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Introduction

It is ironic that in a world that is clamoring for gender equality, the fair sex is still discriminated against in many matters. One of the main areas where this discrimination exists is the compensation received by executives, especially when the posts get higher. The education system in the United States, like in most parts of the world, is aimed at creating employees and not entrepreneurs. Hence, for most of those who enroll in colleges (including business schools), the options open to them would be to study hard and get a good job with a fat pay check. In such an instance, the compensation they receive will be very important to them since the quality of their lives depend on it. In spite of being equally qualified and even capable, one can find many instances where men outperform women when it comes to the size of their paychecks. There are a few reasons for this, some of which can be solved by the women themselves. But there are reasons like issues of feelings of male supremacy where women find themselves helpless in getting equal compensation.

This paper attempts to study the salary differences of male and female executives and analyze the main reasons for this state of affairs. After a brief review of compensation itself, the paper will briefly discuss the salary differences, after which an analysis will be made. A discussion on relevant compensation theories like Human Capital Theory, Signaling Theory, social capital theory, social bias etc will also be present. A section on how these theories affect salary differentiation will also be included. The paper will end with an appropriate conclusion summarizing the whole situation with appropriate suggestions based on published scholarly literature.

Salary difference among male and female executives

There is enough evidence to suggest that there exists a gender gap with regard to pay among executives in the country. Other issues like promotion opportunities, lack of involvement in decision making etc also are seen. Another prominent fact is that the percentage of women executives in gets lower as the climb up the corporate ladder takes place. Another factor is that the compensation gap gets bigger with regard to the top managerial posts in an organization. Most of the information given in this section has been basically sourced from reputed magazines like Fortune or news sites like CNN. The Equal Pay Act of 1963 bars employers from compensation discrimination on the basis of sex. An excerpt from the Act is given below. No employer having employees subject to any provisions of this section shall discriminate, within any establishment in which such employees are employed, between employees on the basis of sex by paying wages to employees in such establishment at a rate less than the rate at which he pays wages to employees of the opposite sex&. (Sec 206, [Section 6] (d) (1), Minimum Wage, The Equal Pay Act of 1963). The US Equal Employment Opportunity Commission). But this has not yet been implemented uniformly even after forty four years of its passing. The 2005 issue of Fortune magazine states that women are paid less than men across all job sectors and positions. This appears to be the case in all the OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) countries. The average difference is more than 15% and exceeds 20% in some countries  in the US, men earn 22% more. (The Glass Ceiling: Will We Ever Break Through? Address by The Honorable Ambassador Constance A. Morella, U.S. Mission to the OECD, Gender Mainstreaming and Regional Aspects of the Labor Market Conference May 17 & 18, Bratislava, 2007, Department of State, United States of America). But it is heartening to see that many women executives and employees are now suing their employers for many discrimination issues, including salary differences. According to Fortune magazine, Boeing had to pay 72 million and Wal-Mart 1 billion USD to settle law suits initiated by female employees of both companies. The magazine also states that mothers in the country too are discriminated against both in terms of finding a job as well for compensation. The number of children also had a negative effect on compensation as mothers with more children were offered a lower pay. A survey conducted by International Survey Research in 2007 also confirms that pay inequity exists between the sexes holding executive positions. However, when asked to judge internal pay equity (i.e., fairness of pay), the similarities between female and male executives end. Senior females are significantly less confident than are senior males that they are paid fairly compared to others in their department (62% vs. 72%) and to people in other departments (46% vs. 57%). (Gender differences among senior managers: pay, Press release, ISR  International Survey Research). The situation is similar for executives and CEOs in not for profit organisations also according to the Chronicle of Philanthropy, dated September 2006. Women CEOs got 26% less salary than their male counterparts. In another study on the accounting profession, women executives were found to earn 12,500 USD less than men executives. (Discussion, Page 33, Bruce M. Bird, J Harrison McCraw, John R. OMalley, Enterprise Accountants, Managerial Status And Gender Salaries, Journal of Diversity Management, Vol 2, No 3, 2007). It can be seen that women executives are paid less than males in all sectors and at all levels of jobs. The next step is to discuss relevant theories and to analyze the main reasons for this disparity.

Human Capital theory

A review of literature has shown that the most discussed theory with reference to compensation in general and also with regard to pay difference among male and female executives in the human capital theory. The human capital theory, which had its roots in the 1940s, basically states that the earning potential of an employee can be increased with education. In other words, the income of an employee is directly proportional to the quality and level of education he or she holds. The theory originally focused on school education as a means of increasing the earning capacity of wage earners. But later additions and ideas came to the conclusion that it is just not school education that mattered. This was because the complexity of jobs had increased over the years and the importance of management had become more prominent. The general belief now is that human capital is now directly related to continuous improvement, lifelong learning, organizational learning etc. So, human capital can be defined as the stock of knowledge, skills and abilities, which can potentially help increase productivity and performance at work and also life in general. (The Concept of Human Capital, Page 2, Kari Hietala, Ministry of Labor, Human Capital, Published by the European Commission).

Human capital, like other forms of capital is subject to aging or being obsolete. This can be technical aging or economic aging. Technical aging occurs when a persons technical knowledge becomes obsolete or when he or she is unable to cope with the technical changes required for the job. Economic aging refers to keeping up with the fast changes that happens in the job environment. A person must learn and run fast enough to keep up. Otherwise he or she runs the risk of premature aging. The female executive must be at risk more here since she plays multiple roles (other than being an employee). This factor is discussed in more detail in the coming sections. Anyway study of literature has proven that in equal circumstances, the human capital theory holds good in terms of equal pay for both men and women. That is to say that there is no significant salary difference between the pay scales of both sexes. This has been discussed in more detail in the section of theories and income discrimination. There have been criticisms as to the effectiveness of human capital theory in some quarters. According to the paper, the signaling theory is could be more relevant in understanding productivity and quality of an employee. The theory states that it is the actual productivity and the quality that matters and not his education and learning. The latter is only an job pre-requisite or an additional qualification. It could be that a person without too much education may excel himself in the field of sales when compared to another that holds a business degree.

Social Capital theory

Social capital theory is loosely based on the well known cliché of Its not what you know, but who you know that matters. In short, the benefits that advantages that person has is largely dependent on his network of friends, relatives, associates and superiors. If a person has a large network of the above categories and maintains good relationships with them, he or she may be a more advantageous position when compared to a less networked person. Some of the factors that are important to the concept of social capital are given here. A persons social capital increases when he or she participates more in voluntary activities. This also holds good for the level of networking that is developed and maintained over a period of time. The level of mentoring, interaction and mutual support within an organisation is also crucial in increasing this asset. Higher social capital will give a person more bargaining or negotiating power. A person with high social capital will find greater equality with others in the organization. He or she will also find it easier to solve any problems or issues. A person will low social capital will need to exercise authority, rules, and regulations to control things. with regard to job prospects also they are at an advantage. Specifically, they are more likely to be promoted faster, receive higher salaries, be favorably evaluated by peers, miss fewer days of work, live longer, and be more efficient in completing assigned tasks. (What is social capital? How does it differ from human capital and social capability? Page 5, Michael Woolcock, (2001) The place of social capital in understanding social and economic outcomes, Isuma: Canadian Journal of Policy Research Volume 2, No1, Pages 1-17). (Please remove web link after citation and show as journal). The argument here is that women executives are hindered by many factors in developing social capital when compared to their male counterparts. The relevance of social capital in pay difference among males and females is discussed in the coming sections.

Social Bias

The Merriam Webster Dictionary defines bias as an inclination of temperament or outlook ; especially : a personal and sometimes unreasoned judgment. This indicates that the view is inclined towards something and could be unreasonable. Hence existence of bias could mean not being balanced or just. Bias can happen in many fields including the society we live in. It could be based on race, class, color, religion, money etc. Literature regarding pay difference among the sexes indicate that it is the under-representation of women especially among the top positions. This type of bias could be classified as in-group bias. This type of bias happens when members of a particular group extend preferential treatment to members of that particular group. In such situations, thethe members value their qualities as higher than those of the out-group or outsiders. They may also perceive their products or services as superior to the out-group. The third factor is that they apportion rewards so as to favor themselves and to disfavor outsiders, even when it costs them some portion of the reward to create the inter-group difference in apportionment. (Sociality and ethnicity, Page 14, Donald L. Horowitz, Structure and Strategy in Ethnic Conflict, 1998, Paper prepared for the Annual World Bank Conference on Development Economics, Washington, D.C., 1998). In this case, one group will be the men executives and the other the women executives. If the men who are obviously superior in terms of numbers see themselves as a particular group and start to have this in-group bias, then there is a strong chance that they may perceive themselves as mentioned above. A study of literature shows that this social bias is also one of the reasons for salary inequality. This will also be reviewed in the coming sections.

Social Bias, Human Capital Theory and income discrimination

According to the Human Capital Theory, (mentioned earlier), there should be no pay discrimination between male and female executives if their human capital is similar or equal. Hence a male executive and a female executive have similar qualifications, skills and experience, both of them should get similar compensation. In this case, it is assumed that both are working in similar-sized organizations (or in the same organization) where pay scales are similar. The social bias theory assumes that bias is significant if the total number of persons biased against is very small when compared to others. So it assumes that pay discrimination could be due to the lesser number of women in executive positions in the country. A significant study, The Gender Gap in the Boardroom: Are Women Executives Underpaid? involving 25,876 executive-year observations (which included 1171 female executive-year observations) of top executives in the USA, examines the relationship between gender bias with reference to both the social bias theory and the human capital theory. The paper readily admits that there is a pay gap of 27% among male and female executives in the country. The study then attempts to analyze this difference and attribute it to either of the above theories mentioned above. The paper states that (quoting from various other studies) human capital and compensation with regard to pay differences was not relevant prior to the 1990s since top positions held by ladies was very low. A study conducted in 2001 shows that pay difference was as high as 45% by the late 1990s, but the gap was coming down gradually. Even though there was a difference in pay scales (mentioned earlier) between men and women executives with the same social capital, it was concluded that the human capital theory is applicable in this case. The difference of 27% mentioned above arose due to some significant variables which are given below. (Results, Page 14, Mark Anderson, Rajiv Banker, Rong Huang and Jiangxia Liu, Paper Presented at the American Accounting Association Annual Meeting, Anaheim, CA, 2008).  (Please do not show as website). The number of women executives was still very low when compared to their male counterparts. The figure only comes to 4.5% of the total. The majority of the women were employed in smaller companies even though they held the same or similar positions. In case of positions in similarly sized companies, the pay difference if any was negligible.. Other factors include shorter careers, male ability to interact more with the various components in the organization as well as the society, longer working hours available to men, the multiplicity of roles played by women etc. (McBrier, D. B. (2003). Gender and career dynamics within a segmented professional labor market: The case of law academic. Journal of Social Forces, Volume 81, Pages 1201-1266, University of North Carolina Press). (not a website) The paper also mentions that due to these reasons, employers are not able to exploit the capabilities and qualifications of women to the same extent as men. So in a sense, their social capital contribution is lower when compared to the contribution by men executives. But these are not issues that can be solved easily due to the inherent biological and social differences that exist. Hence if these factors were taken into account, the human capital theory is applicable to both men and women. In other words, with similar qualifications, experience, post, and organization, there was no significant difference in the pay scales of both men and women executives. On the other hand, it was found that the social bias theory is more relevant in this instance. The pay difference was significant because the representation of women as top executives in organizations across the country was very low in terms of numbers. Men outnumbered women to a huge extent. The authors hypothesis that the pay gap differences come down significantly in the case where the number of women and men executives was equal is proved correct. It could also well be the case where female executives outnumber men.

Social capital theory and income discrimination

Another relevant study considers the social capital theory as a reason for gender discrimination in pay. The journal article appeared in the 2007 issue of Advancing Women in Leadership online journal. The study refers to other research work on the topic, but also goes a step further by the hypothesis that pay discrimination can be reduced if women employees were able to make use of the social capital theory with reference to their clients as well as with their colleagues. As mentioned earlier, social capital theory deals with the effectiveness of networking with people in the organization and the society and the benefits that can be derived out of it. This paper also states what has been mentioned in the earlier section, namely that even though the number of women in top executive positions has increased, men still outnumber women to a great extent. This is an indirect reference to the social bias theory. Referencing from other studies, it has been found (as in the previous study) that income difference is substantial between men and women of equal positions. It also states here that men were promoted more frequently than women and also that the latter had less autonomy and involvement in decision making. There were other factors like women having less social capital, especially at the beginning of their careers than men. Opportunities for development were also significantly more for men. But these observations were made during the 1990s and hence not given importance here. The paper also states that there is no significant difference for capable women executives to hold top posts when compared to similarly qualified men. In fact, previous studies have even indicated that no substantial difference exists in opportunities available to men and women for advancement to the top of the firm in areas of professional practice, such as law, accounting, architecture, engineering consultancy, and advertising. (Gender and the Network Structures of Social Capital in Professional-Client Relationships, Yuliani Suseno, Ashly H. Pinnington, and Dr. John Gardner, Advancing Women in Leadership Online Journal, Volume 23, 2007). Even if this is the case, the authors argue that there is still a glass ceiling that prevents women executives to be on par with men with regards to compensation. Another factor of difference in compensation was that men were more likely to switch jobs and were likely to get better salaries with each change of jobs. Family and social obligations prevent women from taking such a move. There is very little evidence from these studies to show that the pay difference is due to gender discrimination. That is to say that women are not paid any less just because they happen to be women.

The main focus of this paper is networking and interaction. The paper gives many results from studies which show that interaction and social networking among colleagues can in fact, increase social capital, thereby leading to increased pay as well. What is important in increasing social capital is to know the right persons. If a person has more networking when compared to another (with the same attributes and qualifications), the former will have a better chance of increasing salary (also through bonus and other benefits). The problem with women is that they cannot develop the same level of interaction and intimacy as men can, especially with other men. They are disadvantaged in this respect.

There are two significant factors in social capital theory namely centrality and non-redundancy. Centrality refers to the importance that a person holds in the network he/she has built up. The network positions that usually offer high levels of social capital are positions with a high degree of centrality. (Structured social capital of groups: A social network perspective, Page 121, William L. Gardner, Bruce J. Avolio, Fred O, Authentic Leadership Theory and Practice, Published by A1 Books). (Pl show as book source) Hence, higher the centrality, higher the social capital. Non-redundancy refers to maintaining close relationships with all the contacts developed by the networking. This will also help in increasing the social capital. Increasing social capital with regard to clients will also be helpful in increasing social capital and also the compensation received. The particular journal article that is being discussed in this paper argues that female professionals can increase their total compensation if they see to it that their centrality in the organization is increased. They have to increase their non-informal networks more which will help in this endeavor. They should also see to it that they keep their clients non-redundant. For this to be possible, the employers themselves should analyze existing networks of its female professionals and facilitate more formal and informal networking with their male counterparts as well as clients. The authors admit that more study is required in this area. But they propose that increasing social capital (of female professionals) through networking and non-redundancy with their colleagues and clients will go a long way in bringing about equality in pay and promotion.

The factor of negotiation

Like any business deal, compensation and salary can also be negotiated. This is a common practice which is accepted both by employers and employees. If the current compensation policy is felt inadequate by an employee, he/she can negotiate with their bosses for better pay. There are many factors that will determine the outcome of such negotiations. The demand in the industry for a particular talent or qualification is the most important factor. Another factor would be the state of the industry itself or, to put it in other words, whether a particular industry is healthy or unhealthy. If the industry is healthy and booming, negotiation can have positive outcomes for the employees because of the surplus cash available with companies. The reverse will be true in case the industry or the economy is unhealthy. The negotiation factor is discussed here in some detail because a review of literature has revealed that men and women perform differently as negotiators under certain circumstances. This will have a direct bearing on the income-earning potential of the employee. A research report titled When Gender Changes the Negotiation published by Harvard Business School states that even though there is no direct evidence as to the difference of negotiating abilities among the sexes, men perform better under certain conditions. However, certain types of negotiation can set the stage for differences in outcomes negotiated by men and by women, particularly when:

• the opportunities and limits of the negotiation are unclear;
• situational cues in these ambiguous situations trigger different behaviors by men and women. (Dina W. Pradel, Hannah Riley Bowles, and Kathleen L. McGinn, When Gender Changes the Negotiation, Research and Ideas, Working knowledge, Harvard Business School, 2006).

The authors say that such ambiguity occurs in job positions in what are known as high-ambiguity industries. The first point in the above quote indicates that the negotiation terms will not be clear. For example, the duties performed by the employee may not be easily quantifiable or when compensation standard for the job varies from one company to the other. Another example would be asking for a raise when the company itself or the economy is performing poorly. The paper also gives examples of high-ambiguity industries. They include telecommunications, real estate, health services, and media sectors. A study was conducted for this purpose involving MBA graduates. The paper also adds that in low-ambiguity industries, salary levels and negotiating outcomes were similar were more or less equal among both genders. The study found that men were able to negotiate a higher average salary to the extent of 10,000 dollars per annum. This is even when the job performance of both men and women were similar. The paper refers to another study which states that men and women increase their performance levels in order to increase their paychecks in situations where competition with colleagues is not a factor. But when performance is increased in order to outperform colleagues, men seem to be able to increase performance levels much better than women. Another interesting factor with regard to negotiation prowess is that women excel in this regard when acting on behalf of others. In other words, if women negotiate compensation on behalf of a colleague or subordinate, they perform as well as or even better than men.

There is more literature on this issue of negotiation. A book titled Women Dont Ask takes the stand that women do not even ask for a pay raise even if they feel entitled to it. An example of graduate students in Carnegie Mellon University was given. It was found that most of the male students got to teach courses on their own while a large majority of female students got to be only teaching assistants. The dean in charge of assigning jobs replied that men got the jobs because they specifically asked for it. A study was conducted about the starting salaries of students who had completed their graduation. It was found that males received on an average 4000 dollars more than females. The difference was due to the fact that 57 percent of males had negotiated for better compensation, whereas only 7 percent of females did so. It should be noted here that the females who negotiated for better compensation received roughly the same amount as male negotiators did. The point to be stressed is that it is due to non-negotiation that females receive a lower salary in many cases. To drive home the point between the attitudes of both men and women, an experiment was conducted at the University. Students (of both sexes) were asked to play a board game and would receive ten dollars on completion. They were only paid three dollars, and the balance was handed over only if they asked for it. Out of ten male students, nine asked for the balance to be pain while only one in ten females asked for the balance. A larger internet study involving several hundred people also concurs with this behavior. The participants in the study were asked the time when they had took part in the most recent negotiation (initiated by them and not by others). It was found that the average time for men was two weeks prior to the (internet study) while the figure for the women were one month. For the second most-recent negotiation, the figures were seven weeks and twenty four weeks for men and women respectively. (Introduction, Page 3, Linda Babcock, Sara Laschever, Women Dont Ask  Negotiations and the Gender Divide, Princeton University Press). This indicates that men take part in a larger number of negotiations than men and can also include salary negotiations. This is despite the fact that women play multiple roles (that of employee, homemaker, mother, wife, caring for parents etc) and have to negotiate with others on a wider range of issues when compared to men. They need to negotiate constantly with doctors, nurses, care taking agencies, insurance companies etc. This level is increased in the case of divorced or single parents.

The book also states that the percentages of women who are members of trade unions have also reduced drastically. It is quite well established that unions have the power to negotiate many things including compensation on behalf of its members. The figure has fallen from 20 % in 1983 to just 13.5% in 2001. The book states that the scenario has not changed much even though attitudes about gender equality have changed for the better during the years. Moreover, organizations are also more open and less formal with lower levels of bureaucracy. This enables women to be more open and positive about negotiating for a pay rise.

It can be seen that negotiations play an important part in the amount of compensation a person gets. The studies have not shown any significant difference between the abilities of males and females, especially in the low-ambiguity sectors. The problem lies firstly on the reluctance of female employees to even ask for a raise. This trend is seen even at graduation levels. The second reason is that they lag behind their male counterparts when the terms and conditions of compensation to be negotiated become ambiguous. With regard to negotiation, it can be concluded that females will get better compensation than at present if they engage themselves more in the this process.

Conclusion

It has been clearly understood that women executives do not receive the same status with regard to pay (as well as many other factors). The issue was analyzed with respect to many theories, and it was found that the human capital theory, the social capital theory, and social bias were the most common ones discussed in literature about the issue. After studying several relevant studies, it was found that human capital theory holds good in this case. In other words, women and men executives do receive equal pay based upon their human capital. But it is to be noted that several variables were removed in order to arrive at such a conclusion. For example, women executives were not able to put in the same number of hours as men. They could not also develop professionally as men because of several constraints like their physical, social and family obligations. It was also found that women executives tend to have short

One of the most dramatic and fascinating ways that psychology and spirituality come together is in the case of UFO. A UFO (unidentified flying object) is only classified as a UFO after a thorough investigation where no plausible answer resulted from the investigation. Everything else is an IFO (identified flying object). This Editorial Paper brings the integral model to bear on the issue of UFO in the hopes of bringing some theoretical order and clarity to this puzzling experience. This editorial paper also includes the present and past opinions of the numerous high status people about UFO, their experiences or quotes about sighting UFO is also available here.

For the large number of scientists, opening to spiritual experience is a welcome and easily integrated process. But, for a small minority, spiritual experience occurs so rapidly or forcefully that it becomes destabilizing, producing a psycho-spiritual crisis.

During more then 50 years, experts of every kind have tackled the UFO mystery, but to no avail. All of them have failed in their attempts to give a plausible answer to the question what are UFOs? Every answer given to date has been hypothetical and never proven. I think there is a big part of the problems lies in the fact that UFO investigations are always backward looking. We have dealt with the problem as a story, not a reality. And nothing is going to change until we become proactive rather than reactive in our approach.

I conducted a detailed evaluation to find that the technology observed in most of the sightings was just a bit ahead of what was available in that era. The objects (UFO) were bigger than the balloons of the day, appeared as airships which were not yet a reality only a hypothetical mystery, had bright lights unlike anything in use, were observed over cities hundreds of miles apart, were investigated by scientists and lay people in the manner of current investigations, and when observed closely, exhibited technology that was definitely ahead of that time period. It was like to say from somewhere else someone came to earth and manufactured exploration vehicles that appeared like they could belong in that era, but were operating with systems and equipment that was more advanced than our equipments. All the reports about UFO since 1940s seemed to be similar, in that the technology involved is always ahead of the time in which it is occurring. But still there was a problem about reality because our investigations were based on what has been, not what will be. For this reason, we have great information about what has happened, but we do not seem to be any appropriate answer about what is reality.

Some experts have observed surprising facts. But still there is an unsolved mystery. I think to solve this puzzle we need to change our way of looking at the evidence. There are many observations serve to show the breadth of problem, some of them are listed below:

• UFO sightings come in waves or flaps
• Some locations have more sightings those others
• UFOs may appear and disappear in clear air
• Emit various kinds of electromagnetic radiation
• Injure humans
• Fly without observable motive power
• Damage plants
• Fly on collision course with aircraft, veering at the last minute
• Leaves ground trace patterns
• Affect aircraft avionics
• Affect car motors, radios, lights, etc.

Throughout the history of the UFO mystery, people have claimed to interact with UFOs. While it is difficult to prove whether or not this really happened because some claims they can go to a hot spot and meditate and the UFOs respond by appearing, Earth disruptions seem to call UFOs. When the nuclear power plant was being built at Bay City, Texas, the earth moving went on around the clock. Heavy equipment operators reported UFO activity there on a frequent basis. In the 1950s and 1960s UFOs were reported in abundance over nuclear facilities.

Now we should start with the question, who sees UFOs?

UFO sightings, which recently appear to be on the increase around the world, can involve various equipments that have clearly defined shapes or may appear to be shapes surrounded by a burred appearance. That appearance may be related with the propulsion system of the UFOs.

