university-supported offices have been established (Ritchie & Banning, 2001). The absence of these offices is surprising given the often hostile and harassing campus environment encountered by GLBT students and also given the developmental challenges GLBT students experience during their time in college (Ritchie & Banning, 2001).

There is also a lack of specialized training for student affairs professionals and faculty at universities in teaching GLBT issues. Statistics show that often faculty and administration fail to intervene in combating things like derogatory comments, which contribute to supporting a campus environment that has a negative attitude toward GLBT students (Cook, 2002).

Driver (2008) argues that although the service workers within the universities have some knowledge of working with this group of students, the whole campus environment does not favor them. This is as a result of other nonservice fraternity within the university that hence subjects the students to isolation, discrimination, and disregard. The other campus fraternity views these students of sexual minority as people with deviant behavior that could be accepted. Her research further found out heterosexual students in the university found it better and easier working with other forms of diversity than the sexual minority. For instance, most of them preferred working with a person of another gender than another race. However, working with another race was preferred over working with an LGBT. The campus fraternity hence finds it most difficult incorporating the LGBT members in their day-to-day lives as compared to any other form of the minority. Given the special circumstances these students go through, more training sessions should be established for professionals in helping these students with their issues. College administrators, faculty, and counselors need to be aware of GLBT dynamics, issues, and concerns to better serve and help these students.

This form of marginalization and discrimination leads to psychological problems on the part of LGBT members. He points out that students learning within an environment that seems unsupportive and which is characterized by harassment cannot concentrate on their studies or even other co-curricular activities. Consequently, their retention becomes a great challenge to colleges and universities. The alarming statistical fact that emerged from this stud is that of 1000 students involved in her research, about 33% of them had experienced a form of harassment in their lives at some point. In addition, he found out that 31% of them either left college completely or stayed away for more than one semester as a result of this harassment. It was hence ascertained that LGBT members stood a higher chance of dropping out of school especially if their effort to adjust resulted in null. Also, if the environment was isolating and unwelcoming, the students were likely to be faced with stress and either perform poorly in their academic endeavors or drop out altogether.

On his part, Misawa (2003) finds out that sexual minorities, just like all other minorities tend to have difficulties in conforming to the system of education that is generalized knowledge-based on white discourse. As a result, the opinions of minorities are not reflected in the pedagogical approaches or the syllabus of the schools. The knowledge imparted to students is centered on a single group of people. As a result, the generalization of knowledge marginalizes some of the student minorities that tend to have different learning and motivation patterns. This also causes misunderstandings between students and practitioners. Teachers who are concerned about the needs of minorities find it very difficult to work within this system as it fails to acknowledge their primary needs of improving the lives of minorities. These arguments concur with Rankin (2003).

Methodology

Collecting information on this research was a little bit difficult. This was a result of some few LGBTs who found it inappropriate to reveal their identities. However, I engaged the use of questionnaires that did not call for the identity of the respondent. This allowed some of them to offer information without fear. The research was carried out in a college which would answer the question of this research; identifying the issues of LGBTs in higher education. In other instances where the respondents were openly practicing this, a personal interview was carried out.

The research respondents involved both males and females as the issue of LGBT affects both genders. The respondents included 10 female college students and another 15 male students from the same university. Although this was a small sample, their consistent views could be a clear reflection of what this subpopulation needs.

Most of the respondents were clear on the point that most of the approaches identified by the centers to assist the LGBT minority were poor and failed to capture the real needs. For instance, Anastasia, a young man studying in a small liberal arts university in Florida pointed out that what needs to be done is not coming up with programs and expecting the LGBT members to go them. Instead, he alleges that coming up with a targeting strategy is more important. The targeted population would not go to them and hence they would be forced to go to them through targeting. Athletics, for instance, would play a good role in targeting this subculture.

The issue of tolerance also cropped up severally. What the LGBTs need is for the other students to work with them as they would work with any other student. This, Anastasia says, can only be achieved if heterosexuals are given knowledge of awareness. He asserts that most LGBTs are normal people who do not have anything beyond the ordinary. However, most of the students arriving in the college tend to have a bad picture of this subpopulation as created by the media. Considering that some of them would be meeting a gay person for the first time, it becomes a matter of awe. He says, The biggest issue there is awareness. So many people are just unaware. Anastasia shows that the best approach to this is creating awareness through orientation processes. This would assist the members of the student body who have only had a chance of understanding the LGBTs only through the biased media to have a clearer and picture through interactive activities.

Asked whether the same form of discrimination happens at all levels, Gina, a lesbian from another college in South Florida also feels that the problem is not better at any level as compared to the other. The issue of discrimination starts from the administration down to the students. However, student service workers tend to have some form of comprehension. As compared to other members of the campus fraternity, student service workers have shown understanding and have tried to ensure that the lives of these sexual minorities are good and comfortable at all levels.

The issue of academic performance and LGBT inclination brought about different responses. Anastasia finds that his being gay does not by any means affect his academic performance. Furthermore, his being gay has not even interfered with his day-to-day operations. He remains a student leader despite this. In addition, he works as a DJ on the school radio where he says that he enjoys playing music and gets paid. Generally, he maintains his humor and life does not seem a disappointment to him. On the other hand, Gina feels that the perspective by which the campus fraternity views them does not offer a conducive environment that would promote their academic life. Most of the students tend to isolate themselves blocking them completely from interactive learning that is best for any given student. Other than being given no opportunity to participate in group discussions, lecturers and other teaching staff usually pay so attention to the special needs of these students to assist them to cope up with life. The other students view us as deviant or nonsociable. They tend to isolate us during discussion group formation. One of the students once told me that incorporating me in their group might paint a bad picture of the group members this is what Gina had to say.

Would the increase in the number of centers in the universities reduce the quality of education for the LGBT society? This question tended to achieve a uniform response. Most of the respondents accepted that establishment of LGBT centers would greatly improve the quality of life of these students. However, they expressed their fear of the approach of the centers. Lola, another Lesbian had this to say, Do they have a clear picture of what should best be done? Do they know exactly what we need to improve the quality of our lives? these sentiments are echoed by Anastasia who feels that LGBT centers would be a good idea. However, poor approaches by the centers would lead to malfunctioning. He says that developing programs that require the members of the LGBT minority to look for them is a blunder. He says, Most of these students will not look for them. They will not look for these programs. What does he recommend? Instead of programming, Anastasia prefers targeting. All the policies aimed at improving the quality of life of LGBTs should be constructed in such a way that they look for the LGBTs and not LGBTs looking for them. Anastasia clearly says, The people theyre trying to target arent going to go to those programs, they need to go to them.

For universities to better serve this population and create a more positive campus climate, more GLBT offices should be established at universities. These offices should offer services to all GLBT groups, offer library materials, speakers, programs, focus on student services, and short-term counseling (Ritchie & Banning, 2001). The creation of these offices would create an environment for service and opportunities for campus involvement and activities that cater to and support GLBT environments. Universities should also partner with academics and different departments (such as history) to create courses and also help identify within courses significant historical GLBT events and people. Student affairs should work within their departments as well, for example, career development, to help identify GLBT-friendly companies or occupations. Policies also should support diversity and the GLBT campus community.

Universities should all be certain of things that may be easily overlooked in regards to showing a supportive environment towards GLBT students. This includes having sexual orientation included in the universitys non-discrimination statement, ensuring that the university has a GLBT student association, having courses on GLBT literature/history/theory, ensuring the university has domestic partner benefits for employees and having campus programs or speakers about GLBT issues (Cook, 2002).

A question about GLBT students that have yet to be answered or further researched thoroughly is special issues with GLBT racial or ethnic minorities. Very little research has been done on Hispanic GLBTs, and none focusing specifically on college students. Research is done by William L. Jeffries IV (2007) studies the homosexual behavior among gendered lines shows that men have different behavior patterns, but more needs to be done for the GLBT minority community as a whole in regards to higher education.

Implications and Discussion

With heteronormativity immensely affecting the belief system of the larger population of the United States, the chances that minority groups will continue staying under oppression are high. In the same line, educational institutions, which play an important role in the economic and political development of a country, are not left behind in this oppressive venture. This could pose a great danger to the socio-economic platform. With the association of university teachers (2003) pointing out that of every six students one of them is an LGBT, it becomes mandatory that policymakers identify a way through which these students can be assisted. Furthermore, research has also pointed out the implication of marginalization on academic performance and retention level. Unless appropriate steps are taken, it is clear that 16% of all college students would be wasted due to unutilized potential. To identify the best way forward, it is important to identify the challenges and strengths that exist.

One picture that is brought out clearly from the interviews is that while more and more universities and colleges are improving on their dealing with LGBT minorities, very few of them have the capacity or understand exactly what the needs of this group are. As a result, they come up with inappropriate policies that would not assist them. As Anastasia puts it, they should not develop programs and expect minority students to look for assistance from them. Instead, they should develop strategies that target this demographic bracket from where they can be found. And not the other way round.

Psychological burdens arising from marginalization and isolation affect immensely the academic performance of students. What the policymakers need to identify are ways through which these could be avoided. A clear picture is through the creation of awareness. As one of the subjects put it, awareness is what the rest of the students need. They need not view lesbians and gays as weird people whose moral shave gone overboard. Instead, they should be taught to understand this group as a normal group of people who found pleasure differently. How can awareness be created? One of the ways through which awareness can be created is through the diversification of the curriculum. The current curriculum was developed based on certain principles that sideline minorities. As a result, diverse perspectives should be developed to reflect the needs of the minority population.

Still, on the issue of curriculum, studies on sexual orientation and identity should be given more emphasis than what is experienced currently. Unlike currently when this topic is taught in a few classes especially psychology, more of this should be taught in every class. Students need to understand that sexual orientation is a natural aspect and those involved are no less human or deviant. Instead of limiting this subject to social sciences, the topic of sexual orientation should be spread over in all faculties and even outside the classroom. The challenges faced by the group should be highlighted. By doing this, the group will get visibility which is necessary for awareness creation.

Resource allocation is another issue identified as a pressing issue for LGBT students. Several universities and colleges have not allocated adequate resources that are necessary for assisting the LGBTs. For instance, the development of functional LGBT centers would be appropriate in ensuring that this minority has enough material to assist them. Failure to have a resource center for the LGBTs leads to a population of minority students who have to endure isolation and marginalization while their heterosexual counterparts also suffer from a lack of knowledge that would further the heteronormativity problems within the education system. Together, these would lead to poor performance from both sides. Most interviewees pointed out the fact that the existent resource centers were poorly equipped. Some of the programs within were poorly funded hence non-performing. As a result, better programs need to be initiated. In addition, existent programs that are poorly funded should be given a facelift through increased resource allocation.

Finally, diversity should not be an issue for students only. While programs are initiated to improve the academic performance of these students, senior positions also need to be restructured. Research shows that students would be motivated if they saw a person with which they identify in a senior position. What does this imply? It implies that more LGBT lecturers and administrators should be employed. With successful individuals of LGBT inclination, the student minority will have role models for which they can look upon for strength to carry on. The heterosexual individuals will also have an opportunity to understand that even LGBTs are normal people who can perform normally in life and at the workplace. By understanding that this is a normal phenomenon, they will stop seeing themselves as queer and deviant. This will improve the interaction between these two groups.

Contrary to the findings of this research were the findings by the association of university teachers (2001) who argued that harassment and aggression against LGBT students were high. Most of the respondents pointed out that they lived a normal life where their affairs were not the affairs of others. A good example is Anastasia who argues that his being gay does not impact negatively his life or academic performance. His sense of humor and active participation in college activities include having been a student leader at some point and also working as a disc jockey in the campus radio is clear evidence of this. This is clear evidence that more and more colleges are starting to create a conducive environment for LGBT minority students.

Most institutions have failed to adequately address the issue of LGBTs in their academic setup. If this is the case, it becomes another hurdle to identify how students with multiple minorities could be assisted. Further study should be carried out to identify the effects of other forms of the minority on LGBTs. The research should try to identify the issue of LGBT about race, gender, physical disability et cetera. It should be ascertained how race and LGBTs can relate. In addition, how does race or gender coupled up with LGBT affect the performance of an individual? Ways through which multiple minorities could be approached should be ascertained.

In conclusion, there is increased awareness in institutions of higher education concerning LGBTs. However, the increase is not specifically the best that can be achieved. Much has to be done to address the needs of this minority. Awareness must be created through an increase in resource centers that have adequate resources. This would aid in facilitating programs that would eventually change the perception of the general public concerning sexual orientation. As mentioned earlier, appropriate programs should not wait for LGBTs to seek for them instead, they should seek LGBT through deliberate targeting. There should be a total overhaul in the academic curricula to enable minority students and practitioners to feel welcome with the contents. Finally, more teachers and lecturers who practice same-sex relationships should be employed to pose as role models for LGBT students. With someone to identify with, they will look upon them as a simple of success and soo they would work harder to be successful too. This will also allow heterosexual students to understand LGBTs. They will view them as human beings who can succeed just like any other individual. is also important to note that the issue of sexual orientation does not only cover the LGBTs but also heterosexual students. Their performance goes lower if they dont have adequate information concerning sexual orientation.

Reference List

Association of University Teachers. (2001). Lesbian gay and bisexual participation in UK universities: Results from a pilot program. Web.

Brown, R., Clarke, B., Gortmaker, V., & Robinson-Keilg, R. (2004). Assessing the campus climate for gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender (GLBT) students using a multiple perspective approach. Journal of College Student Development, 45, 8-26.

Cook, J.D. (2002). Searching for gay-friendly colleges: How guidance counselors can help their gay students. Journal of College Admission, 177, 9-13.

Dilley, P. (2005). Which way out? A typology of non-heterosexual male collegiate identities. The Journal of Higher Education, 76, 56-88.

Driver, S. (2008). Lesbians gay bisexual and transgender students: Needs and Retention assessment. Thesis for Master of Arts. California State University, Sacramento. Web.

Harley, D., Nowak, T., Gassaway, L. & Savage, T. (2002). Lesbians gay bisexual and transgender college students with disabilities: A look at multiple cultural minor

Siemens-Energy is one of the leading technology companies in the world. One of the areas of specialization for the firm is industrial gas turbine manufacturing. According to Sadler (2020), Siemens has emerged as one of the preferred brands in the industrial gas sector. The company has two major production plants where it manufactures gas turbines. One of the plants is in the United States while the other is in Germany. The industrial gas turbine industry has become increasingly competitive as new firms continue to emerge while the existing corporations seek to expand their territories (Sayigh, 2018). It means that a firm must find a competitive edge over its rivals to remain sustainable in such a market. One of the areas that a firm can achieve sustainable advantage is to ensure that it has an efficient supply chain management system. The research seeks to assess how project management techniques be used to improve supply chain management, specifically focusing on industrial gas turbines project at Siemens-Energy.

A supply chain system creates a coordinated platform linking an organization with other entities to ensure that raw materials are obtained, processed, and the finished product is made available to customers at the right time. It starts with the identification and engagement of specific suppliers who can deliver the needed materials regularly and reliably (Ceyhun, 2020). A firm then has to put in place measures to ensure that the needed materials are availed at the production plant. Delivery of products can be done by the supplier, the buyer, or through third parties (Didonet and Díaz, 2012). A firm must choose the approach that maintains the cost as low as possible without compromising the reliability of the process.

Processing is often considered part of supply chain management. The raw materials should be consumed to help in the production of the industrial gas turbine (Kerzner, 2017a). At the production stage, the focus is to maintain high levels of efficiency to ensure that the best products are delivered at the lowest cost possible. It is at this stage that the management must ensure that cases of theft and unnecessary destruction of materials are eliminated as much as possible. Prolonged storage of raw materials should also be eliminated because it increases warehousing costs.

Distribution of the finished products is the next phase in the supply chain management system. As mentioned above, Siemens has its production plants in the United States and Germany. The companys Giga factory in Berlin, Germany is intended to facilitate increased production (Siemens-Energy, 2022b). Once the industrial gas turbines are produced in these production plants, they have to be distributed to all the markets where the company operates (Saad and Asmuin, 2014). The Middle East, especially Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Kuwait, and Egypt are currently the most attractive markets for these products. India, China, Japan, and the Philippines are the other major Asian markets. When it comes to international distribution of the products, many companies prefer using logistics companies such as Supply Chain & Global Forwarding, Nippon Express, or Kuehne + Nagel (Hanne and Dornberger, 2017). The preferred choice should offer the highest level of efficiency possible.

Once they arrive at the destination country, Siemens will need to ensure that they reach retailers. A firm may choose to have its retail offices or choose specialty shops in the foreign market (Alfoqahaa, 2018). It is the responsibility of the management of this company to ensure that the selected channel will ensure that products reach the client when in the right state. Clients for industrial gas turbines are often organizational buyers. In most cases, the client would be the government of a specific country (Rao, 2018). In other cases, the client may be large companies or non-governmental organizations producing energy for consumption or commercial purposes. The company has to ensure that the product reaches customers in time and that any assistance that may be needed for the installation and maintenance is provided. Ideally, such activities should be designed as projects to enhance their efficacy.

Project management has become a standard practice among companies, irrespective of their size when undertaking major activities. It helps in defining specific resources that should be used, a timeline of activities, and the goal that should be realized upon completion (Wysocki, 2019). It is an effective strategy when a firm intended to conduct a cost-benefit analysis of a major initiative before its implementation. The approach that a firm takes in project management depends on various factors such as the size of the company, resources available, the nature of the project, and the expertise of the team involved in the implementation.

The supply chain management in the industrial gas turbines at Siemens-Energy will ensure that there is proper coordination of activities from the initial stage of sourcing for raw materials to the final stage of installing the turbines. It is comprehensive coordination of activities of various experts in different parts of the world to ensure that clients are satisfied (Klumpp and Ruiner, 2018). It requires close cooperation of the team members involved in undertaking specific activities. They need to maintain close communication and sharing of data to ensure that mistakes are avoided as much as possible. The success of the project depends on the efficiency and effectiveness of the stakeholders involved in the entire supply chain (Barrett, 2018). The goal of this dissertation is to discuss how to use project management techniques to improve the supply chain process of the industrial gas turbine project at Siemens-Energy. It shall involve a critical evaluation and analysis of the supply chain path of gas turbine parts, from assembling, manufacturing, installation, commissioning, and maintenance processes.

It is necessary to mention the merit of the topic as a research. The topic focuses on how two management tools, which are project management and supply chain management, can be used to help enhance the success of Siemens industrial gas turbine project. Most studies have looked at how the two tools can be used independently to ensure the success of a project. This research takes a different approach, looking at how they can be intertwined to enhance the success of a project.

The Rationale of the Research

Project management and supply chain management are some of the areas of study which have gained massive popularity over the recent past. While project management is considered an effective tool in undertaking major investment activities within a specific timeline using the available resources, supply chain management focuses on enhancing efficiency in the entire process of making a product available to customers. Combining the two in facilitating an effective process of sourcing for materials, manufacturing, and making available industrial gas turbines for Siemens-Energy is critical (Ahmad, 2018). This company is operating in a highly competitive industry. As such, it is constantly under pressure to lower the cost of production as much as possible while at the same time maintaining high quality for its products.

The industrial gas turbine project can help transform the fortunes of this company in the energy sector if it is done properly. It can help the firm to create a unique market niche and to develop a unique pool of loyal customers in the market (Sadler, 2020). These two management tools can help the firm to achieve the required level of success (Kerzner, 2017b). Project management will help in defining specific activities that should be conducted in the industrial gas turbine initiative. It will also determine the resources needed and the specific goals that should be realized. On the other hand, supply chain management will help determine how the entire project should be conducted, from accessing the materials, manufacturing, storage, transportation, and distribution of the finished products in the market (Kerzner, 2018). The research is important because it will help in defining how the management of Siemens-Energy will use the two tools to ensure that the industrial turbine gas project is a success.

Case Study

Siemens-Energy WWL is a technology company that has been operating in Qatar since 1970. The firm has a large product portfolio in the fields of transport, infrastructure, and industry. For the past 30 years, the company has been keen on using innovative technologies to transform transport and manufacturing sectors not only in Qatar but also in other parts of the world (Sadler, 2020). It has partnered with other companies to find ways of reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases while at the same time enhancing efficiency and productivity in these sectors. Siemens-Energy reports that the company has ventured into the production of batteries for electric cars and ferries (Weimoth, 2022). Figure 1.1 below shows an all-electric ferry that relies on Siemens battery. The goal is to be at the forefront in the fight against global warming.

In the energy sector, Siemens is involved with generation, transmission, and industrial applications. It has also made major investments in the new energy business and the renewable energy sector as a way of helping its clients to reduce their reliance on renewable energy. This project primarily focused on the industrial application sector of the company. The company acknowledges that the industrial sector is one of the largest consumers of energy, leading to massive emissions of carbon dioxide gases. As the sector continues to play a critical role in the growth of the economy, it is essential to find ways of providing renewable energy to it to help protect the environment.

Siemens Industrial Application Division was created to find innovative ways of addressing energy needs for these companies. Our portfolio includes mission-critical rotating equipment that we maintain throughout its lifecycle with our comprehensive fleet of services, and electrical, automation, and digital offerings that optimize both this equipment and services, (Siemens-Energy, 2022b, para. 5). Figure 1.2 below shows an industrial gas turbine produced by Siemens-Energy. The company has put in place a mechanism to ensure that it serves the different needs of its customers in the supply chain of renewable energy. These services and products are available throughout the Middle East and other parts of the world where Siemens operate.

In this case study, the focus was on the industrial gas turbines project. The company manufactures various types of gas turbines, which include heavy-duty gas turbines, industrial gas turbines, and aero-derivative gas turbines among others. Some of these turbines are built in Berlin, Germany, while others are manufactured in Charlotte, North Carolina in the United States. Once manufactured, the company must ensure that these gas turbines are made available in specific places where they are needed (Sivaram, 2018). Although a significant number of this equipment are used in the country where they are manufactured, others have to be transported across the world.

Supply chain management is a major concern for the company as it seeks to revolutionize industrial power production in the renewable sector (Ward, 2018). On the one hand, the firm has to ensure that all the raw materials needed for the production of the gas turbines are made available to the company at the right time. On the other hand, the firm has to ensure that once the turbines are manufactured, they have to be moved safely and efficiently to clients all over the world. As Zwikael and Smyrk (2019) observe, a weak supply chain system can have a devastating impact on a manufacturing plant. The needed raw materials should be made available at the right time, meeting specific quality requirements (Earley, 2014). The firms cost of production can significantly increase if there is an oversupply of the raw materials because the items will have to be kept in a warehouse until they will be needed.

Just-in-time (JIT) is a technique that has been popularly used in various major companies around the world to ensure that the supply chain is as efficient as possible. It involves making available the materials when they are needed (Chung, 2021). It ensures that the raw materials are not delivered in excess. The strategy eliminates unnecessary pilferage, damage caused by excessive handling, and the high cost of warehousing. JIT requires an effective communication system between various stakeholders in a firm (Hellingrath and Lechtenberg, 2019). The production unit should provide information about the needed materials to the procurement department (Toorajipour, et al., 2021). The same information should be immediately available for the finance department responsible for releasing funds, and the transport unit that will facilitate the movement of the same. The same information should also be relayed, in real-time, to the suppliers so that they know the needed quantity and quality of the products (Spalek, 2019). Such an effective system of communications eliminates cases of delays or delivery of wrong products.

Research Questions and Objectives

It is important to define the research questions that will guide the process of data collection in this research. As Davidson (2019) observes, research questions help in defining the kind of information that needs to be collected from the field. A researcher can easily collect irrelevant data if there are no specific guidelines to be followed. The questions help in addressing that challenge. The following are the specific research questions that the researcher seeks to answer using both primary and secondary data:

1. How can Siemens-Energy use project management techniques to improve the supply chain process of industrial gas turbine projects?
2. What is the supply chain path of the gas turbine part, from assembling, manufacturing, installation, commissioning, and maintenance?
3. What are the challenges that Siemens-Energy can face in the project management approach on supply chain management of industrial gas turbines?
4. What are the ways in which this company can overcome the identified challenges?

The dissertation will focus on achieving specific objectives based on the research questions above. The primary aim of the research is to find a solution towards reducing the lead time of parts used in the operation and maintenance of industrial gas turbines, and other factors affecting industrial gas turbine projects ranging from installation, commissioning, operation, and maintenance. The researcher will use survey to achieve the aim and objectives of the dissertation. Chapter 3 provides a detailed explanation of the methods used to collect and process data. Upon the completion of this research, the following objectives should be realized:

1. To critically assess how Siemens-Energy can use project management techniques to improve on the supply chain process of industrial gas turbine project;
2. To critical analyze the supply chain path of gas turbine parts, from assembling, manufacturing, installation, commissioning, and maintenance;
3. To critically evaluate the challenges that Siemens-Energy can face in the project management approach on supply chain management of industrial gas turbines;
4. To determine ways in which this company can overcome the identified challenges;
5. To contribute to the existing knowledge on how project management can enhance supply chain management within an organization

Dissertation Structure

The dissertation has been divided into five main chapters addressing specific issues. Chapter 1 provides the background of the study and addresses the rationale for the topic. Research objectives and questions are also presented in the chapter to help understand the goal that it seeks to realize. A brief case study about Siemens-Energy WWL is also addressed. The second chapter provides a detailed review of the literature. The researcher uses this chapter to discuss what other scholars have found out in this field or other related fields. It helps to identify the existing knowledge gaps or conflicts. It also eliminates the possibility of duplicating the already existing information.

The third chapter outlines the activities involved in the data collection and analysis in this project. The method used to collect, analyze, and present data are discussed in detail. Issues about research design, reliability, validity, and generalizability are explained. Limitations and challenges faced and how they were overcome in the study are also addressed in the chapter. It also addressed the ethical considerations that the researcher observed in the study. The fourth chapter involves the presentation of the results from the analysis of primary and secondary data. It helps in addressing knowledge gaps identified in the review of the literature. The final chapter of the dissertation presents the conclusion and recommendations.

Literature Review

The previous chapter provided background information about the topic, its rationale, the aim, and the objectives that should be realized. This chapter focuses on reviewing the literature to determine what other scholars found out about this topic and the existing knowledge gaps and contradictions. The review is important because it not only facilitates the identification of knowledge gaps but also avoids duplication of already existing pieces of information. Information collected from secondary sources helps in defining the focus of primary data collection. As mentioned in the previous chapter, the primary aim of the research is to find a solution towards reducing the lead time of parts used in the operation and maintenance of industrial gas turbines, and other factors affecting industrial gas turbine projects ranging from installation, commissioning, operation, and maintenance.

The scope of the research was limited to industrial gas turbine projects. The themes presented in this chapter include supply chain management, project management approaches, and challenges in the supply chain of industrial gas turbines. The chapter also provides a theoretical framework, critically evaluates how the study relates to the literature in general, and how it relates to previous studies. Key themes and gaps in the literature are identified before providing a summary of the chapter.

Supply Chain Management

Supply chain management (SCM) has emerged as a field in management that facilitates the flow of goods and services from one location to another. According to Camarinha-Matos, Almeida, and Oliveira (2019), SCM involves managing the flow of products, and it includes all processes involved in the transformation of raw materials into finished products. It involves deliberate efforts to streamline supply activities with the primary goal of maximizing customer value. By streamlining the activities, wastes will be eliminated while efficiency enhanced to ensure that a firm can charge competitive prices without compromising on its profit margin (Agarwal, Sharma, and Mathew, 2016). With high-quality products and relatively fair prices, a firm can achieve a competitive advantage over its rivals in the market (Chung, 2021). It will be able to offer its clients maximum value for every product that they purchase.

Supply chain management involves numerous activities, as shown in figure 2.1 below, meant to ensure that products are made available to customers in the market. It starts with the procurement of the raw materials that are needed at the production plant (Didonet and Díaz, 2012).

The procurement unit must ensure that it finds reliable suppliers that can provide quality products at all times. Once purchased, the raw materials have to be delivered to the production plant so that they can be processed (Toorajipour et al., 2021). The actual processing of the raw materials, known as the production process, is also considered part of the SCM (Hanne and Dornberger, 2017). The finished products must then be transported to the market for the convenience of customers. It is equally important to ensure that there is regular research conducted to help develop the system by eliminating weaknesses and wastes while improving the ability to respond to emerging customers needs (Hellingrath and Lechtenberg, 2019). The activities identified above must be resourced, which means that activities in finance department are support functions of the SCM.

Supply Chain Path of Industrial Gas Turbine Parts

The demand for gas turbines has been growing steadily in the global market, as Fouquet (2018) reports. A complete gas turbine has several parts, from an air inlet, a compressor, the combustion chamber, turbine section, an exhaust, and accessories section. However, developing a complete gas turbine requires the assembling of several parts. The supply chain path of industrial gas turbines parts involves several activities (Klumpp and Ruiner, 2018). Iqbal (2020) emphasizes the need to understand the activities involved and how they are related. It starts with assembling the needed parts, some of which have to be sourced from other manufacturers. The procurement and logistics departments are responsible for ensuring that these parts are made available at the production plant.

The next step in this path is the manufacturing and installation of parts to have a complete system. At Siemens-Energy, manufacturing activities of the firm are undertaken in Berlin, Germany (Siemens-Energy, 2022a). The size and capacity of the gas turbine will depend on the purpose it will serve. Figure 2.2 below shows different parts of a complete gas turbine that is ready for installation. Once the complete system is developed, the next phase is the transportation and subsequent installation at a clients premises. The system has to be properly installed as per the specifications of customers. Once installed, the system will need commissioning after its functionality is tested. During the commissioning, the manufacturer will be handing over controls of the gas turbine to the client. There should be an arrangement made between the client and the manufacturer on how the system will be maintained regularly to ensure that it functions properly for as long as possible.

Project Management Approaches

A project manager has an important responsibility of selecting an appropriate project management approach that can help in achieving specific goals. When selecting the approach, various factors have to be put into consideration, as Kerzner (2017a) observes. The budget for the project, the size of the team involved in the project, the ability to take risks, and flexibility are some of the major factors that have to be considered. One also has to take into consideration the time within which activities have to be completed and client or stakeholders collaboration. However, Kerzner (2017) warns that while it is important to take into consideration the above factors, each project is unique and should be treated as such. The following are some of the popular project management approaches that can be considered in an industrial gas turbine project.

Agile

This approach has become one of the most popular project management methods in various fields. Badiru (2021) explains that the method was developed by critics of linear strategy as defined in the linear approach. It emphasizes the need for collaboration among all the stakeholders involved. It creates a platform where information from clients, employees, managers, and suppliers is used to make necessary adjustments in the project when necessary (Ma and Rong, 2022). The approach values quick decision-making based on data that has been collected from the field.

As the name suggests, this approach involves having short phases of specific activities and requires regular testing and assessment to determine if the team is on the path to achieving the primary goal (Davidson, 2019). It is a highly flexible strategy and data-driven. Dobie (2020) and Clegg et al. (2020) argue that the fact that this approach takes into consideration the views of many stakeholders may make it a time-consuming method of implementing a project. Cases often arise where individuals have conflicting views on a given issue. Despite this challenge, the method is preferred because upon completion of the project, the majority of the relevant stakeholders will be satisfied because their views were taken into consideration. Figure 2.3 below summarizes the cyclic nature of an agile project management approach.

When using this approach, it is important to note that it also has disadvantages. One of the main weaknesses of this model is that team members can easily get sidetracked because of lack of standard process that should be followed. Voehl and Harrington (2017) explain that there is also the risk of incremental delivery when handling long-term projects. These challenges should be effectively managed by the responsible parties to ensure that a given project achieves the intended goals.

Waterfall

This approach is one of the most common methods of project management that has been traditionally used in the manufacturing sector. It takes a linear approach, where activities in one stage have to be completed before moving to the next. As shown in figure 2.4 below, the first step is idea engineering where the team is expected to define what is expected in the project. The next step is system design, where the team develops a system that is based on the idea developed. The implementation phase involves putting into practice the plan that has been developed in the project. There is the testing and validation phase where the team is expected to determine if the system is working as per the expectation.

The last phase is maintenance to ensure that the entire system remains efficient (Nicholas and Steyn, 2021). The approach is simple to implement in the manufacturing and construction sector, which explains why it has remained popular, but Barrett (2021) warns that it is a simplistic approach, especially when handling complex projects. It can be considered in the supply chain management of industrial gas turbine projects. Ajam (2021) explains that one of the major disadvantages of this approach is high rates of uncertainty. The uncertainty causes serious risks to the successful completion of long-term projects.

Lean

Lean project management is another strategy that is popular when managing major projects. As the name suggests, the primary focus of this project management strategy is the minimization of waste when undertaking a project. The trend started in Japan and gained acceptance around the world as a means of maximizing the value for investors (Clegg, Skyttermoen, and Vaagaasar, 2020). When using the method, a project manager is expected to ensure that they consistently investigate and eliminate any form of waste in the project. This way, it becomes possible to continuously improve the quality of products while at the same time reducing the cost of production. It classifies waste management in a project into three categories. The first is called Muda, which involves activities and processes which are considered not to add value to the project. Activities such as overproduction and over-processing fall into this class.

Mura is another way of eliminating wastes, which involves eliminating delays that may affect activities down the line of production. The goal is to ensure that there is an effective and smooth flow of activities without any delays (Zwikael and Smyrk, 2019). The team may need to assist the department that is identified as slowing activities in the production line. The third strategy, which is called muri, focuses on the elimination of inefficiency among managers. Sometimes a project may be delayed by slow decision-making, micromanaging activities of employees, time-wastage, and poor organization (Meredith and Shafer, 2021). It is essential to eliminate such poor leadership practices to enhance efficiency in project management.

The overall goal of lean project management is to enhance operational efficiency at the lowest cost possible. It is the only way of ensuring that investors get the highest value for their investment. One of the major limitations of lean project management is the overemphasis on efficiency in the use of resources (Vanzant, 2020). It is possible that employees may be forced to sacrifice quality to limit the use of resources. Figure 2.5 below shows activities involved in lean project management approach. It may also have a negative effect between a project manager and team members when there is immense pressure to cut expenditure.

Scrum

Scrum, as an approach to project management, has also gained massive acceptance. Although it is based on some of the agile project management principles, it is unique in many ways. As Ahmad (2018) explains, the method emphasizes the need for accountability, collaboration, and enhanced interaction among stakeholders involved in the project. It holds the belief that success can only be achieved when stakeholders in the project work as a team, and information is effectively shared as necessary. It is based on five principles of courage, openness, respect commitment, and focus. Courage is needed because sometimes the team difficult decisions that may not be pleasant to everyone. If it is the right decision, then the team may have to choose it even if it is unpopular among a section of the stakeholders (Spalek, 2019). Openness is encouraged to

Introduction

The paper presents Matlab code for three questions. The first question tackles image processing mechanisms. It touches on average, Gaussian and medial filtering techniques. The second question presents a detailed user interface program from which users can open and execute files. The file choice, in this case, is audio. The third question is open-ended and presents code for image sharpening. Matlab contains inbuilt functions which are used to produce more detailed on images, otherwise known as sharpening.

Image Filtering Mechanisms

Image filtering is a technique for altering the size, shape, color, depth, smoothness, and other aspects of pictures. Essentially, it modifies the pixels of an image to turn it into the desired shape by utilizing many forms of graphical editing procedures using graphic design and editing software [1]. There are primarily two sorts of filters, and depending on the topic, there are other filtering strategies. Image filters are commonly used to reduce noise and improve image quality. Matlab comes with several functions for image filtering, which take several parameters. In the program below, the image is first converted into a single channel from which different averages are calculated: average, gaussian and medial filters. The results obtained are then filtered and displayed for comparison with the original image.

Table 1. Image filtering code snippet.

Graphical User Interface

Graphical user interfaces (GUIs) allow users to operate software programs using a point-and-click interface, reducing the need for others to learn a language or input instructions in order to utilize it. MATLAB provides developers with the tools to develop GUI apps that can be shared with other Matlab projects, desktops, or even web applications. GUI is comprised of different visual objects such as windows, menus, toolbars, icons, texts, navigation menus, and many others. The user-program interaction is mainly achieved through mouse clicks, scrolling, screen touch, and toggle buttons. The source code for this section is provided in the appendix.

Open-Ended Question: Image Sharpening

Sharpening is a method of enhancing an images perceived sharpness. Photo editing programs of libraries cannot magically add any more features to an image once it has been captured; the real resolution remains set [1]. One may enlarge the file, but the techniques used by any image editor would reduce the clarity of the image features. In other words, increasing acutance is the only method to improve perceived sharpness. You should increase the edge contrast of your image if you want it to seem sharper.

Sharpening your image has three purposes: to eliminate blurring caused by camera faults or limitations, to bring attention to certain regions, and to improve readability. Any current cameras RAW data are always slightly blurred [1]. Blur is introduced at every stage of the image capture process. Some definition is lost when the light goes through the lens elements, no matter how finely crafted they are. When sharpening an image, photo editing software and libraries average out the sharpest transitions to produce better results. A modest amount of blur is generated when the three separate color channels are interpolated to form the final image.

MATLAB uses an inbuilt function (imsharpen) to sharpen images as shown in the code snippet below.

Table 2. Image sharpening using Matlab code.

Conclusion

The paper is comprised of three main sections: image filtering, GUI development using Matlab and image sharing. Image sharpening is employed in changing the size, shape, smoothness and other image characteristics. The Matlab feature for image filtering is used to perform Gaussian, average and median filtering. The second used Matlab to develop a graphical user interface that can be used for various applications. The application is full of features such as file opening, text zooming and a toolbar. The third section implements an image sharpening program in Matlab. Sharpening your image has three purposes: to eliminate blurring caused by camera faults or limitations, to bring attention to certain regions, and to improve readability.

Reference

Abdulrahman, A., & Varol, S. (2020). A Review of Image Segmentation Using MATLAB Environment. In 2020 8th International Symposium on Digital Forensics and Security (ISDFS) (pp. 1-5). IEEE. Web.

Appendix

Test image

Graphical user interface program

Table 3. Graphical user interface program.