How often UFOs are flying around the skies totally undetected by observers or radar tracking systems? Unfortunately, we have no definite answer of above question, which is one aspect of the larger question of who sees UFOs, but amazing work has been done over the past several years in detecting and recording images of UFOs which are emitting infrared radiation, making them invisible to human observers. During the day shape of the UFOs is often readily determined, and those shapes can vary widely. Although in broad categories of shapes such as disks, spheres, eggs, triangles, boomerangs, rectangles, teardrops, and diamonds are commonly observed. The sizes of the objects can vary from the size of a basketball to craft thousands of feet across. We cant say clearly anything about the different shapes of UFOs but there are some hypothetical approaches for that: ET species visiting our planet, each using various makes and models of transportation devices, reflecting the same preference for variety and utility that we humans express in our transportation vehicles. Not one model or size fits all uses. In nighttime observations the problem is that one can often only infer shape from light configurations unless the observation is made at very close range less than a few thousand feet away. In night the EMF effects around craft frequently make them appear as bright vague spherical objects, even at close range. The problem with the term UFO is that it is equated in the popular mind with extraterrestrial critters. Of course there are UFOs  objects observed in the sky that are not identified. As the evident says, explanations are found for 95% of them. The other 5% simply lack sufficient knowledge to draw any important conclusions and 0% has evidence of intelligent non-terrestrial origin.

10 most important dates in Ufology on the bases of Paul Kimball documentary on 10 best UFO cases

Here we will not be talk about personal opinion on these dates, but only the effect they had on our awareness and opinion of the subject. Here I am trying to give all the 10 most dates of ufology in chronological order.

1. 1897  Mystery of the Great Airship What were people seeing in the skies back then? Sure, there were a lot of the stories gave by the bored newspaper editors, but now I am a core of sightings that were probably real. I think the flying machines were described as something just ahead of the technology of the time is most interesting about this. What I have always thought is that witnesses took a unusual experience and forced it into something that they could understand in terms of their period. Ghost hunter Richard Senate recently said, I look into the subject and decide that it is possible but not very probable that there indeed could have been a secret group of inventors at the time, doing just what is reported. Bill Moore and others have probed into the history of a shadowy group of just this type that called itself The Sonora Aero Club. But no one has been able to verify its existence.
2. June 24, 1947  Kenneth Arnold Sighting I think there is no need to rehash this one because it is very popular incident that gave birth to our hobby.
3. July 2-8, 1947  Roswell Incident I think there is no need of this so I am not going to rehash this.
4. September 24, 1947  According to the incredibly disputed Eisenhower Briefing document, MJ-12 is possibly created. Possibly because of the fallout from Roswell MJ-12 was created by President Truman. While we have been escaping this issue back and forth for years, there do remain various references in leaked documents and un-confirmable personal recollections to some kind of group who is working on this issue at the highest levels to solve the mystery of UFO question. Since we know about MJ-12, its probably not that one. California breathed new life into Ufology after the announcement of the Eisenhower document at the 1987 NUFOC in Burbank. I think even your uninterested friends have heard about this group which working for UFO.
5. September, 1949  Project Sign Report Also referred to by its actual name Estimate of the Situation. This was the very first conclusion reached by a group of scientists and a U.S. Air Force personnel was that the UFOs were of extraterrestrial origin. Either studying far ahead to the ETH debate, or the more likely the fact that he couldnt handle the thought about this; General Hoyt Vandenburg rejected the findings as having no conclusive proof. He ordered to destroy the all copies of the report. Some may have survived well into the 1960s and possibly beyond, but none have ever surfaced publicly, leaving the Project Sign report in the same basket with the UFOs themselves. Ufologists have boasted on this one ever since Ed Ruppelt revealed its existence.
6. July- August, 1952  UFOs over Washington, D.C. Lights which were moving quickly and suddenly in a particular direction came in three waves, the first on July 19-20, the second from the 26-27, and the third from August 2-3. The lights flew over the Capitol, the White House, and also near Air Force bases in that area. (One of them, Bolling AFB, later became the Air Forces clandestine intelligence clearing house for UFO reports.) Military and civilian radar operators confirmed the targets and became a huge embarrassment until General John Samford, AF Intelligence Chief Major, organized a press conference to explain that the sightings were due to temperature inversions. Although this condition is similar, but probably impossible, the inversion explanation is still trotted out sometimes only.
7. November 20, 1952  George Adamski meets Orthon George picked a good year to have his CE3K. According to database 1952 was the biggest flap year on record. Although it is commonly believed that Adamski tried to make the whole thing up, this event was the beginning of the Contac tee movement, which has pleased the public and dogged serious Ufology ever since. I dont think that the Contac tees made everything up, but I tried to cover that in brief.
8. 1952-53 Robertson Panel Wanting to get in on the UFO action, The CIA ordered its own Estimate Of the situation with an ad-hoc committee (including J. Allen Hynek) who met for a total of 12 hours before submitting its report. Result of this committee said that about 90% of sightings about UFO were misidentifications so can not be explained but remaining 10% cases could be explained if given enough time to study. They also said that the Air Force should start a debunking campaign to keep a check on public hysteria in case the Russkies decided to use the panic for psy-war purposes or to hide military action and any other invasion. It should also be noticed that they were more concerned with national security than keeping the real extraterrestrials secret. I think they didnt even accept that aliens existed.
9. September 19, 1961  Hill Abduction When Barney and Betty Hill driving for home from Montreal they sighted a strange light in the sky near Lancaster, New Hampshire. After hearing a beeping sound, they felt dizzy and disoriented or very unusual, but continued the rest of their trip. Upon arriving at home in Portsmouth, they found that the trip had taken almost 2 hours longer than it should have. They met from a Boston psychologist for help because of months of lost sleep, ulcers, and not stopping nightmares. What was revealed under hypnosis was to affect the Hills and the entire abduction phenomenon forever.
10. April 24, 1964  Lonnie Zamora Sighting Police Officer Lonnie Zamora drove up to investigate after seeing something fly over the road and into a nearby arroyo near Socorro, New Mexico. He saw something very unusual so probably that day was to become one of the best UFO sightings on record. As he approached over a rise, about 150 yards away, he saw there was an approx egg shaped object can say craft and about the size of a car sitting on the ground on girder like legs. There were also two human like figures in white coveralls stood near to the object. Perhaps they may be alien or whatever. When they saw him, one of them jumped as if startled and the both two figures went around behind the object. It lifted off with a high sound and a blue colored flame and was lost from sight in a few seconds. Project Bluebook and J. Allen Hynek were on the scene within 24 hours and declared publicly that the case is truly unexplainable.

The night of March 13, something happened in the skies over Arizona. But any one was not sure what it was, but thousands saw it, dozens photographed and videotaped it and people all over the state are haunted by it still.

After a few years, a retired senior aerospace expert from NASA-Ames Research Center and formerly NASAs Chief of the Space Human Factors Office, Dr. Richard Haines, introduced a report containing over one hundred cases of pilot encounters with unidentified aerial phenomena (UAP) that raise safety concerns, including fifty-six near misses. Haines had studied about thirty years developing a approx 3,400 case, international database of first hand sightings by commercial, military and private pilots and others. His independent work Aviation Safety in America  A factor which was Neglected Previously also draws on FAA, NASA and NTSB files. An international team of aviation specialists and scientists, they recently founded the National Aviation Reporting Center on 12 unusual Phenomena (NARCAP), which facilitates pilot reporting and studies a huge number of aerial phenomena affecting aviation safety. Many serious UFO investigators have noticed a striking similarity between some of the aliens described in UFO reports and the demonic spirits described in the Bible. Although it may not be possible to know whether some aliens are actually demons (and I certainly do not claim to know this myself), the well-documented connection between UFO phenomena and the occult cannot be denied.

Pilots reported the worlds most convincing and experienced observers of air traffic with great amount of specialized training. In the study for this field, they report sightings of varied geometric forms displaying colors and lights and conducting high-speed maneuvers that are unusual with known aircraft or natural phenomena. Pilots and other crew members working on aircraft report that the objects approached and paced their aircraft at relatively small distances, affecting on board instrumentation. They report, occasionally objects moving with very high speed narrowly avoided a head-on collision by a sudden, 90-degree turn. On other occasions, crew members made unexpectedly, evasive changes in their flight paths probably due to the proximity or dynamic behavior of the object. Cockpit distraction is always a concern when the crew is faced with an extremely weird, unexpected and prolonged bright in color and/or solid phenomena cavorting near their aircraft, says the report. According to Haines that the hundreds of UAP reports he has studied, some dating back to the 1940s, seem to provide knowledge that they are associated with a very high degree of intelligence, advanced energy management and planned flight control. The study material the ridicule and psychological negative feedback system that pilots have faced since the 1950s due the official debunking policy. Most pilots never file reports at all. Veteran Japan Airlines Captain Kenju Terauchi and his crew, In 1986s, encountered a huge craft over Alaska reported in the media and then investigated by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Two space ships, unexpectedly, stopped in front of their face, shooting off lights, reported Terauchi. The inside cockpit shined brightly and he became hot in the face. The incident reported by Terauchi resulted in his temporary dismissal, despite the FAA determination that he was stable, not incompetent and professional. Former Division Chief of the Accidents and Investigations Branch of the FAA in Washington, John Callahan, D.C., has in his owing the radar recorded data, FAA report, air traffic control voice transcripts, and computer printouts of the Terauchi event. He says he joined a meeting about the incident with the CIA, the FBI, and President Reagans scientific investigation team in which he was told, this event never happened, we were never here and you are all sworn to secrecy. On radar I saw a UFO chase a Japanese 747 across the sky for more than half an hour. And its faster than anything that he know of in our Government, said the high level FAA official in 2001. Till now It bothers me that Ive seen everything related to this, I know everything related to this, and I have answer for all the question, but nobody seems to interested to ask the question to get the answer.

In the air Kucinich saw something that he could not identify should neither major news nor cause for amusement or alarm. If had said he was abducted by little grey humanoids that probed his butt, then Id be worried for him, figuring either he is crazy, or sharing a bathroom stall with Larry Craig.

Sightings on 1^st October approx 7 pm in western Sydney area

According to observers that was like a HOLDEN BLIMP, but the Blimp does not shoot out to outer space! As some has not seen the blimp could anyone else shed some light on what to expect?

Sighting One

On 01/10/06, Sunday at Lidcombe Station around 19:16-19:18 someone saw a UFO. He was working for Pizza Hut Home Delivery. After he delivered a pizza to a family at Lidcombe, for going back to Pizza Hut he got into his car. At that time, he saw in the sky there was a very bright light, like somewhere there was a fire or something had blown up. After seeing this he became a little bit nervous. Then he heard a loud noise, like an aero plane hovered or moved slowly over them or taking off. He thought there was an air crash. But through the window inside his car, he could not see anything.

When he got out of his car, he saw there was something like fire breaking out from a rocket taking off! There were some people running out of their house and saw exactly the same thing. Then after about 30 seconds, it started to go very high in to the sky probably in to the outer atmosphere. Then he went into his car to get his mobile phone to take a photograph, but till that time, it was very far and very small probably like a fire ball. And after a few time it became a star in the sky and then disappeared.

Sighting Two

According to a South Asian guy living with his elder brothers family, close to the West mead Childrens Hospital. They thought they saw a UFO over the skies around West mead in NSW. They live on a top floor apartment of 3 storey building and were watching the NRL final. His brother saw this slow moving horizontal flame (probably orange colored) from their living room about 7:15 pm. He started shouting and called others to watch this amazing phenomenon. There was no sound. The original size of this flame was as big as the size of about 2 footballs and similar to the shape of Haleys Comet that appeared in 90s. This phenomenon remained continued for abut 5 seconds then disappeared for a second or two then again came back to for another 2 seconds. And, then same thing happened again as was in sighting first, the flame became the size of a star with an orange glove which continued on the same path at the same speed, changing direction with the time. It was traveling from a south easterly direction and not as north he initially said. It was traveling westerly direction when they last saw it. It was traveling around 5000kmh. It came from the direction of Parramatta Park and parallel to Railway Parade. Then it went around Westmead Hospital to form a large circle and stopped before disappearing. They kept watching and it was last seen moving towards a north westerly direction at a very rapid speed. All this happened during a 15 minute period and the sky was busy with some air traffic. There was one Qantas jet and this object crossed its path whilst it was moving towards the north westerly direction. I think the pilots of some of the planes must have seen something related to this. The flame lit up the sky and it was no way an Army Night Vision flash or anything similar. I am sure many others may have also seen this or at least the initial flame.

Sighting Three

On 1st of October 2006 about 7:20pm, someone with his family was driving home from the city when above the car they sighted something unordinary. It seemed oval shaped and hovering above a bridge. At the back of this object there suddenly was some fire, and then it got bigger. They heard the noise that created by the fire. It observed like it was a rocket going up, and then went into like what looked like a small bright star, and then it left the earth and disappeared in outer space. The fire seen by them was sufficiently large, probably like a missile, and the noise they heard was like a craft or equipment of some kind. There was also a smell like of burning nitro or something else. I think some other people who were present there must have seen something related to this fire.

Sighting four

On 1^st October 2006 at 7:06 PM, Mr. L, from Mount Pritchard, NSW observed a unusual thing about for 5 minutes. He was returning home from a day out and as he was turning into his car on his way, his wife and he saw, an uneven happening, a flare in the air. As they watched, it became to be an object burning up into the atmosphere. It hovered across the sky from left to right. He stopped his car in the middle of his way and both of them got off from the car and to watch this object burn away into nothing. It wasnt to be, as after the bright orange flame there was something with a dim light and then it converted into a bright flame again for a few more seconds and then stopped. Phenomenon that he witnessed was an object that started to fly like a conventional plane across the night sky with a dim light. After observing it for the last few minutes all he could think was that the object could be an experimental craft returning from the upper atmosphere because there was no unusual happening of the object but a controlled flying path going to whatever destination it was going to. There were neither sound nor did it have any shape. It was just like a dim light, probably white in color which had no weird flight path.

Lets concentrate at the questions of who sees UFOs and why only some people see them. On the surface, this question looks very easy to answer. We know on this planet all people can potentially have one or more observations during their lifetimes. People being at the right time at the right place could do this and other not. As real objects, UFOs offer the same vagaries of opportunity.

Some people seem to have frequent periodic sightings of UFOs. A number of observers report that a strong belief in ETs in craft visiting earth appears to result in their more frequent observations. To the viewpoint of believers is that of the skeptics and their nonscientific partners, the debunkers. It is clearly true that most skeptics and debunkers can make it through life without ever seeing what they believe to be a UFO. This case dramatically explained the strange aspect of UFO observation was the November 7, 2006 sighting by United Airlines ground and flight employees over Terminal C at the Chicago OHare International Airport. The ufology community and the mainstream media both reported this UFO sighting. It had the strange aspect because reported only by a select group of a dozen airline employees who had the access that allowed them to look directly above the terminal building over which a disk-shaped UFO hovered before making a dramatic exit by boring a clean-edged hole in the cloud cover some 1,900 feet above Chicago. This sighting was happened in the day. A question should arise there if on the airport terminal tarmac, one or more people could observe this craft 1,900 feet above them, then why did other not who may have been on other places near the airport, outside their nearby homes, going about their business in other ways, or driving to the airport see this large rotating disk-shaped UFO or photograph it, as at least one airline employee reportedly did? Were these people experiencing this sighting selectively because they were looking at right place at the right time and no one else was looking at the right place in the sky at that moment? Were they the only ones amongst many thousands of Chicago residents who had the opportunity to do so? Or whatever gives the idea about selective sighting of UFO. Sometimes the observers report they are very focused on the UFO and everything else doesnt seem to flow normally in time and space around them. On other occasions, number of observers in a city or a crowded interstate highway will report a huge UFO hovering or moving slowly over them.

About two dozen former pilots and government officials of an international panel called on the U.S. government on Monday to reopen its generation-old UFO investigation as a matter of safety and security given continuing reports about unusual flying objects like disks, glowing spheres and other strange sightings. Especially after the attacks of 11September, it is no longer satisfactory to ignore radar returns, which cannot be associated with performances of existing aircraft and helicopters, In a news conference they released this statement. Former senior military officers and other panelists from seven countries said they had each seen a UFO or conducted an official investigation into UFO phenomena.

In last month when Dennis Kucinich, a member of Congress from Ohio, said during a televised debate with other Democratic candidates that he had seen one, the subject of UFOs introduced itself in the U.S. presidential race. UFO sightings also claimed by both former presidents Ronald Reagan and Jimmy Carter. A panelist who once worked for Britains Ministry of Defense said 5 percent of incidents cannot be explained. But UFO activists say most of the time UFO sightings are dismissed by relative authorities without proper investigations on the evidence. A question must arise here who is going to believe: your lying eyes or the government?, said John Callahan, a former Federal Aviation Administration investigator, in 1987, who said the CIA tried to hide the information of the sighting of a big lighted ball about four times the size of a jumbo jet in Alaska. The subject surfaces constantly on talk shows. And the army of people demanding answers has grown to the point that a Phoenix city councilwoman has launched an inquiry. The panel, organized by a group dedicated to winning authority for the study of UFOs, urged Washington to resume UFO investigations through the U.S. Air Force or NASA. Former Arizona Gov said, It would surely, I think, take a lot of feeling of anxiety and worry about this issue. In 1997, Fife Symington said that he was among hundreds who saw a delta-shaped craft with enormous lights silently traverse the sky near Phoenix. The Air Force investigated 12,618 UFO reports from 1947 to 1969 in what was known as Project Blue Book. Experts concluded that the incidents posed no threat and there was no evidence of space aliens or a super technology in operation. The sightings come in the picture at a time when interest in UFOs borders on a national obsession, saturating the movie industry, television and literature. After the surveying this month by Time magazine and CNN found that about 22% of adult Americans believe intelligent beings from other planets have been in contact with human beings. In last September it is also found by a Gallup poll 72% of Americans think on other planets there is life also. They think the U.S. government knows more about UFOs than its telling, said about 71% Americans.

Residual UFOs not only appear to be nonphysical and intelligent, they sometimes seem malevolent as well. Many of those claiming to have had a residual UFO encounter have suffered emotional, psychological, and/or physical injury. A few people have even died after such encounters. In light of these strange characteristics, many researchers have reached similar conclusions about the possible source of these phenomena. The idea that UFOs might produce some unique odors originally carried a touch of humor. According to a early survey of the literature turned up 18 cases where witnesses noticed peculiar odors and attempted to describe them. Comparisons with sulphur dioxide, as in rotten eggs, were the most numerous. Other descriptions referred to benzene and its derivatives. Finally, a number of descriptions almost certainly identified ozone. The fact is that more people are seriously interested in UFOs now than they ever have. Convincing the government may be an exercise in futility, but its not hard to find believers on the streets, says Don Ecker, research director and news editor at UFO Magazine.

Several tried to give explanation but neither has anybody else, according to Michael Tanner and Jim Dilettosa. They are two who own Village Labs, a Tempe, Ariz., firm that designs computerized special effects for the federal government for Hollywood and supercomputers. They moonlight as analysts of UFO tapes. They saw a computer analysis of videos shot by amateur observers, which comparing the mysterious lights to every other light on the Phoenix skyline videotaped that night. The lights overhead were not like the usual light but was were not like the usual light but was dramatically unique, according to them this was a perfectly uniform light with no glow and no variation from one edge to the other. They have ruled out lasers, flares, holograms and aircraft lights as sources. Dilettosa says, I have no idea what they were. Tanner has been videotaping witnesses and sorting out the chronology for this part. According to his present view: Including the V formation there were four objects, all arriving out of the north at about the same instant and leaving the same way they came. But unfortunately neither man is a scientist by training. All of them are businessmen who dependent on the sophisticated software of others. So while their work goes on, Frances Barwoo

Abstract

Various countries depending on their sizes adopt suitable information systems that help make sensible managerial frameworks. These information systems are vital in ensuring efficiency within the various organizations in respective through proper storage and access of data. As a result, gains are made both in terms of country reputation as well as financial benefits. However, with rapid changes taking place in the telecommunication sector, there are bound to be even more changes in the way criminal activities happen. It is therefore mandatory that governments develop adequate legislation to help protect their citizens from cybercrime in the case of the widening cyberspace.

This essay seeks to illustrate how three countries/states have put the principle of information and communication technology (ICT) legislation into use with the aim of combating cybercrime. These three countries are the United States, India and the United Arab Emirates (UAE). The essay will follow a basic format where the development and application of cybercrime legislation in each country is analyzed independently starting with a brief history of how the legal frameworks came about. Various aspects of information systems will be studied including policies and the paper will narrow down to present similarities and differences between the cybercrime laws in UAE and the United States, and between the cybercrime laws in the UAE and India.

Finally, recommendations shall be provided as to how the UAE can improve its cybercrime laws to align with the countrys 21^st century desire to evolve into a free market. In the process of obtaining relevant data, this project will serve the very important role of putting theory into practice by linking information garnered in lectures to its practical application in real institutional setups. The final product is an essay that could be referenced to by peers in conduction of studies on cybercrime legislation particularly in the United Arab Emirates.

The development of cybercrime laws in the United States

In the year 2002 the United States House of Representatives passed a new legislation to deal with cybercrime. This act allowed the government and various selected bodies to carry out online surveillance and prosecute offenders. Another act, the Cyber Security Enhancement Act was also approved and it gave permission to authorities to carry out surveillance activities on phones and the internet without the mandatory court order (Schperberg, 2005).

Prior to the passage of these two acts individuals were punished depending on the financial damage of their acts with most of them receiving fines or a little time in prison (Goel, 2010). However, the legislation passed only covered traffic data such as Uniform Resource Locators and Internet Protocol addresses and not the contents on the internet. Internet service providers were required to store client data for a minimum of one month and reveal to the authorities content perceived to be detrimental to national security. However, the internet service providers were not allowed to intercept client e-mails unless they had a court order.

In the year 2003 the president of the United States legalized a national strategy to secure the countrys cyberspace (Schperberg, 2005). The primary objectives for this strategy were to prevent any attacks against the United States infrastructures, to reduce the countrys propensity to attacks over the internet and to reduce to the lowest levels possible the damage that occurred from cyber attacks (Blane, 2003).

The government at the time put in place criminal laws to allow for the investigation and prosecution of individuals suspected of partaking in cybercrime. Various institutions were set up to help with investigation of crimes that involve computers or computer networks with the United States working very closely with other nations in dealing with cybercrimes by setting up round-the-clock emergency contact networks (Goel, 2010). Other efforts aimed at a sustaining the collaborative effort between the United States and other nations included the signing of multilateral treaties such as the convention on Cybercrime. Such treaties have been heralded by the United States as very important tools in dealing with transnational cybercrime.

The state of cybercrime legislation in the United States

In order to counter terrorism activities over the cyberspace, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) has charged with the responsibility of investigating the criminal activities occurring within or affecting the country. The prime responsibilities of the FBI include according protection to the United States from terrorist attacks and ensuring that the country is protected from internet based attacks and other criminal activities that require the input of advanced technology. Another institution that is directly linked with the prosecution of cybercrime and terrorism activities is the United States Department of justice (Yar, 2006).

In dealing with the element of cybercrime, this department prosecutes such acts as hacking and the denial of service attacks. For terrorism issues, the Department of Justice investigates and prosecutes individuals found guilty of providing material or other types of support to terrorists. The United States Department of Homeland security is also responsible for the protection of the countrys primary infrastructure including telecommunications and the internet (Schperberg, 2005). All the three government institutions mentioned above have established formal and informal relationships with both public and private sector groups to help deal with aspect of abuse of the cyberspace.

The United States has established rules and regulations to deal with cybercrime and these laws deal with such acts as hacking, fraud and propagation of terrorist information (Brenner, 2010). The laws established in this country generally have provisions for the investigation of various criminal activities conducted over the internet and the individuals or organized groups found guilty of such acts are prosecuted under the specifications of the law (Schinder and Cross, 2008). The united states law individuals maybe subject to multiple counts of charges as long as every single charge is manifest of a different aspect. Therefore, an individual who takes part in a cybercrime activity with the intention of providing information to a terrorist group maybe charged of various offences all emanating from the same action.

Under the established criminal law pertaining to crimes committed over the internet, individuals are liable for prosecution if they commit the crime themselves as well as if they directly or indirectly lend a hand in a criminal activity (Schinder and Cross, 2008). The rules also specify that an individual can be subject to prosecution if they are arrested in the process of conspiring or attempting to commit a cybercrime act. This provision is mostly applied in terrorism offence trials.

Persons who undergo conviction for the violation of the primary United states cybercrime statute can face prison sentences sometimes even life sentences if his/her actions lead to the death of individuals. Other sentences that can be imposed on individuals guilty of cybercrime include supervised releases or very hefty fines (Brenner, 2010). Other than this, some forfeiture statues maybe utilized in the seizure of state proceeds or properties used in carrying out the criminal activity.

In some instances, the domain name could be forfeited if an individual is found guilty of using it to propagate criminal offences. For instance the United States Department of Justice once brought a case before the courts pertaining to a well known international market place for criminals (Goel, 2010). Since this group had established an elaborate online community for its members, the government had to revoke the domain name for the institution in order to dislodge its international online presence.

In order to establish jurisdiction over criminal activities, the cybercrime title of the United States legislation has provisions to that can make it applicable both domestically and outside the countrys territory (Schinder and Cross, 2008). However, in both cases various considerations have to be made including the question as to whether the offence had any effect on interstate economy, the identity of the victim and the region where the crime was done (Goel, 2010).

This provision also considers the technical aspects of the crime including the registration details of the computer used to commit the crime (Blane, 2003). In this jurisdiction some computers are considered protected and these include those used in interstate commercial activities, machines registered solely for use in financial institutions such as banks or computers belonging to the government.

The development of cybercrime legislation in the United Arab Emirates

The United Arab Emirates (UAE) has been the disputable regional leader in the adoption of information and communication technology. The spread of the internet in the UAE grew from 36 percent four years ago to over 60 percent in the year 2008. The penetration of broadband manifested by the movement of Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) cables was in the region of 11 percent (Karake-Shalhoub and Al Qasimi, 2010).

There are only two internet service providers in the region one being Etisalat which commands the greatest authority when it comes to telecom provision. The other internet service provider is named Du and its launch was facilitated by the Telecommunications Regulatory Authority primarily in the pretext of maintaining a healthy competition (Karake-Shalhoub and Al Qasimi, 2010). Both companies offer voice and data transmission through broadband and mobile networks. However, due to Du not having the necessary infrastructure in place, the provision of broadband internet is under the monopoly of Etisalat and the former is only left to provide the service to only a few individuals who occupy the region around Dubai where it has established a landline network.

There is a plan in place by the government to aide in the operation of the regional internet in Arabic and this was confirmed last year when a proposal by the Telecommunications Regulatory Authority to have the country top level domain done in Arabic. As such, an increase has been seen in the flow of traffic to Arabic websites consequently strengthening the countrys identity (Kshetri, 2010).

The state of cybercrime legislation in the United Arab Emirates

Like in most Arabic countries, the freedom of speech expression in the UAE is to some extent limited (Deibert, 2008). There is no law that protects journalists from coercion into revealing their sources of information and human rights watchers have accused the state of oppression to the civilians by limiting free expression. The telecommunication industry in the country is under the control of the Telecommunications Regulatory Authority which was set up seven years ago under the federal law and is charged with the responsibility of ensuring that the services provided in the country were adequate (Adomi, 2008).

This authority is also responsible for the establishment of policies and frameworks aimed at guiding the flow of information through the various telecommunication channels available in the country. One of the ways in which the Telecommunications Regulatory Authority has ensured control over content spreading over the internet is through the establishment of the Internet Access Management policy which basically lists illegal/prohibited online material for the internet service providers (Kshetri, 2010).

Under this policy, all websites and databases hosting pornographic material have been criminalized. Also prohibited are tools that can help circumvent blocked content, gambling websites, religious offensive material, material that is threatening to national security, provision of unregistered voice over internet protocol (VoIP) and spyware (Deibert, 2008).

A federal law has been established in the United Arab Emirates in an effort to deal with cybercrimes. Under this law, the destruction or revelation of secrets and the redistribution of personal/official information is a legal crime that can lead to imprisonment. Individuals can also be prosecuted for defaming elements of the Islamic religion such as the mosques or for insulting all worldwide recognized religions. This cyber-crime law no.2 also specifies that all persons that are found setting up websites or establishing databases that breach family values or public decency frameworks liable for prosecution.

In order to ensure that this law is observed, the government has set up committees which utilize electronic surveillance technology to assess the distribution and access of material over the internet (Salinger, 2005). For instance one such committee is charged with the responsibility of monitoring cyber cafes with the aim of ensuring that the internet setups in these establishments do not go around the filtration tools set up by the two nationally recognized internet service providers (Adomi, 2008). This committee was established after allegations that some cyber cafes were using virtual private networks to offer access to unfiltered material.

Another surveillance department was established by the police to study the internet around the clock while investigating several reported cases of breach of law. Some of the cases that have been presented before this committee include those involving fraud and other economic crimes, extortion, hacking, indecency and the propagation of defamatory remarks (Khosrow-Pour, 2006). Some of the charged individuals included women who were found guilty of marketing sex services over the internet. Also prosecuted were individuals who were found guilty of providing cheap and unregistered VoIP services from their residences.

Examples of the application of cybercrime legislation in the United Arab Emirates

Three years ago, the founder of the website www.majan.net was imprisoned for one year after he was found guilty of hosting defamatory statements again a certain government official on his website. A few months down the line he was again sentenced for a similar crime but was let out on bail. In two months the two sentences were revoked by the court of appeals after both officials decided to withdraw their accusations. The man was however to serve a one year sentence after a third public official lodged complaints of defamation against him.

In 2009, the Dubai police was accused of developing a list of 500 words that were considered objectionable and that it had ordered the Telecommunication Regulatory Authority to block the websites that published any of these words. The area police chief however refuted claims that his institution came up with the list and instead pointing an accusing finger at the regulations authority saying that the idea emanated from the latter and not the police force as had been reported.

In a different instance prior to this, the same chief of police had called for the shutting down of YouTube. At the time, he said that the website it was supported material that was religiously inappropriate. He accused the site of hosting content that was indecent and if not regulated, the website could lead the young people of the country into delinquency. According to him, the moral values of the Muslim nations were different from those of the Western countries and as such proper filtration of internet content had to be carried out in order to maintain the status quo.

The two internet service providers in the country have tried to operate within the Telecommunications Regulatory Authority by blocking sites offering free VoIP service. However, the ingenuity of individuals has seen them fail from time to time as people find ways to circumvent the ban by utilizing the internet to make inexpensive international calls.

The development of cybercrime laws in India

Of the over one billion people in India, approximately five percent (which loosely translates to about 48 million people) have regular access to the internet. Initially most of these individuals were concentrated in the urban areas but with the rapid spread of the town areas toward the villages, more and more people are starting to appreciate the importance of the internet (Kumar, 2009). It has been discovered that about 40% of all the individuals who use the internet in the country spend an average of 8 hours per week surfing and browsing the internet with most of these individuals being men. With over 150 internet service providers in the country, India is the fifth largest country in terms of the population of internet users.

With this kind of internet traffic, it has been of paramount importance that a method of ensuring secure and reliable means of data transfer across the world wide web are installed. Three years ago, the countrys Department of Telecommunications revealed that it was going to put in place filters at the countries international data entry points. These measures involved the selective filtering of websites and the blocking of voice over internet protocol (VoIP) providers which had not been authorized to offer these services in the country (Sreenivas, 2006).

The state of cybercrime legislation in India

Like with most sovereign republics, Indias constitution appreciates the freedom of speech and expression. However, there are clauses in the document which guarantee the state the supreme authority to put in place sanctions against acts that are regarded as threatening to the well being of the country (Broadhurst and Grabosky 2005). These measures are aimed at helping the state maintain healthy relation with other nations and they include provisions to sustain decent and moral structures of society as well as guides on the general observance of established laws. The basic media channels in the country are subject to individual regulatory frameworks with the Press Council of India limiting its authority over print media while the government holds control over film and broadcast media.

Before the year 2000, the central government held supreme authority over each and every element of the telecommunications department and it was in charge of creating policies and regulations that guided the operations. However, by the beginning of 1999, an internet policy was established and it came with provisions that allowed private enterprises to obtain licenses for internet service provision. With this policy in place, these private companies had the option of leasing transmission network capacity from the state or establish their own infrastructure (Broadhurst and Grabosky 2005). As the privatization of internet service provision took over, the parliament had to establish legal frameworks that would help reduce instances of cyber crime (Milhorn, 2005).

An information technology act was established to help govern the extents to which the internet could be used particularly in trade and commerce. This act also came around to offer regulations against hacking and the publishing of obscene material. The police force was granted authority to arrest and detain all individuals that were found contravening this law. This allowance accorded the police the power to carry out such missions without a warrant.

Under the guidance of the information technology act, a computer emergency response team was established and this was purposely to help implement the filtering provisions that had been set up. The provision that criminalized the publishing of obscene materials was stretched to also allow for the blocking of websites that hosted such materials (Milhorn, 2005). The emergency response team was the sole entity that was charged with responsibility of controlled assessment of web content and the blocking of websites that appeared to contravene the already established legal measures.

As such, it is only a few institutions that are allowed to file complaints or recommend investigative procedures to the computer emergency response team (Broadhurst and Grabosky 2005). By granting a single institution such supreme powers, there has been contention over the legality of the framework in relation to constitutional provisions. This is primarily because the blocking provision established by the act has no option for review and measures taken can only be appealed in a court of law (Andert and Burleson 2005). The emergency response team can therefore block websites without any communication whatsoever to the public.

In 2006 an amendment proposal to the information technology act was presented before the legislative assembly purposely to establish mechanisms of dealing with the numerous complaints about insecurity over the internet and constant lose of crucial state data to hackers (Sreenivas, 2006).

After debate, a few changes were implemented including the creation of guidelines for internet service providers including the requirement to constantly monitor client traffic and the tracking of deviant subscribers through their internet protocol addresses. To this end, the state demands that companies seeking internet service provision licenses have to agree to work hand in hand with the Department of Telecommunications in blocking websites and subscribers who partake in acts that threatening to national security or the transmission of objectionable material (Milhorn, 2005).

Examples of the application of cybercrime legislation in India

A good example of the various government and private entities working together in the implementation of the information technology act was the unilateral blocking of the Hindu Unity website www.hinduunity.org. The filtering of this website was carried out by all internet service providers under instruction from state police. This is because the website was seen to propagate extremist Hindu views and as such was regarded as a threat to national security. Another act of filtering was seen in the year 2006 when a group of individuals went to the streets protesting against certain content on the internet that appeared offensive.

This material was hosted in Googles Orkut networking site in page published under the We hate India community. The Bombay high court handled the matter and a notice was issued to Google to take off the community or risk a ban on the Orkut. Google heeded and took off the community. However, another complaint was lodged on an anti-shivaji community on the same website leading to a temporary ban of the site by police. Cyber cafes found to entertain the usage of Orkut at the time were shut down and crackdowns were held until the offensive community was dislodged from the website.

Comparison between the cybercrime laws in the United States and the United Arab Emirates

The internet in the United States is arguably more developed than in all other regions of world. With over 3500 registered internet service providers and over 220 million internet users, the number of activities being carried out on the cyberspace cannot be enlisted. It was therefore necessary of the government to come up with basic legislation to guide the general safe usage of the internet by establishing methods of identifying and dealing with criminal acts. The United States government has a well established document dealing with substantive cybercrime acts and this has 18 chapters covering all aspects of internet usage. Some of these sections include regulations aimed at countering fraud, sexual exploitation of children, distribution and access of obscene materials and copyright infringement among others.

The United Arab Emirates on the other hand has only two internet service providers covering the seven states that form the amalgamation. Access to the internet is not yet a critical national priority and it has remained a preserve of the individuals residing in the urban areas. The countries cybercrime legislation is not as elaborate as that of the United States and it is formed around the requirements of the Islamic religion. Interest groups whose practices go against the teachings of Islam are not tolerated and there are established government agencies to track and monitor online activities with the aim of arresting and prosecuting offenders.

Similarities between the United States and the United Arab Emirates cybercrime laws

From a basic perspective, the United States and United Arab Emirates legislations particularly dealing with cybercrime have a number of similarities. Top on the list is the inclusion of clause criminalizing terrorist activities. From both documents, it is illegal for anyone to produce, possess or distribute material that could aid terrorist groups carry out their missions. Government agencies have been given the mandate to track the traffic of data on the internet and any information found to contain instructional or basic communication to terrorist gangs is intercepted. The two governments have established punishment procedures to deal with individuals found guilty of committing such crimes and appropriate sentences are given including lifetime imprisonment.

The transmission and access to government documents is also considered a legal criminal activity by both pieces of legislation. Individuals who are tasked with the production and storage of state documents are expected to respect the confidentiality criteria of the job and as such cannot distribute the material without prior consultation with relevant state bodies. It is a criminal offence for state officials in both countries to give out government secret documents to individuals who intend to use it to jeopardize the security of the citizens or of the inhabitants of other nations.

The importance of maintaining cordial relationships with other countries has been appreciated both in the United Arab Emirates and the United States. With this in mind, the various state agencies are expected to ensure that all information targeted at abetting terrorist activities in other nations are blocked well in time.

The distribution of obscene and sexual content pertaining to children has been criminalized both in the United States and in the United Arab Emirates. Both constitutions have provisions for prosecution of individuals found guilty of production and distribution of pornographic material featuring individuals that have not attained the consenting age. Persons who subject minors to sexual practices for recording purposes can face multiple charges including committing of the sexual act itself and the distribution of such content on video.

Such material is relatively easy to access particularly if posted on the internet and the regulatory authorizes from both countries come in to track down the origins of the material for prosecution purposes. Individuals who are found guilty of this crime are handed heavy sentences with most of the reported cases particularly in the United Arab Emirates being given life imprisonment.

Economic crimes have been given due attention by both the constitution of the United Arab Emirates and that of the United States. Provisions have been provided for dealing with fraud and other economic crimes either within the respective countries or across the territorial boundaries. The latter is a provision accorded by the international relations speculations that are aimed at helping the countries maintain strong goodwill relations with their neighbors and other countries across the regions.

In the United Arab Emirates, the Telecommunications Regulatory Authority is the primary institution that has been given the mandate to establish tracking systems on the various internet networks and put a hold to illegal economic activities. Its counterpart in the United States is the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the National Criminal Investigative Service. All the three regulatory bodies have the authority to assess data transmission across the internet without any form of court order and arrest offenders for criminal prosecution.

Differences between the United States and the United Arab Emirates cybercrime laws

The differences between the cybercrime legislation in the United Arab Emirates arise from the fact that the United States is a more cosmopolitan society and as such accepts the differences in the various people groups in the country. The United Arab Emirates on the other hand is primarily Islamic and it bases all its legislative elements on the religion. For instance, same gender relationships are generally accepted in the United States and therefore social networks linking individuals who drift to these kinds of sexual tendencies are not considered illegal. In the United Arab Emirates on the other hand, homosexuality is a vice outlawed by the religious doctrines of Islam. Individuals who are found of engaging in same sex relationships face the death penalty and this goes all the way to encompass the production, possession and distribution of material pertaining to homosexuality and lesbianism.

Another primary difference between the legislations of the United Arab Emirates and the United States stems from the fact that the latter has a well established protocol for the development of legislation. The various house assemblies are supposed to have a hand in the development of a given item for inclusion in the constitution. These bodies have to go through intense consultations with various stakeholders in order to ensure that the ideas presented are in tandem with views of the majority. In the United Arab Emirates however, a few members of the Telecommunications Regulatory Authority have been given the authority to decide what is legally acceptable and enforce this as the law even without having to take it through the various stages of legislation formation.

This was the case recently when the heads of the regulatory body concluded that Youtube hosted material that was not appropriate as per the teachings of Islam and so it should be banned. Even though the process of totally banning the website has not been well effected, it is generally regarded illegal to use the website and crackdowns are held in public cyber cafes to ensure that individuals are not accessing un-Islamic content.

In the United States and by way of the already established legislation, individuals can make all types of calls over the internet provided they have legally obtained the connection from the parent internet service provider. Long distance calls via tools such as Skype are common and the investigative bodies are not concerned with arresting or prosecuting individuals found to use these cheap telecommunication avenues.

In the United Arab Emirates, the provision and usage of the internet to make cheap long distance calls is a criminal offence and the two internet service providers in the country have been instructed to ensure that filtration mechanisms are implemented to ensure that individuals do not break this law. The Telecommunications Regulatory Authority officials are always under alert to ensure that individuals who use virtual private networks to bypass established filters are arrested and well prosecuted.

Comparison between the cybercrime laws in the UAE and India Similarities

Both India and the United Arab Emirates have well established legal frameworks to regulate the distribution and usage of information over the internet (Andert and Burleson 2005). One of the primary similarities in the regulations of both countries is the filtering provision demanded of all internet service providers to help curb the transmission and access to material considered offensive particularly to the various religions around the world. Under these laws, it is illegal for anyone to produce, possess or distribute material that either directly or indirectly attacks a given religion or practitioners of the said religion (Alexander, 2002).

Anyone found guilty of such crimes is liable to prosecution which can lead to jail sentences of upto ten years. The Indian Department of Telecommunications and its UAE equivalent the Telecommunications Regulations Authority have basically speculated t

Introduction

It has always been a problem determining the number of speakers required for a quality sound system especially in cases where speech separation of an individual speaker from a multispeaker signal is required. In this regard, various theoretical approaches such as the subjective threshold hypothesis for the detection of the number of sources whose mixed signals collect an array of passive sensors of the covariance matrix of the observation vector were proposed.

Also, on vocal source segmentation, various researchers suggest the use of wavelet transform as opposed to Fourier spectrum methodology in transienting signal representation. In concluding our literature review, researchers propose methodologies evidenced to increase speaker performance and provide critical analysis of the same. The proposed speaker recognition methodologies combined previous studies on the same topic, proposed for new approaches and suggested solutions to reduce the imbalances experienced by various applications.

Literature Review from Previous Studies

In automatic speaker recognition, Campbell (1997) employs a biometrics methodology in facilitating network access-control applications. Campbell (1997) specifically concentrates on verification and identification method in Automatic speaker verification (ASV) of voice machines. Automatic speaker recognition works by arranging speakers in different analogies which then identify who the person is and the group the person belongs to.

Routinely applied in encrypted smart card containing identification information for supervised visitations, Campbell (1997) argue that text dependent recognition can not be guaranteed for authentication. Here, the weak point of automatic speaker recognition is that the accuracy and content duration is not guaranteed. In replication of this analysis, Campbell (1997) states human and environmental factors contribute to accuracy errors, generally outside the scope of (p.2). These analyses conclude by adding that human errors such as misreading and misspeaking are likely to affect speaker performance despite the speaker quality (Campbell 1997, p.2).

Campbell (1997) proposed for ASV and ASI methodologies as the most natural and economical experimental design methods for solving problems. The detailed distinction of speaker classifications makes it difficult to make meaningful comparison between text independent approaches and difficult to perform text-independent tasks.

Further Campbell (1997) proposes for a new methodology as text-independent approaches such as Reynolds Gaussian Mixture Model and Gishs segmental Gaussian model to be applied in test materials to deal with problems such as sounds and articulation rather than applied in training (p.3). Lastly, areas that remained uncovered in this analysis were comparisons between binary choice verification task and the multiple choice identification tasks making it difficult to propose for future improvements (Campbell 1997, p.3).

Due to increased security problems with regard to speaker verification application, Campbell 1997 proposes for extensive research approaches on substantial speaker-verification applications that will reduce fraudulent transactions and crime. Also, automatic speaker-verification systems errors such as false acceptance of invalid user (FA or Type 1), acceptance of false user (FR or Type II) and false acceptance error were not extensively covered and limited speech collected in speakerdiscrimination criteria proving difficult in interpreting theoretical measures used (Campbell 1997).

Campbell (1997) mentions vector features applied in measuring speech signal sequence to include pattern recognition paradigms such as; feature extraction and selection, pattern matching, and classification convenient for designing system components. Though effective in segmentation and classification, Campbell (1997) points out that the components are prone to false demarcation that may subsequently lead to suboptimal designs when interacting with in real-world systems (p.9).

Campbell (1997) further proposes for the ROC straight line methodology as stated as the product of the probability of FA and the probability of FR is a constant for this hypothetical system (p.6). Evidently, ROC straight line method shows inconsistency in the sense that the product used could not be equal to the square of equal error rate (EER) (Campbell 1997). Another gap of this research is evident in the Campbell (1997, p.19) Fig 20 that demonstrates a complete signal acquisition stage which is indeed unnecessary since speech signal is already provided in digital from YOHO CD-ROM.

In multi-media application, audio segmentation based on multi-scale audio classification requires accurate segmentation and most convectional algorithms based on small scale feature classification. Audio segmentation here is applied to both audio and video content analysis. Zhang & Zhou (2004) classifies four scale levels as; (large-scale, small-scale, tiny-scale and huge-scale) and further splits them into two categories; training and testing. In this regard, the researchers group audio classification correctly and accurately resulting to good classification hence reliable results. On the other hand, Zhang & Zhou (2004) fail to provide of the same systems with a discriminator in cases of more audio classes and as a backup in improving performance on segmentation algorithm for effective audio, video and index content analysis.

Lastly, in simplified Early Auditory model with Application in Speech/Music Classification, Chu and Champagne (2006) use speech/music classification as a way of evaluating classification performance and uses a support vector machine (SVM) as a classifier.Evidently, Chu and Champagne (2006) present useful information on audio and video classification and segmentation. Previous studies have classified speech and music segmentations to include features as many as 13. To name just a few, Scheier and Slaney (1997) classify these features to include; ZRC, spectral flux, 4Hz modification energy and e.t.c. In doing classification and segmentation of audio speakers, Zhang and Kuo (2001) propose for an automatic approach of audiovisual data using energy function, ZCR, spectral peak attacks and fundamental frequency.

On the other hand, Lu and his colleagues (2002) use a different methodology by employing a two-stage robust approach capable of classifying audio stream into silence, speech, environmental sound and speech. To replicate this analysis, Panagiotakins and Tziritas (2005) propose for an algorithm methodology using mean signal amplitude distribution and ZCR features in classification and segmentation. In this regard, algorithm methodology employed clean test sequence training which was argued as ineffective in terms of actual testing sequence as its evidenced to have background noise with certain SNR levels. Another methodology proposed by Wang and Sharma (1994) that employed an early auditory model was also reported to be ineffective as it was evidenced to be experiencing self-normalisation effect, a defect property attributed from noise suppression.

Scheier and Slaney (1997) evidences that early auditory model has recently received excellent performance based on classification and segmentation. On the other however, Chu and Champagne (2006) argue that early audition model requires high computation compared to nonlinear processing. Conclusively, to reduce computational complexity and increase the performance of the proposed classification and segmentation methodologies mentioned here, Chu and Champagne (2006) proposes for a linear simplified version of early auditory model would be effective in noisy test cases (Chu and Champagne 2006, p.1,4).

In speaker recognition, Kumara and his colleagues (2007) address the issue of determining the number of speakers from multiple speaker speech signals collected from a pair of spatial microscopes. Constantly striving to provide optimum sound solutions, Kumara et al (2007) opinion on sound quality production is at odds with the desired aesthetic provided my various researchers on this particular topic.

Based on their comprehensive analysis, Kumara et al (2007) argue that spatial separated microscopes results in time delay in arrival of speech signals from a given speaker due to relative spacings from significant excitation of the vocal tract system. They link this time delay to be as a result of unchanged excitations in the direct components of the speech signals of the two microphones. Kumara et al (2007) point out the problem to be in signal spacing due to underestimated number of sources from multisensory data.