function urepet % Get screen size screen_size = get(0,ScreenSize); % Create the figure window object_figure = figure(& Visible,off,& Position,[screen_size(3:4)/4+1,screen_size(3:4)/2],& Name,Main Screen,& NumberTitle,off,& MenuBar,none,& RequestCloseFunction,@figureRequestCloseFunction); % create tool bar custom_tool_bar = uitoolbar(object_figure); % media play icons icon_media_play = playicon; icon_media_stop = stopicon; % Create main buttons media_button_open = uipushtool(custom_tool_bar,& CData,iconread(file_open.png),& TooltipString,Open Item,& Enable,on,& ClickedCallback,@openButtonClickedCallBackFunction); %#ok<*NASGU> media_button_save = uipushtool(custom_tool_bar,& CData,iconread(file_save.png),& TooltipString,Save Item,& Enable,off); media_button_play = uipushtool(custom_tool_bar,& CData,icon_media_play,& TooltipString,Play Item,& Enable,off,& UserData,struct(PlayIcon,icon_media_play,StopIcon,icon_media_stop)); % Pointer, oom, toggle buttons media_button_select = uitoggletool(custom_tool_bar,& Separator,On,& CData,iconread(tool_pointer.png),& TooltipString,Select This,& Enable,off,& ClickedCallBack,@SelectCLickedCallBackFunction); media_button_zoom = uitoggletool(custom_tool_bar,& CData,iconread(tool_zoom_in.png),& TooltipString,Zoom,& Enable,off,& ClickedCallBack,@ZoomClickedCallbackFunction); media_button_pan = uitoggletool(custom_tool_bar,& CData,iconread(tool_hand.png),& TooltipString,Pan,& Enable,off,& ClickedCallBack,@panClickedCallBackFunction); % Create window, parameters main_button_urepet = uipushtool(custom_tool_bar,& Separator,On,& CData,main_icon,& TooltipString,uREPET Button,& Enable,off); main_button_background = uitoggletool(custom_tool_bar,& CData,iconread(tool_font_bold.png),& TooltipString,Background Button,& Enable,off,& ClickedCallBack,@BackGroundClickedCallBackFunction); media_undo_icon = iconread(tool_rotate_3d.png); media_undo_icon(6:12,6:12,:) = NaN; media_undo_button = uipushtool(custom_tool_bar,& CData,media_undo_icon,& TooltipString,Undo Operation,& Enable,off); % axes for signals and spectrum axes_signal = axes(& OuterPosition,[0,0.9,1,0.1],& Visible,off); axes_spectrogram = axes(& OuterPosition,[0,0,1,0.9],& Visible,off); % x-axis limits linkaxes([axes_signal,axes_spectrogram],x) % change mouse on spectrogram EnterKeyFunction = @(figure_handle,currentPoint) set(figure_handle,Pointer,ibeam); iptSetPointerBehavior(axes_signal,EnterKeyFunction); iptPointerManager(object_figure); % mouse over media EnterKeyFunction = @(figure_handle,currentPoint) set(figure_handle,Pointer,arrow); iptSetPointerBehavior(object_figure,EnterKeyFunction) iptSetPointerBehavior(axes_spectrogram,EnterKeyFunction) iptPointerManager(object_figure); % initialize player media_player_audio = audioplayer(0,80); % figure = visible object_figure.Visible = on; % call back function for open button function openButtonClickedCallBackFunction(~,~) % dialog box to open files [audio_file_name,audio_file_path] = uigetfile({*.mp32;*.wav},& MP3 or WAV audio files); if isequal(audio_file_name,0) || isequal(audio_file_path,0) return end % Remove figures to allow creation of other objects object_figure.RequestCloseFunction = ; % busy pointer object_figure.Pointer = watch; drawnow % stop playing audio media if isplaying(media_player_audio) stop(media_player_audio) end % Clearaxes cla(axes_signal) axes_signal.Visible = off; cla(axes_spectrogram) axes_spectrogram.Visible = off; drawnow % Build name of file full_file_audio = fullfile(audio_file_path,audio_file_name); % audio and rate (Hz) [audio_file_signal,audio_file_sample_rate] = audioread(full_file_audio); % channels and samples [number_of_samples,number_of_channels] = size(audio_file_signal); % plot audio signal. disable mouse clicks plot(axes_signal,& 1/audio_file_sample_rate:1/audio_file_sample_rate:number_of_samples/audio_file_sample_rate,& audio_file_signal,& PickableParts,none); % Update axes properties axes_signal.XLim = [1,number_of_samples]/audio_file_sample_rate; axes_signal.YLim = [-1,1]; axes_signal.XGrid = on; axes_signal.Title.String = audio_file_name; axes_signal.Title.Interpreter = None; axes_signal.XLabel.String = Time (s); axes_signal.Layer = top; axes_signal.UserData.PlotXLim = [1,number_of_samples]/audio_file_sample_rate; axes_signal.UserData.SelectXLim = [1,number_of_samples]/audio_file_sample_rate; drawnow % Add the CQT toolbox folder to the search path addpath(CQT_toolbox_2013) % Min & max Hz, number of channels resolution_of_octave = 24; min_freq_value = 27.5; max_freq_value = audio_file_sample_rate/2; % Initialize the CQT object and the spectrogram cqt_audio_cell = cell(1,number_of_channels); audio_spectrogram = []; % Compute the CQT ,spectrogram for all channel for index_of_channel = 1:number_of_channels %#ok<*FXUP> cqt_audio_cell{index_of_channel}& = cqt(audio_file_signal(:,index_of_channel),resolution_of_octave,audio_file_sample_rate,min_freq_value,max_freq_value); audio_spectrogram = cat(3,audio_spectrogram,abs(cqt_audio_cell{index_of_channel}.c)); end % Number of frequency channels and time frames [frequency_number,number_of_times,~] = size(audio_spectrogram); % Update the maximum frequency in Hz max_freq_value = min_freq_value*2.^((frequency_number-1)/resolution_of_octave); % Time range in seconds media_play_time_range = [1,number_of_times]/number_of_times*number_of_samples/audio_file_sample_rate; % Display the audio spectrogram imagesc(axes_spectrogram,& media_play_time_range,& [(min_freq_value*2*frequency_number+max_freq_value)/(2*frequency_number+1),& (max_freq_value*2*frequency_number+min_freq_value)/(2*frequency_number+1)],& db(mean(audio_spectrogram,3)),& PickableParts,none); % Update spectrogram axes properties axes_spectrogram.YScale = log; axes_spectrogram.YDir = normal; axes_spectrogram.XGrid = on; axes_spectrogram.Colormap = jet; axes_spectrogram.Title.String = Log-spectrogram; axes_spectrogram.XLabel.String = Time (s); axes_spectrogram.YLabel.String = Frequency (Hz); axes_spectrogram.ButtonDownFcn = @SpectrogramAxesButtonCallFunction; drawnow % Color limits screen_color_limits = axes_spectrogram.CLim; % playing audio object media_player_audio = audioplayer(audio_file_signal,audio_file_sample_rate); % play line selectline(axes_signal) PlayLineOnAxis(axes_signal,media_player_audio,media_button_play); % click button call back function media_button_play.ClickedCallback = {@PlayButtonClickedCallBackFunction,media_player_audio,axes_signal}; % Add key-press call back function object_figure.KeyPressFcn = @keyPressedCallBackFunction; % uREPET button call back function main_button_urepet.ClickedCallback = @UrepetButtonClickedCallBackFunction; % rectagle object rect_obj = gobjects(0); % convert Hz to indices hertz_to_frequency = @(value_of_frequency) round(resolution_of_octave*log2(value_of_frequency/min_freq_value)+1); seconds_to_time = @(value_of_time) round(value_of_time/(number_of_samples/audio_file_sample_rate)*number_of_times); % Enable buttons media_button_play.Enable = on; media_button_select.Enable = on; media_button_zoom.Enable = on; media_button_pan.Enable = on; main_button_urepet.Enable = on; main_button_background.Enable = on; main_button_background.State = on; % activate select button media_button_select.State = on; % update mouse pointer object_figure.Pointer = arrow; drawnow % close request function object_figure.RequestCloseFunction = @figureRequestCloseFunction; % Key-press callback function to the figure function keyPressedCallBackFunction(~,~) % if escape character if ~strcmp( ,object_figure.CurrentCharacter) return end % if any media is playing if isplaying(media_player_audio) % stop stop(media_player_audio) else % camples and sample rate audio_file_sample_rate = media_player_audio.SampleRate; number_of_samples = media_player_audio.TotalSamples; % Plot data on axes limits_of_plots = axes_signal.UserData.PlotXLim; selected_limits = axes_signal.UserData.SelectXLim; % calculate sample rate for audio if selected_limits(1) == selected_limits(2) % If select line range_of_samples = [round((selected_limits(1)-limits_of_plots(1))*audio_file_sample_rate)+1,number_of_samples]; else % If select region range_of_samples = round((selected_limits-limits_of_plots(1))*audio_file_sample_rate+1); end % Play audio with given rates play(media_player_audio,range_of_samples) end end % Mouse-click function (spectrogram) function SpectrogramAxesButtonCallFunction(~,~) % mouse location current_mouse_pointer_location = axes_spectrogram.CurrentPoint; % if mouse is outside the axes if current_mouse_pointer_location(1,1) < media_play_time_range(1) || current_mouse_pointer_location(1,1) >media_play_time_range(2) ||& current_mouse_pointer_location(1,2) < min_freq_value || current_mouse_pointer_location(1,2) >max_freq_value return end % If left click if strcmp(object_figure.SelectionType,normal) % Delete rectangle object delete(rect_obj) % Draw RIO from specified point rect_obj = images.roi.Rectangle(Parent,axes_spectrogram,& DrawingArea,[media_play_time_range(1),min_freq_value,diff(media_play_time_range),max_freq_value-min_freq_value]); beginDrawingFromPoint(rect_obj,current_mouse_pointer_location(1,1:2)); end end % Clicked callback function for the uREPET button function UrepetButtonClickedCallBackFunction(~,~) % If rectangle not valid or empty if isempty(rect_obj) || ~isvalid(rect_obj) return end % Position of ROI position_of_rectangle = rect_obj.Position; %width=heithg=0 if all(~position_of_rectangle(3:4)) return end % Remove close request call back. Allows creation of other objects object_figure.RequestCloseFunction = ; % update pointer to busy object_figure.Pointer = watch; drawnow % stop playing audio player if isplaying(media_player_audio) stop(media_player_audio) end % add original audio to undo audio_file_signal0 = audio_file_signal; cqt_audio_cell0 = cqt_audio_cell; % Frequency & time indices indices_of_frequencies = hertz_to_frequency(position_of_rectangle(2)+[0,position_of_rectangle(4)]); indeces_of_time = seconds_to_time(position_of_rectangle(1)+[0,position_of_rectangle(3)]); % rectangle from spectrogram audio_from_rectangle = audio_spectrogram(indices_of_frequencies(1):indices_of_frequencies(2),& indeces_of_time(1):indeces_of_time(2),:); size_of_rectangle = size(audio_from_rectangle); % 2-D cross-correlation correlation_of_audios = normxcorr2(mean(audio_from_rectangle,3),mean(audio_spectrogram,3)); % Remove zero padding parts correlation_of_audios = correlation_of_audios(size_of_rectangle(1):end-size_of_rectangle(1)+1,& size_of_rectangle(2):end-size_of_rectangle(2)+1); correlation_size = size(correlation_of_audios); % Max repetitions, min freq number_of_repetitions = 10; separation_of_Frequencies = 1; separation_of_time = 1; separation_of_Frequencies = separation_of_Frequencies*resolution_of_octave; separation_of_time = seconds_to_time(separation_of_time); correlation_of_audios(max(indices_of_frequencies(1)-separation_of_Frequencies,1):min(indices_of_frequencies(1)+separation_of_Frequencies,correlation_size(1)),& max(indeces_of_time(1)-separation_of_time,1):min(indeces_of_time(1)+separation_of_time,correlation_size(2))) = 0; % Loop over repetitions for repet_index = 2:number_of_repetitions % Frequency,time indices of the min repetition [~,maximum_index] = max(correlation_of_audios(:)); [frequency_index,time_index] = ind2sub(correlation_size,maximum_index); correlation_of_audios(max(frequency_index-separation_of_Frequencies,1):min(frequency_index+separation_of_Frequencies,correlation_size(1)),& max(time_index-separation_of_time,1):min(time_index+separation_of_time,correlation_size(2))) = 0; audio_from_rectangle = cat(4,audio_from_rectangle,& audio_spectrogram(frequency_index:frequency_index+size_of_rectangle(1)-1,& time_index:time_index+size_of_rectangle(2)-1,:)); end % rectangles mask audio_rectangle_mask = (min(median(audio_from_rectangle,4),audio_from_rectangle(:,:,:,1))+eps)./(audio_from_rectangle(:,:,:,1)+eps); % If the background button is off, invert the mask if strcmp(main_button_background.State,off) audio_rectangle_mask = audio_rectangle_mask-1; end % Apply the mask to the CQT and spectrogram audio_file_signal = zeros(number_of_samples,number_of_channels); for index_of_channel = 1:number_of_channels cqt_audio_cell{index_of_channel}.c(indices_of_frequencies(1):indices_of_frequencies(2),indeces_of_time(1):indeces_of_time(2))& = audio_rectangle_mask(:,:,index_of_channel).*cqt_audio_cell{index_of_channel}.c(indices_of_frequencies(1):indices_of_frequencies(2),indeces_of_time(1):indeces_of_time(2)); audio_spectrogram(indices_of_frequencies(1):indices_of_frequencies(2),indeces_of_time(1):indeces_of_time(2),index_of_channel)& = audio_rectangle_mask(:,:,index_of_channel).*audio_spectrogram(indices_of_frequencies(1):indices_of_frequencies(2),indeces_of_time(1):indeces_of_time(2),index_of_channel); audio_file_signali = icqt(cqt_audio_cell{index_of_channel}); audio_file_signal(:,index_of_channel) = audio_file_signali(1:number_of_samples); end % Update the signal axes index_of_channel = number_of_channels; for child_index = 1:numel(axes_signal.Children) if numel(axes_signal.Children(child_index).YData) == number_of_samples axes_signal.Children(child_index).YData = audio_file_signal(:,index_of_channel); index_of_channel = index_of_channel-1; end end drawnow % Update the spectrogram axes axes_spectrogram.Children(end).CData(indices_of_frequencies(1):indices_of_frequencies(2),indeces_of_time(1):indeces_of_time(2))& = db(mean(audio_spectrogram(indices_of_frequencies(1):indices_of_frequencies(2),indeces_of_time(1):indeces_of_time(2),:),3)); axes_spectrogram.CLim = screen_color_limits; drawnow % Update the audio player media_player_audio = audioplayer(audio_file_signal,audio_file_sample_rate); PlayLineOnAxis(axes_signal,media_player_audio,media_button_play); media_button_play.ClickedCallback = {@PlayButtonClickedCallBackFunction,media_player_audio,axes_signal}; media_button_save.ClickedCallback = @SaveButtonClickedCallBackFunction; media_undo_button.ClickedCallback = @UndoButtonClickedCallBackFunction; % Enable nuttons media_button_save.Enable = on; media_undo_button.Enable = on; object_figure.RequestCloseFunction = @figureRequestCloseFunction; % Change pointer object_figure.Pointer = arrow; % Clicked callback function for the save button function SaveButtonClickedCallBackFunction(~,~) % Open dialog box to save file [audio_file_name,audio_file_path] = uiputfile(*.wav*,& Save Audio as WAVE File,urepet_file.wav); if isequal(audio_file_name,0) || isequal(audio_file_path,0) return end % file name full_file_audio = fullfile(audio_file_path,audio_file_name); % write audio file audiowrite(audio_file,audio_file_signal,audio_file_sample_rate) end % undo button call back function function UndoButtonClickedCallBackFunction(~,~) % Disable button media_undo_button.Enable = off; audio_file_signal = audio_file_signal0; cqt_audio_cell = cqt_audio_cell0; audio_spectrogram = []; for index_of_channel = 1:number_of_channels audio_spectrogram = cat(3,audio_spectrogram,abs(cqt_audio_cell{index_of_channel}.c)); end % Update axes index_of_channel = number_of_channels; for child_index = 1:numel(axes_signal.Children) if numel(axes_signal.Children(child_index).YData) == number_of_samples axes_signal.Children(child_index).YData = audio_file_signal(:,index_of_channel); index_of_channel = index_of_channel-1; end end drawnow % Update spectrogram axes axes_spectrogram.Children(end).CData(indices_of_frequencies(1):indices_of_frequencies(2),indeces_of_time(1):indeces_of_time(2))& = db(mean(audio_spectrogram(indices_of_frequencies(1):indices_of_frequencies(2),indeces_of_time(1):indeces_of_time(2),:),3)); axes_spectrogram.CLim = screen_color_limits; drawnow % Update the audio player media_player_audio = audioplayer(audio_file_signal,audio_file_sample_rate); PlayLineOnAxis(axes_signal,media_player_audio,media_button_play); media_button_play.ClickedCallback = {@PlayButtonClickedCallBackFunction,media_player_audio,axes_signal}; end end end % Clicked callback function for the select button function SelectCLickedCallBackFunction(~,~) % update button status media_button_select.State = on; media_button_zoom.State = off; media_button_pan.State = off; zoom off pan off end % Clicked callback function for the zoom button function ZoomClickedCallbackFunction(~,~) % update buttons media_button_select.State = off; media_button_zoom.State = on; media_button_pan.State = off; % enable zoom zoom_object = zoom(object_figure); zoom_object.Enable = on; % zoom x axes only setAxesZoomConstraint(zoom_object,axes_signal,x); %update pan pan off end % pan clicked call back function function panClickedCallBackFunction(~,~) % update buttons media_button_select.State = off; media_button_zoom.State = off; media_button_pan.State = on; zoom off pan_object = pan(object_figure); pan_object.Enable = on; % set pan for x axis only setAxesPanConstraint(pan_object,axes_signal,x); end % Clicked callback function for the background button function BackGroundClickedCallBackFunction(~,~) % change mouse depending on what is happening if strcmp(main_button_background.State,on) main_button_background.TooltipString = Background; elseif strcmp(main_button_background.State,off) main_button_background.TooltipString = Foreground; end end % Close call back function function figureRequestCloseFunction(~,~) % stop playing life if isplaying(media_player_audio) stop(media_player_audio) end % close dialog box user_answer = questdlg(Close window?,& Close window,Yes,No,Yes); switch user_answer case Yes delete(object_figure) case No return end end end % Read imatlab icon function image_function_data = iconread(icon_name) [image_function_data,~,image_transparency]& = imread(fullfile(matlabroot,toolbox,matlab,icons,icon_name),PNG); %image to double precision image_function_data = im2double(image_function_data); % Convert the 0 to NaNs image_function_data(image_transparency==0) = NaN; end % play icon function image_function_data = playicon % upper half play triangle image_function_data = [nan(2,16);[nan(6,3),kron(triu(nan(6,5)),ones(1,2)),nan(6,3)]]; % whole black play triangle image image_function_data = repmat([image_function_data;image_function_data(end:-1:1,:)],[1,1,3]); end % stop icon function image_function_data = stopicon % black stop square image_function_data = nan(16,16); image_function_data(4:13,4:13) = 0; % black stop square image_function_data = repmat(image_function_data,[1,1,3]); end % Create project icon function image_function_data = main_icon image_function_data = nan(16,16,1); % black letters image_function_data(4:7,2) = 0; image_function_data(7:8,3) = 0; image_function_data(4:8,4:5) = 0; image_function_data(2:8,7:8) = 0; image_function_data([2,3,5,6],9) = 0; image_function_data([3:5,7:8],10) = 0; image_function_data(2:8,12:13) = 0; image_function_data([2,3,5,7,8],14) = 0; image_function_data([2,3,7,8],15) = 0; image_function_data(10:16,2:3) = 0; image_function_data([10,11,13,14],4) = 0; image_function_data(11:13,5) = 0; image_function_data(10:16,7:8) = 0; image_function_data([10,11,13,15,16],9) = 0; image_function_data([10,11,15,16],10) = 0; image_function_data(10:11,12:15) = 0; image_function_data(12:16,13:14) = 0; % Make the image image_function_data = repmat(image_function_data,[1,1,3]); end % select line for axes function selectline(axes_signal) % select line as an array for graphic objects initialization line_selection = gobjects(3,1); % mouse call back functions axes_signal.ButtonDownFcn = @SignalAxesButtonDownFunction; % Mouse-click callback function for the signal axes function SignalAxesButtonDownFunction(~,~) % mouse pointer location current_mouse_pointer_location = axes_signal.CurrentPoint; % plot limits limits_of_plots = axes_signal.UserData.PlotXLim; % return if point is out of limits if current_mouse_pointer_location(1,1) < limits_of_plots(1) || current_mouse_pointer_location(1,1) >limits_of_plots(2) ||& current_mouse_pointer_location(1,2) < -1 || current_mouse_pointer_location(1,2) >1 return end % handle current figure object_figure = gcf; % lect mouse type type_of_mouse_selection = object_figure.SelectionType; % left click if strcmp(type_of_mouse_selection,normal) % replace selected item if ~isempty(line_selection) delete(line_selection) end %first line on audio singnal value_1_colour = 0.5*[1,1,1]; line_selection(1) = line(axes_signal,& current_mouse_pointer_location(1,1)*[1,1],[-1,1],& Color,value_1_colour,& ButtonDownFcn,@SelectLineButtonFunction); % second_line color_value_2 = 0.75*[1,1,1]; line_selection(2) = line(axes_signal,& current_mouse_pointer_location(1,1)*[1,1],[-1,1],& Color,color_value_2,& ButtonDownFcn,@SelectLineButtonFunction); uistack(line_selection(2),bottom) line_selection(3) = patch(axes_signal,& current_mouse_pointer_location(1,1)*[1,1,1,1],[-1,1,1,-1],color_value_2,& LineStyle,none,& PickableParts,none); uistack(line_selection(3),bottom) % Change the pointer when the mouse moves EnterKeyFunction = @(figure_handle, currentPoint) set(figure_handle,Pointer,hand); iptSetPointerBehavior(line_selection(1),EnterKeyFunction); iptSetPointerBehavior(line_selection(2),EnterKeyFunction); iptSetPointerBehavior(axes_signal,EnterKeyFunction); iptSetPointerBehavior(object_figure,EnterKeyFunction); iptPointerManager(object_figure); object_figure.WindowButtonMotionFcn = {@FigureWindowButtonCallBackFunction,line_selection(1)}; object_figure.WindowButtonUpFcn = @FigureWindowButtonUpFunction; % Update the select limits axes_signal.UserData.SelectXLim = current_mouse_pointer_location(1,1)*[1,1]; % right click elseif strcmp(type_of_mouse_selection,alt) % replace menu if ~isempty(line_selection) delete(line_selection) end % Update the select limits axes_signal.UserData.SelectXLim = limits_of_plots; end % Mouse-click callback function function SelectLineButtonFunction(object_handle,~) % type of selection type_of_mouse_selection = object_figure.SelectionType; % If click left mouse button if strcmp(type_of_mouse_selection,normal) % Change the pointer when the mouse moves EnterKeyFunction = @(figure_handle, currentPoint) set(figure_handle,Pointer,hand); iptSetPointerBehavior(axes_signal,EnterKeyFunction); iptSetPointerBehavior(object_figure,EnterKeyFunction); iptPointerManager(object_figure); % Add window button motion object_figure.WindowButtonMotionFcn = {@FigureWindowButtonCallBackFunction,object_handle}; object_figure.Windo Posted on December 20, 2024 | by Laureen Table of Contents Abstract Glass Ceiling: An Introduction Glass Ceiling in the United States of America Some Pointers to the Glass Ceiling Effect in the US Related Literature, a Study Conclusion References Abstract The glass ceiling is a phenomenon that has been perceived to exist in the US. The phenomenon has been seen to prevent women and minorities from attaining higher positions in private and public corporations, educational institutions, and federal and state government bodies in the US. The Glass Ceiling Commission established in 1991 by the US Labor Department was the first government effort to address the phenomenon, and was supplemented by mandated Positive or Affirmative Action and Equal Employment Opportunity laws as per US law. While the situation did improve, yet, the phenomenon was seen to persist and even today, the same is a pressing issue that needs resolution so that women or minorities are not discriminated against with regard to sex, religion, national origin, color, etc. In as much as the issue concerns gender equality and employment opportunities in the US and elsewhere, various authors and experts have conducted studies on the phenomenon under various conditions, sample sizes, etc. While these authors generally have considered the glass ceiling as a persisting & prevalent fact at the workplace, particularly at higher levels of private corporations, yet some have recognized the factors that contribute to such situation, and maintain that some improvements have been observed in the working and pay conditions of women in the US and other countries. Many studies have tried to gauge the extent and kind of glass ceiling as prevailing in top Fortune 500 or 1000 companies and found that the highest executive positions still go to men, and women still find little place among the top decision-makers in any organization. This paper presents some relevant literature on the issue of a glass ceiling in the US workplace, highlights significant research findings, and generally confirms the view that much remains to be done so that the glass ceiling obstructing women aspirants from top posts are really broken. Glass Ceiling: An Introduction The glass ceiling is used in the context of inequalities between men and women and in describing perceived barriers to women in attaining higher positions in organizations or government. The glass ceiling is a seemingly invisible and impermeable barrier between women and the executive levels in an organization, which prevents them, despite their otherwise be eligible for the position, from occupying the highest positions of management, authority, or power. Thus, qualified women are discriminated against and prevented from occupying the top positions. The Federal Glass Ceiling Commission termed the glass ceiling as artificial barriers to the advancement of women and minorities that reflect discrimination&.a deep line of demarcation between those who prosper and those left behind (1995a, iii). It later on defined the Glass Ceiling as the unseen, yet unbreachable barrier that keeps minorities and women from rising to the upper rungs of the corporate ladder, regardless of their qualifications or achievements (1995b, 4). Cotter et al (Dec 2001) have identified glass ceiling as an inequality in race or gender, which is unexplained by other job-relevant characteristics of the employee (p. 657), which is greater at higher levels of an outcome than at lower levels of an outcome (p. 658), is a gender or racial inequality in the chances of advancement into higher levels, not merely the proportions of each gender or race currently at those higher levels (p. 869), and which increases over the course of a career (p. 661) Glass Ceiling in the United States of America In the United States, the Civil Rights Act of 1991 set up the Federal Glass Ceiling Commission to address the issue and put in place measures to promote opportunities of employment for women and minorities in positions of responsibility. The Glass Ceiling Commission identified three key areas relating to recruitment that helped create and perpetuate the phenomenon. One of the findings was that corporations, even Fortune 1000 companies, generally filled upper and mid-level positions through word-of-mouth referrals, particularly inside closed sub-cultures. The Department of Labor and the OFCCP (Office of Federal Contract Compliance Programs) attempted to monitor and ensure that there was no discrimination in deciding on internal job promotions and recruitments by business enterprises under federal government contract in respect of racial or national origins, sex, color, disability or even veteran status, and religion. Both the Labor Department and the OFCCP were primarily concerned with ensuring good faith effort in selecting women and minorities for employment. They defined good faith effort as a real and continuous effort for ensuring that women and minorities were included impartially in the recruitment process. The second method of recruitment was through employee referrals whereby selections for employment tended to favor closed communities, rather than ensure equal opportunities for employment of women or minorities. A third approach followed by major corporate firms in their recruitment process was that such firms often sought the help of employment search firms, which were unaware of the need to comply with equal opportunity and affirmative action requirements as mandated by US law. Some Pointers to the Glass Ceiling Effect in the US The magnitude of the problem can be gauged from the data collected in various studies that have shown that few women were found to occupy the highest levels in US most corporations. For example, in one study in 1995 of the top Fortune 1000 companies, it was found that women occupied only 8% or only around 813 out of 10,000 available seats on the Board of Directors of these companies (Micro-quest Corp., p. 7). In another study, which was more glaring, the US Glass Ceiling Commission pointed out some serious lacunae in the process of recruitment at major corporate entities and also identified two other factors as the significant causes for the glass ceiling effect. One was that women did not have sufficient involvement or opportunity to participate in corporate development. Another was that women and minorities themselves failed to realize that Equal Employment Opportunity or EEO was a concern for all, and not only for a single person or deprived entity.1 While efforts have been made by the management at corporations to address the issue, it is commonly believed that the Glass Ceiling still exists and is quite widespread and deep-rooted as to defy a long-term solution, unless efforts are made to root it out from within. Thus it is that despite genuine efforts on the part of successive federal governments, women in the US still face barriers to their advancement within organizations, particularly in the higher hierarchy. A GAO study conducted among ten industries in 2000 has confirmed this view and found that although some progress had been made, yet the glass ceiling was still in place, and still necessitated strategies for removing attitudinal obstacles so that women could break through the glass ceiling (Dingell, J.D., and Maloney, C.B., pp. 1-19). Related Literature, a Study Many authors like Arfken, Bellar, and Helms (p.183), Baxter and Wright (p. 276) and Mani (p. 545) have recorded their observations which, according to them, and as substantiated by other earlier or contemporary authors, point to the existence of the problem in both private and public organizations. While some authors have tried to discover the reasons for such situation, others have tried to analyze the phenomenon and given their considered views on the matter as relating to other relevant social, economic, and managerial issues like wage levels, the profitability of the (as sourced from the Glass Ceiling Commission, 1991) organization, equal opportunity, etc Very few authors, it appears, actually support the reverse view, that the glass ceiling in the US is a myth or that it does not exist. Actually, most experts have taken the existence of a glass ceiling in corporations, the government, and educational institutions as a fact and have only attempted to analyze related issues and commented on ways to resolve the problem. They have all been concerned with the need for improving employment opportunities for women, removing inequalities in the workplace, and better-empowering women in spheres like education, workplace, government, or elsewhere. A brief attempt is made in the following paragraphs to throw light on the phenomenon, what the analysis of various studies point to, and what needs to be done to address the issue. A study by Bell, McLaughlin, and Sequeira (2002) is first cited as a case in point that throws valuable light on the phenomenon of the glass ceiling. In the study, these authors examined the relationship between discrimination, sexual harassment, and the glass ceiling, and observed that the same factors that caused the glass ceiling also caused sexual harassment of women in the workplace. They list three forms of sex discrimination as primarily affecting women in the workplace, viz., overt discrimination, sexual harassment, and a glass ceiling. According to them, Overt Discrimination was the use of gender as a criterion for affecting workplace-related decisions (p. 66). They also make some observations on women executives. One is that employing women at top levels of management help reduce sexual harassment to some extent in the workplace. A second observation is that women rarely ever themselves perpetrate sexual harassment themselves. Thirdly, and quite obviously, women view harassment differently than men view them. Fourthly, women are more likely to experience sexual harassment than men (p. 70). Another expert, Guyot (2008) most tellingly observes  based on a study of women in government jobs in the US  that, many ascendants to government offices in present-day America are women. He also mentions other indicators of womens progress in education and job diversities. But he too avers that greater male variability restricts gender equity (p. 1-5). Other authors like Arfken, Bellar, and Helms in a study conducted on 102 public companies in Tennessee in 2002 have also observed that representation of women in the boardrooms of those companies was almost nil and out of a total 102 companies held publicly, only 38 i.e., 37 percent had at least a woman on their company boards (p. 183). But in another study, which was quite unlike other studies of the time, Eyring and Stead (1998) surveyed and obtained results from sixty-nine companies in the Houston area. While they acknowledged the existence of the glass ceiling in various States, including incorporations in the Houston area, as also in other parts of the US, they evaluated the results and made certain conclusions regarding the success in some major companies which had broken the glass ceiling so that women could reach the topmost positions in those companies. Those firms tried to implement certain measures, which they felt, could facilitate the breaking of the glass ceiling on a larger scale through effective benchmarking. To this end, the authors even listed the strategies that the companies tried to implement as also the most common practices that other companies needed to adopt. Essentially, they evolved a list of top common practices which could serve other companies as benchmarks (p. 245-251). Perhaps, one of the most significant studies and unique approach is that due to Baxter and Wright (2000, pp. 275-294), which is perceived by this author as having the potential to impact the direction in which future studies on the glass ceiling hypothesis could proceed. While the study is based on their observations in countries other than the USA, yet, their approach is still relevant to the US. The study is inconclusive and perhaps raises more questions than it answers. But this writer would like to believe, though it may seem strange, that raising questions as the study does is a small step in the right direction. Views on the issue are as diverse as the authors themselves and it may well be that results of studies are biased one way or the other. Accordingly, a somewhat detailed description of their study is felt essential and duly provided in this paper in some detail. In their study, Baxter and Wright succinctly observe that &although it may now be the case that women can get through the front door of managerial hierarchies, at some point they hit an invisible barrier that blocks any further upward movement. (p. 275). To judge how correct they are in their hypothesis would require an analysis of the data and observations derived therefrom, and an attempt is made to provide the same in the following paragraphs. However, we must first clarify that Baxter and Wright view the glass ceiling as obstacles to the promotion of women as relative to men, which systematically intensifies in varying degrees and steps, as women progress up the organizational hierarchy. They also repeat the common view that if it exists, the glass ceiling must be more pronounced in discriminating against women in employment opportunities and promotions, the higher they attempt to go along the organizational hierarchy. The state generally that the glass ceiling seems to be very much in existence and that this may be confirmed even by casual observation, without the help of systematic research (p. 276). The authors cite an example in which they consider around six managerial levels within the organizational hierarchy, viz, non-management (0), supervisors (1), lower managers (2), middle managers (3), upper managers (4), and top managers (5). If the probability that a woman at level n will be promoted to a level n+1 is Pr (W: n’n+1) and the probability for a man in an identical situation be Pr (M: n’n+1), and if the Glass Ceiling hypothesis were to be true, it obviously can be denoted mathematically as that: the ratio of Pr (W: n’n+1)/ Pr (M: n’n+1) would decline with an increase in n. In this case, the higher the level in the managerial hierarchy, the higher will be the value of the ratio, thus pointing to the existence of gender differences preventing equity in corporate promotions in an organization. An ideal case would mean that the ratio is 1 where there are no such gender differences in organizational promotion exercises. The existence of gender differences in an organization, by the same logic, would imply an invariable ratio signifying that gender discrimination may be widespread across the organization and yet show no progressive non-equitable employment opportunities at higher levels in the organization (p. 280). Baxter and Wright provide two cases (Table 1). In the first case, they note that 50 percent of men but only 25 percent of women get a promotion at any level and conclude that discrimination is constant across the levels of hierarchy (p.277). In the second example, they observe that the identical ratio is 2:1 for promotions to line supervisor level, but declines to a more equitable 1.16:1 for top promotions. However, they also note that the proportion of women in top posts decreases substantially from supervisory level to top positions, viz., women are only 6% in top posts as compared to 25 percent in supervisor levels. The conclusion that they derive from the results of their study is that the situation does not imply the existence of any significant glass ceiling effects, unless the ratio of the probabilities of women compared to men being promoted into or entering a given level of management declines as they move up the managerial hierarchy and also this deterioration in relative promotion probabilities is due to intensified barriers to promotion as opposed to some other mechanism (p. 277). Obviously, the above study attaches significance to the changes in relative probabilities of men and women as they are promoted up the organizational hierarchical ladder. It essentially considers changes in the gender gap in managerial authority by the organizational hierarchy in three countries, Sweden, Australia, and the United States of America all of which are capitalist and developed economies (p. 278). And, still, more poignantly, the authors themselves view the results of the study, which uses as a primary model the series of regressions given by the logarithmic series, Log [Pr(n + 1)/Pr(n)] = an + BnFemale, as suggestive rather than conclusive. Let us examine what actually the model is, so as to understand the results better. First, in the model, we need to mention that the sample was limited to two adjacent authority levels, n, and n+1. While Pr(n) denoted the probability of being in hierarchical level n, Pr(n + 1) was the probability of being in n + 1 level, with subscript n indicating coefficients of the equation for the contrast between level n and n + 1 (p. 280). Second, the coefficient termed Bn denotes the gender gap in authority at the level n. This value of the coefficient is zero when there is no gender gap, whereas it is less than zero when gender discrimination does exist at higher levels (the probability of a woman reaching a higher level than n, i.e., n+1, is less than that of a man in this case). In the extreme case, women are better placed against men in case the coefficient is more than zero (positive). Third, the gender coefficient given in the previously given regression equation is perceived to be useful in estimating the gender gap in authority caused directly by gender issues, and not by issues related to gender. Therefore, the need to factor in secondary job attributes as well as individual characteristics necessitated the authors to include another equation, a secondary regression series, as follows: Log [Pr (n + 1)/Pr (n)] = an + BnFemale + iBniXi In this equation, Xi denotes the various compositional controls as listed in Table 2. The net gender gap in the organizational hierarchy is represented by Bn. The most important consideration by the authors in using both sets of equations is that the existence of a glass ceiling in the workplace would be indicated by the fact that Bn would be more negative with an increase of n (p. 283). Fourth, the Baxter and Wright study also included two other supplementary models in addition to the two equations given above. These models incorporated three sets of alternate variables different from the ones used with the previous regression equations (Table 5). One reason they did so was to offset the low incidence of actual cases and resulting small sample sizes, which effectively helped to increase the sample sizes based on which the coefficients could be more accurately estimated. Also, the supplementary models could realistically predict real-life situations where the different hierarchical levels in an organization are actually non-homogenous and non-uniform in categorization. It was quite difficult to make the strict assumptions under the basic model, which was essential to ensure accurate prediction of the glass-ceiling hypothesis, and the use of an alternate set of variables could, they felt, only add to the degree of accuracy in such prediction (p. 284-285). Fifth, the results of the analysis of the data, as provided by Baxter and Wright, and based on the primary or basic regression coefficients, showed that among all the three countries, there was a distinct gender gap in authority which was significant statistically between levels 0 and 1. This primarily implied that in each of the three countries, the odds that a woman would become a bottom-level supervisor i.e., Level 1 supervisor, was substantially less than that men would become Level 1 supervisors. This was substantiated by the data provided in the study (Table 5). Lastly and more importantly, while the study did confirm the existence of a marked gender gap in authority, the authors could not in any way prove conclusively that the glass ceiling did exist in workplaces in the US. This would have been indicated if and when, the coefficients used in the primary regression equation were found to be substantially more negative at the higher hierarchical levels in the organizations under study. In this respect, the results found were neither conclusive nor could any significant indication be obtained that could point definitely to the glass ceiling hypothesis in the US. (p. 285). In fact, the authors actually found that, at least in the US, although the gender gap could be inferred as obstacles to the promotion of women in an organization, yet, once the women entered the authority structures, women were treated at par with men. Hence, as per the authors themselves, the results did not point to the glass ceiling hypothesis (p. 286). However, even if the Baxter and Wright results did not signify the existence or non-existence of the glass-ceiling phenomenon in the US, the results of their study did indicate a few things. One was the existence of a distinct gender gap in the authority structure in organizational hierarchies, even though these were more pronounced at lower levels than at the highest levels of managerial hierarchy. This lent credence to the existence of a sticky floor, rather than that of a glass ceiling. Thus, there was no reason to assume from the results, despite its limitations as to sample size, lack of factoring in of all personal attributes, case scenarios, etc, that there did exist a systematic glass ceiling in the US. But the results did indicate a larger and more serious problem, which was that sex or other form of discrimination appeared to be either constant at all levels within the organizations or even more pronounced at the bottom levels (p. 289-290). Mani, in one study in 1997, even found that the similarities between male and female members of the State Executive Services indicated that federal executives were treated equitably, irrespective of their gender (p. 545-558). The data also seemed to indicate that females were acceptable in state government employment. This perhaps also supports the later views of Baxter and Wright (2000, pp. 275-294) that a glass ceiling, if it existed in private companies, could be caused primarily by recruitment practices, which did not follow affirmative action and equal opportunity mandatory requirements. Another cause was the lack of developmental assignments for women employees. Mani also opines that top-level decision-makers in organizations need to be held accountable for equal employment opportunities if at all the number of women in higher managerial positions were to increase (p. 545). Wirth, in her study (2001, p. 243) however maintains that the glass ceiling does exist, and seems unbreakable and this is confirmed by available research. She observes that generally, women constitute only 20 percent of the management jobs in most nations, although around 40 percent of the worlds labor force is made up of women. The situation is more pronounced at higher hierarchical levels in an organization, particularly in the most powerful organizations, where women hold only around 2 to 3 percent of the top posts. The author further says that although women in the US are better qualified and compose as much as 46 percent of the workforce there, yet, in a survey of the 500 biggest Fortune 500 companies by Catalyst in 1997, it was observed that women held only around 2.4 percent of the top management posts and that too only a minuscule 1.9 percent were made up of top-paid officers and directors (p. 243-244). Elsewhere in the same article, she avers that while diversity has been one of the measures adopted by various enterprises worldwide, affirmative action needs to be an essential part of an equal opportunity policy so as to provide equity in employment. She also lays emphasis on management skills development and on-the-job training, which can provide women, in her view, with self-confidence, knowledge, techniques and the contacts to advance further in the organization (p. 245). In another of her thoughtful articles for the ILO (2002), Wirth also speaks of the glass ceiling as that which blocks women from holding or attaining senior level executive posts, but mentions another problem which she aptly calls the sticky floor problem, which she avers to as forces that relegate women to the bottom of the economic pyramid. She quotes research from the ILO, which generally points to the glass ceiling effect becoming more pronounced, the higher one rises up the organizational hierarchy. According to the ILO, as Wirth quotes, women only hold a small percentage of the worlds top executive positions in the biggest corporations, and the position is such that, women constitute only 13.4 per cent of the worlds Parliamentarians, around only 8 per cent of the countries boast a woman head of state, and, perhaps more significantly, only 1 per cent of trade union leaders are women. This is spite of the fact that trade unions worldwide boast a women membership of around 40 per cent of the whole (p. 2) For meaningful change, Wirth maintains, there is need to diversify occupations for men and women, inculcate greater involvement in and equitable sharing of family responsibilities, introduce innovations in human resources management, and also, build up entrepreneurial abilities in women (p. 6). While the workplace situation has been the common ground for research on the glass ceiling effect, some authors have also attempted to discern the existence of the phenomenon in the education system. Meier and Wilkins in such a study (2000) on the US public schools observed that school districts are classic glass ceiling organizations. They also observed that in the set of school districts studied, women comprised of 75% of teachers, some 51.3% of assistant principals, around 47% of principals, and around 35.8% of assistant superintendents. But significantly, and reinforcing the views that glass ceiling did exist in the US education system, the study also concluded that only 8.4% of the women were superintendents, the top most position along the hierarchical ladder (p. 8). In a study by Wolfers (2006) for determining the effect of CEO gender on company stock returns, it was estimated that the announcement of a female CEO in a company would lead the stock prices to decline by about 4 per cent (p. 13) and such decline was linked to the perceived ability of the female to lead the company. However, Wolfers did not find any systematic differences in returns from holding stock in companies led by women, and did not find any correlation between gender of company CEO and stock performances in the financial markets. Thus, while most other contemporary literature may have pointed out to a glass ceiling existing in publicly listed companies, Wolfers study perhaps points to the fact that, gender gaps even if they do exist in a company, do not appreciable influence stock performances and hence profitability of that company. other way and he found no such reflection in the results oh his study and survey. We also have Browne (1995) whose observations on the phenomenon are revealing. Browne observed that men wish to achieve hierarchical status and accordingly take career risks essential to get a prized top position, and also work longer hours to acquire organizational position and greater incomes. However, women are more driven by desire to take part in their childrens daily activities, and this contributes to differences in attitudes of men and women and also causes the glass-ceiling phenomenon at the workplace. There are marked differences between males and females, in competitiveness, risk-taking, social orientation, etc and Brown believes that these in turn appear to lead to sexual differences, and occupational distributions among males and females in organizations (p. 27). Conclusion This paper concludes that much remains to be done at both government levels and at the individual organizational levels, if at all the glass ceiling obstructing women aspirants from the top most managerial positions of real authority or power is to be broken. While some progress has been made over the last few years, problems do persist. In one report the GAO (2002) assessed the financial conditions of women in 2000 and compared the same with that in 1995. It found that most of the women managers were progressively worse off financially with time 2. In course of the study, data from around ten industries were evaluated. These industries were business and repair services, public administration, educational services, communications, entertainment & recreation services, retail trading, finance and insurance, real estate, and professional & other medical services. The ten industries together employed around 70 per cent women. It found that pay differences between men and women increased between the years 1995 to 2000 in as many as seven of the ten industries reviewed. Thus, pay of women managers in the entertainment sector in 2000 decreased to 62 per cent of what their male counterparts received in 1995, which was 83 per cent. An identical decrease from 86 to 73 per cent, 76 to 68 per cent and 90 to 88 per cent was observed in case of communications, finance, and professional medical services industries, respectively (Wirth, 2004, p. 31). A common view perhaps is that the problem appears to stem more from attitudinal discrimination rather than an institutional process or system put in place by insensitive organizational management. Women are also constrained, whether in managerial or non-managerial roles, by their gender and natural inferior physical strength (which prevents them from putting in more work hours and late hours), their preoccupations with family life, and the lack of adequate skills development and managerial training. The addressing of the glass ceiling phenomenon, if at all it does exist in an organization, needs among other things two most important steps, as this author would like to believe. One is that women must be more conscious of their rights at the workplace, know the legal issues involved, and, more importantly, insist that they be given equal rights in empl Posted on December 20, 2024 | by Laureen Introduction Many people do not understand the complexities associated with hotel development projects (Kirkland 2015). The progression from concept to the drawing board and final handover is a lengthy process. It is full of risks and uncertainties that continually threaten the successful execution of the project (Kirkland 2015). Construction projects are more than just simply delivering buildings and structures. They are required to reflect the long term business needs of those who commission them. At the same time, they are expected to deliver the expected benefits. Effective delivery requires players in the industry to clearly understand the long term needs of the client. The needs are then delivered efficiently and economically (Eyster 2003). In the past, cost was the most important factor in the construction industry. It was the yardstick by which success of a project was measured. However, in more recent times, newer concepts have emerged. For instance, value and risk management has largely been incorporated into recent construction projects (Eyster 2003). Jensen (2001) provides a working definition of value. According to Jensen (2001), it is defined as a measure of customer satisfaction relative to the level of effort to achieve that gratification. Value management clearly articulates what represents worth in terms of the benefits of the project. It links this to the most cost effective design solutions (Kirkland 2015). Value management complements efficient delivery by ensuring that efforts are made to deliver the right buildings. Risk, on the other hand, is the uncertainty that is inherent in plans (Dempster 2002). It is the possibility that something that may affect the prospects of achieving the business or project goals may happen. Risk management deals with the identification of the causes of these uncertainties. It also entails putting in place measures aimed at minimising their adverse impact on the project. To achieve this, projects are monitored from the onset to ensure that the right conditions for a successful delivery are provided. Value management and risk management complement each other in that. To this end, the latter can reduce risk, while the former provides opportunities to increase value (Dionne 2013). Value needs to be clearly articulated from the onset and later delivered in the finished product. Unless this is done, its maximisation is not possible. On the other hand, if risk is not identified and its consequences controlled, value may be destroyed (Dionne 2013). RIBA Plan of Work is a bedrock document for architects and other players in the construction industry. It provides a shared framework for the organisation and management of building projects (Sinclair 2013). It is widely used as a process map and a management tool. The document avails important work stage reference points used in a wide range of contractual and appointment documents (Sinclair 2013). The RIBA Plan of Work 2013 consists of eight stages. The phases are identified by the numbers 0-7. Generally, the stages follow each other in sequence. However, in certain projects, some aspects of design make it necessary to create an overlap between specified steps (Sinclair 2013). In this paper, the author will articulate the concepts of value and risk management in the construction of a luxurious hotel using the different stages outlined in RIBA Plan of Work 2013. RIBA Plan of Work Stage 0: Strategic Project Overview According to RIBA, stage 0 requires a project to be strategically appraised and defined before a detailed brief is prepared (Sinclair 2013). It is especially important when it comes to sustainability. In this case, renovation or restoration of an existing structure is more preferable than construction from scratch. In this stage, the consultancy firm found it more prudent to integrate the six categories of value identified in the CABE value driver categorisation. Value 1: Maximisation of Business effectiveness According to the value, the facility to be built should deliver the benefits associated with five star hotels in an efficient, economic, and effective way (Huang 2011). In the proposed hotel project, the luxury and comfort of guests is of essence. The building should typify luxury across all areas of its operations. To achieve this, the firm proposes that the building should be fitted with such facilities as spas, cinemas, high end restaurants and casinos, swimming pools, and accommodation facilities only found in 5 star hotels. The facilities should display excellent design quality and great attention to detail. As such, the patrons will have access to a wide range of amenities. In addition, the management will be able to provide them with customised services. The building should also be fitted with the latest advancements in technology. It is mainly because the new technological trends in the hospitality industry will play a key role in delivering a personalised experience to the guests. They will also improve management operations, leading to increased efficiency and reduced costs. Value 2: Effective Project Management and Delivery The value relates to the management process used and the selection of an integrated team working throughout the supply chain (Eyster 2003). Effective project management can only be achieved by a specialised team conversant with the needs of the hotel industry. The value is of great importance to the current project since its effective implementation provides opportunities to maximise value and minimise waste at every stage of the procurement and construction process. According to this concept, the project team should be comprised of highly skilled and experienced personnel in the industry. As such, their advice and decisions will provide the required technical competence to produce a well-constructed and designed hotel. In addition, the design team should exhibit a high level of integration, coordination, and communication to cover all aspects of the project. Outside expertise should also be sought for newer and better designs. Value 3: Financial Performance According to this value driver, any project should be affordable (Eyster 2003). As such, all the resources set aside for the undertaking should be used to optimise the benefits of the organisation that will use the hotel. The Dubai project is required to deliver a 5 star hotel. It will have a total of four hundred rooms on a 25000 square meter land. The AED500 million project is expected to have state-of-the-art facilities, such as theatres and a variety of world class restaurants, all under one roof. The trees and vegetation from the previous occupant will be