For high quality performance of multi-speaker data, Kumara and his colleagues (2007) argue that determining the number of speakers, then localising and tracking them from a signal collected using a number spatially distributed microphones is required to guarantee even coverage, speech intelligibility and high-quality sound. There has always been a challenge in determining number of speakers required for quality sound system.

Some of the problems experienced are Kumara and his colleagues (2007) to include; difficulties in separating speech of an individual speaker from a multispeaker signal and problems in collecting signal in practical environment, a room with background noise and reverberation of multi-speaker data. In solving this problem, Kumara and his colleagues (2007) propose a theoretical approach for detecting the number of sources whose mixed signals are collected by an array of passive sensors as eigenvalues of the covariance matrix of the observation vector. They use a nested sequence hypothesis test that employs subjective judgement for deciding threshold level i.e. the likelihood statistic ratio. The gap of this research is that the literature review introduces different methodologies without careful consideration of their impacts.

For example, a nested sequence hypothesis should not have been applied in estimating the number of sources as Kumara and his colleagues (2007) argue that this methodology employs a subjective threshold. They further recommend a testing hypothesis applied in minimum description length (MDL) in estimating the number of sources. To reaffirm their findings Kumara et al (2007) state that MDL can only be used as a test for determining the multiplicity of the smallest eigenvalues and therefore suitable for this kind of application (p.1). In my opinion, researchers should have carefully researched on the methodologies to be used by doing a test hypothesis.

Kumara and his colleagues (2007) also argue that the proposed method based application on multiplicity that concentrates on the smallest eigenvalues are not robust and therefore not suitable for tracking signals. They attribute the reason to be as a result of deviations from the assumed model of the additive noise process. They add that providing solutions to smallest eigenvalue problem would require exploiting prior knowledge and multidimensional numerical research of these systems. Kumara et al (2007) recommend providing a number of steering vectors and use of robust estimators in situations where sensor noise levels are spatially inhomogeneous.

Kumara et al (2007) also argue that methods used in estimating number of sources used in multidimensional speakers such as information theoretic criterion assumes mixed signal vector methodology that uses artificially generated mixed signals such as multispeaker signals that have more variability due to noise and reverberations causing delays and decay of direct sound as a result of increased distance of the microscope from the speaker (Kumara et al 2007, p.5).

In a multispeaker multimicroscophone scenario that assumes speakers are stationed with respect to the microphone, Kumara et al (2007) quickly points out fixed time delays often experienced in arrival of speech signals between every pair of microphones for a given speaker. In this regard, Kumara et al (2007) proposes cross-correlation function formular for calculating time delays of multispeaker signals.

Though effective in computing time delays, cross-relation function does not show unambiguous prominent peaks at the time of delays. Kumara et al (2007) states the reason for this miscalculation to be the damped sinusoidal components in the speech signal due to resonances of the vocal tract, and because of the effects of reverberation and noise since speech signal exhibits relatively high signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and high signal-to-reverberation ratio (SRR) (p.2). Kumara et al (2007) suggest a solution to reduce the effects of such imbalances to be done by exploiting the characteristics of excitation sources of the vocal tract and doing a pre-processing of multispeaker signals to re-emphasize the regions of high SNR and SRR.

Methods of estimating time delays

Normally vocal tract system becomes excited by quasi-periodic sequence of impulse-like excitation produced from voiced speech. The excitation occurs at glottal closure (GCI) with each pitch period and remains unchanged when microphones are placed at speech signals. The sequences can only differ as a result of fixed delays corresponding to the relative distances of the microphones from the speakers. Vicinity of the instants of significant excitations in speech display high SNR compared to other regions as a result of damping of the impulse response of the vocal tract system.

In order to highlight the high SNR region in speech signal, Kumara et al (2007) recommend using linear prediction (LP) methodology that uses autocorrelation method resulting to large amplitude fluctuations around the instant significant excitation. Another method suggested is the cross-correlation function that receives signals from two microscopes. Characterised by large amplitude fluctuations, cross-correlation function does not guarantee strong peaks due to random polarity around the GCIs (Kumara et al, 2007, p.2).

When determining numbers of speakers to be used in collecting signals from spatial microscopes, Kumara and his colleagues (2007) propose cross-correlation function of the Hilbert envelope (HE) and the linear prediction (LP) formulars as methodologies for collecting signals from multispeaker. However, this research fails to recognise relatively large number of small positive values used by Hilbert envelope (HE) that could result to spurious peaks in the cross-correlation function. In summary, the methodology used here attempts to equalise the number of prominent peaks to the number of speakers which is often not the case in real world application.

First, this methodology may not be practical since all speakers may not equally contribute to voice sounds in the segment used for computing cross-correlation function, secondly, spurious peaks in the cross-correlation function may not correspond to the delays due to a speaker. As stated earlier, quality of sound system performance relies entirely on delays due because the most prominent peaks occur in the cross-correlation function (Kumara et al, 2007, p.2).

Experimental analysis conducted using different multispeaker signals consisting of three, four, five and six speakers and data collected simultaneously using two microscopes separated by about 1m in a laboratory environment of a frequency range of 05-3.5 kHZ and a reverberation time of about 0.5s. Kumara and his colleagues (2007) gathered findings from these studies that concluded locations of peaks corresponded to time delays due to different speakers.

Therefore since direct component of signals are dominated over the reflected/reverberation components, the method applied for speech signals does not show specific or arbitrary distribution relative to the microscope position. To overcome this problem, Kumara et al (2007) suggest using pairs of several spatially distributed microphones, use of several microphones to reduce weak signals and ensure time delays are nearly constant. Conclusively, Kumara et al (2007) suggests tracking of time variation delays to determine the number of speakers required in a scenario where speakers are moving.

In speaker discrimination power, its evidenced that technology used here is predominantly based on statistical modelling of short-time features extracted from acoustic speech signals. Chan and his colleagues (2007) state that speaker discrimination power uses vocal sources related features and convectional vocal tract features in speaker recognition technology (p.1). On recognition performance, the effectiveness of statistical modelling technique and discrimination power of acoustic features are the most important components of speaker discriminating power. In a number of applications, the amount of training for speakers modelling and test data for recognition is limited.

Chan and his colleagues (2007) however suggest a test features performance to ensure good discrimination power of acoustic features regardless of the amount of speech data being processed especially in cases for speaker segmentation for telephone conversation, which often encounter short speech segments making statistical speaker modelling less reliable Chan et al, 2007, p.1).

Chan and his colleagues (2007) research analyses newly proposed acoustic features and their speaker discrimination power in regard to their training and testing conditions. They provide that automatic speech recognition (ASR) uses the Mel-frequency cepstral coefficients (MFCCS) and linear predictive cepstral coefficients (LPCCs) as the most common acoustic features. Their primary goal was to identify different speech sounds and provide pertinent cues for phonetic classification. Chan et al (2007) comprehensive analysis did however conclude that cepstral features extracted from a spoken utterance are closely related to their linguistic content.

On Vocal source, WOCOR uses Fourier spectrum methodology discredited inadequacy in computing time-frequency properties of pitch pulses in the residual signal. Chan et al (2007) rather suggests use of wavelet transform well known for its efficiency in transienting signal representation. They proposed WOCOR feature to employ extraction based on wavelet transform as opposed to the tradition Fourier transform of the residual signal. The second formular uses WOCOR features from a pitch-synchronous segment of residual signal with different values of k. Here, the signal is analysed with different time-frequency resolution.

Telephone conversations uses a frequency band of 300 to 3400 Hz , and for this case all the coefficients of a sub-band are combined into a single feature parameter that requires no temporal information detainment (Chan et al 2007). A large M used is also used and each coefficient acts as an individual feature parameter. Here, a lot of unnecessary temporal details are included, and the feature vector tends to be noisy and less discriminative. WOCOR features captures spectro-temporal characteristics of residual signal-very important for speaker characterization and recognition, however, the research fails to realise that speaker recognition performance would not significantly improve as M increased beyond 4 (Chan et al 2007, p.3).

MFCC in vocal tract features have widely been used for speech recognition and speaker recognition. When examining standard procedure of extracting MFCC on a short time frame basis, WOCOR may not as effective as MFCC in speaker recognition. Aiming at characterising two physiologically distinct components in speech production, WOCOR and MFCC contain complementary information for speaker discrimination (Chan et al 2007, p.4).

The major problem with speaker segmentation is the task of dividing an input speech signal into homogeneous segments and turning points in terms of time instants. Chan et al (2007) also classifies speech segments separated by turning points while speaker segmentations algorithms are commonly based on statistical modelling of MFCC. Here, little knowledge about the speakers is evident since researchers fail to establish speaker model first hand. Chan et al (2007) recommends that speaker models need to be built from preliminary hypothesised segments in the speech signal being processed while keeping in mind that WOCOR is more discriminative than MFCC as it has routinely been utilised in most speaker recognition applications.

Statistical models trained by MFCC describe speakers voice characteristics, at the same time, model the variation of speech. Here, content mismatch between test speech and the training speech is evident. The study also uses WOCOR as a representative of vocal source related features and demonstrates its effectiveness in speaker recognition. On the other hand however, Chan et al ( 2007) argue that WOCOR is discriminative when amount of training data is small as its built on limited amount of text-independent data, a characteristic this research fails to put into consideration (Chan et al 2007, p.5)

In pre-processing stage for speaker diarization, speaker diarization system attempts to assign temporal speech segments in a conversation to the appropriate speakers, and non-speech segments to non-speech. Literary, speaker diarization attempts to answer who spoke then? On of the major problem with system unable to handle co-channel or overlapped speech detection and separation. Guterman and Lapidot (2009) statement on algorithms argues that high computational complexity that consume both time and frequency domain analysis of the audio data (p.2).

Secondly, speaker diarization system attempts to assign temporal speech segments in a conversation to the appropriate generating source. One disadvantages of this system its inability to handle overlapped speech (OS) segments when multiple speakers take part. Normally, the current state of the art systems are assigned to one system in the conversation, thus, generating unavoidable diarization errors (Guterman and Lapidot 2009, p.2).

Audio segmentation addresses the problem of media series such as TV, movies and e.t.c. These segmentations are characterised with various segments of various lengths with quite portion of short lines. Yunfeng et al (2007) classifies unsupervised audio segmentation to include what they state as segmentation stage to detect potential acoustic changes, and a refinement stage to refine candidate changes by a tri-model Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC) (p.1). Audio segmentation also known as acoustic change is stated by Yunfeng et al (2007) as one that detects partitions audio stream into homogenous segments by detecting of speaker identity, acoustic class or environmental condition (p.2).

Here, Yunfeng et al (2007) categorises audio segmentations as model based approach of acoustic classes. Yunfeng et al (2007) further add that its important to have pre-knowledge of speakers and acoustic classes (p.2), contrary to the application applied here. Therefore in this scenario, the model based approach is often unsupervised and lacks many applications. The second audio segmentation approach applied in this computation is the metric-based approach. Yunfeng et al (2007) states metric-based approach determines changes by threshold on the basis of distance computation for the input audio stream.

The distance measured comes from statistical modelling framework like the Kullback-Leibler distance, a generalised likelihood ratio (p.4). Audio segmentation incorporates metric-based method for computing segmentation and a clustering procedure to obtain training data, which is then followed by model based pre-segmentation. BIC operates as threshold and uses two-stage segmentation, first, segmentation audio stream by distance measure and secondly, refine changes by BIC sequentially (false alarm compensation).

However, the evaluated audio normally consists of relative long acoustic segments of >2s or 3s and short segments of 1-3s, which are often neglected in this type of segmentations because they are difficult to be detected. Short segments use unsupervised audio segmentation approach as an emphasis to detect the short segmentation. They are frequent in practical media such as movies, TV series, interviews and phone conversations. Therefore, detecting short segments becomes a challenge when applying audio segmentation into real applications (Yunfeng et al 2007).

In system frameworks, Yunfeng et al (2007) employs a model based approach consisting of five modules; refinement, post-processing, segmentation, feature extraction and pre-processing. Depending on the property of input audio data, pre and post-processing modules alternate, which is down-sampled into 16kHz. The methodology uses algorithm of recall rate (RCL), precision (PRC) and F-measure in determining the best segmentation performance.

Here, target-change that corresponds with one of the two boundaries employs a vigorous methodology in computing changes in false alarms gap. From this analysis, the process of detecting acoustic changes including silence seems insensitive and inaccurate, especially in the short segments. For example, Yunfeng et al (2007) illustrates that recall rates for short segments are between 30.9% and 37.6%, however the overall statistics presented here shows that recall rates could be near 75% if short segments are successfully detected.

Secondly, there is an average mismatch (AMM), which reflects the accuracy for the computed segment boundaries, which indicates that the approach used here does not have a very good resolution in segment boundary location. Aimed at processing real-word media such as broadcast news consisting segments of various durations, the study concludes that tri-model BIC approach shows better segmentation performance and higher resolution of segment boundary location and the refinement stage of the approach shows efficiency by experiments (DU).

In Speech/Music discriminator segment, Theodoros (2006) research states that speech and sound discriminator for radio recordings at segmentation stage to be based on the detection of changes in the energy distribution of the audio signal (p.1). He adds that automatic discrimination of speakers works on speeches, musical genre classification and speaker speech recognition (p.1). Theodoros (2006) concludes by stating that the task of discrimination of speech and music is distributed in the Bayesian Networks adopted in order to combine k-Nearest Neighbor classifiers trained on individual features (p.1).

This methodology has been successfully tested on real Internet broadcasts of BBC radio stations as a real time speech discriminator for the automatic monitoring of radio channels based on energy contour and Zero crossing rate (ZCR). The incremental approach of audio segmentation is divided into non-overlapping segments using segmentation algorithm. Normally, segments grow from one step at a time and when a segments extension is halted forcing it to reach predefined length, an abrupt transition from music to speech is experienced resulting into poor segmentation boundaries (Theodoros 2006, p.1).

Dutta and Haubold (2009) analysis on audio-based classification begins by stating that human voice contains non-linguistic features that are indicative to various speaker demographics with characteristics of gender, ethnicity and nativity (p.1). They further add that helpful cues for audio/video classifications help in content search and retrieval (p.1). In male/female classification using linear kernel support vector machine, automatic speech recognition (ASR) provides good content search cues conducted through filtering speech segments.

Experimental analysis conducted by Dutta and Haubold (2009) to filter out any short fixed audio sample window employed absolute maximum amplitude A methodology for a given speaker segment was noted to be affected by audio quality in an individual speaker use of microphones. It was also noted that in feature selection, the sample used in determining data was excess resulting to overfitting.

This unrestricted sample selection makes it hard to provide comparable classification accuracy and is in the long run more computationally expensive. Secondly, on the demographic experiment of multi-class classification where different classes of people were identified, the sample containing 600 samples for each group (African American, Hispanics, Caucasians and South East Asians) were too large to obtain accurate analysis. In addition, the linear kernel methodology did not provide effective classification accuracies. Classification accuracy in group classification was not determined since both native and non-native English speakers were not grouped according to their demographic class as researchers used different levels of features applied to classification of speech (Dutta and Haubold 2009).

Plumpe et al (1999) states in Hosseinzadeh and Krishnan (2007) special features in combining vocal source and MFCC features for speaker recognition to include Spectral band energy (SBE), spectral bandwidth (SBW), spectral centroid (SC),spectral crest factor (SCF), Renyi entropy (RE), spectral flatness measure (SFM) and Shannon entropy (SE) (p.1). Hosseinzadeh and Krishnan (2007) further add that to evaluate their performance in terms of spectral features, experimental analysis using Mel frequency cepstral coefficients (MFCC) or LPCC using text-independent cohort Gaussian mixture model (GMM) speaker identification will be employed (p.1). Its however important to note that speaker identification is a biometric tool for resources that can be accessed via telephone or internet (Hosseinzadeh and Krishnan 2007).

Special feature recognition enhances performance by combining vocal sources and MFCC features by modelling the entire speech with time-varying excitement and a short time-varying filter. Speech signals are thereby modelled by linear convolution. MFCC and LPCC methodologies prove to be effective in speaker recognition but they do not provide complete description of the speakers speech system in terms of pitch, harmonic structure and spectral energy distribution (Hosseinzadeh and Krishnan 2007, p.4).

Secondly, the linear model used when calculating MFCC and LPCC is not entire accurate since vocal source signal may be predictable for certain vocal tract configurations and may not be applicable to others. Good recognition performance is proven by Hosseinzadeh and Krishnan (2007) experimental analysis to be achieved by GMM based systems. The research also adds that

Technologies have become an integral part of modern life. Digitalization could be noticed in medicine, building, and transportation, to name but a few areas affected by this process. Still, the implementation of new technological facilities and ways of schooling based on them is a highly disputable topic. In the present situation of COVID-19 pandemic, online classes and video-courses occurred to be the only way to continue the process of education in academic institutions worldwide. Nevertheless, it is not clear whether, after the end of the pandemic, educational institutions should return to traditional education methods or use technologies more actively during the classes. From this, it could be inferred that the implementation of technologies into the constant practice of schooling is an open-ended problem since there are many contradictory opinions concerning this topic.

The problem is enhanced by the fact that many elderly professors and teachers, who undoubtedly possess immense knowledge of their subjects, experience difficulties with using cloud data storage, and online broadcast of the lectures. In some cases, they do not know how to fix an unexpected problem with, for instance, headphones or microphone connection. In other words, some instructors are not savvy in technical matters and have significant issues with retaining students attention and interest.

Talking about my current thinking about the future of education from the perspective of the identified problem, I would like to say that further digitalization is an inevitable process. It also seems to be pointless to resist the emerging trend towards digitalization of education. Every year, new computer programs and gadgets are being developed that could facilitate teachers and make students more interested in classes. There are some curious experiments with the learning process, such as the inclusion of Twitter into the pedagogical practice described by Bista (2015). As a result of this innovative practice, Twitter, the participants indicated that their engagement in the in-class activities increased, and this method allowed them to receive relevant information on the course without any delay (Bista, 2015). Moreover, as the world is becoming more globalized, many transnational educational programs have been established in universities worldwide. Bannier (2016) emphasizes that such applications are a chance for individuals from underdeveloped countries to receive a decent education. Apparently, this could not be done without the integration of recent technologies in the learning process.

In addition to what is mentioned above, I believe that technologies would not harm the equity of knowledge and overall education received by students. Martin-Gutierrez et al. (2017) claim that academic institutions would benefit from virtual technologies since they would allow students to access virtual laboratories, conduct virtual experiments, and practice skills in medicine via specially created software. Schenk (2017) supposes that teachers would also be better off when they begin to include new technologies in their traditional educational practices. Therefore, the existing researches prove that the digitalization of teaching is a favorable opportunity that should be used by modern educational institutions. Grounding personal opinion in the current literature, I believe that the open-ended problem with the implementation of technologies during classes would ultimately culminate in the broad application of computer technology in education.

Aspects Influencing Application of Technologies in Education

The previously described problem is multifaceted and could be considered from various points of view. This way, the chosen five aspects that influence the issue of application of technologies in education are teachers and standards, high-stakes assessments, technology, public policy, and diversity and inclusion. Below, each listed aspect is viewed from two perspectives. The first one is expressed by the refusal to include digital technologies in the teaching process. The second approach, on the contrary, emphasizes the necessity to use IT-developments more actively.

Teachers and Standards

Undoubtedly, teachers are the drivers of the implementation of modern technologies into the educational process because it is up to them to decide how to plan their classes. Currently, teachers use electronic statements of attendance and grades in the majority of the institutions of primary and higher education. Students can access instructors via specialized platforms where they can ask questions and send home assignments. Still, some educators cease using innovations at this stage.

From the position of teachers who prefer to ignore a trend towards the digitalization of education, it could be claimed that technologies distract students attention and harm the traditional practice of tuition that had proved its effectiveness over centuries. This opinion is, to a greater extent, is expressed by the older generation of professors and teachers who used to conduct lessons using only paper books and exams and real communication. The opponents of the digitalization of education insist that it takes a lot of time for instructors to realize how to use certain online services or electronic devices (Kaatrakoski et al., 2017). Besides, it also was noticed that some teachers do not use new technologies during the classes on regular bases and tend to return to classical methods of education (Kaatrakoski et al., 2017). Therefore, it becomes apparent that the human factor and flexibility of teachers become a significant impediment towards the utilization of new practices connected with the application of technologies. What is more, the implementation of technologies in schooling requires specific changes in educational standards and the grading system.

In addition, Howards and Mozejko (2015) figured out that teachers decision to resist the discussed trend lies in the lack of support from the leadership of an educational institution. This means that not only individual assertions but also external factors influence this decision. The existence of a culture that supports the usage of new technologies during the lectures, seminars, and research classes in any educational institution is a precious factor that could accelerate the application of trends in practice. The reason why a head of a school or a faculty might not support the integration of technologies is that it is costly to purchase computers, install smart blackboards, and train teachers. However, the mentioned cause of the digitalization delay would be discussed in another chapter of the given research paper.

The second approach to the issue implies the aspiration to integrate trends to digitalization in conventional teaching methods. The proponents of this view argue that implementation of open educational resources (OER) and practices (OEP) help students to acquire and interconnect three types of knowledge: theoretical, practical, and self-regulative (Hood & Littlejohn, 2017). OER and OEP are closely connected to the application of technologies in education because they would be impossible without students and teachers access to electronic devices and the web. Therefore, the implementation of digital technologies allows educators to provide their classmen with more profound and multidimensional knowledge, which would make them better trained. Besides, it could be easily noticed that the gap between the educators and the students is widening since the latter could not live a day without using their gadgets or surfing the net. Thus, in favor of the digitalization of education, it should be argued that technologies would create a more comfortable and familiar conditions for the students in the classes.

Evidence of proponents and opposers of digitalization could be counted as biased towards each of the sides of the current dispute. An outside observer could detect that each researcher tries to find such information that would confirm his or her vision on the issue. In other words, most works use cherry-picking data on positive or negative connections between the teachers and the technologies. Still, both views might be the case since they present two sides of the same coin.

High-stakes Assessments

High-stakes assessments have become an integral part of every students life since because without them, it is impossible to receive a diploma or a scholarship. At first glance, it seems that these tests are weakly connected with the topic of implementation of technologies in educational practices. Nevertheless, digitalization affects even this aspect of the training process. Concerning this issue, there is an opinion that technologies help to enhance the quality of grading of such tests. Simultaneously, there is a vision that new technologies are useless without the existence of a correctly working assessment system in the real world. The current section of the research paper discusses the two given visions.

The proponents of the digitalization of education argue that it tends to grade assessments more fairly. Newhouse (2015) has conducted research that lasted for three years that indicated that technologies indeed increase the authenticity of high-stakes summative assessment (p. 17). Besides, the application of technologies allows creating electronic portfolios that could be accessible to any organization or an educational institution that requires it (Williams et al., 2015). What is more, e-portfolios are a convenient way to store information on previous assessments.

In addition to what was mentioned above, high-stakes assessments include interviews for a university admission, which are mainly conducted by the experts. In the scientific-popular best-seller Thinking, fast and slow, Kahneman (2011) proves that algorithms and computer programs are more successful in the selection of students that obtain a high potential than experts who conduct interviews. This research was not the authors critical work but rather an example that proved his theory that claims that formulas cope much better with the decision-making process.

Even though the studies of the psychologist and the Nobel prize winner, Daniel Kahneman, were nor focused on education, they could be applied for this purpose. This way, from the conclusions of his numerous researches, it could be inferred that the destiny of some kinds of high-stakes assessments participants should be decided not by real people. Instead, the outcomes should be calculated through formulas and special programs that could do this automatically. The method should include the numerical expression of qualities that characterize a good student that would show high results during the learning period. Consequently, the digitalization of high-stakes assessments process enables universities to select more promising students, and this, in turn, would increase the overall reputation of any educational center.

Now, the paper considers the point of view of scholars who deny the pressing need for a broader application of the recent technologies in the sphere of high-stakes assessments. They suppose that artificial systems pose a danger to the quality of grading and could underestimate the performance of a candidate. For instance, Schmidgall and Powers (2017) claim that technologies narrow construct of measurement and give more possibilities for cheating (p. 318). The application of technologies in high-stakes assessments means the need to install more electronic devices, specialized software, and unawareness of an instructor or an examinee of how to use either of them could be a severe problem.