retained at the site. They will be complemented by an extensive landscaping scheme and a wildlife garden. The outer appearance of the building should outdo all other 5 star hotels in the locality. Landscaping the area around the hotel will give it an edge over other facilities since only a few of them have enough space for outdoor activities. Value 4: Positive Impact on the Locality The driver describes the impact of the building on the surrounding area and the people who will use or visit it (Huang 2011). The hotel will be the first to have a freshwater aquatic wildlife garden for recreational purposes. As such, the facility will impact positively on the environment. It will also greatly impact on the overall appearance of the community. The hotel is set to be used as a benchmark for the quality of buildings that will be put up in the city in the future. Its lighting and architecture will bring about the feeling of a safe and inspiring neighbourhood. As such, the designers are requested to come up with a building that has ample external lighting. The external design of the building should make the hotel an important landmark in the locality. From the perspective of this value, the project will create a place that positively contributes to the environment. It will avoid creating an isolated building (Huang 2011). In addition, countless jobs will be created for the local community. Value 5: Minimise Environmental Impact and Operation and Maintenance Costs The value covers the impacts of the building on the natural environment (Kirkland 2015). As such, the project management team is advised to ensure that all issues of environmental sustainability are addressed. It is important to note that the value does not refer only to the external environment. On the contrary, it also addresses the internal surroundings. According to this driver, the area within and around the project should be cleaned regularly. As such, the designers and other workers should have enough time to make changes to finishes, layout structure, and other engineering systems while the building is still ongoing. The hotel should also be able to accommodate future physical and natural environmental changes. Consequently, the buildings finishes and components should be durable enough to resist wear and tear. To conserve energy, the design team is required to fit the building with solar panels. The aim is to reduce energy consumed by external sources. Large glass displays in all rooms will also significantly reduce the need for artificial lighting during the day. Value 6: Compliance with Third Party Requirements The above value driver is concerned with the relationship between the building and the stakeholders (Rosalind & Karanikola 2014). It is also largely concerned with the compliance of the project with the appropriate legislations. Every building project in the United Arab Emirates is required to comply with stringent legislations throughout the project lifecycle (Schnapper & Rollins 2014). In this project, stakeholders who form a large portion of the third party will also be extensively consulted throughout the construction process. Elaborate feedback mechanisms will also be put in place to enhance ongoing consultations with stakeholders. Assessment tools, such as Design Value Indicators, will also be used to assess how well the requirements of the stakeholders are met. Health and safety agents will also be engaged to ensure that the building attains the standards required by law. RIBA Plan of Work Stage 1: The Project Budget A budget is one of the most important tools in the business and construction sector (Baumgartner 2006). To designers and developers, it indicates how much time should be spent on specific areas of the design. It is used by the management to analyse the progress of the undertaking. The projects budget is a detailed estimate of all the costs that will be incurred in completing the project (Baumgartner 2006). It contains more information compared to the high-level financial plan generated in the earlier phases of the undertaking. A conventional budget highlights various items. They include expenses on wages and raw materials. It is important to note that a financial plan should be regarded as an estimate of expenditure. The label should remain until it receives approval. The aim is to manage expectations and prevent miscommunications (Baumgartner 2006). Cost models play a role in the preparation of a budget. They are mathematical algorithms or parametric equations used to estimate the costs of a product or a project (Munns & Al-Haikus 2015). The results of the models are used to obtain the approval needed to proceed with the undertaking. They are factored into the business plans and budgets. The model provides a consolidated construction cost image of a proposed development type (Raftery 2015). However, each cost model has to be normalised and index-linked. Cost models are the basis of benchmarking. Benchmarking is an essential tool used to predict the cost of construction at the inception stage of projects (Tsang & Chen 2013). In this undertaking, the cost model of a successful 5 star hotel project in the United Arab Emirates will act as the foundation on which benchmarking will be carried out. The specific hotel was chosen for its close resemblance to the proposed project. It is also located within the city centre and is not an ocean front property as is common with most 5 star hotels in Dubai (refer to appendix 1). Data from the benchmark hotel cost model indicates that the unit cost of a 4-star and 5-star hotel in Dubai ranges from AED30, 000 to AED40, 000 per sq.m of construction floor area respectively. The figures are set at the 3rd quarter 2014 price level (Tsang & Chen 2013). The variance in unit cost is mainly due to variations in area proportions among BOH, food and beverages, recreation, guestrooms, and the sophistication of external facade and hotel interiors. The cost model used in this paper is based solely on the benchmark framework. It is also important to note that some items were omitted in the current cost model. They include operating equipment, such as kitchen utensils and trolleys, and room amenities, such as curtains, external work, and landscaping outside the building. Design and consultancy fees and legal and marketing expenses are also excluded (see appendix 2). As stated earlier in this paper, most 4-star and 5-star hotel projects in Dubai cost from AED30,000 to AED40,000 per sq.m of construction floor area. As such, the rates in the cost model for the current project may seem extravagant and exaggerated. However, it is important to note that building costs have increased significantly in the 2015 financial year (Munns & Al-Haikus 2015). It is also important to ensure that the hotel is able to rival and competitively compete with other 5-star facilities in Dubai. As such, the cost model allocates more money to design and detail. RIBA Plan of Work Stage 3: Developing the Design Justification of Costs The entire building project is expected to cover a total area of 20000m2 of the 25000m2 plot. By providing an analysis of cost by area and function, the firm was able to ensure that expenses were allocated to those parts of the hotel that would deliver the best returns on investment over the shortest period of time. As such, more attention was given to the outside appearance of the building. The money allocated to wall finishes would allow for the application of skim coat plaster and paint to corridor and bedroom walls. It would also allow for enhanced finishes to bedrooms and bedroom corridor areas. Bathrooms, toilets, and spa areas will also be fitted with stylish stone tiles. The main aim will be to create a lasting impression to all guests in the hotel. Financing of floor finishes is expected to cover for such activities as advanced tile carpeting at the front of the building, ceramic tiling at the back of the house, mat well at the entrance, and vinyl flooring and skirting at the back of the building. Money allocated to external walls, windows, and doors will allow for special construction designs, such as secondary glazing to windows on the front elevation and Storley height glazed screen wall to ground floor entrance with motorised entrance and slide pass doors. It will also provide for a glazed canopy at the entrance. The money allocated to ceiling finishes will allow for painted plasterboard ceilings for bedrooms and corridors, including access panels and bulkheads. Public areas will also be fitted with suspended plasterboards with a paint finish. Special ceiling tile design will be installed in the kitchen areas in compliance with the hygiene standards of 5 star hotels. Installation of five different lifts and a staircase will allow for easy movement of guests and staff within the building. The lifts will include a public escalator for use by guests, a service and fire fighting lift, for emergency response purposes, a luggage lift, and a platform lift. Special attention was also given to communication installations. Money allocated to the sector will cater for the installation of fire alarm and smoke detection systems, telephone and data cabling, audio and television distribution network, CCTV and access control systems, and bedroom door access cabling. Report on how to Obtain a 10% Budget Cut from the Design Team Money is a limited resource in spite of the fact that it is the main driving force behind any project (Raftery 2015). Financial difficulties encountered during an ongoing process can have adverse and critical effects on the project. However, this can be avoided by cutting the budget cost and by making minor adjustments to the design of a building. However, before the design changes are made, value engineering has to be done (Rhee & Yang 2015). Value engineering study is an organised system of investigation using trained multi-disciplined teams to analyse the requirements of a project. It is used for the purposes of achieving the essential functions of the undertaking at the lowest total cost (Schnapper & Rollins 2014). To achieve this goal, contractors and specialists have to retain and develop the specified function, reliability, quality, and safety. In addition, they should reduce the total cost of the project by eliminating any unnecessary costs in applied construction method and equipment material service and process (Schnapper & Rollins 2014). In this section of the paper, the consultancy firm suggests different areas that can be targeted to effectively lower the budget by 10% for a value engineering study. To start with, a lot of money would be saved by reducing the square footing of the entire building. Decreasing square footage of a building is known to dramatically reduce building costs by up to 10 percent. However, for the current project, lowering the square footage would adversely affect the size of the hotel rooms. In addition, in the United Arab Emirates, large rooms translate to increased luxury. The situation is different in the United States where small is seen as cosy and efficient. The issue can be remedied by building more storey floors and reducing outward construction. The strategy is seen in a ranch design (Patterson & Neailey 2002). Targeting reduction of the square footage of the building is likely to help in achieving the envisaged savings. At the same time, it will minimise the negative impacts on the quality and integrity of the project. The reason is that each meter square of space saved would reduce the cost by AED44,964. What this means is that reducing the total space by 1000m2 would save a total of AED44,964,000. The money allocated for the roof design would also be significantly reduced by use of cheaper but equally luxurious covering plans. Construction of expensive and high design roofs and ceilings also requires expensive and highly experienced labour force, which is costly. Highly complicated roof and ceiling systems are visually interesting. However, the value engineering study should come up with less expensive but equally luxurious designs. Such redesign strategies can also reduce the costs of air conditioning systems. For instance, decreasing the duct size, A/C units, and furnace units of an air conditioning system can reduce costs while still maintain the same operating efficiencies. Reduction of the labour force can also significantly decrease the overall budget. In the project, labour costs account for over 20% of the total project expenditure. Going forward, a 10% decrease in labour force would swing building costs by approximately 3%. RIBA Plan of Work Stage 0 Strategic Risk Assessment Strategic risk assessment is essential as it minimises expenses while maximising profits. Its management has a huge impact on any project given that it ensures the undertaking is completed within the stipulated parameters (Huang 2011). It is categorised into two. The two include internal and external risk assessment. The first is usually easier to identify and manage. The reason is that it is within the firms reach. However, the second is more elusive as it is beyond the reach of the organisation (Huang 2011). Internal risk assessment It is normally carried out by the project team, contractors, and other partners. Financial solvency of the partners is one of the major internal risks facing the project (Huang 2011). A huge capital outlay will be required to implement the plan. Furthermore, capital reserves have to be readily available for allocation in such large scale projects. It is mainly because at times, these resources may be needed at a short notice due to an emergency or an unplanned additional phase that may require huge capital injections. As a result, it is of great importance for the partners to be able to cater for any additional charges in the construction phase. Alternatively, the partners should be able and willing to access other sources of revenue, such as bank loans, to ensure that the project does not stall. The wellbeing of the personnel is also an important internal issue (Huang 2011). Issues to do with the members of staff may have a huge impact on the investment. The reason is that these stakeholders are the ones who primarily carry out the relevant activities. In case of an illness or unprecedented termination of a key member, the project may be adversely affected. Finding a replacement for a highly experienced and skilled employee is an uphill task and may lead to delays in the project. Infrastructural problems also pose a risk to the undertaking (Eyster 2003). They mainly involve staff and equipment accommodative structures. A huge project like the current one requires equipment that is technologically advanced. It will include software, hardware, and servers. The firm should be able to meet the accommodation requirements for the yet to be installed equipment and the resting area for the workers (Dionne 2013). External risk assessment The threat is hard to identify, analyse, and manage. It is mainly because it involves factors that are usually out of the control of the parties involved (Dionne 2013). External factors pose a major threat to any building project. As such, there is need for regular evaluation to identify and deal with these external factors at an early stage. Below are some of the major peripheral risks that could potentially affect the project: Volatility of raw materials in the markets The prices of most commodities have risen in the recent past (Dempster 2002). However, the cost of other items, such as oil, has dropped drastically. Such changes adversely affect the purchase of raw materials. The reason is that their predictability is reduced. A rise in prices would lead to an increase in the cost of the project. On its part, a reduction in expenses would have a positive impact on the undertaking. The global economy It is another major risk that could cripple the project. It involves the exchange of goods and services at the international market (Dempster 2002). It affects the acquisition of items from anywhere around the world. If an economic recession or sanction was introduced in Dubai by a country that is a main supplier of raw materials or important building commodities, the project may come to a standstill. The sourcing of the materials or labour from other places may be extremely difficult. The reason is that economic sanctions originate from one country and spread to other economies. Product imitations It could also affect the project. Considering that it is a luxurious hotel, the client may require the inclusion of unique features. Custom made designs in furniture and architecture are a common occurrence in the construction of luxurious hotels (Eyster 2003). It is mainly because most owners want visitors to have experiences that can only be enjoyed in their facilities. Duplication of the design during the construction phase may lower the value of the project in the market (Marwa & Zairi 2008). Disruptions in the supply chain In the construction industry, the supply chain is involved with the production and distribution of products (Eyster 2003). It is a complex process since the demand for materials is always high. A reliable supply chain would increase the efficiency of the project. On the other hand, such unfavourable factors as bad climate and bankruptcy of supply firms may disrupt the flow of products, leading to delays in the project. As a result, the undertaking would be negatively affected. The client should consider sourcing their raw materials from convenient and reliable regions (Jensen 2001). Recommendations After evaluating and analysing the internal and external risks facing the client, the consultancy firm concludes that the threats involved can be properly managed. They do not pose a major hazard to the completion of the project. The client should proceed with their investment in the project. However, they should properly screen the potential future partners to attain more information on their financial capabilities and their level of skill and commitment (Woodcock 2003). The personnel should also be properly evaluated and assurance sought from their specific firms for replacements in case of uncertainties (Carmona 2001). A close monitoring and analysis of global financial situations should also be done. In addition, the companies involved should sign contracts that will ensure that they continue to supply materials even during an economic recession. The firm also recommends that the client should register all their patents and trademarks to avoid brand imitation. Lastly, volatile prices could be hedged out through agreements with the supplier (Rutherford 2005). Such a move would help to introduce a standard price for the product over the agreed period of the contract. RIBA Plan of Work Stage 5: Risk Control and Construction During this stage, actual construction of the project will begin on the site in accordance with the program. Risk control will also be carried out during this period. In construction, risk management is designed to plan, monitor, and control those measures needed to prevent exposure to threats (Smith & Jobling 2006). To achieve this objective, it is important to identify the risks, assess their extent, and put in place measures to control and manage them (Smith & Jobling 2006). The project will be a client-led design and build. As such, most of the risks will be addressed by the customer. A risk register is a management tool commonly used in the control of threats. It is also used for regulatory compliance purposes (Patterson & Neailey 2002). It acts as a central repository for all risks identified by the organisation. For each of the threats identified, the portfolio provides information on its source, nature, and recommended countermeasures. It is also commonly referred to as a risk log in the construction sector. Construction projects use registers that are similar to those in other industries. However, they may assess the impacts of time and cost without controls. In addition, they may include actions to be taken on residual risks (Patterson & Neailey 2002). In this project, the register will look at generic risks that have occurred in previous undertakings. It will also focus on threats that are specific to the project and those that will persist in spite of the controls put in place (refer to appendix 3). Conclusion Different factors affect the various phases of a project. As seen in this paper, a RIBA Plan of Work provides a framework for the organisation and management of building projects. By following the guidelines highlighted in the document, the consultancy firm was able to provide a sound design and monetary advice to the client. In addition, the framework provided information regarding the different factors that come into play when designing a building. It is also clear that risk and value management play a critical role in construction investments. Strategic risk management would allow the client to anticipate uncertainties and be ready to deal with them. As a result, the project will be completed successfully. References Baumgartner, W 2006, Tracking the project budget, Journal of Management in Engineering, vol. 2, no. 2, pp.125-138. Carmona, M 2001, The value of urban design, Ton Bridge, Telford Publishers. Dempster, M 2002, Risk management, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Dionne, G 2013, Risk management: history, definition, and critique, Risk Management and Insurance Review, vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 147-166. Eyster, J 2003, Sharing risks and decision making: recent trends in the negotiation of management contracts, Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 42-55. Huang, Y 2011, Strategic risk for enterprises in highly unpredictable environments: an experimental random selection model, Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 688-699. Jensen, M 2001, Value maximisation, stakeholder theory, and the corporate objective function, Business Ethics Quarterly, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 8-21. Kirkland, C 2015, Effective complex project management: an adaptive agile framework for delivering business value, Project Management Journal, vol. 46, no. 5, pp. 3-13. Marwa, S & Zairi, M 2008, A pragmatic approach to conducting a successful benchmarking expedition, Project Management Journal, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 59-67. Munns, A & Al-Haikus, K 2015, Estimating using cost significant global cost models, Construction Management and Economics, vol. 18, no. 5, pp. 575-585. Patterson, F & Neailey, K 2002, A risk register database system to aid the management of project risk, International Journal of Project Management, vol. 20, no. 5, pp. 365-374. Raftery, J 2015, Models for construction cost and price forecasting, Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors, London. Rhee, H & Yang, S 2015, Does hotel attribute importance differ by hotel?: focusing on hotel star-classifications and customers overall ratings, Computers in Human Behavior, vol. 50, pp. 576-587. Rosalind, N & Karanikola, I 2014, Do hotel companies communicate their environmental policies and practices more than independent hotels in Dubai, UAE?, Hospitality Tourism Journals, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 362-380. Rutherford, D 2005, Hotel management and operations, Reinhold Publishers, New York. Schnapper, M & Rollins, S 2014, Value-based metrics for improving results, Ross Publishing Inc., London. Sinclair, D 2013, Guide to using the RIBA Plan of Work 2013, RIBA Publications Ltd., London. Smith, N & Jobling, P 2006, Managing risk in construction projects, Blackwell Publication, Oxford. Tsang, S & Chen, Y 2013, Facilitating benchmarking with strategic grouping and data envelopment analysis: the case of international tourist hotels in Dubai, Journal of Tourism Research, vol. 18, no. 5, pp. 518-533. Woodcock, J 2003, Risk management: issues for outcomes research, Value in Construction Journal, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 420-424. Appendices Appendix 1 Benchmark model: Cost model for one tower of the Grosvenor House, Dubai AED/m2 gross internal floor area Function Cost in AED AED/m2 Building clearance 8,834,000 883.4 Frame and upper floors 200,183,000 20018.3 Roof 10,000,000 1000.00 Internal walls and partitions 28,259,000 2825.9 Internal doors 20,900,000 2090< Posted on December 20, 2024 | by Laureen Critical Aspects of Database Design, Development, and Application Given the fact that various types of databases are being used in healthcare, it is relatively difficult to make universal conclusions. Also, the databases that are meant, for example, for patient data and human resource one are likely to be different. Similarly, the database scope can define the specific needs and issues related to it (national data warehouse and a local electronic medical records database are likely to be very different). Still, the typical concerns of data design, development, and application include logical organization (which includes the choice of the database model), cost-efficiency, equipment adequacy, and maintenance activities (Collen, 2012; Wiederhold, 2012). In particular, it is important that the people who will be involved in the maintenance and modification of the databases are educated on how to carry out their duties. For example, the possible negative consequences of copy-pasting patient data are well-known (American Health Information Management Association, 2014). Also, the confidentiality of the data and backups development are a recurring concern for database development and use (Abdelhak & Hanken, 2014, p. 269). Database Models There are several types of database models that are used in healthcare; the most popular one is called relational, and it presupposes the existence of multiple tables with relationships between them (Abdelhak & Hanken, 2014, p. 268). It allows storing data once and retrieving it when necessary from numerous lookup tables (Collen, 2012). Also, it provides the opportunity of removing the patient name from the records and substituting it with the identifier, which is a confidentiality opportunity. The hierarchical model is built as a treelike structure that consists of parent (or root) and child segments, which defines its typical application: one-to-many relationships (Abdelhak & Hanken, 2014, p. 269). This kind of database is less popular, and its use requires some understanding of the logic of its organization, which makes it useful for advanced users with predetermined queries. The proposed database from the previous task had three tables, which is why it needed revision for this assignment. Also, when designing the model, I had decided to leave out the specific attributes of entities, and for this task, I had to choose several attributes. I did it using existing databases as examples. In particular, I paid attention to the interactive map on fatal injury data that was created by Centers for Disease Control and Preventions (2013) as one of the WISQARS (Web-based Injury Statistics Query and Reporting System) tools. Posted on December 20, 2024 | by Laureen Introduction Today, more than ever before, human rights have become resolutely embedded in both the practice and study of international relations (IR), in large part due to the mounting growth of the United Nations (UN) international human rights regime coupled with the rise of international non-governmental organisations (INGOs) and human rights activists.1 Scholars of IR have increasingly recognised the necessity to study in more detail the working logic of human rights in international organisations as well as in the foreign policy spectrum, particularly after the realisation that the international dimension of human rights sits at the core of international politics, international law, trade, and foreign aid.2 Yet, despite the marked interest of human rights in the IR literature, it is evident that the dominant theories of IR (e.g., realism, liberalism, and constructivism) explain the role of such rights in substantially diverse ways, with many of the claims carrying convincing arguments that seem to reinforce a troubling juxtaposition of state sovereignty with notions of a universal moral order.3 With the conviction that human rights are presently a permanent feature of international relations, the present report sets out to critically discuss the role of these rights in IR. The emergence of Human Rights in International Relations Available literature demonstrates that, although the concept of human rights was already in the public domain in the eighteenth century, it acquired its own place in international relations in 1945 when it was incorporated in the United Nations (UN) Charter and the Universal declaration as a reaction to the disgraceful crimes against humanity undertaken by the German national socialists against the Jews, gypsies, homosexuals, and political opponents of the Nazis between 1933 and 1945.4 The 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is perceived by many academics as the founding document that, according to Eleanor Roosevelt, assisted in the setting up of a common standard of achievement for all people and all nations. After the initial euphoria presented by the UDHR, human rights advocates had to wait until the 1970s before the principles contained in the document began to substantially influence and constrain the behaviour of states on the global map, with scholars suggesting that the lull period was to a large extent influenced by two main factors, namely (1) the priority accorded to national security by the leading protagonists and their allies during the Cold War, and (2) the fact that most states did not permit multilateral monitoring of their human rights practices.5 These factors demonstrate that, from the onset, human rights were eclipsed by systematic factors involving enormous power competition between states and the predilection by some actors of international society to perceive human rights as mere standards that cannot be possibly seen as enforceable commitments. It is hence reported in mainstream IR literature that, with the exclusion of a small number of countries who were signatories to the European Convention of Human Rights, the overall perception from 1945 to early 1970s was one in which there was a deep-seated gap between standards and delivery, effectively limiting human rights from achieving widespread international recognition.6 However, in the mid-1970s, a multiplicity of factors (e.g., the growing legalisation of human rights values and development of legal norms and the proliferation of human rights INGOs such as Amnesty International) converged to elevate human rights into the international limelight.7 In the development of legal norms, two international human rights covenants came into force in 1976, not mentioning that the United Nations Commission on Human Rights became more active not only due to its expanded membership but also because of the inclusion of states committed to demonstrating a difference.8 The 1970s saw the growth and expansion of INGOs committed to entrenching state compliance with human rights law, with the most significant ones being Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch. Lastly, in the insertion of human rights into diplomacy, the U.S. Congress passed legislation linking aid and trade to human rights, not mentioning that Norway and the Netherlands were becoming more activist-oriented in promoting human rights in their own foreign policies. Respect for human rights was made a pre-condition for membership to the European Community (EC) and later the European Union (EU), while people in many European countries could also lodge human rights complaints against their respective countries through the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), thus demonstrating a much higher level of institutionalisation of human rights in IR.9 Drawing from the above exposition, it is evident that human rights moved from the periphery to the centre of IR in the 1970s.10 By the mid-to-late 1990s, the international human rights norm had diffused widely in IR, with some of the key drivers being the fall of communism, the rapid transitioning of countries in Latin America and Asia to liberal democracies, as well as the mounting acquiescence of non-liberal states into the human rights regime through various conventions, such as the 1993 Vienna World Conference on Human Rights.11 These dynamics created new hopes that human rights would achieve ever greater significance in IR, particularly with regard to promoting democracy and good governance, preventing abuses, legitimising international actors, ensuring international economic justice and business ethics, as well as reinforcing regional and international integration. These roles are discussed more deeply in the subsequent section. The Role of Human Rights in International Relations Promotion of Democracy & Good Governance Available literature demonstrates that, in recent years, human rights thinking has undeniably changed from philosophical allegations to those of everyday life and active politics, such as the promotion of democracy and good governance at a global level.12 There is no doubt that promotion of good governance and democratic ideals are critical components in guaranteeing respect for human rights, as the promise of human rights reinforced by international treaties and institutions may never be fulfilled in the absence of the rule of law, independent judicial systems, and other institutions prevalent in contemporary society.13 But while it is increasingly clear that transparent, accountable, and participatory governance structures are a precondition to the nurturing of democratic ideals, respect for human dignity and defence of human rights, it is also dawning on IR scholars that the human rights regime can be successfully used to promote democracy and good governance by emphasising the importance of norms and values in how states define their status and identities.14 In line with the liberal and social constructivist theories, the point has now been reached where international law and the international community have developed a broad range of human rights standards which directly or indirectly influence states to promote democratic ideals and good governance structures or risk being perceived as encouraging repressive practices.15 It is argued in the literature that states that fail to abide by prevalent international norms risk losing the support of their citizenry since citizens in modern states are likely to evaluate the performance of their government relative to the performance of other governments.16 Consequently, it is expected that states will increasingly engage in the promotion of democracy and good governance in line with the existing peer pressure concerning the adoption of global human rights norms and values that have been ratified through international treaties or encouraged by international actors such as INGOs.17 States that fail to promote democracy and good governance as demanded by the human rights regime and ratified in treaties often face resistance from their own citizens, who are less likely to comply with their respective governments directives, hence effectively weakening the governments position in power when compared with others that have complied with the norms of democracy and good governance.18 The above exploration demonstrates a mounting acceptance among the international community about the centrality of the human rights regime and its significance in entrenching democratic ideals and securing good governance, implying that human rights protection is indispensable to deepening substantive democracy and guaranteeing good governance structures.19 It is agreeable that the human rights framework provides an effective means for governments to transition from basic electoral democracy to the fully-fledged version by ensuring that power ultimately rests with the people, recognising and protecting the peoples right to have a say in all decision-making processes, guaranteeing crucial freedoms such as the freedom to express ones thoughts and opinion without fear, as well as accommodating the views of the minority.20 It cannot escape mention that democratic ideals (e.g., freedom, equality, fraternity, accommodation of diversity, assurance of justice) and the pillars of good governance (e.g., transparency, equal participation, responsibility, accountability, responsiveness) underline the norms and values of human rights as well, hence the centrality of human rights not only in upholding the edifice of sustainable democracy, but also facilitating an enabling environment for the implementation of good governance structures.21 Prevention of Abuses This role is better understood when evaluated under the liberal theoretical lens. Available literature demonstrates that, while there are several strands of liberal thinking, the central notion is that individual persons have basic rights to free speech, fair treatment in terms of the judicial process, and political equity enshrined in a political constitution.22 As a matter of fact, liberals perceive human rights as having an increasingly elaborate role in IR, particularly in (1) ensuring that states enshrine the rights of citizens in legal constitutions, (2) terminating the trade in slaves and dissolving the institution of slavery, (3) agreeing to protect the condition of workers, and (4) advancing humanitarian law not only to protect wounded or captured combatants but also to criminalise the targeting of civilians.23 In the prevention of abuses, it is important to note that human rights have increasingly being used by liberal democracies with the view to emancipate or liberate individual human beings from those oppressions that stop them carrying out what they would freely choose to do, compatible with the freedoms of others.24 As suggested by R. Blakeley, oppression in the international arena often takes the form of violence and terrorism, but can also involve foreign policies that hinder the provision of basic material needs, such as George W. Bushs unpopular policy of waterboarding in the War on Terror.25 In the emancipation debate, human rights are used by international actors, agencies, and other stakeholders to identify possibilities for change within the prevailing order, hence expanding the dialogue contexts and consequently preventing the imposition of freedom by a state to the individual victim of oppression through a particular politics or ideology.26 In cases where state terrorism and torture have been used (e.g., when the U.S. invaded Iraq and Afghanistan), effective deployment of human rights through the process of emancipation has been widely used by international players concerned with identifying practices that might bring about change, systematic structures that might be transformed, and appropriate actors that are in the best position to facilitate such change.27 It is important to note that emancipation distances itself from the realism theoretical thought, which views human rights as important if and only if they facilitate the relative power of an individual state or group of states.28 On the contrary, emancipation aligns itself with liberalism, hence its focus on freeing individuals from human rights abuses and other acts of oppression.29 The United Nations (UN) firmly believes that the human rights regime can be used by actors within the international arena not only to prevent massive human rights violations and abuses as happened during the Rwanda and Darfur genocides but also to enhance the attainment of stable and harmonious relations among global communities, as well as foster mutual understanding, tolerance and peace. In the achievement of these outcomes, the UN has developed and expanded the Human Rights Education (HRE) initiative, with the view to (1) strengthening the respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, (2) ensuring the full development of the human personality and the sense of its dignity, (3) facilitating the promotion of understanding, tolerance, gender equality and friendship among all nations, indigenous peoples and racial, national, ethnic, religious and linguistic groups, (4) availing a framework through which all people could participate effectively in a free society, and (5) furthering the activities of the UN for the maintenance of peace and prevention of abuses.30 Drawing from this exposition, it is evident that the UN is well aware of the fact that strengthening respect for human rights and facilitating peaceful coexistence among communities through such programmes as the HRE are critical components in the prevention of abuses and human rights violations. Legitimising International Actors Available literature demonstrates that human rights continue to play an important role in legitimising international institutions, which in turn are seen as important determinants of state behaviour.31 Indeed, human rights are considered by some scholars of IR as important in legitimising international institutions (INGOs) such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch, owing to the fact that human rights have increasingly moved to the realm of legal rights  that is, those rights that exist under the rules of legal systems and customs.32 Upon legitimatisation, these INGOs perform several important functions, including (1) acting as information networks with a capability to communicate evidence of human rights violations to their membership and the global media, (2) monitoring governments records in complying with the treaties they have signed and reminding them of their international obligations, and (3) providing the resources necessary to increase domestic mobilisation and advocacy.33 Available scholarship demonstrates that INGOs have increasingly played an important role in restraining other states from human rights violations and stimulating respect for human rights by exposing non-compliance in such countries throughout the world and embarrassing those public bodies whose word is not as good as their bond.34 To succeed in this role, these INGOs work within the confines of international human rights law to collect information on human rights abuses before strategically using the facts to pressure a state regarding its repressive practices.35 Bell and colleagues opine that, by providing negative information to third parties outside the state, [INGOs] hope to name and shame or shame and blame a regime into making improvements in their human rights practices.36 Other roles of the INGOs made possible by their own legitimisation in the international arena through a human rights based approach include (1) organising and coordinating marches against repressive regimes, as was the case in South Africa during the apartheid era, (2) providing draft legislation relating to human rights protection to governmental leaders and working to educate local masses concerning the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights, as was the case in Nigeria, and (3) providing the much needed legal and psychological assistance to abuse victims, as was the case in Bosnia immediately after the genocide.37 The role of human rights in legitimising international actors has been criticised in the literature. For example, it is argued that most INGOs do not necessarily represent the rights of local individuals not only due to their overdependence on other international actors such as the Ford Foundation and the Rockefeller Foundation for funding, but also because of their incapacity to effect widespread mobilisation of people to their cause.38 Furthermore, it is widely held that the nature of the human rights regime in legitimising international actors is inherently paradoxical as it queries the moral omnipotence of the state39, yet it is firmly embedded in public international law which has the principles of state sovereignty and independence at its innermost crux.40 Other scholars employ the realist theoretical approach to demonstrate the weakness of human rights in legitimising international actors by arguing that some states may choose to downplay or underplay the normative power, norms and values espoused by INGOs, implying that compliance and enforcement of international human rights regimes as advocated by these actors will be primarily a function of domestic concerns and not of international incentives or pressure.41 Ensuring International Economic Justice and Business Ethics As indicated by Giovanni Mantilla, interest-based approaches to the emergence of international regimes suggest that actors will behave rationally, with a set of ordered preferences, and will calculate the costs and benefits of alternative courses of action in order to maximise their utility in view of those preferences.42 International actors, according to this scholar, may also project a self-centred behavioural orientation by demonstrating more concern about their own selfish achievements than the comparative achievements of others.43 In this light, IR scholars argue that the human rights role of ensuring economic justice and business ethics came into the limelight during the 1990s, when INGOs increased the publications of economic injustices and negative impacts associated with multinational corporations (e.g., Global Witness on Shells dealings in Nigeria; Amnesty International on British Petroleum and Occidental Petroleum in Columbia).44 As noted by Mantilla, corporations were now being scrutinised not only for engaging in economic injustices, disproportionate labour practices and adverse environmental operations, but also for behaviours perceived as potentially contributing to global conflict and vilifying human rights by aligning with authoritarian governments and funding repressive military forces; hiring abusive private security; and paying bribes to illegal armed groups for security.45 Today, with the rising importance of multinational corporations in the global socioeconomic and political landscape, mounting attention is been afforded to assessing how these corporations adopt and implement socially responsible policies in line with the modern human rights architecture.46 The Global Compact initiative, launched in 2000 by the UN, is a clear testament of how the human rights approach has been used to ensure economic justice and business ethics for multinationals operating in the international arena. This initiative is a voluntary platform joining companies and civil society around ten principles on human rights, transparency, labour, and environmental issues.47 Among other things, the Global Compact initiative advises multinational corporations to: Support and respect the protection of internationally proclaimed human rights; to ensure that they are not complicit in human rights abuses; to uphold the freedom of association and the effective recognition of the right to collective bargaining; to eliminate all forms of forced and compulsory labour, including child labour; to take a precautionary approach to environmental challenges; and to work against corruption in all its forms, including extortion and bribery.48 The human rights regime uses voluntary codes and normative pressure to ensure compliance with these principles49, though available IR scholarship demonstrates that corporations are subject not necessarily to international law, but rather to the domestic laws of countries where they are incorporated and operate.50 In line with the social constructivist approach to the study of IR, it has been argued that when a sufficient number of states have adopted an international norm a kind of peer pressure emerges that can coerce other states into adopting the norm, resulting in a norm cascade.51 Using the constructivist school of thought, therefore, it is evident how the human rights regime has played an increasing role in pressuring multinational corporations to comply with the codes, principles, and norms that have been developed over the years to ensure the facilitation of economic justice and business ethics at an international level.52 The legitimacy and universality of the norms are intimately connected to the norm cascade process, hence corporations are compelled by the norms ensuring economic justice and business ethics (e.g. right to productive employment, right to organise and bargain collectively; right to participate in economic decisions, equitable distribution of goods according to norms of justice) to show that they are not deviants so that they can be accorded the recognition and privileges that their peers receive.53 Failure to abide by the norms by ensuring a level playing ground in the strict economic and business ethics sense can result in condemnation from INGOs that may be troublesome enough to change the practices of deviant companies in some instances.54 Reinforcing Regional & International Integration At first glance it seems that the promotion and protection of human rights can never be within the regional and international integrations focal range; however, human-rights-related matters play a fundamental role within the integrations legal framework as well as in the states daily practices owing to the fact that many countries within these regional and international integration blocks (e.g., EU, AU, OECD, ASEAN) have implemented certain provisions in their mandate that have an impact on human rights, democratic ideals, and good governance.55 Many regional and international blocks have incorporated human rights into their treaties, as a common acknowledgment to recognising and protecting human rights can easily be found in the fundamental legal provisions underpinning the establishments of these economic and political blocks.56 The main reasons for integrating human rights into the structure of regional and international blocks include (1) the commitment by states to respect human rights by assenting to particular human rights treaties, conventions or declarations such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Convention on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, (2) the realisation that human rights and good governance play an important role in economic development and investment climate, which in turn contributes to growth, productivity, and the creation of jobs, (3) the realisation that a peaceful environment which recognises and enhances human rights is an important prerequisite for economic development, and (4) the realisation that economic development is obliged to respect human rights in a democratic society, conversely implying that human rights can be given more effect through economic growth.57 Drawing from this exposition, it is evident that the human rights regime plays a fundamental role in the development of regional and international integration; however, states must develop ways to deal with obstacles to regional and international integration, namely fear of losing autonomy and identity, socioeconomic disparities among members, historical injustices and disagreements, lack of vision, as well as unwillingness to share resources.58 It should be remembered that the role of human rights in reinforcing regional and international integration is, at best, two-way in that most of these economic and political blocks are also mandated by various legal provisions, entrenched values and norms to promote human rights.59 It has already been mentioned that regional and international economic bodies such as the EU and the ASEAN have already incorporated the respect for and/or enhancement of human rights into their constitutive instruments, hence operationalising their capacity to translate human rights principles and ideals into practice.60 Consequently, it is safe to argue that the human rights regime has so far been used to reinforce regional and international integration by rallying global economic, political and cultural blocks/communities around similar legislations and commitments as indicated above; however, it is also evident that these communities have a clear mandate to promote and protect human rights despite obstacles of concurrent jurisdiction and overlapping memberships.61 The enforcement mechanisms used by these economic and political communities are critical in not only ensuring that the human rights regime plays its rightful role in reinforcing regional and international integration, but also in facilitating the blocks/communities to promote and protect human rights. Conclusion It is evident from this discussion and analysis that the human rights regime has an important role to play in international relations, particularly with regard to promoting democracy and good governance, prevention of abuses, legitimising international actors, ensuring international economic justice and business ethics, as well as reinforcing regional and international integration. This paper has relied on the realist, liberalist, and the social constructivist theories of international relations not only to demonstrate the expanded roles of human rights and human rights law in the international arena, but also to provide an understanding of how the various norms, values, treaties and practices making up the human rights regime influence states into compliance. Some criticisms of the roles have also been provided and evaluated within the dominant theoretical frameworks. Without doubt, human rights will continue to influence the geopolitical and socioeconomic dynamics of states at the international level. Bibliography Baehr, P.R., Non-governmental human rights organisations in international relations, Palgrave MacMillan, Basingstoke, 2009. Baxi, U., Human rights education: The promise of the third millennium?, in G.J. Andreopulos & R.P. Claude ed., Human rights education for the twenty-first century, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, pp. 145-148. Bell, S.R., Clay, K.C. & Murdie, A., Neighbourhood watch: Spatial effects of human rights INGOs, Journal of Politics, vol. 74 no. 2, 2012, pp. 354-368, Academic Search Premier [online database], Web. Blakely, R., Human rights, state wrongs, and social change: The theory and practice of emancipation, Review of International Studies, vol. 39 no. 3, 2013, pp. 599-619, Academic Search Premier [online database],  Web. Brownlie, I., The principles of public international law, 6th edn, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2003. Coates, T., Neither cosmopolitanism nor realism, in B. Holden ed., Global democracy: Key debates, Routledge, London, 2000, pp. 87-101. Cohen, J., Whose sovereignty? Empire versus international law, Ethics & International Affairs, vol. 18 no. 3, 2004, pp. 1-24, Academic Search Premier [online database],  Web. Dunne, T. & Hanson, M., Human rights in international relations, in M. Goodhart ed., Human rights: Politics and practice, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2009, pp. 61-76. Hill, D.W., Estimating the effects of human rights treaties on state behaviour, The Journal of Politics, vol. 72 no. 4, 2010, pp. 1161-1174, Academic Search Premier [online database],  Web. Karsay, D. & Lewis, O., Disability, torture and ill treatment: Taking stock and ending abuses, International Journal of Human Rights, vol. 16 no. 6, 2012, pp. 816-830, Academic Search Premier [online database],  Web. Mantilla, G., Emerging international human rights norms for transnational corporations, Global Governance, vol. 15 no. 2, 2009, pp. 279-298, Academic Search Premier [online database], Web. Merke, F. & Pauselli, G., Foreign policy and human rights advocacy: An exercise and explanation, Human Rights Review, vol. 14 no. 2, 2013, pp. 131-155, Academic Search Premier [online database], Web. Monshipouri, M., Tracing David P. Forsythes intellectual evolution: From human rights and world politics (1983) to human rights in international relations (2006), Journal of Human Rights, vol. 11 no. 3, 2012, pp. 316-321, Academic Search Premier [online database], Web. Okafar, O.C., Legitimizing human rights NGOs: Lessons from Nigeria, Africa World Press, Inc, Trenton, NJ, 2006. Rengger, N., The world turned upside down? Human rights and international relations after 25 years, International Affairs, vol. 87 no. 5, 2011, pp. 1159-1178, Academic Search Premier [online database], Web. Reus-Smit, C., International law, in J. Baylis, S. Smith & P. Owens ed., Globalisation of world politics: Introduction to international relations, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2011, pp. 278-294. Ruggie, J.G., Global governance and new governance theory: Lessons from business and human rights, Global Governance, vol. 20 no. 1, 2014, pp. 5-17, Academic Search Premier [online database], Web. Ruppel, O.C., Regional economic communities and human rights in east and southern Africa, Journal of Politics, vol. 74 no. 2, 2012, pp. 275-317, Academic Search Premier [online database], Web. Smith, R.K.M., Human rights in international law, in M. Goodhart ed., Human rights: Politics and practice, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2009, pp. 26-45. Teitel, R., Humanitys law: Rule of law for the new global politics, Cornell International Law Journal, vol. 35 no. 2, 2002, pp. 355-387, Academic Search Premier [online database], Web. Tulli, U., Whose rights are human rights? The ambiguous emergence of human rights and the demise of Kissingerism, Cold War History, vol. 12 no. 4, 2009, pp. 573-593, Academic Search Premier [online database], Web. Footnotes T. Dunne & M. Hanson, Human rights and International relations, in M. Goodhart ed., Human rights: Politics and Practice, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2009, p. 61. F. Merke & G. Pauselli, Foreign policy and human rights advocacy: An exercise in measurement and explanation, Human Rights Review, vol. 14 no. 2, 2013, p. 131, Academic Search Premier [online database], Web. T. Dunne & M. Hanson, loc. Cit. P.R. Baehr, Non-governmental human rights organisations in international relations, Palgrave MacMillan, Basingstoke, 2009, p. 19. Ibid ibid < Posted on December 20, 2024 | by Laureen Iron regulation in the body Iron is a constituent of all living matter. Iron is a core factor in the electron transfer chain in the body; it is also a vital part of oxygen transport and iron storing molecules such as hemoglobin. It is also a component of host defense where it occurs in nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase. Humans lack an effective mechanism to excrete surplus iron, though they are unsurpassed in iron conservation since they have unique homeostatic mechanisms that ensure iron level remains within normal parameters. These mechanisms regulate the absorption of iron from the duodenum and release it from macrophages and other iron-storing sites. The release of large amounts of iron into circulation may result in localized injury to the surrounding tissues. Iron exerts its toxic effects through the catalysis of free radical reactions leading to the production of free radicals such as peroxides that damage tissues. Furthermore, iron levels need to be maintained within physiological limits since