For the author of the present paper, it seems fairer to agree with the evidence proposed by the opponents of the idea rather by the supporters. The experience gained during the school and university years proves that digital systems give failures, online proctoring systems usually turn into excessive stress for the students and their professors. What is more, people just got used to the traditional format of interviews with real examiners and paper-based tests. Therefore, it is challenging to overpersuade oneself in the necessity for the application of digital technologies. It is possible to suggest that the supporters of technologies do not assume the pure sense of fear of everything new. Undoubtedly, the results of their researches are immensely impressive and persuasive. Still, for human nature, it is reasonable to resist any changes. Besides, high-stakes assessments are of great significance for the students, and they would feel more relaxed if the environment is familiar to them. Additionally, they would be sure in a good outcome if they know that the result depends only on their efforts, excluding the probability that some trouble could occur with the soft or hardware.

Public Policy

The government plays an essential role in education by establishing laws that educators have to follow. Marathe (2018) calls digitalization a game-changer in education that leads to the need to reallocate the budget so that schools and universities could afford e-learning and digital technologies. According to data provided by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2019), on average, states spend about 18 percent of total government expenditure on education. In comparison, countries payments on military issues take three times less (The World Bank, 2019). Without any concerns, the trend to spend more money on education than on defense capabilities is a positive one. Still, Marathe (2018) assumes that most of the governments in the developing states do not invest enough money into education. Kazak et al. (2019), as well as Agarwal (2020), confirm this statement by claiming that insufficient budget hinders the digitalization of education in Russia and India. The current section discusses two views on the role of the government in the integration of technologies in the learning practice.

As it has already been mentioned in the subsection above, implementation of technologies in regular schooling practices is assisted by the support of the leadership of a school, college, or university. The head of an educational institution might be a supporter of new technologies; however, his or her aspirations might be limited due to the absence of finance. Besides, Agarwal (2020) emphasizes that rural areas are usually not as wealthy as central ones, and thus, they require additional financial support from the government. Extra money is needed to overcome the lack of educated instructors, the absence of equipment, and implement new teaching methods instead of old ones (Agarwal, 2020). From this, it could be inferred that the government should undertake policies aimed at the digitalization of education.

Nevertheless, it could be assumed that usage of recent technological developments in education neither affects public policy nor could be affected by it. Kopp et al. (2019) suggest that the claim that digitalization is impossible due to the small budget is nothing but a mere excuse. This assertion does not mean that the authors deny that digital transformation is a costly process. However, the scholars insist that at least the higher education institutions could find the funds in internal and external sources (Kopp et al., 2019). Therefore, digitalization depends not that much on public policies of a state but on the strive of an institution to modernize.

Talking about the quality of evidence, all of what has been mentioned in the present subsection of the research paper is credible and could be trusted. That is so because sources consist of recent information on the processes that are going on in educational institutions worldwide. At the same time, it is immensely important not to forget that the mentioned researches mainly reflect the peculiarities of the system of training of a country. This way, what is right, for instance, for Cambodia or Brazil, might be false for the US and the EU. It should also be admitted that both arguments are sane and should be taken into account. The differences in the underlying assumptions of the discussed approaches are expressed through the fact that they are focused on dissimilar levels of educational institutions. The argument of Kopp et al. (2019) does not apply to primary schools in remote areas. Therefore, government involvement in digitalization of education depends on the perspective from which it is viewed.

Diversity and Inclusion

Diversity and inclusion are critical principles for the educational process since teaching in accordance with them mean that the uniqueness of all students is taken into consideration and that all students are treated equally regardless of their race, nationality, gender, economic and social status. In this context, the digitalization of education raises a question about the compatibility with equality in the classroom. The digitalization of knowledge implies that in some cases, students might use their devices during lectures and seminars. The problem is that some students could not afford a laptop and thus might feel shy and uncomfortable near the more prosperous groupmates. On the other hand, there is an opinion that it is precisely digitalization that helps to mitigate the dissimilarities between the students and equalize their abilities.

Digitalization also affects the way children with special needs are trained. Conti et al. (2017) suggest that robots significantly assist the learning process of people with intellectual disabilities. In spite of the existing evidence of the positive impact of robots on the education of such people, experienced psychologists do not trust them and prefer not to use (Conti et al., 2017). The current subsection discussed the arguments for and against the application of modern technologies in academic institutions.

One possible approach to the issue of application of technologies is that it could help to make education equal. This became possible due to the spread of online learning globally (Palvia et al., 2018). Allen and Seaman (2016) also mark that the number of online education enrollments steadily increases even though the overall admissions for higher education are in decline. Online training makes it possible to establish dual degree programs with the most respectful universities so that students. For example, students from Pakistan, for whom it is too expensive to study abroad, receive a chance to get a diploma in a prestigious American or British university without leaving the country. Besides, examinations conducted via online technologies guarantee anonymity and the absence of bias based on gender, race, nationality, and other possible factors. That is true for the cases when a student takes an online test or write an examination in the affiliated center that sends assignments to the major university where they are checked.

At the same time, the digitalization of education proves to be useless in fighting inequality among the students. Musu-Gillette et al. (2016) inform that the gap between the quality of education of students of different races still exists. In addition to that, Rooks (2017) calls online training an inefficient solution to the issue of segregation on race or income bases in educational institutions. This vision is grounded on the fact that schools in places where mainly live color families and those with low income do not possess sufficient budget. Consequently, they are unable to apply the same quality technologies as in private schools in central areas. This distinction leads to the rising gap in the quality of formation received by students in various parts of a country.

The given evidence shows the same problem from different angles. From one point of view, technologies make it possible to better educate children with physical and mental disabilities. Besides, online learning, which would be impossible without the digitalization of educational processes, allows students from underdeveloped and developing countries to get a degree of the best universities in the world while staying at home. Nevertheless, modern technologies and virtual learning practices do not reduce the gap in the quality of education of children of different races and income levels. As far as the results of the mentioned articles are based on researches, they leave no reason to doubt in their correctness and relevance. The underlying assumptions of the specified papers are that technologies have little to do with social problems. Incorporation of artificial techniques, virtual learning environment, smart boards, and online laboratories into usual practice could indeed equalize students in terms of their abilities, which means that the principle of diversity in the classroom is maintained. Still, technologies could not change educators and groupmates biased judgment towards representatives of other races, genders, and income levels.

Technology

When discussing the pros and cons of the application of technologies in educational practices, one of the most critical aspects to me mentioned deals with technologies that are being applied. Apparently, the digital revolution has led to the necessity to change longstanding academic techniques. Still, the question remains if technologies have a positive or a negative impact on education overall. The current subsection observes the evidence for and against of digitalization in the sphere of learning from the perspective of technologies that are being used.

It is logical to assume that the opponents of the digitalization of education see the danger in the constant usage of smartphones and computers instead of books for learning purposes. Wutz (2018) doubts that technologies actually should be relied on to such a great extent. As an example, the author mentions the case of Belgium, where children use iPads instead of paper books (Wutz, 2018). Frequent use of electronic devices has a devastating impact on eyesight. Apart from this, Wutz (2018) warns that children in such an educational system could become victims of commercial advertisements of certain brands. This means that digitalization could help create a monopolist on the market of IT companies, which is not beneficial for less influential players. Still, a vision of Wutz (2018) could be counter-argued. Schools and universities could use unbranded digital items with the technology of eye protection and the possibility of handwriting via a stylus.

In favor of the broader application of recent technologies in education, Collins and Halverson (2018) reckons that the current generation of students was born in the epoch of digital revolution and could imagine their lives without the Internet, artificial intelligence, smartphones, and computers. Education should follow the trends towards digitalization and modernization and adjust to the habits of the modern generation of students.

Indeed, the mentioned articles provide relevant arguments in defense of the ideas of the author. Because both of them were written and published in recent two years, the information is up to date and reflects the current situation in the sphere of education. It could be noticed that both approaches are based on the same assumption that digitalization is an inevitable process, and the system of education is not perfect and has a lot of space for improvement.

In the conclusion of the section, it should be admitted that aspects influencing the integration of digital technologies into educational practices are multidimensional. Digitalization affects not only the teaching methods, students abilities, systems of assessments, but also governmental policies, health issues, and social problems such as inequality. Summarizing all the arguments mentioned above, it becomes clear that the implementation of new technologies has both weak and strong sides. Nevertheless, the global trend towards digitalization of human life implies that educators should gradually move away from traditional teaching methods.

Relations Between the Approaches Towards Digitalization and Aspects Influencing Application of Technologies in Education

The current section of the research paper discusses how public policy and diversity and inclusion on one side affect the approaches towards digitalization of education and vice versa. These particular aspects were chosen for further discussion because they seem to be the most debatable and contradictory. Without any concerns, the matter of teachers readiness to use electronic devices during classes and the quality of high-stake assessments are also important. Nevertheless, there are more agreements in the scholar community than disagreements on how digitalization influences these aspects.

The decision of the government, whether to increase the number of subsidies to schools and universities, depends on the belief of politicians in the necessity to digitalize education. Besides, their willingness to lobby the interests of a software company or IT-corporation also might affect the final decision. In the current state of affairs, countries compete in possession of soft power, not a hard one, as it was up to the end of the previous century. Soft power itself is an ability of a nation to influence others in such a way that they would accept its rules and act in a way beneficial for that country. This concept, among other indicators such as democratic liberties, government transparency, the attractiveness of the business environment for entrepreneurs, includes the quality and prestigiousness of private education. Therefore, it is highly profitable for the government to increase the share of total GDP spent on academic issues since it could turn into the growth of a countrys power on the international stage. Therefore, the digitalization of education would be underfinanced in the sphere of humanities since the application of technologies seems to be more relevant in exact sciences.

Diversity and inclusion are a tricky issue in education, even without the context of its digitalization. For universities, online training is an additional source of revenue and a good PR move. One approach suggests that virtual learning equalizes students since all of them gain equal access to the learning courses no matter where they live and how high their income is. Still, from the viewpoint of the opponents of virtual learning, the quality of such education is less satisfactory than of the classical one. Online students could listen to the same lectures and read the same books as regular students; however, the former ones are deprived of real communication with the groupmates and professors. This means that they become unable to make useful acquaintances that would assist them in making a career. Notwithstanding this impediment, the current trend toward globalization does not consider this vision of a problem and does not suggest any solutions. What is more, digitalization does not help to increase diversity and inclusion in the classroom since these principles are connected with mindsets and overall culture.

Pros and Cons of Implementing the Discussed Approaches to Digitalization of Education

The two possible approaches to the issue include a more active implementation of technologies in regular learning practices at all stages of education and limitations of digitalization and preservation of traditional educational methods. Both attitudes have strong and weak sides that are examined in this section. In anticipation, it should be noted that in real life, more the first approach overtakes the second one.

The most significant advantage of the continuation of the digitalization of education could be inferred from the current pandemic situation when students in most countries of the world are obliged to stay home and deprived of the ability to attend classes. Lectures and seminars in Zoom and conduction of examinations with the application of proctoring systems enabled students not to lose their progress and keep on learning. Unsurprisingly, students who have an unstable Internet connection or do not have individual electronic devices such as web-camera or microphone experience significant inconvenience from this work format. Still, these cases are rather an exclusion than a common practice. For example, Cambridge University has even decided to conduct all the lectures online during the following academic year since this method proved to be more convenient for students. What is more, technologies make it possible to experiment more frequently and gain more experience without harming health. For instance, pilots are trained through special computer programs that imitate the conditions of a real flight. Finally, the digitalization of education turns into the lower need to print books, scientific papers, and quizzes that help to reduce the frequency of deforestation.

Nevertheless, nowadays, technologies are not perfect and cannot be guaranteed one hundred percent efficiency in comparison with traditional educational methods. Firstly, students might get distracted from the classes and surf the net or play games on a laptop or a tablet. Secondly, if a government does not provide students and schoolchildren with electronic devices for free, then families that could not buy a device become excluded from the educational process. Thirdly, some teachers and classmen are not trained to use digital equipment that hinders the efficiency of a class.

Compared to online learning, traditional offline one is much cheaper since it does not require the installation of any specific equipment, purchasing of electronic devices, and additional training of teachers. Besides, experiments conducted in the artificially created environment reduce the degree of responsibility for the outcome and could never change experience gained in real life. Traditional education without any digital devices and new technologies has also proved its effectiveness and has raised several generations of prominent scientists, physicians, architects, politicians, and other specialists in all spheres of human life.

Simultaneously, the most weight disadvantage of traditional education is that it is gradually becoming outdated. Children from birth are growing in the digital environment and easily manage to use a computer or a tablet from a very young age. What is more, even though further digitalization of education does not resolve discrimination and segregation, neither does the classical one. At least, in the epoch of globalization, people receive an ability to study abroad via digital platforms, which is impossible in the traditional system. Ultimately, the modern market of digital devices suggests a wide range of products at different prices so that all students could find affordable laptops and accessories.

Proposed Solution of the Identified Problem

As it has already been mentioned, the identified open-ended problem signifies the debates on whether education should be digitalized or not, and if yes, then how could this be achieved. In my opinion, traditional educational practices should be gradually substituted with new ones that include the application of new technologies. At the same time, it does not signify that educators should expunge using classical educational methods: offline seminars, written exams, interviews with experts, real experiments in a field, or laboratory.

In other words, I suppose that should be created such a system of education that would reflect the strongest points of both approaches. It is impossible to substitute all in-class activities with online ones. People are social beings, academic institutions are places of socialization, and even digital technologies and the most advanced robots could never supplant communication with real teachers and groupmates. I also believe that the government should be engaged more actively in the digitalization of education. It could financially support educational centers that try to implement some new techniques in daily practices. Besides, I guess it would be profitable if departments of education would create a unified program with advice on how to digitalize education. This program should include precise steps that learning organizations could follow to achieve the goal.

T

Introduction

In the context of public construction projects in Abuja Nigeria, project success can only be realized when stakeholder performance is evaluated against a performance evaluation framework. A performance evaluation framework provides well established and evaluated standard measures against which the performance of project stakeholders can be measured to evaluate various aspects of project implementation which are in line with project objectives. According to (Atkinson et al., 1997; Wateridge, 1998), a stakeholder has the potential to influence the performance of a projects final outcomes and outputs. Drawing from Atkinson et al., (1997) and Wateridges (1998) definition of a stakeholder as an individual or a group of individuals with the potential to impact on project outcomes, the government of Nigeria, the public, local and international contractors, and suppliers were project stakeholders in phase one of the Abuja public construction projects. It is worth noting that other project stakeholders such as suppliers of raw materials in the supply chain of construction materials have been left out in this study.

However, different researchers provide different definitions and views on performance evaluation. Some authors argue that performance evaluation should be based on project objectives while others agree that a performance evaluation framework should be based on project goals. However, based on the need for a performance evaluation framework, it is worth mentioning that both project goals and objectives are integral to the framework.

On the other hand, a performance evaluation framework is a tool for project to stakeholders to implement projects leading to project completion to remain within time and cost schedules to achieve project quality objectives for which public infrastructure are being developed. The main objective of a successful project is client satisfactions. Thus, a successful project which triggers client satisfaction is based on the contribution of each participant in each phase of project lifecycle (Liu & Walker, 1998). Many researchers only view project success from the perspective of employee productivity by focusing on inputs and outputs without integrating a framework to evaluate the aspect of stakeholder evaluation in project implementation.

Productivity can only lead to project success if stakeholder performance is evaluated against standard measures which evaluate the productivity of the stakeholder. Productivity, therefore, is one variant of project successful factors.

It is important therefore, to derive the true meaning of performance evaluation to inform the study. Performance evaluation is Stakeholder participants in the Abuja construction project included the government of Nigeria, international and local contractors, the public who were also end users of the public infrastructure, and other stakeholders. The evaluation process yields valuable information about the productivity of the stakeholder in the.

Thus, to achieve quality, time, and cost schedules, stakeholders have to be evaluated for their effectiveness in implementing project objectives. Project objectives can only be met by employing a framework to measure stakeholder performance that provides methods of identifying key deviations from project objectives, identifying key aspects of a project to be measured, and formulating key performance measures and key performance indicators. It is therefore important to look at the background of Abuja construction projects to inform the study about the need for a performance evaluation framework.

Project Background

Public construction projects in Abuja Nigeria have remained behind schedule, experienced cost overruns and the original project plan has been distorted to meet dynamically changing infrastructure demands from the original master plan. Such distortions, cost, and schedule overruns have been experienced due to the failure of the stakeholders to integrate a performance evaluation framework in the entire project implementation lifecycle.

A snapshot of the situation on the ground reveals that of the total 84 awarded projects, 80 projects experienced cost overruns constituting 92.3 % of the entire projects awarded in the construction industry. On the other hand, of the 80 projects that experienced cost overruns, 24 projects constituting ~25% of the entire projects experienced cost and schedule overruns. On the other hand, 56 projects, which constitute ~ 67% of the projects, experienced schedule overruns.

Literature Review

There is no documented evidence of any evaluation mechanism integrated into the project implementation at every phase of project lifecycle. Lack of a performance evaluation framework to evaluate the performance of stakeholders in each phase of project lifecycle has evidently led to cost and schedule overruns. An analysis of the performance of contractors working in the public construction projects in Abuja Nigeria reflects the fact that client interests are not accounted for, project costs are not accounted for, and project implementation schedule is not accounted for. Thus, the viability of a well implemented project that stays on schedule, does not experience cost overruns, and attains project quality perspectives. Project success thrives on stakeholder performance evaluation measures not evaluated in public construction projects in Abuja Nigeria include:

1. Client characteristics
2. Project characteristics
3. Management structure
4. Stakeholder conflicts
5. External and internal project attributes
6. Attributes of the end user of the public infrastructure
7. Performance of the contractors.

On the other hand, different author identify different indicators as performance evaluation parameters to be measured. Egan (1998), Mbugua et al, (1999), and Camp (1989) aggregate these parametric indicators to constitute construction cost, time, client satisfaction, productivity, time predictability, risk, public interest, safety, and cost predictability. Not only are the latter measures definitive of what should be measured, but also sets targets for performance measurements, defines benchmarks for minimum acceptable standards, establishes performance tracking measures, sets procedures for evaluating and measuring performance, and sets standards for performance monitoring (Artley & Stroh, 2001).

Mbugua, et al, (1999), in their study on performance critical success factors have established the fact that a performance evaluation framework not only reflects the needs for the stakeholder working groups in each phase of project implementation process, but also an evaluation of stakeholders through each project development phase, a view reinforced and generally accepted by (Pillai et al., 2002). The evaluation process against established standards ensures corrective actions are taken to improve stakeholder performance. Artley and Stroh (2001) clarifies on the types of performance measures with specific attributes including human capital that determines resources for.

Research Methodology

This is a qualitative and quantitative research that primarily focuses on establishing the need for a stakeholder performance evaluation framework for public construction projects in Abuja Nigeria through a literature review. The research methodology was integrative through a conceptual model formulated from the literature review, with a quantitative survey conducted based on the administration of structured close ended questionnaires on respondents based on the researchers knowledge and experience in the construction industry. That has led to the conclusion on the need for a stakeholder performance evaluation framework in public construction projects in Abuja Nigeria.

Data Analysis

The transformative process of cleaning, modeling, and selecting the most appropriate data for use will start by physical inspections during the coding stage prior to data entry and analysis. Statistical tool such as SPSS software and excel data processing tools will be integrated into analyzing the data.

Measures

Qualitative and quantitative data was collected to inform the inquiry. Qualitative data collected for the inquiry was highly subjective and targeted the subject of inquiry into the need for a stakeholder performance evaluation framework (Naoum, 2007). Accroding to Naoum (2007) different terms such as attribute can be measured on a scale between poor and perfect.However, some difficulties encountered include the reliability, availability, coding of qualitative data, and assigning numerical values to qualitative data (Bouma & Atkinson, 1995). Typically, it revolves around an analogy on researchers in the construction industrys perceptions about the need for a stakeholder performance evaluation framework. With a multipronged approach to the study, the inquiry will use quantitative data that will draw from the percentage of completed projects and incomplete projects according to Abuja Master Plan, cost overruns incurred in the construction process, and other quality aspects.

Questionnaires and Observations

Observations constituted critical tool in the study by borrowing from Trochims (2006) arguments that observations are unconstructive and provide direct information about the extent of a projects progress. Dai et al. (2009), Park (2006), and Ying (2004) researches significantly contribute their knowledge to the use of questionnaires as successful data capturing tools.

Validation

Evidence suggests that performance measures and performance indicators suggested integral components to the stakeholder performance evaluation framework leading to project success. It is analogically clear to see a linear relationship between a performance evaluation framework and stakeholder performance in terms of project success factors.

Thus, in order to validate the results from the study, a series of questionnaires were later administered on the respondents and further qualitative research conducted to validate the results.

Other tools used in the study to determine the impact of a stakeholders performance evaluation framework and project success included the Spearmans Rank Order Correlation.

Spearmans Rank Order Correlation

Eze et al., (2005) provides statistical methods for evaluating the correlation between variables involved in the study. Borrowing from the statistical knowledge of Eze et al., (2005), the correlation provides a measure to evaluate the impact of the variables on the performance of the stakeholder with gradual implications on project success factors. Critical issues to consider in this case are the relationship between performance measurements, performance indicators, and project success factors. These factors are the baseline for evaluating the performance of the stakeholder in driving the project progress to successful completion. On the other hand, the correlation coefficient informs about the frequency with which the variables occur, prioritisation of the factors, and the gradual implications on project success (Eze et al., 2005).

However, statistical application software tool that integrates SPSS software can be used to analyse the collected data to provide the final value for the purpose of making informed decisions.

It is important, therefore to conceptualize the research variables that are used in the study.

Borrowing from Phaobunjong (2002), a list of methods for selecting research variables includes:

1. Well selected variables specific to the specific area of measurement
2. Variables should reflect factors identified in the conceptual framework on the theoretical baseline of the study.
3. Variables identifiably related to cause and effect
4. Variables that can be assigned numerical values.

The study captures a combination of variables to afford the rationale for a stakeholder performance evaluation framework. These variables include:

Results and Analysis

A sample statistic was randomly taken to test need for stakeholder performance evaluation framework in public construction projects in Abuja, Nigeria. Hypotheses were formulated based on captured data to conduct the test. The hypotheses were to test an association between a stakeholder performance evaluation framework and successful implementation of public const5ruction projects. Two test statistic samples, A and B were used to test the association. A x² was used to test and evaluate the association, yielding a test statistic of 3.545. Thus, a 5% significance test was conducted to test the validity of the association.

The results were tabulated as follows.

Expected values are calculated based on: (row*column)/total

Hypotheses:

• H_o: Results from A and B are independent.
• H₁: An association between the framework and successful project implementation exists.

Thus, v (Yates constant) =2=1*2=2. Thus on a 5% significance test, X²=5.991 from mathematical tables, indicating that H_o>5.991, hence, H_o is rejected. The results validate alternative hypothesis with the evidence of the existence of a strong correlation between a stakeholder performance evaluation framework and successful project implementation outcomes and outputs.

The above analysis can further be detailed and modified for use in different public construction projects environments. Typically, the target environments are the public construction projects in Abuja Nigeria. It is important to note that the findings indicate a strong correlation between the outcomes and outputs of project success factors and a stakeholder performance evaluation framework. In conclusion therefore, a stakeholder performance evaluation framework is strongly correlates with a successful project.

Discussion

A number of findings have been established from the research and data analysis indicates that a stakeholder performance evaluation framework is a critical component in contributing to the success of construction projects in Abuja Nigeria. The results are drawn from a qualitative analysis of available literature, a study conducted with a comparative evaluation of the knowledge gaps that exist in the literature of different authors in the construction industry. Software simulations of the conceptual model were also conducted using researched variables as inputs into the study to crystallize the need for a stakeholder performance evaluation framework. Wide are the views that could result in the implications of evaluating the performance of the stakeholder. These implications range from the contribution of the stakeholder to project outcomes and outputs, the need to incorporate a stakeholder into the entire project implementation process, and project success factors. However, the study was bias towards the use of a stakeholder performance evaluation framework in line with project success factors.

The need for an integrated performance evaluation framework for public construction projects in Abuja Nigeria

Purpose

The purpose of the study is to crystallize the need for an integrated performance evaluation framework for public construction projects in Abuja Nigeria. Typically, cost overruns, late project completion time, and unmet quality expectations not only form the basis for the need for an integrated performance evaluation framework, yet a framework has to be selected and formulated to reflect the performance of construction projects in Abuja Nigeria. Much literature has been written on performance evaluation frameworks but not much literature is available to guide management of construction firms on the need for an integrated performance evaluation framework specifically formulated for the construction industry in Abuja Nigeria.

Abstract

Implementing public construction projects in Abuja Nigeria can only lead to successful implementation of the public construction projects based on an integrated performance evaluation framework model specifically tailored for the construction industry in Abuja Nigeria. The study will be subject to test hypotheses to test the validity of the need for an integrated performance evaluation framework for public construction projects in Abuja Nigeria. The performance process model is tripartite based on inputs from the end users who are the public in this case, management and prioritizations in decision making processes, and client priorities. Researches into performance based management processes are factors hardly integrated into the management of stakeholders and contractors awarded construction projects in Abuja Nigeria. Outcomes where over 90% of the projects have experienced time overruns and over 60% experienced cost overruns are evidenced from document analysis and examination of related literature. That not only calls for an evaluation framework tailored for the specific Nigerian construction industry, but due to the significance of the construction industry and the overall impact on the entire Nigerian economy, and other developing economies, the rationale for establishing an integrated performance evaluation framework cannot be overemphasized.

Introduction

The need for an integrated performance evaluation framework for public construction projects comes at a time when public construction projects in Abuja Nigeria have experienced cost and schedule overruns as has been evident from the outcomes of phase 1 of the public construction projects. Emphasis on a specific model for a specific construction industry and implications of the construction industry on the Nigerian economy reinforce the rationale to select the most appropriate model of a performance evaluation framework. The construction industry is the third most contributor to the national economy making a 29.6% GDP (Gross Development Product) which is 69% of the Nigerias Gross Fixed Capital Formation (Federal Office of Statistics, 1997). Literature in favor of formulating an integrated performance evaluation framework for public construction projects in the construction industry is minimal. Thus the need to reconstruct available literature for public construction projects in Abuja Nigeria.

Literature Review

According to the Federal Office of Statistics (1997), the Nigerian economy, like many economies of the world significantly thrives on the construction industry. Drawing from Sinclair and Zairi (1995) and Mbugua et al., (1999), the size and complexity of public construction projects in Abuja Nigeria not only need a performance evaluation framework as a standard measure against which the success of a construction project can be evaluated, but the need an integrated performance evaluation framework specifically formulated for the Abuja construction industry environment is necessary.

A performance evaluation framework not only borrows widely from the classical approaches of the common definitions of performance evaluation frameworks, but also incorporates other views that include business goals, stakeholder interests, employee involvement, measurements validations, performance evaluation plan, and a conceptual framework.

The planning element in the integrated performance evaluation framework maps out elements and components included in the framework that define strategic organizational goals, clearly defined and set out objectives, both short term and long term strategic requirements that provide a link between the project goals and the link to project strategies.

It is important, then, to crystallize the meaning of a performance measurement, measures, and the rationale for the measures. In addition to that, is important to answer the inquiry on the components constituting an integrated performance evaluation framework and a need to establish a performance evaluation system.

According to Sinclair and Zairi (1995), the numerical values which are also indicators assigned on some numerical scale are identified as performance measures. These performance measures provide key indicators on the functionality of the contractors, the management, and other stakeholders in the current and subsequent public construction projects in Abuja Nigeria. Thus, the measures could provide adequate project progress information on the need to make intelligent decisions, provide adequate guidance on deviations from project goals and adequate measures to stay on the course of project goals, and identify areas of continuous improvements. Performance measurement is defined by Sinclair and Zairi (1995) and Mbugua et al., (1999) as a method that provides a systematic approach for evaluating project progress in terms of inputs and outputs in the construction industry. These measures, according to Artley and Stroh (2001) quantify outcomes for the construction industry by assigning numerical performance indicators comparable to desired construction project goals. Thus, the reliability of the measures provide a bridge between items identifiably to be measured and corrective actions taken to point a construction project to stated goals.

Kangari et al, (1992), Kay (1993), Brown and Lavenrick (1994), and Kaka et al, (1995) agree to the point that approaches of formulating performance evaluation measures should be based on the target industry. However, Cordero (1990) deviates from the classical assumptions made by Kangari et al. (1992), Kay (1993), Brown and Lavenrick (1994), and Kaka et al., (1995) on performance measurements and derives these measures based on the area of measurement and the purpose for which the measures are formulated. According to Love et al., (2000), a balance can be drawn between definitions by different authors by integrating the concept of the stakeholder. Artley and Stroh (2001) borrowing from other authors classifies performance measures to include 1.) Effectiveness which, according to Mbugua et al., (1999) and Artley and Stroh (2001) evaluate the contractor and other stakeholders on project implementation course by measuring inputs and outputs, a variant component of productivity. Artley and Stroh (2001) further suggests that the degree of conformity of the public infrastructure to client and end user needs provides an actual measure of quality. Another variant of performance measures are efficiency, a measure of process characteristics which provide indicators on the course of action being taken that are consistent with project needs. On the other hand, the next performance measure, according to Artley and Stroh (2001) includes efficiency. According to Artley and Stroh (2001) efficiency provides a measure of the extent to which project goals and objectives are attained with minimum time and cost schedules. The next measure, 3) quality, measures the extent to which outputs and outcomes conform to end user needs. The next performance measure,4) productivity which is a widely used measure to evaluate the value added to a project outcome and output defines the capital and labor inputs against project inputs.

One can sanguinely argue that a knowledge gap in inherent in many of the authors suggestions and research findings compelling the need to borrow across industries to formulate an integrated performance evaluation framework typically tailored for the Abuja public construction projects. Typical are the knowledge gaps inherent in the works of Olomolaiye & Harris (1995), Love et al., (2000), and Brown and Lavenrick (1994), but an aggregation of the knowledge contributions forms a strong basis for a flexible performance evaluation framework.

According to Artley and Stroh (2001), productivity, a measure of the ration between process, labor, and capital consumptions have been suggested to be integral components to the integrated performance evaluation framework. Productivity can therefore be mathematically be related to inputs and output based on the following relation: (Olomolaiye & Harris, 1995).

Productivity = output/ inputs.

Olomolaiye and Harris (1995) consider inputs to be specifically tailored to meet performance items being measured for a specific project and industry. Therefore, productivity is a composite factor of efficiency, a desirable element in the integrated performance evaluation system. On the other hand, Olomolaiye & Harris (1995) and Artley and Stroh (2001), concur that an integrated performance evaluation framework constitutes performance measures which are effective and standard measures of change and the requirements to be changed. Thus, the framework provides quantifiable measures for benchmarking construction activities. The KPI Working Group (2003) in addition to suggestions made by other studies conducted by several other authors in the construction identify benchmarking in the construction industry to include the integration of key performance indicators that provide a basis for evaluating client satisfaction with both products and services, adherence to project schedule in terms of cost and time, the level of safety, the degree of project stability, and productivity. In addition to that, benchmarking thieves on evaluating the performance and competitiveness of internal and external organizational activities and is based on key performance measures and indicators in the construction industry. On the other hand, productivity can be evaluated at individual or project levels, as may be determined significant by the specific industry under evaluation.

Thus, the integrated performance evaluation framework focuses on the selection and inclusion of measures that are specifically meant to address the plight in the construction industry in Abuja Nigeria that has led to cost and schedule overruns. These are due to factors evidently driving the deviation of project due date, due costs, ineffective planning, cost complaints, and risk rates that are higher than projected.

An integrated performance evaluation framework therefore provides the key to the evaluation of a successful framework for evaluating the critical success factors of construction projects in Abuja Nigeria. Success, as has been identified in the construction industry relates to efficient project implementation approaches that lead to client satisfaction and the fulfillment of project goals and objectives.

Conceptual Framework

Borrowing from the literature review and experience of the researcher and based on observations in the construction industry, it is well worth to formulate a conceptual model that captures various elements for inclusion into the industry.

The above conceptualized framework drawing on the theories of.

Methodology

Researching into the need and formulation of an integrated performance evaluation framework is based on a qualitative and extensive literature survey to identify contributions of different authors and their perspectives about the application of performance measures in the construction industry. On the other hand, a quantitative study will be conducted on the need for an integrated performance evaluation framework by conducting interviews targeting the management of various contractors working at the construction site in phase 1 of the construction projects. On the other hand, questionnaires will be administered on employees working at the construction firms on their perspectives about a framework for evaluating their construction activities against standard key performance measures.

The findings will be subjected to a hypotheses test to validate the need for a performance evaluation framework in the public construction projects in Abuja Nigeria.

Role of the Researcher

The role of the researcher is to identify appropriate methods for collecting and analyzing data, identify appropriate subjects to whom questionnaires are administered and to be interviewed, evaluate the best mechanism for coding and reporting data, and identify the rate at which the performance measures are to be applied in the construction industry. In addition to that,

Validations

Data collection can be validated for accuracy by employing various data validation techniques. The validity of information captured when conducting interviews

Measurements

Data analysis will be based on the coding of various success factors on a scale of 1 to 5 as follows:

Entirely dissatisfied-1, Mostly dissatisfied-3, Lie between dissatisfied and satisfied-4, Satisfied-5, fully satisfied-6.

On the other hand, other factors include project completion on schedule which includes: Project tie which is the actual period a project takes to be completed which is expressed as a percentage of the project completion time and the actual projected completion time.

Project cost forms another variable introduced into the integrated performance evaluation framework which is expressed as a percentage of the actual cost versus the cost overruns.

Hypotheses Formulation

A survey conducted to test the findings on the need for an integrated performance evaluation framework at management level consisted of a random sample of 100 participants. It was noted that mean value of managers in support of the integrated performance evaluation framework is 45 with a standard deviation on the population equivalent to 18. A 5% level significance test is conducted to test the validity of the assumption. Then:

• H_o: Management finds the need for an integrated performance evaluation framework for project success.
• H₁: The claim for an integrated performance evaluation framework is incorrect.

Defining the test variable as X, then:

• H_o: µ=45 (There is need for the framework)
• H₁:#45 (There is no need for a framework)

A test statistic of a sample size of 100 was used with a large value of n, thus, borrowing from the central limit theorem (Fischer, 2010); the relation can be expressed as follows:

X~N (µ, ±²/n) where the value of ±=18 and n=100.

According to Fischer (2010), the central limit theorem can be used to estimate the above test findings to a normal approximation.

Introduction

The Internet has become an inherent constituent of modern life, to which people are exposed from early childhood. Almost every child is expected to have a smartphone in the future. The Internet permeates every aspect of life  work, education, communication, entertainment, and many others. The web contains content ranging from text and images to complex, massive databases. Millions of people are connected by social networks, which transcend national boundaries. All of these elements comprise a large cyber space, the role of which in life becomes more and more prominent. As more and more content is created, the dependency of people on the Internet becomes greater.

It is evident that contemporary and future generations have to possess the skills to work with cyber space. It can be debated whether the Internet will supplant paper-based sources of information, but everyone has to adapt to its presence. This necessity also applies to children who are born into the unprecedentedly interconnected world. Cyber space is a venue for communication, work, and entertainment even when physical interaction is limited (Edwards, 2021). Therefore, acquaintance with cyber space is an evident part of modern education and upbringing, which encompasses children in their earliest years.

As much as access to cyber space is a modern necessity, the Internet is also a source of danger for users of all ages. Whether the web is used for entertainment or educational purposes, it has the capacity to jeopardize the individuals safety via multiple means ranging from the exposition of personal data to cyber-attacks and frauds. However, as much as the Internet is dangerous, it provides even more risks to children. Unable to understand the threats of cyberspace, children are especially susceptible to the danger. The lower the age is, the less protected they are, with age 0 to 6 being the most vulnerable (Straker et al., 2018). Understanding what constitutes risks to young childrens cyber safety is essential in understanding what prevention measures are the most appropriate.

The necessity for cyber protection is common knowledge, yet scientific input is necessary to understand the full extent of threats towards users. The issue is further complicated by the age of the target group, which has the upper limit of six years. This group demands greater attention and control from adults than any other age category because of the accessibility of the Internet and lack of knowledge and skills to protect themselves. Therefore, the search parameters should be limited to the sources, which study cyber threats towards children younger than six years specifically. The goal of this paper is to analyze the existing research on the risks cyber space poses to young children in order to ascertain the proper prevention measures, which would allow children to grow and learn the Internet safely.

Method

Best evidence synthesis was the main tool used to gather the necessary information. Due to the deficit of articles published on the topic of cyber safety specific to young children, the search was complicated by the absence of sources. Many articles study the subjective responses of young children and parents, which compromise the objectiveness of findings. The main challenge was classification of the data available in the articles from subjective to unbiased. Subsequently, all articles had to be analyzed and compared in order to uncover similar or different conclusions and ideas. As the Internet is the major platform, which provides valuable information for this assignment, the use of key terms was essential.

Search Procedure

The databases, which provided the scientific output are JSTOR, Education Resources Information Center, and Wiley Online Library database. Primary search terms were young children, early childhood education, Internet exposure, cybercitizen, cyber safety, internet safety, digital ethics, cyber ethics, and cyber hygiene. Before starting the search, two filters were applied in order to target the necessary articles. First, all sources had to be peer-reviewed, which would ensure scientific quality. Second, the date filter limited the search to publications posted between 2017 and 2021. The reason for this specific time frame lies in the rapid development of cyber space and the dynamics of young childrens exposure to the Internet, which requires more recent analyses.

Study Selection: Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

The ultimate goal is to describe the state of research in Early Childhood and Care research on cybersecurity, analyze their methods and participants, which would allow to ascertain the most appropriate protective measures for children in cyber space. As has already been mentioned, the first inclusion criterion was the date limit. The pull of articles is limited to the ones published after 2016. As the Internet is a highly dynamic technology, the specifics of users experience with it are also subject to change. As a result, information about cyber space quickly becomes outdated, which renders sources published more than five years ago irrelevant. The reviewed literature comprises exclusively peer-reviewed scholarly articles.

Also, articles had to study the problem of cyber security of young children. This premise necessitates two inclusion criteria, one of which is the presence of the Internet in the body of articles. The other one is the focus on children younger than eight years. This age group differs from the older children and adolescents, which results in different threats and protective measures. For example, unlike older children, toddlers are not able to identify a threat, which does not harm them physically (Levine et al., 2019). Therefore, mediating their gadget use is more important since they cannot do it on their own.

Naturally, some articles contain information on all age groups, including children below eight years. However, the conclusions presented by them apply to all groups indiscriminately. The issue of cyber bullying is deliberately excluded due to its irrelevance for the targeted age group. Combined together, these criteria form the exclusion basis for the multitude of available sources. The entirety of the procedure is visualized on the Flow Chart below.

Flow Chart

Results

e analysis of the articles provides information on the aspects related to the issues of cybersecurity pertaining to young children. Cybersecurity refers to the multitude of measures designed to protect users from the risks of the Internet and allow them to access the web safely. Young children are users of cyber space who lack the sufficient knowledge and skills to ensure their safety during their web interactions. Overall, five common themes are identified, which are the earlier age of Internet users, the increasing variety of risks, widening generation gap, insufficient parental mediation, and the necessity of teachers. The summary of the analyzed articles is available in Figure 1.

Figure 1.

Earlier Age of Internet Users

The first theme across the articles is the gradually lowering age of Internet users. Edwards et al. (2018) argue that as more technology becomes available, there are more opportunities to utilize the gadgets. Young children may learn to use the gadgets even before they know how to speak. Naturally, their skills do not include the high-functional use of smartphones and computers. Yet, they are able to access the Internet at a relatively early age.

Moreover, they use smartphones in bedrooms and environments, presupposing their privacy, which subsequently means the lack of control. Interestingly enough, the fact that children consciously or unconsciously hide their usage of the Internet from their parents also indicates the development of independence. Sweeney et al. (2019) mention that children do not seek parents advice when encountering technical obstacles or errors but rather attempt to resolve the problems on their own. While it may be a positive tendency, it is also indicative of social isolation, which is also discussed by Poulain et al. (2018).

The earlier a child is exposed to cyber space, the greater is the chance of their addiction to the Internet (Levine et al., 2019). Janek (2019) wrote that childrens digital device usage starts earlier year by year (p. 159). If in 2009, the average start age was four, now it is expected that a child of his age is already familiar with the technology. Mostly, children of this age are used to touch screen experiences. This implies that their choice of electronics is usually smartphones and tablets. Fewer children interact with laptops and actual computers, which leads to greater eyesight problems, as indicated by Denic et al. (2017) and Andrews et al. (2020). Naturally, computer monitors also cause eye fatigue, but at least their size forces the eyes to move more often when compared to smaller screens (Hariyadi, 2020). As a result, not only do children get acquainted with cyber space earlier, but they compromise their eyesight earlier.

Classification of Risks

There is a consensus among studies that the Internet is a source of risks for children. Yet, the exact nature of the dangers is, in reality, multivariate. Although cyber space is a product of technology, it has implications far beyond the virtual environment. Therefore, the risks of the Internet are also diverse and comprise different spheres of childrens life. The literature authors also acknowledge it, with some authors, such as Bozzola et al. (2018), focusing more on technical aspects, while other researchers, such as Palaiologou (2017), emphasize physical and social issues. Even though these risks may seem not relevant to the Internet, they are directly caused by it. A child may feel anxious in real life precisely because they have encountered disturbing content on the web.

Technical issues regarding privacy for young children are not different from any other age group. The Internet treats all users indiscriminately (Görzig & Holloway, 2019). Regardless of whether it is a five-year old child, a mature adult, or a senior person in their sixties, all of them can encounter malicious programs while surfing the web. Viruses can damage the software, expose personal data, and transmit sensitive information to third parties. What makes this possibility especially risky when young children are concerned is the fact that these threats are virtual (Muir & Joinson, 2020). They cannot be observed by the human eye, sensed, or heard. Yet, physical sensations are essential in childrens learning of threats and dangers (Lazarinis et al., 2020). As a result, children are not aware of the consequences of visiting a website with no certificate or downloading an untrusted app.

Physical problems are also intrinsically related to Internet overuse. Cyber space is extremely engaging and addictive, which leads to many mature adults losing self-control and spending an excessive amount of time with gadgets. This problem is even worse with young children, whose minds are not disciplined enough to exercise self-control and know when to stop (Edwards et al., 2017). As a consequence, children also spend enormous time interacting in cyber space. The human body is not built for continuous usage of screens. Childrens organisms are still in development when they first encounter gadgets. Therefore, the utilization of electronics has an especially adverse effect on them (Palaiologou, 2017). Health problems originating with addiction to cyber space include damaged eyesight, back aching, general lack of motion, blood circulation, and other serious conditions (Denic et al., 2020). When children direct their exploratory energy to cyber space exclusively, they compromise their physical health and development.

Social issues may also arise from the excessive use of gadgets and the Internet. The first years in a childs life are essential in the formation of their communicative abilities. The Internet may create the illusion of communication via the interaction with voice search services, such as Google Assistant, but it does not substitute real-life interactions with people (Poulain et al., 2018). A child has to listen to a human voice, understand gestures, recognize mimics, engage their sensors in order to learn interpersonal communication (Danovitch, 2019). These aspects are subtle, yet these subtleties are extremely important. If a child spends their time playing virtual games instead, they will hinder their own development and create social problems in the future (Rahman et al., 2020).

Rising Disparities between the Generations

Some studies suggest the idea of the striking differences between modern parents and their offsprings. When parents stop using their smartphones, they pass them to their children. Contemporary adults did not grow with smartphones, tablets, and the Internet easily available. Therefore, there is a substantial difference between the current generation and younger generations. Due to the abundance of technology present, young children are introduced very early to the Internet. Several studies report about four-year old children being aware of Wi-Fi, downloading process, messengers, and other concepts. Children are also aware of popular platforms, such as YouTube, Facebook, Twitter, and other ones (Edwards, 2021; Straker et al., 2018). It may not seem as impressive, yet Janek (2019) writes some of the observed children had no access to gadgets at all. It can be explained by the children being passive users, which manifests in them observing their parents and other children use the devices but not actually doing it themselves.

None of these developments were evident when contemporary adults were in childhood. Information technologies were introduced gradually with a certain degree of cautiousness. In contrast, todays children learn them almost from the start. It creates a difference in attitudes towards cyber space between the generations (Poulain et al., 2018). Whereas parents know about the virtual dangers and think first of safety, children view the Internet as an endlessly positive experience. It does, after all, allow them to play the games they like, watch the videos they desire and seek any information they need. As a result, children unconsciously believe in the inherent positivity of the Internet (Oliemat et al., 2017). This belief cannot be easily overridden by parents and teachers warnings and instructions.

It is too early to state that this conflict of beliefs will result in negative repercussions. However, it does create a rift between children who seek more virtual experiences and parents who want to limit them for their offsprings (Sweeney et al., 2019). Some researchers believe that it is a normal development because contemporary children are more tech-savvy and will feel more confident in the virtual environment in the future (Arnott et al., 2018). Others express the concern that childhood-driven belief in the positivity of cyber space forces children to underestimate the negative aspect of the Internet (Denic et al., 2017). In either case, the availability of means to access cyber space widens the generational gap.

Parental Mediation

The fourth common theme is the lack of control of childrens web activities by parents. Sweeney et al. (2019) report that sixty percent of the children they studied did not talk about any regulations set by parents. Considering that all children in that study were eight years old, there is a definite lack of concern from the parents. Yet, Hariyadi (2020), who studied toddlers, reports a simial finding. Levine et al. (2019) also note that parental regulation of young childrens activities is either inadequate or non-existent.

The way the family regulates the overall conduct of children is important. Parental control is not necessarily limited to the regulation of childrens use of the Internet. In a similar way to previous generations, who were not exposed to the Internet, children were also restricted from engaging in entertainment (Sweeney et al., 2019). In the case of the past generations, the restricted activity was watching TV. Now, it is supplanted by Internet surfing and overall gadget use. However, the fact of excessive time spent while using smartphones is not the prime motive behind parental motivation (Muir & Joinson, 2020). As a result, the degree of restrictions depends on the general level of the familys strictness and rules. The more restrictive parents generally are, the less their children are exposed to the dangers of the Internet.

The most commonly technically used method of controlling childrens actions is via filters (Edwards et al., 2018). Technology enables parents to customize their childrens web experiences. For instance, they can install software, which blocks access to certain websites and services. A more extreme variation is the restriction of time spent while using the gadgets overall. Some parents use such apps as Google Family Link, which provide them with live data on the presence of a child, the amount of time they spent on the Internet, and the apps they use (Oliemat, 2018). Such services facilitate familial control and parental mediation.

Necessity of Teacher in Cyber Safety

Cyber education is an important stage of overall personal development in the modern world. Even the tech-savvy contemporary adults have undergone a stage of life where cyber space was perceived as an unknown and possibly dangerous virtual environment. However, todays adults had more life and technological experience when they first encountered the Internet. The same cannot be stated about modern young children, who have no such experience to help them get acquainted with cyber space (Straker et al., 2018). The virtual environment is a complex concept in itself, yet it is even more challenging to understand when attempting to explain it to children. Edwards et al. (2018) note that the majority of children had no conception of the Internets whereabouts. For instance, they could not understand that when they write a post, it can be read by any user on the same social network.