infection is in part determined by the availability of iron for utilization by the invading microorganism. The bacteria have evolved complex mechanisms for uptake of iron from their environment that bind iron. An example of such mechanisms includes the secretion of organic molecules called siderophores that have a high affinity for iron. Desferrioxamine an iron binder is an example of such a siderophore. Other siderophores include yersiniabactin produced by Yersinia sp (Collins 2003, p.194). Studies carried out show that mice with iron overload are highly susceptible to a wide range of infections. This phenomenon has also been observed in human patients that have iron overload. (Jurado 1997, p. 888-890). Since little iron is lost from the body, iron regulation is through stepwise regulation of its absorption from the gut into the general circulation. Iron in the body is usually recycled and stored in various body stores (Ganz & Hershko 2000, p.2-4). Amplification of the absorption process occurs in states of iron deficiency whereas absorption is decreased in situations of iron overload. Through this mechanism, the body is able to maintain iron levels within normal limits (Finch et al 1978, p.335). Regulation of iron is an essential process since an excess of iron leads to end-organ damage while deficiency of iron results in cellular dysfunction and anemia. Regulation of the bodys iron stores is under the influence of specific iron regulating proteins. These proteins include transferrin, ferritin, ferroportin, and Hepcidin. Other proteins such as lactoferrin control iron levels through chelation to form iron-protein complexes (Waheed et al 1999, p.15). Total body iron A normal human body contains about 4 to 5g of Iron. Haemoglobin iron forms the bulk of total body iron, accounting for up to 60% of total body iron. Hemoglobin is major the functional form of iron in the body (Harris & Kellermeyer 1970,p 87). Approximately 10% of total body iron exists in the body as ferritin and hemosiderin. The liver stores iron as ferritin and this accounts for a third of total body iron. The remainder of iron is stored throughout the body tissues as myoglobin and in heme enzymes such as catalases, cytochromes, and peroxidizes and non-heme enzymes such as reductase, metalloflavoproteins, and ribonucleotide reductase. The stored iron exists in macrophages that populate the spleen, liver, and bone marrow. Iron occurs in minute quantities in circulation usually about 3-4mg (Donovan et al 2000, p.776-779). When red blood cells become senescent, they undergo lyses and liberate iron, which is incorporated in the synthesis of hemoglobin and other iron-dependent proteins. About 20mg of iron is recovered through this process. Daily losses of iron from the body are in minute quantities. It is estimated to be around 1-2mg of iron, which is readily replaced from the diet (Bothwell 1995, p.24) Iron Absorption The brush border of the epithelium of the intestinal villi of the duodenum and upper jejunum is the site of iron absorption in the human body. Iron is absorbed in form of heme, non-heme, ferric, or ferrous ions. Studies show that at least nine proteins are involved in the absorption process (Bothwell 1995, p.28). The amount of iron available in the body has an inverse relationship with the amount of iron absorbed. When body iron stores decrease, the amount of iron absorbed increases. When there is iron overload, the absorption of iron decreases. Dietary iron is mainly non-heme, which is readily absorbed depending on the presence of inhibitors or promoters. Inhibitors such as phytates and tannins decrease iron absorption while promoters such as ascorbic acid enhance absorption. Mucosal cells regulate iron absorption through various mechanisms: regulation of uptake across the brush border, retention of iron in the mucosal cell in a different form, and release of iron from the mucosal cell into plasma (Avunduk 2008, p. 427). Meat-derived iron is absorbed four times faster than vegetable-derived iron. An average adult consumes approximately 10 to 15mg of iron daily. Women lose more iron than men do. Iron is lost as exfoliated epithelial cells of the gastrointestinal tract and skin, and menstrual blood loss in women (Avunduk 2008, p. 427). The body lacks any physiological mechanism to excrete iron. As such, iron absorption should be finely controlled and regulated within the narrow physiological range. Iron Control Centre The liver is the center of control of iron homeostasis in the body. Control of iron levels in the body is essential since an overload results in organ damage and conditions like hemochromatosis. The deficiency of iron results in anemia usually referred to as iron deficiency anemia. The iron regulation process employs specialized sensors. The author writes, Special sensors respond to the iron and stimulate the synthesis and release of the iron hormone Hepcidin, which is encoded by HAMP gene. Hepcidin circulates through the body and interacts with the iron exporter ferroportin expressed on the surface of iron-rich macrophages and intestinal cells. Because of this interaction, ferroportin is internalized and degraded. The unneeded iron remains in the cells where it is saved for future use in the form of ferritin. The diminished release of iron restores blood levels to the non-toxic range, thus reinsuring the stimulus for further Hepcidin synthesis and ferroportin gradually resumes its iron exporting activity( Avunduk 2008, p. 428). The connection between Hepcidin and iron overload was first brought to light by Pigeon et al during the study of the response of the liver to iron overload. (Pigeon, Ilyin & Courselaud 2001,p. 16). They found out that the Hepcidin mRNA was induced by an iron overload of parenteral and dietary origin. Furthermore, they found out that induction of Hepcidin mRNA occurred when mice were treated with polysaccharides (LPS) to simulate an active bacterial infection. From these results, it was concluded that Hepcidin production was under the influence of iron and an immune system stimulus (polysaccharide). It was also observed that the Hepcidin gene is in the same loci as the upstream regulatory factor-2(USF-2) gene. Other gene knock-out studies reinforced the relation between USF-2gene and iron overload since mice that had their USF-2 gene knocked all developed hemochromatosis at the same time. (Nicholas, Bennoun &Devaux 2001, p. 12-14). It was further observed that these mice had no Hepcidin mRNA expressed. This led the authors to conclude that Hepcidin was a controller of iron absorption from the duodenum and upper jejunum and that it was a regulator of iron release from macrophages. It is the absence of Hepcidin that resulted in iron overload (hemochromatosis) since the gene coding for the Hepcidin gene is located in the same loci as the USF-2 gene. Mechanism of action of Hepcidin at the molecular level Inflammation and iron overload induce transcription of Hepcidin mRNA in the hepatocytes. Inflammatory mediators induce the production of cytokines such as IL-1, IL-6, TNF-², and TNF-±. IL-6 acts by amplifying the transcription process. Hepcidin is produced in high amounts and released into circulation to be delivered to iron exporting cells located in the small intestine and spleen. Hepcidin then binds to the iron exporting protein called ferroportin (Fpn). When Hepcidin binds to ferroportin, it leads to activation of the Jak2 pathway and subsequent phosphorylation of ferroportin. The phosphorylated receptor is turn internalized and degraded by the lysosome hence impairing iron export from the affected cell into circulation (De Domenico 2007, p. 2569-2578.) It has been established that in absence of iron overload and inflammation, macrophages have little ferroportin on their surface. Importance of Hepcidin Hepcidin is an essential component of the bodys homeostasis process. It is the main regulator of iron homeostasis in the body. Furthermore, it plays a role in the innate immune system. Many iron disorders are a result of abnormalities in Hepcidin production. Production of little amounts of Hepcidin causes iron overload in conditions like hereditary hemochromatosis and ²-thalassemia a form of anemia due to a defect in one of the globin chains. On the other hand, excessive production results in anemia of inflammation initially called anemia of chronic disease (ACD). In anemia of inflammation, there is pronounced sequestration of iron in the macrophages while in thalassemia there is excessive breakdown of erythrocytes causing a release of massive amounts of iron that may result in overload even in the absence of blood transfusions. Discovery of Hepcidin Hepcidin was discovered when Park et al were conducting studies on antimicrobial characteristics of various fluids in the human body (Park, Valore & Ganz 2001, p. 7806-7810). They extracted a new peptide from urine and named it Hepcidin based on its site of origin (hep- from hepatic) and its antimicrobial activity (-cidin; to kill). Krause et al working separately extracted a peptide with similar properties and referred to it as LEAP-1 (liver expressed antimicrobial peptide) which later on was found to be Hepcidin. (Krause, Neitz & Magert 2000,p.147-150).From these studies, it was learned that Hepcidin is composed of 25 amino acid residues and 4 disulfide bridges connecting the residues as shown in the diagram. The amino terminal corresponds to N while carboxyl terminal corresponds to C.Disulfide bonds, acidic amino acids and basic amino acids are represented by the colours yellow, red and blue respectively. It was noticed that in many mammalian species the Hepcidin peptide sequence was astonishgly analogous. Hepcidin arises from an 84- amino acid prepropetide, which is encoded by a gene on chromosome 9. Drosomycin, a defensin of drosophila insect, released during infection is almost analogous to Hepcidin. It is composed of 4- disulfide bond within its structure. These cysteine rich residues are responsible for the defensive antimicrobial properties of drosomycin. Drosomycin production occurs in the fatty layer of the insect an equivalent of the liver in mammals. Studies have also shown an increase in Hepcidin levels in patients with active infection (Gangaidzo, Moyo & Mvundura 2001, p. 936-939). Production of Hepcidin Hepcidin is produced predominantly by hepatocytes. The Hepcidin mediated activities; iron regulation and antimicrobial activity are under the influence of one gene unlike in the mouse where we have two Hepcidin genes but only one code for iron regulation (Pigeon 2001, p.7811-7819) Regulation of production Effect of Iron on production Hepcidin Homeostatic regulation of Hepcidin production is under the influence of iron levels and the state of erythropoiesis. Hepcidin production is upregulated when there is iron overload and downregulated in situations of iron deficiency. At the same time pronounced erythropoiesis results in decreased production of Hepcidin to allow for increased absorption and release of iron from macrophages to meet the demands of the body. Production is also high in inflammatory conditions and infections. Although precise mechanisms of regulation of production of Hepcidin have not been elucidated, it is widely believed that regulation is under the influence of factors released by the bone marrow. Such factors include the bone morphogenetic protein (BMP). This protein has been demonstrated to stimulate increased production of Hepcidin both in vitro and in in vivo (Xia, Babitt, & Sidis 2008, p. 5195-5200). Several BMPs have been identified but BMP-6 has been repeatedly demonstrated to be the dominant regulator of Hepcidin production (Andriopoulos, Corradini & Xia 2009, p. 482487). Activation of BMP-6 occurs via co-receptors. Hemojuvelin (HJV) has been identified to be the co-receptor that modulates BMP-6 activity. Mice that have HJV mutations develop iron overload without any other noticeable abnormality. Studies carried out in recent times have shown that in mice with iron overload there is an increased expression of the BMP-6 mRNA linking BMP-6 to be an indicator of the amount of iron in the body. Some scientists have proposed that interfering with the BMP-6 pathway may be of therapeutic value in cases of Hepcidin excess. The transferrin receptor 2(TfR2) and hemochromatosis gene (HFE) are the iron level sensing genes and in hereditary hemochromatosis, these two are mutated. TfR2 is of hepatic origin, the source of Hepcidin. The iron-transferrin complex binds to TfR2 and stabilizes it. The new complex causes increased signal transduction of ERK1/2 and smad1/5/8(Goswami & Andrews 2006, p.2849428498). HFE and iron transferrin share a site of association on TfR1 and when the levels of iron-transferrin complex are high, HFE is displaced from the site of association on TfR1. Despite the above, studies have repeatedly demonstrated that HFE and TfR2 play no role in iron regulation mediated by Hepcidin(Piperno, Girelli & Nemeth 2007,p.24-25). Effect of Erythropoiesis on production Elevated erythropoiesis is a major inhibitor of Hepcidin production. A study carried out in mice showed a dose-dependent decrease in expression of Hepcidin mRNA hours after they received a specified dose of erythropoietin. However, the effect of erythropoietin on the production of Hepcidin is not well defined (Ashby, Gale & Busbridge 2007, p.18). The mechanism by which erythropoiesis inhibits Hepcidin production is not clearly understood. It has been postulated that proteins related to TGF-² superfamily are involved in this process. These proteins include growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF15) and twisted gastrulation protein (TWSG1). TWSG1 binds BMP-6 leading to suppression of expression of Hepcidin. This reinforces the theory that Hepcidin regulation is mediated via the BMP-6 pathway. These proteins were also detected in high levels in dyserythropoietic anaemias and ²-thalassemias. The mechanism by which hypoxia suppresses Hepcidin production still remains to be determined. Effect of inflammation on Hepcidin production Inflammation is a potent stimulator of Hepcidin production. Studies have shown a rapid increase in levels of Hepcidin within the onset of infection and inflammation in both mice and humans. Hepcidin decreases the export of iron from macrophages hence depriving the microbes of iron, an essential component for the survival of the microbe (Sharma, Nemeth & Chen 2008, p.3262-3267). Inflammatory cytokines, specifically IL-6 mediate the up-regulation in Hepcidin production (Nemeth et al 2003, p. 2461-2463). In inflammation hepcidin production is greatly increased. !00-fold increase of hepcidin was recorded during inflammation due to more virulent organisms. Small increases in production were observed when inflammation was due to less virulent microorganisms. Patients with sickle cell anaemia and myelodysplasia had a similar magnitude of hepcidin increase after they were transfused with fresh blood. Studies carried out n isolated human hepatocytes revealed an increase in hepcidin mRNA production when the hepatocytes were exposed to lipolysaccharide. This was evidence that hepcidin production was under influence of inflammation. This is explained as follows: the lipopolysaccharide molecules interact with macrophages, in this case, hepatic kuppfer cells. The kuppfer cells are activated to release cytokine messengers such as Interleukin-6(IL-6), a mediator of inflammatory response. IL-6 then induces hepcidin mRNA transcription and subsequent hepcidin production. From the above, it is clear that hepcidin plays a major role in inflammation. Hepcidin and haemochromatosis Haemochromatosis is a cluster of inherited conditions that have a common feature of excessive iron absorption resulting in iron overload. Mutations in the genes that regulate various aspects of iron metabolism are responsible for this condition. Mutations in the haemochromatosis gene (HFE) are linked to most cases of haemochromatosis especially in people of Caucasian descent (Acton, Barton & Snively 2006, p. 815-821). Advances in genetic studies link Hepcidin to most forms of hemochromatosis in humans. Examples include HFE-hemochromatosis, Transferrin receptor 2, Juvenile hemochromatosis (HJV), Juvenile hemochromatosis (HAMP), and Ferroportin disease (SLC40A1). In haemochromatosis, Hepcidin production is impaired or in some cases, there is Hepcidin resistance. As a result, expression of ferroportin on the basolateral membrane is amplified and subsequent increase in rate of absorption of iron across the enteric wall occurs leading to iron overload. At the same time, absence of Hepcidin results in increased export of iron from macrophages into general circulation (Fillet, Beguin & Baldelli 1989, p. 844-851).The high levels in circulation lead to end organ damage and may result in death if appropriate medical intervention is not initiated in time. Animal models with defective Hepcidin production mechanism develop haemochromatosis. This phenomenon is attributed to a mutation of the human haemochromatosis protein (HFE) gene, a component of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class 1. Studies have shown that mice that have their HFE gene knocked develop iron overload but the expected increased transcription of Hepcidin mRNA does not occur (Bridle, Frazer &Wilkins 2003, p. 669-673). Corradini, Garuti & Mothosi (2009, p.1489-1490) brings to light the link between BMP-6 and HFE. Mice with impaired HFE gene expression exhibited a dysfunctional BMP-6 signalling pathway). Hepcidin as an antimicrobial peptide Hepcidin is composed of 25 amino acid residues with 4-disulfide bonds within its structure. It is a derivative of an 84-amino acid prepropetide produced in the liver. Other smaller Hepcidins with antimicrobial properties have also been isolated from human urine. These are the 20 and 22- amino acid residue Hepcidins. These Hepcidins have also been shown to have antimicrobial activity against a wide range of microbes. Hepcidin was named so in regard of its antimicrobial properties i.e. cidin meaning to kill and hep-, in regard to its site of origin. Studies have shown that there is an increase in transcription and translation of Hepcidin mRNA during infection and inflammation.. This led scientists to the theory that Hepcidin is an antimicrobial agent. Analogues of Hepcidin in other species have reinforced this phenomenon. An example is drosomycin, which is produced by the insect drosophila in its fatty layer (an equivalent of the liver in humans) during acute infections. Drosomycin acts as a defensin against bacterial infections in these insects. Other insect defensins exhibiting Hepcidin like activity include heliomicin and thanatin (Fehlbaum, Bulet & Michaut 1994, p. 3315933163). Hepcidin is the equivalent of these insect defensins in humans. In studies carried out Hepcidin demonstrated cidal activity against a wide range of microbes. Examples include Candida albicans, Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus niger and antibacterial activity against both gram positives such as Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, group B Streptococcus and gram negatives bacteria such as Escherichia coli( Akarsu & Mamuk 2007,p.1849-1850) Hepcidin mRNA transcription is induced by liposaccharide(LPS) both in vivo and in vitro which is produced by invading microbes in the natural environment (Yang, Chertov & Bykovskaia 1999, p.525528). Scientists have postulated that Hepcidin acts through binding on the cell wall surface of microbes. The antimicrobial activity is mediated by absence of iron for utilization by the invading organisms. When a microbe invades the host it initiates production of IL-6 which in turn amplifies transcription of Hepcidin mRNA. This leads to release of Hepcidin from hepatocytes into circulation. Circulating Hepcidin finds its way to the splenic macrophages, enterocytes and other iron containing cells where it binds to ferroportin an iron exporter inducing its internalization and subsequent degradation. As a result of this, iron export from these cells is impaired hence depriving the invading microbes off an essential component required for their survival. It is further proposed that Hepcidin acts by penetrating invading cells through toll-like receptors and lead to accumulation of iron inside the microbe. When accumulated iron exceeds the level required by the microbe it becomes toxic to the microbe resulting in organ damage and death of microbes. Similarly transferring an important iron transporter is closely related to lactoferrin, a potent iron chelator found on the surface of neutrophils and in secretions of the epithelium. Antimicrobial activity of lactoferrin is in part attributed to its iron chelation properties. Divalent metal trasporter 1(DMT1) is the main mechanism through which iron is absorbed across the intestinal wall. This transporter is analogous to Nramp 1, a cationic transporter found on the walls of macrophages. Mutations in the gene coding for this transporter eliminates the ability of macrophages to attack and destroy pathogens leading to an increased tendency of having infections. (Forbes & Gros 2001,p.397-403). Anaemia of Inflammation Anaemia of inflammation initially referred to as anaemia of chronic diseases ( ACD) is a normocytic normochromic anaemia that occurs in individuals who have an infection, neoplasm or inflammatory condition for a period of 1 to 2 months. It is characterized by low iron levels available for utilization in presence of sufficient iron in various storage sites within the body. (Lee 1983, p. 10).Anaemia of inflammation is associated with several conditions that are infectious, non-infectious or malignant in nature. Anaemia becomes evident within the first 2 months of onset of the chronic illness. It occurs when we have infections due to bacterial microbes,viral and even yeasts. Anaemia of inflammation also occurs in autoimmune disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus. Chronic diseases that have a slower course of progression such as, chronic kidney disease (CKD), liver failure, cancer and heart failure have been found to cause anaemia of inflammation as well as pro-inflammatory states such as aging. Though anaemia of inflammation is usually identified as normocytic normochromic anaemia, it may progress to become microcytic hypochromic type of anaemia as the disease advances. The phenomenon of anaemia of inflammation may be a protective mechanism by the body against infections from iron dependent microbes. In anaemia of inflammation, macrophages are devoid of iron, transferring saturation is at its lowest and there is low levels of iron in serum. In this type of anaemia, the bone marrows response to erythropoietin (Epo) is diminished. This results in reduction of the lifespan of available red blood cells and increase in rate of breakdown of senescent ones in the spleen. This is a paradoxical occurrence since in anaemia of inflammation, the body aims to protect itself from the harmful effects of excess iron however, at the same time, the sequestration of iron results in shortened lifespan of the red blood cells. Pathogenesis Most of these conditions are associated with the production of cytokines such as IL-1, IL-6, and TNF ± and ². In this type of anemia, iron levels in the blood are decreased within 24 hours of the onset of active infection. Its been postulated that the low blood levels of iron can be attributed to a shift of transferring-bound iron to the ferritin form which is not available for utilization by the body( Dallalio, Fleury & Means 2003,p.4). IL-1 amplifies ferritin mRNA translation leading to the production of large quantities of ferritin that bind iron. Cytokines such as IL-6 stimulate the production of Hepcidin, an acute-phase protein produced by the liver. Hepcidin is believed to decrease absorption of iron from the small intestine and release of iron from macrophages resulting in low iron levels observed in anemia of inflammation. Studies show a strong correlation between levels of Hepcidin in urine and blood level of ferritin. Patients with anemia of inflammation have high levels of Hepcidin in their urine in comparison with patients who have iron deficiency conditions (Means & Krantz 1992, p.1639-1647.) Other cytokines such as TNF-± inhibit the expression of Hepcidin in mice and humans resulting in iron overload and hemochromatosis. Hepcidin associates with its receptor, ferroportin on macrophages and enterocytes preventing them from releasing iron into circulation. When Hepcidin binds ferroportin, it initiates phosphorylation of ferroportin and subsequent uptake into lysosomes (internalization) where it undergoes degradation. This process is mediated via the JAK2 signal transduction pathway. As a result, the iron exporter is not expressed on the surface of macrophages and duodenal enterocytes. Due to this, the export of iron from these cells into general circulation is impaired and iron remains within these cells leading to hypoferremia. Ferroportin is the only transporter associated with the export of iron from cells as a result it provides an essential target for agents that can be used in the management of the anemia of inflammation (Weinstein & Roy 2002, p. 3776-3781). Studies have also demonstrated a unique feature of erythrocytes in patients with anemia of inflammation. The erythrocytes in such patients have a shortened lifespan with a high turnover, though the iron released from their breakdown is sequestered by macrophages leading to a hypodermic state though iron is available within the body (Gabrio, Finch & Huennekens 1956, p. 103-104) In chronic conditions, there is a large pool of cytokines in circulation and these cytokines induce proliferation of macrophages which in turn cause phagocytosis of the erythrocytes leading to anemia of inflammation. This action is mediated through cytokines like TNF-±, an inhibitor of Hepcidin transcription (Card 1988, p.40-43) Other pathogenetic factors implicated in anemia of inflammation involve a wide range of interleukins that are inhibitory to erythroid series proliferation. Of this interferon-³ exerts more inhibitory influence on the series. The inhibitory effect brings about a downregulation of Epo associated receptors and apoptotic effect on the erythrocytes. Effect of Hepcidin on the innate immune system The innate immune system is a primordial defense mechanism that exists in mammals and other species including those in the plant kingdom. This system has two very important functions that are essential for defending the host against invading pathogens. First, it offers a physical barrier to invading microorganisms and secondly it primes the adaptive system with instructions on how to handle the invading microorganism. Scientists have termed this system crude since it offers a blanket cover to the body from any invading microorganism regardless of its nature. The innate immune system is composed of various elements that afford it the blanket cover when acting against invading pathogens. It employs a myriad of cells to defend the body. These include natural killer cells, macrophages (which interact with Hepcidin), dendritic cell precursors, neutrophils, basophils, tissue mast cells, and epithelial cells. This system has evolved in order to differentiate between normal components that occur in the environment and pathogens. To achieve this, vertebrates encode special molecules called PAMPS. PAMPS are vital molecular structures that occur in almost all pathogens and are essential for the pathogen to maintain and exert its virulence when attacking the host immune system. The vertebrates have further evolved to generate molecular components to augment the innate or nonspecific immune system. An example of such molecules is Hepcidin, a 25 amino acid peptide produced by the liver in mammals. Hepcidin is an iron-regulating hormone that is released during infection or in presence of high levels of iron in circulation. The release of Hepcidin in such circumstances has been a core point of study by scientists (Douglas, Gallant & Liebscher 2003, p.589601.) Studies show that microorganisms require iron in order to survive and exert their virulence. These microorganisms have evolved complex mechanisms to extract iron from their environment. They produce complex molecular compounds called siderophores that bind any available iron for their utilization (Winkelmann 2002, p.691696.) These molecules also extract iron from their storage sites such as ferritin and lactoferrin. The bound iron is transported into the bacterial cell via various transport mechanisms such as the protein-dependent transport complexes, PBTs (Faraldo-Gomez & Sansom 2003, p. 105116.) It has been demonstrated that the PBTs act by leading the siderophore-associated iron to the ferric reductases on walls of the microbe. Furthermore, the PBTs internalize the siderophore-associated iron making it available for utilization by the pathogen. In the presence of Hepcidin, all these iron acquiring mechanisms by the microbe are inhibited and as such, Hepcidin has been appreciated to be a main component of the innate immune system in mammals. Further studies have shown that those microbes that fail to express siderophores for iron extrac Posted on December 20, 2024 | by Laureen Executive Summary The demand for electricity in todays world is on the rise. As a result, many technologies are being tested to come up with the most appropriate one to supplement the current electric