Studies express the viewpoint that such ignorance should be managed by cyber education (Görzig & Holloway, 2019; Oliemat, 2018; Bozzola et al., 2018). The earlier children learn the concept of the Internet, the easier they will adapt in later life (Muir & Joinson, 2020). A natural curiosity drives children to explore their surroundings, including the content of smartphones. Such actions can lead to them accessing age-inappropriate content, unintended sharing of personal data, and even unplanned purchases. These possibilities constitute the necessity for education on the Internets dangers (Andrews et al., 2017). Although removing access to electronics is an option, it does not resolve the larger problem, which is the ability to identify risks in cyber space.

Many researchers express the same idea that cyber education should be designed on associative learning. It refers to a technique, which groups existing knowledge and facilitates further learning by relating the new knowledge to the knowledge stored in memory (Danovitch, 2019). As it is the most efficient way of memorizing words and understanding concepts for young children, the Internet should not be an exception. The human mind processes all information and compares it to the knowledge stored in memory. Adults do not realize it because of the years of accumulated knowledge (Rahman, 2020). At the same time, childrens minds are not filled with knowledge. Subsequently, they are less distracted compared to adults. Therefore, it is essential to create associations with the objects, and concepts children already know. For instance, teachers can use some app, which are familiar to a child, and explain important functions and consequences using this app as an example (Broekman, 2018). The same approach can also be applied to the Internet and social networks.

Studies suggest that cyber education should have a more practical direction. For instance, children should learn to protect their accounts with secure passwords, which should not be relayed to anyone (Denic et al., 2017). For the purpose of avoiding virtual viruses, parents can teach the children to avoid untrusted connection when the corresponding message appears on the screen (Edwards et al., 2018). Most importantly, children should learn as soon as possible that any disclosure of personal information at someones request is dangerous and should be avoided (Görzig & Holloway, 2019). These are the essential steps in teaching preschoolers cyber safety.

Discussion and Conclusions

The analysis of the literature has showcased four major themes. First, cyber space contains a plethora of risks to young children. They include technical issues, such as computer viruses and malicious programs, which may compromise personal data (Görzig & Holloway, 2019). Another risk is the physical implications of prolonged exposure to cyber space (Palaiologou, 2017; Edwards et al., 2017). Due to the design of the electronics, which enable users to access cyber space, people are forced to spend a large amount of time in positions, which damage eyesight, posture and limit motion. Finally, the virtual environment creates the illusion of communication, while the actual social interactions are sacrificed (Poulain et al., 2018; Danovitch, 2019). As a result, young children fail to accumulate important communicative skills because all their energy is spent while utilizing the gadgets (Rahman et al., 2020).

The second theme evident from the research is the lowering of first contact age. Contemporary young children are expected to have some experience with smartphones and the Internet (Straker et al., 2018). The engaging nature of gadgets makes them a quick and efficient way to occupy children. On the one hand, early exposure facilitates the adaptation to virtual communication, which is inevitable (Edwards, 2021). On the other hand, it creates a possibility of young childrens greater dependency on electronics and deeper addiction to cyber space (Poulain et al., 2018; Palaiologou, 2017). In both cases, cyber space will play a much wider role in contemporary young childrens lives than in their parents ones.

This leads to the rising discrepancies between the generations, which is the third theme. Exposure to cyber space delineates the current young children as the first generation to get acquainted with the Internet before they are able to talk (Janek, 2019). Subsequently, the new generation will probably have a more positive outlook on the Internet and cyber space, which may also lower their attention towards the cyber space threats (Oliemat, 2018). It is reasonable to suggest that in ten years when current young children will enter their adolescence, the trustworthiness of the Internet will be a highly contentious point between them and older generations (Edwards et al., 2018).

The logical solution to the problem of excessive exposure to cyber space is parental mediation, which is also the fourth theme. Researchers note that there are different approaches to the restriction of childrens time spent in cyber space (Oliemat, 2018; Broekman et al., 2018; Danovitch, 2019). They range from overall familial rules to software blocks, which prevent the use altogether. Whatever method is used, researchers agree that parents role is crucial in cyber space upbringing (Denic et al., 2017; Bozzola et al., 2018; Arnott et al., 2018). Modern applications make parental control easier and protect children from inappropriate content and actions.

However, parental mediation should be accompanied by overall cyber space education, the necessity of which constitutes the fifth and final theme. Associative learning can help teachers explain complex topics to young children (Danovitch, 2019). Furthermore, they will educate them on the threats and risks, which are essential to know while operating on cyber space (Andrews et al., 2020). Proper education can alleviate future problems and anxieties by informing the children about such possibilities beforehand (Bozzola et al., 2018). It is evident that the Internet will be a constant companion in their future lives, thus, they should also learn to protect themselves from its dangers.

The main discovery this analysis makes is that parents underestimate the severity of cyber space risks to their children. Some studies definitely showcase parents who take the problem of early exposure to the Internet seriously (Poulain et al., 2018; Oliemat, 2018. Danovitch, 2019). However, more studies indicate that an alarming number of adults do not regulate their childrens use of the Internet at all (Denic et al., 2017; Hariyadi, 2020; Janek, 2019; Levine et al., 2019; Muir & Joinson, 2020; Rahman et al., 2020). Most likely, this degree of ignorance is attributed to the fact that parents acquainted themselves with the Internet when they were mature enough to understand the risks, which prevents them from empathizing with children (Poulain et al., 2018). Another explanation is that parents do not believe that preschool children are not yet capable of using gadgets and the Internet to inflict damage (Hariyadi, 2020). Ultimately, the real reason for parents ignorance is not established, as researchers focus on young children and their cyber education.

Limitations and Further Research

The major limitation behind this review is the dependency on the sample populations of the researchers. As all studies base their conclusions on the analyses of a limited number of respondents, there is a chance that the samples do not really represent the larger population. Subsequently, the themes ascertained may certainly be applied to the children, which were analyzed by the studies included in this review. Considering that the majority of the children are American, the specifics of other nationalities remain unknown. Although it is likely, that similar conclusions can be extrapolated to them as cyber space is pervasive and equally affect young children in any part of the world.

Many studies emphasized the generation gap between parents and children due to cyber space. Yet, the exact nature of such discrepancies remains an open question. Parents and children have always differed from each other, yet the rapid advancement of technologies changes life drastically. At no point in history did people have as much access to knowledge as they do now (Edwards, 202

Introduction

The subject or subjects for this paper are interesting to discuss. In the closets of traditional homes, they seem only interesting in the minds of the inhabitants of the house. But in the present age, they are as ordinary as popcorns or hotcakes. Transgender, surgical operations, race and sexuality  they are as ordinary as recessionary items that ought not to be discussed, but they have to be because they are an important part of us.

Transgenders have been accepted as equals in our midst, although not completely by all sectors of society. There are still traditional societies who are not yet completely at home with people like them. In the Elizabethan times, sexuality was a bit misunderstood. But many of the sexually perverse were spread in the so-called nobility, or the upper class, so to speak.

In Freuds time, mans sexuality was explained but not so widely understood. Only psychology students understood the subject matter. We cannot really understand what psychology means by clitoral activity and Oedipal stage/s if we havent mastered the psychology of Freud and his contemporaries.

This paper will discuss the relationship of race or class to sexuality, and other aspects of transgender. The novels Orlando by Virginia Woolf and Giovannis Room by James Baldwin are studied for the purpose of examining this relationship. We will discover the lives of people we have tended to ignore. On the other hand, this paper will attempt to answer the questions: Is there a relationship with class or race to sexuality? Are transgenders limited or confined to a particular group of class in society?

Thesis

Race or class can affect the sexuality of some people; in fact, sometimes they shape the sexuality of people. We will attempt to prove or disprove this statement in the two novels Orlando and Giovannis Room.

Education and liberal views can affect or influence sexuality. However, what is really felt is innate in the individual. If that individual allows something to go out of the way, meaning if he allows homosexuality or lesbianism to dominate his feelings, its all up to him.

Background

Orlando

Over a course of about four hundred years, Orlando lives and transforms. He begins his life in the court of Queen Elizabeth, becomes a young man, subdued by girls whom he had captivated with his talent in poetry and literature, and with his boyish features which sometimes looked feminine than masculine.

The time began in the sixteenth century. The initial stages of the story show us a glimpse of the teen years of Orlando. He would play with the peacocks. The symbol of the peacock is allegorically displayed here, something like a symbol of masculinity. But the description of the one Orlando and his world is done by the narrator of the story  the biographer  who commits to the story like a loving fan to his idol. Orlando has shapely legs, handsome body, and a bright face, lit solely by the sun itself. (Woolf 5)

Woolf further describes Orlando as having beautiful lips and almond-white teeth, dark hair, small ears which fit closely to the head, while forehead and eyes correspond to each other. Aside from his appearance, Orlando also loves poetry and literature, and writing. The description covers some masculinity with some bits of femininity. (Woolf 5-6)

From the initial description of the main character of the story, we have a glimpse of his background and future, somehow. Femininity and masculinity are intermingled in ones teens, and sometimes race. Although it is premature to judge the story at this instance of our review, it is tempting to analyze that there is a close relationship between race and class and sexuality. We cannot but jump into early conclusion that the characters traits pronounced in the early part of the story are about sexuality, that of being feminine or masculine. But as mentioned above, these traits are intermingled during teens. Why do we say this? The youth is the period where an individual is not yet sure about his/her sexuality. We believe this is what the author wants of us to think in the early part of the novel. We are not sure, or, Orlando is not sure of his sexuality. His boyish image and handsome face resembles that of a girl than a boy. But lets proceed with the rest of the story.

Orlandos negative qualities are his shyness and clumsiness, his love of solitude, and of solitary places, vast beautiful views which allow him to be forever alone. He has a somewhat aloof personality; his early years can tell us that he is accustomed to the inherited inferiority complex common in most teens. It seems he cannot get away with this, but soon his future job or career, and experience, will free him from this shyness and the negative attributes of the youth. Orlandos favorite place is under the shade of the oak tree situated uphill among ferns and bushes, with startling deer and wild birds. There, he could see the English Channel, with pleasure boats on the rivers, galleons, armadas, and castles. (Woolf 8)

The colors of the scene under the oak tree suggest some femininity: white clouds that turn red, hills that are violet, the woods that are purple, the valleys black. And added to the color is the trumpet sound. He is summoned by the queen, and he is to attend the Queen at Whitehall. The description of Orlando as a young boy has some reference to his sexuality. As a teenage boy, he was attractive, an asset in his later years inside the Queens court and in his career as a diplomat. He is destined for a privileged future in the Court, although there were ups and downs in his experience here.

Queen Elizabeth I admires his appearance  the eyes, mouth, nose, breast, hips, hands  she touched them all (10). But when she saw his legs, she laughed because Orlando looked like a noble gentleman. The queen sees the inside of Orlando  his strength, grace, youth, and all  as if she knew how to read a man (10). Orlandos physical traits captivates the queen; she could probably have fantasized him in her dreams. She wants to own him like a property. Immediately the queen names Orlando Treasurer and Steward. Later in his career, Orlando is about to be sent to the Polish wars but the queen discovers it, and so she recalls him. The Queen says that she can not send to war such a young man with tender flesh and curly head. This is again another reference to Orlandos personality, although the youth in him is still very much present. We cannot still say or conclude what his real sexuality is all about.

Because the Queen loved her so much, Orlando was given properties (lands and houses), and considered him someone special. But the Queen later got jealous when she saw Orlando kissing a girl. She groaned and got so mad that she got sick after that. This is the Elizabethan age where people expressed their love for life, music, and the arts (12). It is also recognized as the age of the Renaissance. The climate and the weather are different, even the sunsets were redder. Everyone was in love, including Orlando. But Orlando was not in love with the Queen; he hated her spying him. He was up to something else. He loved to be left alone, to explore his bachelor life, play with the girls, and enjoy life and night life with girls.

Although at first, Orlando is described in the initial phases of the novel as having some feminine traits, his masculine properties are very much active, so to speak. He is young, boyish, handsome and talented. He offered rhymes to the girls who were so enamored to him. Poetry, literature, and writing at the time are popular. They belong to the nobility, the high-class in society. Somehow, they are inseparable with ones sexuality. And Orlando learned to belong to the nobility  the queens court. But he is pursued by women.

He started going out late at night in beer gardens, like the Wapping Old Stairs (13). There, Orlando would listen to sailors stories of adventures. The river was always busy and awake at late night. And sailors with their lovers always had their time in inns. Love and sex, including homosexuality, were ordinary in the busy street by the wharf. Orlando enjoyed the night life, but later grew tired of it. He wanted someone else, someone special to whom he could devote his life and career, and who could be with him in love and in life.

Three girls in love of Orlando wanted to marry him. But for some reason or another, he politely turned down their requests. One of them was so serious about it. She was named Euphrosyne, the daughter of an Irish Desmonds, someone who belonged to the nobility like Orlando. But by the turn of events, it didnt happen when the Great Frost of the English Climate occurred. This is natures devastation. Birds and humans froze like stones but crashed and blown like powder. This is felt all throughout the land, but not in London under the new king. He ordered that the river be cleaned. There is merrymaking in the midst of the Great Frost. (15)

Orlando is one of them enjoying the merrymaking, and ignoring the extremely cold weather. One night he sees a princess, someone so beautiful, so captivating to his eyes. She comes from the Muscovite Embassy. Orlando is so struck and enamored by the figure, whose sex he couldnt figure out at first. He just knew that she is an extraordinarily seductive person. Orlando describes the sexiness of her as like a melon, an emerald, or a fox in the snow. (17) What a sexy description!

In this chapter of the novel, we can sense a euphemism, a homosexual feeling of someone like Orlando. It could be transformation, or an awakening of a long feeling inside. Why? First, we can figure out  really feel it  how Woolf describes the scene. The one coming from the embassy is a skater who looks like a girl, but Orlando sensed he is a boy because he was skating with speed and vigour like a mans. Could it be that he was attracted to this skater, or at that moment of fantasizing, he was imagining a boy to become his partner?

Nobody knows. Nothing is added by the author that can tell what is inside the mind of Orlando. But we can guess: Orlando is fantasizing a boy. Then, when the boy comes nearer and nearer, he appears to be a she  with legs, hands, carriage that looked like a boy, but are actually belonging to a girl. He finds out that she has a long name, the niece of the Muscovite Ambassador. Her nickname is Sasha. And she is a princess.

Introductions, and they come to know each other; a friendship and bond is established. From that time on, they become inseparable, seldom far from each other, always together at the queens court or around the place. A great change is seen in Orlando; he becomes a nobleman full of courtesy, and has even lost his clumsiness and shyness. Orlando knows it is a different feeling; he longs for Sasha all the time. However, the men who also are looking or attracted at the princess shrugged their shoulders because they know Orlando is betrothed to Lady Margaret, the one who wears his ring. Yet Orlando gives no attention to her, or has learned to forget her. Instead, he and the Muscovite are often missing. The princess sometimes would ask him that she be brought somewhere in the beautiful spots of the city. They both want to be alone with each other. Orlando and Sasha have become really fond of each other. They have fallen in love.

But why is it that Orlando feels something lacking in their relationship? There is something in Sasha he cannot not fathom. Is she hiding something? Some love secret? But no, he feels her love. He feels he is a man, and he is beside his woman. He is an Adonis and here is his Minerva. But, one thing that made him doubt about her (but not their relationship, at first) is when after he had finished telling her about himself, about his family and his inheritance, he would start asking her about herself, and she would remain silent. He suspects at first that she is just too shy, or ashamed of her people. He did not press more his inquiry.

One time, when they are skating farther down the river where the ship of the Muscovite Embassy is anchored, Sasha decides to climb on deck. They saw one Russian sailor who volunteers to accompany Sasha down the ship and find what she wanted in there. Orlando volunteers to be left behind. And while Sasha and the Russian are inside the ship, Orlando thinks and daydreams of the time they would be in Russia. He is fantasizing the days they will soon be together. He is determined to live in Russia with his Princess, because as Sasha told him, she is going home. As for Lady Margaret, Orlando is determined to leave her for good.

The next scene in the story is a description of what Orlando calls the foulness of his imagination. He got tired waiting alone in the ship, so he went to see Sasha. He finds out with his own two eyes Sasha and the Russian embracing, or kissing; but Orlandos vision becomes blurred or that he thinks he is just imagining something. Sasha swears she did not lie in the arms of the seaman. Orlando wants to give a fight, or to forbid this intruder of their love life. But the Russian is a huge man, larger than him. Moreover, Sasha intervenes.

Orlando wants to forget what had happened in the Russian ship. In fact, he thought it was a mistake of him to accuse Sasha of something she could not do. He praised her, and she praised him. For what? Orlando is beginning to become frail, weak, or feeling like a woman, someone who belonged to the weaker sex.

The time comes when Sasha has to leave for Russia. Orlando becomes weaker and desolate upon Sashas departure. Then the Prince assigns him as Ambassador in the land of Constantinople where there are riots. It was believed Orlando volunteered for his assignment. He wanted to forget Sasha and that phase of life which really put him down as a man. Then come the changing of his personality. He just wakes up now a woman, transformed as Lady Orlando. From the time Orlando met Sasha to the time she left him can be seen as Orlandos transformation. He becomes one of the weaker sex. His metamorphosis begins. The time now is the nineteenth century, the Victorian age, ushered in by the Elizabethan era. The Victorian Age is a time of transition, when people have to be educated for a national change without the aid of a violent revolution. (Knickerbocker 165) The time for the revolution is gone. This is a time too when Orlando is to undergo his own transition, from man to woman. She is actually a woman now and she must adjust; she has to refine the way she acts, the way she wears her clothes, the way she deals with people, or the way she feels for the opposite sex. She is preparing to be a wife to a sea captain. Moreover, she learns to admire the opposite sex, or to appreciate the offering of the captain. It occurs to her now which offers great feelings and ecstasy, that of a man or of a woman?

Orlando is now in the present age, the same person but in the body of a woman, although as she said, she has not given much thought about her sexuality. But in spite of her being a former man or male person, she is now acting as a female; she feels it and she wants it. She now thinks of chastity, of her body as sometimes an object of sexual imagination of the male species. Her ankle, her legs, her knees, her heels, are now important, something the other sex want to look at and imagine about. This is no ordinary transition, but one that is poetic, artistic, very original on the part of an extraordinary writer who has experienced it all.

This novel really intrigues the reader, and allows us to think of our own sexuality. Woolf says that Orlando is a biography, which means it is not fiction but based on some factual events. It was based actually on the life of Vita Sackville-West, Woolfs lover. And lets be clear about it, its a woman loving another woman. The novel is also a story of Woolfs life, of how and what she felt for Sackville-West. The descriptions of people, scenes, relationships, sexuality, love, and so forth, are literary descriptions of life, equipped with literary tools. Woolf reveals her own sexuality. Her description of Orlando the man, and Orlando the woman, can explain her true emotions. In fact, she too is transformed as she narrates Vitas story. Woolf is not a character of the story, although sometimes she is present and alluded to in the story. There is a strong admiration and adulation to the character Orlando who is able to portray the role of man and woman. She realizes now how magnitude a responsibility has been put on her being a woman.

Finally, Orlando marries a ship captain and publishes her poem The Oak Tree, which refers to her friend Vitas poem The Land. This occurs hundreds of years later after she met the Russian princess. What is most striking in the novel is Orlandos transition to womanhood. He feels he is forced into a situation that he has no choice but to like it.

Novel or Biography?

Virginia Woolf regarded Orlando as a biography rather than a novel. She argued with it to the booksellers who did not like her classification because, as they said, nobody wanted to buy biographies. But it sold and the reason was not clear  whether because it was, or in spite of, its being a biography. On the other hand, Woolf narrated that she was not at first so serious about Orlando which she considered something of a freak or that she began as a joke and went with it seriously (Majumdar 21).

Woolfs views and beliefs of sexuality have been expressed in her writings, but not profoundly and much talked about after Orlando. This is her story. For indeed, the novel questions her own sexuality, which was complex and difficult. It is, for most of its parts, about her friend Vita Sackville-West who is herself an award-winning writer, and her then lover. Suman Gupta and David Johnson state that Woolf kept a diary all throughout her life and her entry in the diary about Orlando stated to what extent Orlando was conceived easily and excitingly as a joke, a holiday and as something of an illicit pleasure because so unserious [and] Orlando & was both an escape from the straight history of fiction she was supposed to have been writing that intolerable dull Fiction and a displacement of it (Gupta and Johnson 107).

Orlando also tells about Woolfs traumatic experiences that made her what she was in her later life. Her experiences  love and hatred  are reflected in the story. Luce Irigaray says, Female sexuality has always been conceptualized on the basis of masculine parameters (Irigaray 94). Woolf was herself an abused child. Jane Augustine comments:

Her older half-brother, George Duckworth, had molested her as a young child, and after their mothers death, when Virginia and her sister Vanessa were still in their teens, he forced both of them to have sex with him; the episodes are described in Woolfs essay, 22 Hyde Park Gate, in Moments of Being. Her sexual relations with Leonard Woolf appear to have been minimal, but she fell in love with him, and continued to love him and he her. (Augustine 15)

Woolf had a double personality, a bisexual. This was revealed by her passion for her friend Vita, and her imaginative writing of Orlando, which is similar to the English writer, who lives 400 years or so, first as a man and then as a woman. The novels style exudes jouissance, which especially released the writers imagination in passages in which sexual identity is not fixed. Orlando, while a young man in the Elizabethan period, sees a person in Russian costume whose sex is not certainly identifiable& (Augustine 16)

As a whole, the story of Orlando is a story of sexuality or transgender although the transgender or the shifting of male sexuality to female is different. In this age (our age), transgender is surgical, or the surgical removing of the male organ to become a female organ, with new tools, technology, and medicine to make a man really appear or function as a woman. The time in Orlando is set by Woolf in the Elizabethan age, which means surgical removal of a male organ was not yet done, no medical tools or medicine to aid the doctor in producing a woman out of a man. There is a surgical action, when out of the blue Orlando himself becomes a Lady Orlando just by the turn of events, not through any medical surgery or operation. We can surmise here though, that Woolf may have some prophetic vision, foreseeing what modern medicine could do to man, meaning the present-day medical transgendering. Nevertheless, Lady Orlando and the present-day transgender are no two opposite human beings. They are by accounts of Woolf and the present day experiences of transgender almost the same  in experience, psychology, and whatever the future holds for them.

In Elizabethan Orlando, we can see the psychology of a lonely man (or woman) who is a loner. He loves to be alone, solitary places, vast views, to feel himself always alone. He has written twenty tragedies, histories, and scores of sonnets. There is a series of transformations in the life of Orlando: first from a shy and clumsy teen to a trusted fellow of the queens court, then to a lover of Sasha, and onto being a frustrated lover, until he becomes Lady Orlando. When he becomes Lady Orlando, he is transformed to a real woman, not some man who is now a woman. The present age Orlando (the new transgender) is the opposite because he can shout to the world that he is a man transformed into a woman through science.

M. Keith Booker argues there is carnivalization of gender in Orlando. M. Keith Booker is quoted here:

Among the many fascinating scenes in Virginias Woolfs Orlando is one in which the title character meditates on mortality while browsing (literally) through the bones of his ancestors in the family crypt. & This morbid musing is especially illustrative of Orlando as a whole because it not only engages in a dialogue with literary tradition, but with two traditions at once. (Booker 162)

The voices engaged in dialogue are often of different gender. At the same time the boundaries of gender itself are challenged, carnivalized, and exposed as arbitrary social constructions. Booker says that gender is one of the fundamental criteria used to define social typologies.

Psychology of Race and Sexuality

If we follow Freuds theory of perversion, man is innate bisexual. When a child is born, there is in the physical composition the presence of male and female characteristics including physical sexuality. As the child grows, socialization or orientation shapes what he/she becomes to be, either as a man or as a woman. But the man and woman traits become predominant in the process of sublimation. Jonathan Dollimore argues that In Freuds theory of the sexual perversions the human infant begins life with a sexual disposition which is polymorphously perverse and innate bisexual. (Dollimore 9) This precedes socialization and a process called gendering of the individual (positioning of the subject within hetero/sexual difference), perversion is pronounced through sublimation.