power generation. Over the years, the use of pressurized water reactors has become common. The process is carried out in nuclear power stations. Radioactive fuel is used as a source of energy. The plants use three distinct water systems to generate electricity. The three are the primary, the secondary, and the condenser systems. Only the primary and the secondary systems play an active role in the functioning of the plant. The condenser system plays a passive role in that it only helps in cooling the feed water. Secondary and primary water systems share some similarities. For example, both are closed. As such, their contents are physically separated. The primary system cools the reactor fuel after it has undergone fission, which is a heat-generating process. The primary system carries the heat it has drawn from the reactor to the steam generator. Here, the primary and the secondary systems exchange heat. Water in the secondary system is superheated to produce steam. The steam is dried. It is then directed towards the main turbine. The turbine is under high pressure. From there, it is dried once again and reheated to boost its pressure. It is then directed towards the low-pressure turbines. The turbines are linked to a generator. Electricity generated from these nuclear plants is used in industrial and residential areas. It can also be used in naval vessels, such as warships and submarines. However, it is important to carefully monitor the plant to avoid accidents, which may be catastrophic. Introduction With demand for electricity on the rise across the world, countries have to come up with additional means of boosting their power production (Krepper 2013). Many alternatives are currently under trial in different nations. They include wind, solar, and hydroelectric stations. Even so, the use of steam to generate power has become popular, especially in developed countries. There are a lot of deliberations with regards to the best source of steam for power generation. Traditionally, heat sources, such as coal, were used for the purposes of heating water. However, with technological advancements, other sources of heat, such as nuclear reactors, are being used. There are a number of commonly used nuclear power reactors. One of them is the Light Water Reactor (LWRs). Under this category, the Pressurised Water Reactor (PWR) is the most commonly used. PWR plants rely on nuclear fission to generate heat. Radioactive materials, usually uranium and plutonium, are used as fuel in the reactor (Lips 2005). The basic functioning of the PWRs involves the transfer of heat generated in the nuclear core to water. It is important to note that PWR has three separate water systems. The three are primary, secondary, and condenser. In the first one, water is heated under very high temperatures. Heat is passed on to the water in the first system. The exchange takes place as the water circulates around the heads of the reactor vessels. Here, it acts as a coolant to moderate the heat generated (Krepper 2013). The water in the system comes in direct contact with uranium fuel. The temperatures in the first system are high. However, the water is not allowed to boil. To ensure this, it is kept under high pressure. It is important to note that the system is contained. Water is held within a piping loop. It is highly pressurized. It also passes a series of tubes. The piping is within the steam generator. The tubes are held inside a second water system. Its main purpose is to generate steam. As a result, it is referred to as the steam-generating system. The heat from the first system is transferred to the second. In the secondary system, it is transformed to steam which is then pumped to the turbine chamber (Nakath, Schuster & Hurtado 2013). The second water system is also closed. As such, it does not come into contact with water from the other systems. The third water system is referred to as the condenser. It is used for the purpose of cooling the steam that escapes from the turbine chambers. The condensed water is returned into the steam generator and the cycle is recurring. In this paper, the author seeks to explore the processes involved in the generation of power in PWRs. All aspects of PWR will be taken into consideration. The components of PWR plants will also be highlighted and their functions discussed. The advantages and disadvantages of the system will also be analyzed. The author will also look into the safety issues associated with the use of these plants. In conclusion, waste management will be discussed. Tables, graphs, pictures, and schemes will be used to illustrate the various aspects of PWR. The Pressurised Water Reactor System Overview The setting up of nuclear power plants requires strict procedures to be followed. The plants are complex and are composed of many systems performing different functions. For the plant to be successful, it is important for these systems to be effective and efficient in performing their various functions (Krepper 2013). Two major systems play a major role in the production of electricity in the PWRs. The two are the primary and secondary systems. The two systems are linked together through the steam generator. Although water is used in both systems, it is important to note that their contents do not mix. Only heat is exchanged between the two systems but not water. There is a third one, which is also referred to as the condenser. It plays an important role in the recycling of water within the system. However, it does not directly impact on electricity generation. The diagram below illustrates the three different systems of PWR and their components: The Primary System The system is also commonly referred to as the reactor coolant. Its main role is to pass heat to the generator. The energy is generated from the reactor fuel. It also helps in the containment of any fission waste products that may escape from the fuel reactor. It consists of five major components which include the reactor vessel, the steam generator, the coolant pump, pressuriser, and connecting pipes (Madasamy et al. 2011). It is noted that the steam generator only acts as the site for heat transfer between the primary and the secondary systems. As such, the contents of the two systems never come into contact. The basic components of the system are interconnected by a series of piping. It is also tightly enclosed to avoid spilling its content. Since the system works under high pressure, great care should be taken to avoid any faults which could be catastrophic. The water in this compartment is also contaminated with radioactive products emanating from the fuel. As such, leakages within the system would expose individuals working in the plants to radiations. When such occurrences take place on a large scale, the effect is often catastrophic. To this end, radiations can be experienced over a wide area. The major components of all PWR systems are similar. However, the arrangement of the components may vary from one plant to another (Madasamy et al. 2011). For example, it may have between 2 and 4 loops. The number of loops within a plant depends on the amount of power it is expected to generate. The two-loop PWR plant The two-loop PWR plant is unique in that it has two steam generators. In addition, it has a pair of reactor coolant pumps. However, the plants have a single fuel reactor and pressuriser. Another major characteristic of the two-loop plants is the components of their reactor vessel. In most cases, it has 121 fuel assemblies (Lee et al. 2005). Each of these fuel assemblies is arranged in 14 x 14 arrays. They are 132 inches in diameter. The plants are considered to have a slightly lower power output compared to those with three and four-loops. On average, the installation produce 500 megawatts of power. The diagram below is an illustration of the two-loop PWR plants major components and their arrangement: The three-loop PWR plant The three-loop PWR plant has three steam generators. It also has a total of three reactor coolant pumps and a single pressuriser. The PWR plants of this kind have 157 fuel assemblies. Some plants may have fuel assemblies are arranged in 15 x 15 arrays while others are17 x 17 (Krepper & Schaffrath 2013). The reactor vessels are also of a larger diameter compared to those used in the two-loop system. They are 156 and 159 inches. The reason behind this is that they accommodate more fuel assemblies which are required to provide additional heating. The power output of the installation varies. It ranges from 700 to slightly over 900 megawatts. The diagram below is an illustration of the three-loop PWR plants major components and their arrangement: The four-loop PWR plant The four-loop PWR plant is the largest of the three systems. It has four steam generators. It also has a total of four reactor coolant pumps and a single pressuriser. Most plants that are of this kind use 193 fuel assemblies. They are all fitted in a reactor vessel that is 173 inches in diameter. The fuel assemblies are arranged in 17 x 17 arrays (Krepper & Schaffrath 2013). However, in rare cases, the 15 x 15 arrays may be used. The plants produce the highest amount of power among the three. On average, they produce between 950 and 1250 megawatts. The diagram below is an illustration of the four-loop PWR plants major components and their arrangement: Components of the primary system and their functions Pressuriser The pressuriser is also one of the basic components of the primary system. Its main role is to regulate the pressure of the system. In order to perform this function, it has four major components which include an electrical heater, a safety valve, and a pressuriser spray. It also contains a series of relief valves. The primary system works with steam and water. The two are in equal ratios. The main reason behind this is to prevent boiling. A deviation from this is quickly returned to norm. There are various sources of pressure variations within the system. One is an increase in temperature. A change in pressure is directly proportional to temperature (Hohne & Kliem 2007). As such, an increase in temperatures will automatically lead to a rise in pressure and vice versa. The reactor coolant system is hooked to the pressuriser. The link is established through a surge line. The temperature of the network and the density of the cooling agent are related. For example, when one rises, the other decreases. Consequently, the coolant will occupy more space (Choi, Park & Song 2013). The reason behind this is the formation of steam. Its volume is 600% more than that of water. As such, it closes the surge line and enters the pressuriser. It tries to stabilise the pressure. To achieve this, the spray line will pass water into the steam area. The water is relatively cold. It is drawn from the reactor coolant. The steam will condense to form water, decreasing the pressure of the system. In the event that the pressure of the system continues to increase above normal levels, then the relief valve is deployed. It opens transferring the steam to a pressuriser relief tank. In the event that the temperatures of the system continue to rise rapidly, the relief valve is not effective enough (Choi et al. 2013). In this case, the pressuriser automatically deploys the safety valves. The valve also opens into the pressuriser relief tank. On the other hand, a decrease in temperature within the reactor coolant system will result in a reverse reaction. First, the density of the coolant will rise. As such, the volume occupied by the coolant will be significantly reduced. Its level in the pressuriser will be subsequently reduced. The reason behind this is a pressure reduction within the reactor coolant system. In this case, the electrical heater is deployed. Its main purpose is to heat water in order to generate steam (Jung & Yeon 2010). Since steam occupies close to six times the volume required to hold water of the same mass, the pressure of the system will be raised. If there is no increase in the pressure of system, the plant will continue to run under low capacity until a predetermined set point is reached. The pressuriser in such a situation signals the plants protection system to trip the reactor. The pressuriser relief tank is not regarded as a major component of the reactor coolant system. However, it plays a major role in ensuring that it functions efficiently. It is usually a large tank with water. The liquid is set at nitrogen atmosphere. Its main role is to condense any steam that is released from the reactor coolant system through the safety and relief valves in an attempt to reduce pressure (Jung & Yeon 2010). The nitrogen atmosphere increases it efficiency. The reason behind this is that nitrogen is a better coolant compared to water. It also provides an inert atmosphere thus preventing cases of explosion. The reason behind this is that one of the components of the reactor coolant is hydrogen. If ejected into the atmosphere at high temperatures and pressure, it would easily lead to an explosion. Reactor coolant pumps The main purpose of a reactor coolant pump is to speed up the process of removing the heat generated within the reactor vessel after fission has occurred. It achieves this by forcing the coolant through and around the fuel assemblies within the reactor vessel (Lips 2005). It is important to note that even without the use of the pumps, circulation could still occur within the reactor coolant system. However, the rate of circulation would not be efficient enough to remove the heat from the fuel assemblies. As such, natural circulation is only used when the plant is shutting down. The cooling agent passes through to the pump. It uses the steam generators valve to achieve this. The pump impeller works on the water. It increases its velocity. An increase in the velocity of the reactor coolant automatically translates to a raise in pressure at the discharge volute of the pump (Lee, Yoo & Kim 2005). At the outlet point, the pressure of the cooling agent is high. It is about 90 psi more compared to that in the inlet (Lee et al. 2005). The increase in pressure within the primary system resulting from the action of the primary reactor pump plays a number of roles in promoting the efficiency of the entire plant. To begin with, it hastens the process of heat transfer within the reactor vessel. As a result, more power will be generated within the plant. The pump also prevents the stagnation or backflow of the reactor coolant. The number of reactor coolant pumps required per PWR plant depends on the number of steam generators it has. The reason behind this is that the major role of the pumps is to speed up the movement of the coolant from the steam generator to the reactor vessel. A reactor coolant pump has three major components. The first is the hydraulic segment. The second is the motor. Lastly, there is the seal. The pumps and their components are large in size. The motor used in the reactor coolant pump is powered by electricity. Most pumps have a rating of between 6,000 and 10,000 horsepower (Madasamy et al. 2011). The power generated is enough to pump over 100,000 gallons of the reactor coolant per minute. The hydraulic section contains two main parts. One is the discharge volute. The second is the impeller. The latter is linked to the electric motor. The connection is via a long shaft. As such, the impeller is said to be powered by the motor. It helps push out the water flowing through the pump at high velocity (Lee et al. 2005). The water exits the reactor coolant pump through the discharge volute. The third element is located between the hydraulic section and the motor. It major role is preventing thee leakage of the coolant up, past the shaft and into the plants containment atmosphere. Any coolant that manages to leak through the shaft is collected and taken to the seal leak-off system. Reactor vessel The reactor vessel houses the reactor core and its barrel. Usually, it is cylindrical in shape. At both ends, it contains heads that are hemispherical in nature. Usually, the top head is removable which enables the operators of the plant to refuel the reactor. The reactor vessel is constructed using steel, manganese, and molybdenum (Kim & Lee 2011). The material used to assemble the container is placed on the outside. It is contained in specimen holders. The materials are removed on a regular basis and tested to establish the effect radiations from the fuel have had on their strength. As such, the safety status of the reactor vessel can be determined. It is important to prevent corrosion. To this end, all surfaces that are in touch with water are covered with stainless steel. The barrel of the core stores the reactor fuel. It slides from top. Near the bottom, the container has a plate. A fuel assembly rests on this section. The entire core container and its internal components are suspended inside the reactor container. They are held in place by a support ledge. Water in the primary system is also commonly referred to as the reactor coolant. It enters the reactor vessel through the inlet nozzle that is located at the top head. Here, it hits against the central barrel. The motion makes it move downwards. The cooling agent flows within the system. It passes between the nucleus container and the sides of the reactor. After reaching the bottom of the reactor vessel, the direction of the water flow changes (Kim & Lee 2011). The cooling agent starts to flow in an upward direction. It does this inside the core barrel. It also passes through the fuel combinations. Water passes over and inside the assemblies. It draws out heat generated through fission. The effective number of neutrons that have undergone fission can be determined using the formula below: The rate of reaction is usually a function of the density of neutrons, their speed, and microscopic cross section of the medium for the reaction type x. It can be determined using the formula below: The system controlling the reactor maintains chain reaction at a desired constant state. It achieves this by keeping track of the ratio between the number of neutrons of a single generation and that of the next are at a reasonable range. The ratio is also commonly referred to as the multiplication factor. It is denoted as k. It is calculated using the formula below: k=Number of neutrons in current generation/ Number of neutrons in the preceding generation. After leaving the fuel assemblies, the now hot water continues to flow upwards towards the outlet headed for the steam generators. Reactor safety PWR plants play an important role in the generation of electricity. However, they also pose potential harm to human existence. Radiations from the fuel used in the reactors can cause serious health problems, such as cancer and other genetic disorders. In order to minimise the exposure to the public, countries are urged to use nuclear power responsibly (Kim 2011). A number of principles have been adopted and incorporated to the designs of the PWR plants across the world. They serve as the guiding principle and help improve on reactor safety. The principle states that the public and the environment are put at minimum risk from the fuel used in the PWR reactors provided that the following guidelines are adhered to: The power of the reactor is controlled. To achieve this, the reactor should be closely monitored at all times (Kim 2011). The functioning of all the support systems, such as the pressuriser should also be monitored in order to ensure that all the parameters are maintained at norm. The fuel should also be cooled adequately. For this to happen, all the components of the PWR plant should be working efficiently. The reactor coolant system plays the greatest role in lowering the temperatures of the fuel. The reactor coolant pump should be functioning in the right manner in order to ensure that there is adequate circulation of the reactor fuel at all times. Radioactivity should also be contained. All the radioactive material should be safely stored within the facility. Leakages should also be avoided, especially within the reactor coolant system since this would result in unwanted exposure to radioactive elements. During maintenance and waste processing, the products generated should also be stored or disposed safely to reduce the risk of future exposure. Members of the public should also be discouraged from occupying the land adjacent to the PWR plants to lower their risk of being harmed by radiations emanating from it. The guideline is often simplified as control, cool, and contain. There are many ways in which the three guiding principles can be achieved. Together, they have been used to come up with a concept referred to as defence in depth. They are adhered to in all aspects of PWR plants (Kim 2011). They guide the process of designing, constructing, commissioning, as well as operating PWR plants. The concept of defence in depth can be illustrated in a five model chart. The chart below is an illustration of the five models of the defence-in-depth concept: The concept operates under three major assumptions. They include: The design of the PWR plant will have some flaws. As such, problems should always be anticipated. Consequently, the personnel working in these plants must always be on the lookout. They must be able to anticipate these changes and deal with them effectively when they occur. Equipments used to construct the PWR plant will occasionally fail. In this case, constant monitoring will be required to determine the effect of the radioactive fuel on the strength of the material used to construct the reactor vessel (Kim & Lee 2011). As such, regular testing is needed. All employees should also be aware of the worst case scenario and know how to respond to it in the event that it occurs. Operating personnel are bound to make mistakes occasionally. As a result, the design should make it easy to reverse such actions without much damage. Warning systems should also be installed to detect malfunctioning caused by human error. The key to ensuring defence-in-depth is ensuring that the flaws, failures, and mistakes that occur within a PWR plant is can be accommodated without raising the risk of an accident occurring (Li et al. 2006). The model shown above can be used to achieve this. To begin with, the process systems should be reliable. They are the systems that perform a function on the plant continuously. Good examples include the primary reactor coolant system and the steam generators. In this case, the primary system will ensure that there is constant cooling of the reactor fuel. The steam generator too ensures that there is continuous transfer of heat from the primary to the secondary system (Nakath et al. 2013). In this case, reliability means that these systems will perform their intended functions as long as the plant is operational. As such, electricity generation will be on a continuous basis. Reliable safety systems should also be put in place. They compensate for any failures that may occur within the process systems. A good example is the shutdown system. The personnel working in a PWR plant can be in a position to achieve this by deploying the emergency core cooling system (Bahn 2013). Reliability in this case means that in rare cases when the systems are required to intervene, they will be effective. Multiple barriers, on the other hand, are aimed at preventing the release of radiations to the public. There are five barriers aimed at preventing the escape of radiations to the environment from the PWR plants (Bahn 2013). They include: The reactor fuel is moulded to ceramic pellets of very high melting points. As such, they lock in most of the products released following the fission process thus preventing them from entering the reactor coolant system. The fuel sheaths are made from zircaloy. It is a metal of high integrity. It houses the ceramic fuel. The primary reactor coolant system is made up of tubes that are of high strength. Its leak proof nature reduces the chances of spilling of the coolant. The system that is relatively leak proof is maintained below the atmospheric pressure. As such, it is a partial vacuum. It encourages air to leak into the system than out thus preventing the release of radioactive material. There is always an exclusion zone round the reactor. The zone has a radius of at least a kilometre. Radiations released from the PWR plant are diluted by the time the one kilometre barrier is crossed. As such, no harm will be caused to the public. The technicians charged with the responsibility of operating and maintaining PWR plants should also be competent. It is noted that the plants are designed to operate automatically. However, the personnel present should not rely on the systems put in place to operate the plant. The reason is that occurrences of accidents cannot be ruled out completely when automation is used (Bahn 2013). They should be knowledgeable about the working of the system. They should also be in a position to anticipate risks and act promptly before accidents occur. Failures in the system should also be detected and corrected promptly. Procedures and processes to be followed in times of system failure should also be always known to the personnel. In order to detect cases of failure, it is important to carry out routine testing (Li et al. 2006). The operations of the entire plant should also be put under surveillance to ensure that the systems and equipments repairs and replacement of components is done even before accidents arise. Steam generators After leaving the outlet nozzle of the reactor vessel, the coolant flows to the steam generators. It acts as the link between the primary and the secondary coolant systems. The number of steam generators present in a PWR plant depends on its kind, that is, whether it is two, three, or four-loop. Each steam generator is made up of many connecting tubes. The reactor coolant flows inside these tubes at high pressure and velocity (Madasamy et al. 2011). The secondary coolant, also commonly referred to as the feed water flows outside the tubes. In the process, it absorbs heat from the primary coolant. Up on absorbing sufficient amounts of heat, it boils to generate steam. Most variations are in terms of the mechanisms used to separate water and steam. The water content in the steam should be as low as possible. The aim is to avoid damaging the blades of the turbines. There exist slight differences in the mechanism used to generate steam based on the design of the plant. The three most common are the Westinghouse, combustion engineering, and the Babcock & Wilcox designs (Madasamy et al. 2011). The functioning of the steam generators in the Westinghouse and the combustion engineering designs is basically the same. Up on heating, a mixture of water and steam is generated. The two are then taken through a series of moisture alienation phases. In the first stage, the mixture is spun. As a result, water is slung to the outside. The water is drained back to the first stage and is used to generate more steam (Lee et al. 2005). The steam collected in the first stage proceeds to the second. The second stage involves changing orientations. The mixture is made to shift direction rapidly. Water is heavier than steam. As such, it cannot change its direction as fast as the gas. It is collected and returned to the first stage. Steam on the other hand is light and is able to make the directional changes. It eventually escapes the steam generator. The system is said to be highly efficient. Every 100 pounds of steam that is generated contains less than 0.25 pounds of water. On the other hand, the Babcock & Wilcox design is popular for applying a Once Through Steam Generator (OTSG). The primary coolant flows from the top to bottom of the steam generator down (Nakath et al. 2013). As the primary cooling agent flows, it gives out heat to the secondary system. The heat transfer is so great that the secondary coolant is heated above boiling point. As a result of superheating, the steam that is generated in this design is dry. As such, no separation is required to be carried out. The manner in which the primary coolant and the steam leave the steam generator also depends on the type of PWR plant design. A case in point is the Westinghouse steam generator. It has only one outlet. The primary coolant also exits the generator via one outlet. On the other hand, the Combustion Engineering and the Babcock & Wilcox designs have two steam outlets (Krepper 2013). They also have a pair of primary coolant outlets. The steam generated is channelled into the central turbine. The primary coolant on the other hand is routed the primary coolant pump. The cycle is recurring throughout the period that the PWR plant is on. The Secondary System Once the secondary coolant leaves the steam generator, it is routed towards the main turbine. Unlike the reactor coolant, the contents of the secondary system contain little or no radioactive particles. The reason behind this is that the two are physically separated. The piping network within the secondary coolant system mainly carries steam (Krepper & Schaffrath 2013). As such, it is often referred to as the steam system. Once the steam enters the turbine compartment, it is of very high pressure. As such, it is directed to the central turbine. From there, it heads for the lower pressure turbines. However, since its pressure has considerably lowered after driving the main turbine, it has to be reenergised first. In order to achieve this, its water