In this way, not only is appropriate human subject produced but also civilization reproduced. But the perversions do not thereby go away: repressed or sublimated, they help to constitute and maintain the very social order; this is one reason why that order requires their repression and sublimation. As such they remain intrinsic to normality and might be said to constitute the cement of culture, helping to constitute the social instincts. (Dollimore 9)

Moreover, Freud also wrote: We are accustomed to employ masculine and feminine as mental qualities as well, and have in the same way transferred the notion of bisexuality to mental life. Thus we speak of a person, whether male or female, as behaving in a masculine way in one connection and in a feminine way in another way. (Freud 21)

Giovannis Room

Before we delve on James Baldwins Giovannis Room, heres an inspiring quote:

When The Lesbian and Gay Studies Reader was published, I followed my usual practice and searched for the articles on black womens sexuality. This reading practice has become such a commonplace in my life I have forgotten how and when I began it. I never open a book about lesbians or gays with the expectation that I will find some essay that will address the concerns of my life. (Evelyn Hammonds, Black (W)holes and the Geometry of Black Female Sexuality, qtd. in Holland 265-266)

Hammonds refers to black womens sexuality which, as she speaks, seems rather peculiar. There are in this class some sexual pleasures not common in others. Lets talk of a more frank way of telling sexuality: Giovannis Room.

Giovannis Room is about a young mans quest for identity, turned between two lovers, a boy and a girl. The man is David, the narrator in the story, who is really puzzled of his identity. He has this first encounter and sexual relationship with a young boy named Joey. Davids experience with Joey is memorable, memorable in the sense that he cannot accept it happened, meaning it is traumatic on his part. Traumatic because he can not believe himself that he made it. They made love, or to say it frankly, experienced homosexuality. For David, it is wrong. He feels his relationship with Joey is off-bound and should never have happened. He feels ashamed and afraid of what happened; afraid because he does not want to become that somebody who has made love with a boy like him.

David goes to Paris which has a more liberal environment. It is not his purpose to go there because he wants to be free of his sexual preference, but he just wants to find himself after all the events that happened to his life  his accident, his care-free life, or his relationship with his family. Paris indeed provides freedom for all  gays, lesbians, and so forth. David meets Jacques to whom he has another homosexual affair. Jacques has a freer attitude. Then they meet Giovanni. They dined in a restaurant, with its food suggesting some sexual imaginings. Oyster can tickle some crazy imaginings of people. They eat and swallow the food as if it is something, as if it is not food.

This is a narrative composition that is heavily criticized for its explicit scenes and homosexual details. A homosexual love scene is a bit detailed, making it opposed by some critics. David, the main protagonist, realizes his deed goes far beyond his belief of being a man that he goes on bullying Joey, to prove that he is not a homosexual. But we can see that David is bisexual. He has a girlfriend named Hella, and a homosexual affair with an Italian named Giovanni whose room they use in their lovemaking. He describes the room as always dark because Giovanni is ashamed or afraid of something. Sexuality in relation to class and race is told in the story. The time is the present time where we experience normal things as transgendering, liberal ideas of gays and lesbians that should be respected by the government and all sectors of society. The climax of the story begins and ends with Giovanni accused of Guillaumes murder. Consequently, Giovanni goes to prison and is executed.

Trudier Harris-Lopez has an interesting account on the characterization of Giovannis Room. He says that men who participate in homosexual acts often do so to acquire some copyright on manhood. But there are some of them who really lost that status of manhood forever. They cannot accept they once made love with men or made love with their own kind. Trudier Harris-Lopes comments on Giovannis Room:

For characters who attempt to rid themselves of illusions, such as David, the white protagonist in Giovannis Room (1956), the process of extrication frequently involves tragic consequences. David not only loses Giovanni, but Giovanni is near execution before David is willing to accept how much he has loved him. (Trudier Harris-Lopez 18)

Giovannis Room cannot be said as a purely homosexual novel because the characters indulged themselves in relationships with men and women, or were involved in sexual relationships with both sexes. At that time, there was rampant sexual discrimination in America, and Paris had some freer atmosphere when it came to gays or lesbians rights. Black gays and lesbians were discriminated in society.

Dwight McBride comments:

Giovannis Room is a lovely book about two men who find themselves in the beautiful landscape of gay Paree, the wilderness of white folks. Their love is put to an impossible and tragic test and one of the boys is killed by the French government for indecency and the lover is cast out onto the sea of emotions that only the love of men can rescue him from it. (Holland 267)

On the other hand, Orlandos existence spans four hundred years. Although this is fantasy, we can only surmise that his transition from manhood to womanhood had to take that long. Why? For adjustment? Perhaps. But as we can see in the novel, he had to educate himself, of the things that pertain to womanhood. He was in a stage from a man who didnt know how to become a woman. Orlando is euphemism to the present-day confused, someone who has to take that long time to adjust to the realities of being a homosexual or lesbian.

At first, Orlando didnt seem to like it. But later on, he was marrying somebody. Orlando belonged to a higher class in society. He was privileged, educated, and talented. But as a child, he already showed signs of being a girl. He was boyish, handsome, but his features were somewhat feminine. These features made him liked by many, by girls  even by men  and then especially the queen. He went on womanizing, until he met Sasha, the Muscovite girl from the Embassy, who broke his heart.

His engagement with Sasha is the start of the transition. He is starting to feel and experience the treacherous actuations of the princess, and when she goes home to Russia, he is devastated. This traumatic experience made him choose  perhaps  in Orlandos psyche, the personality to become a woman, although somewhat unconsciously. The plot and the time flow of four hundred years can let us appreciate Orlandos transition from man to woman, with Orlando having no choice, except that now he is a woman. But if we look at it positively, and disregarding the time flow of four hundred years, we can say this is the personality of Orlandos having a defense mechanism over his experience with the princess, with violence of which he was not used to, and even his experiences as a young womanizer in the Queens court and as a privileged noble of England.

We have examined the relationship of class or race to sexuality, but to say that class or race affects sexuality, theres no amount of proof. Sexuality is explained in countless ways by Freud, but the concept is too broad; it cannot be explained in one setting. Freuds explanation makes several mention of sexual intercourse when referring to gender, that is, masculine or feminine.

The male pursues; the female seems immobile. Freud says:

The male sex cell is actively mobile and searches out the female one, and the latter, the ovum, is immobile and waits passively. This behaviour of the elementary sexual organisms is indeed a model for the conduct of sexual individuals during intercourse. The male pursues the female for the purpose of sexual union, seizes hold of her and penetrates into her. (Freud 21)

Education and liberal views can affect sexuality.

On the other hand, Giovannis Room tells us the development of ones own sexuality through company, environment, and the liberal views prevailing in the community.

We have many connotations to the word sexuality as referred to in the two novels. The relationship of class or race to sexuality can be talked about in different aspects, coupled with culture of the people in the given time. Age and time in the two novels are very important in the subject for this paper.

It is a time that spans fo

Introduction

Air travel is an essential part of our world today as it helps connect people from various parts of the world to social and economic opportunities. Zhang and Graham (2020) argue that has also enabled the growth of businesses through globalization and improved peoples livelihoods through employment. Aviation has become a definitive feature of todays modern society. It has become essential in realizing cultural, social, and economic development globally and has been critical in shaping globalization and universal interactions (Zhang and Graham, 2020). A world without civil aviation is entirely unimaginable. Democratization of the air travel industry and reducing air travel costs by more than half in the last five decades have seen the sector experience rapid growth. Air transport is now accessible to many people.

Airports enable people and goods to fast movement, thereby directly contributing to economic progress and providing societal benefits. Despite its benefits, air travel is associated with several environmental concerns (Ansell and Haran, 2020). Recently, people are becoming more aware of the need for green businesses and incorporating sustainability measures into various sectors. Air travel is no exception. The sector contributes to 2.5% of the total CO₂ emissions and 3.5% of global warming (Brian, 2022). This has raised concerns about the sustainability of civil aviation, which necessitated ICAO and its member states to develop several guidelines for ecological protection. Through a holistic, collective, and collaborative approach, the body has ensured air travel is safe, secure, and ecologically compliant than in earlier years (GOV.UK., n.d.). The focus has been on achieving the three pillars of air transport sustainability requirements to ensure the industry remains sustainable in the long run.

Air transport has always had issues to do with sustainability. Two of the UKs largest airports, London Gatwick Airport (LGW) and London Heathrow Airport (LHR), have been impacted similarly by sustainability challenges like loss of biodiversity, poor wastewater management, noise pollution, deteriorating air quality other environmental issues affecting the wider population (Gatwickairport.com, 2018; Heathrow 2.0, 2019). Due to the virality of environmental awareness campaign programs and the need for climate justice action, most UK airports are taking steps to address these issues. Following ecological concerns, the two main airports have emerged as global leaders in the sustainable operations of their respective organizations.

Statement of the Problem

The aviation industry produces about 2.5% of the total CO₂ emissions globally. However, this figure is not fully representative of its impact on the environment since it produces other gases which impact the atmosphere. David Lee et al. (2020), who estimated the radiative forcing of elements produced by aircraft, observed that the industry is responsible for about 3.5% of global warming. The scholars observed that as much as CO₂ is the focus of most studies, it leads to less than half of global warming. And with the world air travel continuing to realize a drastic growth, this problem is about to be exacerbated further.

The sustainability of the aviation industry continues to pose so much doubt as the sector is projected to grow thrice in the next 30 years. The reliability and ecological impact of global air travel are becoming a pertinent discourse for the future of aviation, with several issues such as the safety and efficiency of the industry under constant question. According to CNN (2018) reports, air travel is the fastest-growing source of greenhouse gases globally. The report indicates that long-distance flights of big airplanes such as Boeing 747 emit about 400 tons of CO₂ per trip_. So much pressure is on the air transport industry to include sustainability in its transformation process.

Recently, there has been regulation set out for the air transport industry to ensure their operations conform to air travel requirements. The gravity of the matter led the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) to resolve to adopt collective climate action for all stakeholders in the industry in the 39^th and 40^th assemblies in 2016 and 2019, respectively. In the initial assembly, it was agreed that fuel efficiency was to be improved by 2% annually (ICAO, 2019). There is an urgency to put sustainability at the core of air travel and put measures necessary to increase the efficiency of airport operations. Airport goals and missions should be aligned to the long-term objective of ensuring ecological health for the planet and helping realize the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs.)

According to the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (n.d), if this problem remains unchecked, emissions related to air travel could surpass 1.2 billion tons per year by 2025, and the people affected by noise pollution would increase by 50% from the figure in 2000 to about 31 million in 2025. Growth in the aviation industry is very rapid, and so should the measures be taken to ensure its sustainability. With SDGs a major focus point in development and growth, the aerospace sector should extend its operation to ensure they are met. Aviation can be a tremendous source of good globally if the concerns raised behind its sustainability can be addressed by reducing the detrimental impacts.

Objectives of the Study

This study broadly purposes to look at the sustainability of the aviation industry as it is currently and in the future. Since sustainability is multi-conceptional, the focus of the study will be on the three pillars of sustainability. It will discuss the topic in detail with attention to sustainabilitys social, economic, and environmental aspects. The following specific objectives will guide it:

1. To determine the differences and similarities in the sustainable measures undertaken by LHR and LGW.
2. To establish the efforts put by LHR and LGW in ensuring the aerospace industry remains sustainable.

Literature Review and Conceptual Framework

This section discusses the concept of sustainable development concerning aviation. It then focuses on the three pillars of sustainable development in the aviation industry-mainly in the past and present. The discussion also looks at the sustainability of the air travel industry through a future lens with a focus on where it is headed and what might define and transform the sector. The conceptual framework is also presented.

The Sustainability Concept

According to ICAO (2019) and ICAO (2019), sustainability is defined as the ability to cater to the current generations demands without threatening the capacity of coming groups to satisfy their requirements. Sustainability in the air transport sector focuses on the economy, society, and the environment. To achieve sustainability, a balance must exist in these pillars. Sustainability goes beyond ecological concerns to include social and economic issues. The social aspect pertains to how people are impacted by air travel and the benefits or adverse effects on the communities. In contrast, the economic pillar is concerned with the finances and whether the sector can continue to self-support its operations while growing. For a good course, sustainability must include all these three pillars in its definition and realization.

Sustainability in aviation is a long-term strategy to ensure a collective, collaborative and holistic approach to resolving the sectors issues while ensuring a quieter, cleaner, and smarter generation. Its purpose is to help grow the air travel industry ecologically sound while offering freedom of movement for people globally (ICAO, 2019). Sustainability in aviation is a very slippery concept, and the dynamism and changes in the sector make it very hard to comprehend. Nonetheless, sustainability considerations in air travel revolve around initiatives that protect the health and ensure the safety of all stakeholders in the aviation industry (ICAO, 2019). Moreover, ecological concerns like the need to reduce carbon footprint and cut down on greenhouse gas emissions, and mitigate the effects of climate change. Economically, efforts need to be geared towards initiatives that eliminate biases in favor of consumption by adopting policies like the polluter pay principle and internalizing external costs. In addition, emphasis needs to be placed on actions that support equity deliberations as they are accommodating to developing countries and for the next generations.

More than 200 countries are accessible by air travel; aviation networks connect close to 80% of the cities in the world, with more than 36,000 airport pairs globally. The sector employs more than 8 million people. Approximately 3 million people travel by air, and close to 45% of goods are transported by aircraft (ICAO, 2019). These numbers suggest that the world economy is dysfunctional without aviations role. Air travel bolsters sustainability in many ways, just as it is detrimental. It helps realize sustainability by advancing the freedom of movement, the elevation of livelihoods through employment, growth of the worlds economy through trade, technological transfers, and cultural amelioration (ICAO, 2019). However, these benefits have come at a cost to the people and the environment. Gill (2018) supposes that its negative impacts must be mitigated for this means of transport to be feasible.

Projections show that air travelers may double from 3 million recorded in 2011 to 6 million in 2030. Since the industry realizes a fast growth, measures to incorporate sustainability into it should also be stepped up to help further contain the detrimental impacts and towards the zero-emission goal (ICAO, 2019; Karaman et al., 2018). Implementing the three pillars approach to sustainability is essential in advancing the growth of the aviation industry and ensuring the sector continues to be socially, economically, and environmentally feasible. One of the major reasons that focus has shifted to include sustainability in the aviation industry is that it is growing so fast, emitting lots of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, leading to climate change.

In contrast, Karaman et al. (2018) note that not so much action is being taken to keep up with the issues pace. According to the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (n.d), if this problem remains unchecked, emissions related to air travel could surpass 1.2 billion tones per year by 2025and the people affected by noise pollution would increase by 50% from the figure in 2000 to about 31 million in 2025. Several airports worldwide have taken the initiative to include sustainability measures and technologies in their undertakings (ICAO, 2019). Airports in the UK are not an exemption, with two of its largest airports, London Gatwick Airport (LGW) and London Heathrow Airport (LHR), at the forefront of ensuring the sustainability of the aviation industry. Airlines and airports in other countries are also committed to the sustainability call, with everyone rushing to beat the rest in providing green fuels for their aircraft.

Perhaps one of the industry inventions is the general aviation sustainability toolkit developed by the Colorado Airport Sustainability Program to ensure sustainability in general aviation airports. The program targets small airports that cannot conduct their research and develop sustainable programs. The Colorado Department of Transportation (n.d) notes that such airports can avail their data on the toolkit, guiding how their operations and resources can be best utilized to ensure sustainability. Other initiatives of ensuring sustainability that airports concerning all the three pillars have adopted include ensuring the rational use of resources. The measures are mostly aimed at energy conservation and include switching to electric charging stations and sparing the use of water and equipment with lower energy ratings.

The Three Pillars of Air Transport Sustainability

Worth noting is that it is a futile task to only try and achieve a single pillar of air transport sustainability since they are all intertwined sublimely. Some of the issues cut across all the three pillars, so addressing them under one pillar will mean that they are addressed under all the pillars. This makes even the discussion and categorization of the issues rather difficult as they fall into multiple categories. For instance, sustainable fuel might be considered an issue under the environmental pillar. However, it also helps cut the firms budgets and is a safe option for peoples health. Considering such a viewpoint, it can also be categorized under economic and social pillars. The pillars of sustainability are discussed in depth below.

Social Pillar

This pillar of sustainability is often overlooked, and perhaps it should be the most considered as people should always come first before the planet (environmental) and profit (economic). A sustainable system should be fully conscious of the people and the community in which it operates (GOV.UK., n.d.). In the transport industry, the stakeholders most likely to be impacted are the travelers and the companys employees. It trickles down to how the stakeholders are treated and whether their safety is guaranteed. On a sustainable basis, airlines and airports need to be aware of how they affect people locally and globally.

An essential pillar that determines air transport and is regarded with top priority is the safety of the transportation network regardless of the interest being served, whether social, commercial, environmental, or operational. The safety of the employees at their workplaces on flights or in the airports is also as important (Heathrow Airport., n.d.). All airports and airlines are guided by safety principles to realize the goal of zero aviation-related injuries. Due to the importance of maintaining safety in the aviation industry, the primary goal of enabling sustainability is to minimize the number and rate of incidents. Aviation giants like Boeing put it forward that if people cannot be better by the time they leave, they should be safe and healthy like when they arrived (Boeing, 2022).

Many aviation companies realize this goal of increasing their levels of safety through the adoption and implementation of safety management systems (SMS) and programs. The impetus behind the program is the belief that all injuries can be prevented. Therefore, achieving 100% safety is a possible endeavor. The key processes involved in SMS include undertaking regular audits, identifying and developing solutions to safety management challenges, and coming up with safety policies for all the stakeholders in the industry. This process leads to the development of safety manuals, guidelines, and standards that govern airports operations (ICAO, 2019). Safety at airports is a collective responsibility; the safety standard approaches stipulate that everyone should always act accordingly in ensuring their safety and those of others.

The future of aviation lies in its ability to protect, connect, and explore new possibilities and leads related to the field. The sector has recently stepped up in advancing this notion and is defined by a diverse team committed to taking up challenges and delivering as required. Results achieved by the inclusion of diverse perspectives from companies like Boeing suggest that the airlines progress towards achieving its aspirations is being realized much faster (Boeing, 2022). With its success, the flight giant has moved to ensure that at least 90% of those occupying top posts in the company are from different diversities. The move aims to incentivize equal opportunity and transparency in the organization, laying the foundation for a healthy and sustainable organizational structure and culture. Progress in the aviation sector is inevitable, and the path forward is advancing equity and inclusion.

One of the major social concerns in the aviation sector is the underrepresentation of various races and genders in the industry. Although gender representation is an issue in other industries like defense, measures are underway to accelerate the inclusion of all genders in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) as its a major source of the industrys workforce. In 2021, close to 3 million girls and women globally will be in various STEM programs by Boeing (Boeing, 2022). These number represents females of color as well as those from underrepresented groups. Pay equity for equal work irrespective of gender, ethnicity, and race is an important element of the global equity push that airlines and airports widely implement. Much progress has also been made in achieving parity in the recruitment and retention rate for all the groups, as evidenced by diversity report metrics and annual progress by companies like Boeing (Boeing, 2022).

Economic Pillar

Before sustainability, a business was mainly defined by how much profits it made, and it was solely what businesses were about. To be sustainable, firms had to record profits. However, with the coining of the sustainability concept, the economic pillar has grown to include other activities such as risk management, compliance, and proper governance. These recent inclusions to the economic pillar are why organizations have to adhere to sustainability stratagems. The pillar offers a counterbalance to unnecessary procedures that organizations must subscribe to, like the mandatory switch to green energy.

There are several ways to achieve the economic pillar among the increasing efficiency in the air transport industry. With air transport, efficiency can be operationally defined as conducting the operational tasks in air transportation without wasting energy, time, and resources. The need to develop sustainable aircraft fuels and more efficient technology was guided by the CO₂ standards of 2016. The use of SAFs can be categorized under the economic pillar like the environmental pillar since economic benefits accrued from green fuels (GOV.UK., n.d). It has pushed the civil aerospace industry to direct more than $15 billion in research, which will improve the industrys efficiency (GOV.UK., n.d).

Emissions from air travel have increased in the past few decades owing to the rapid increase in the volume of travelers who use planes as a mode of transport. Hannah (2020) confirms that emissions from planes have increased seven times since the 1950s and greatly since the 1960s. On the other hand, she reveals that air traffic volumes have increased by about 300 times since the 1950s and 75 times since the 1960s. The figures show that emissions have increased over time but at a much lower rate than air traffic volumes owing to the massive improvements in efficiency in the aviation industry. The improvements can be attributed to various sources such as increased passenger load factor, larger air crafts, and aircraft manufacture with better designs and technology. Several innovations and competitive solutions have been developed to help solve the issue of inefficiency. Among the key technologies registered in the market that have proven efficient is the ASEAN single aviation market (ASAM) idea, which has succeeded in improving airspace management systems such that travelers travel shorter routes, utilizing ait transport efficiently (Gill, 2018).

The future of air transport and its sustainability is hinged on the ability of the various flight companies to continue providing adequate airspace capacity which meets the demands of the growing population (ICAO, 2019). In cases where airspace fails to live up to the expectation of its customers in terms of capacity, there will be several delays in the travel, which have detrimental impacts on the economy and the environment (Hannah, 2020). Among the key concerns about flight delays is especially unforeseen circumstances. It calls for the action of all stakeholders in the sector to help reduce air travel delays to realize sustainability in the sector.

The growth of air transportation means that airlines and airports have to advance their capacity to contain the bulging number of passengers and goods that require that mode of transport. Studies in 2017 indicate that air transport capacities are likely to double by 2036 (Hannah, 2020). Therefore, for the aviation sector to be sustainable, its resources must also increase two-fold within that time frame. An increase in capacity depends on various aspects like technology and state-of-the-art equipment. Technology comes in where air travel needs to be streamlined more than now. Ease of operation and much more efficient equipment translates to faster operations, thereby the ability to handle more flights (Hannah, 2020). On the other hand, the equipment being used have to be more advanced and able to carry more, either through bigger planes or faster plains that can make more trips.

Environmental Pillar

The environmental pillar of sustainability receives the most attention in the aviation industry and other sectors. It continues to be highlighted with most global discourses currently touching on climate change and, therefore, the need for planetary action. Many firms and organizations are now focusing on cutting down their carbon footprints by resorting to eco-friendly products and services and finding ways to remediate the effects of their past operations.

Air transport is associated with environmental concerns like air pollution and noise pollution, especially for people living near aerodromes or flight corridors. Air quality is a major threat facing air travel. The airport in the UK has been fully conscious of the need to contain this threat, with the only anomaly being the high levels of oxides of nitrogen (NO_x) recorded around the Heathrow airport (IATA, 2018). Several technical adjustments to aircraft have led to better planes that produce half as much carbon monoxide. They have recorded a 90% reduction in unburned hydrocarbons and smoke compared to five decades ago. The CTi innovation by Rolls Royce was a breakthrough moment for the aviation industry, and the adoption of the engine by the plane manufacturers is expected to reduce fuel consumption significantly.

One of the key areas in the environmental pillar is the innovation of a sustainable aviation fuel that would ensure the reduction in the amount of pollution currently being recorded. Sustainable fuels are a key area of research in the aviation business, and the future of the industry relies on its ability to run on green fuels. Since the first sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) in 2008, Gill (2018) has reported that the use of SAFs has been on the rise ever since. He identifies that the two most common SAFs that have been tried are those made from municipal waste and algae. SAFs are considered 100% sustainable jet fuels, as they are sourced from waste material. Instead of littering the environment, the wastes are converted to jet fuel, which reduces CO₂ by more than 75%. Gill (2018) supposes that some airlines and airports have already adopted SAFs in sufficient amounts- as of 2017, more than 100 000 flights were using sustainable fuel, and the figures are projected to increase 10-fold by 2020. It shows the potential of SAFs to be the fuel for the future.

During the 38^th ICAO assembly, a new noise certification standard was developed, which stipulated that new aircraft to be manufactured were to produce less noise than the older models by at least seven decibels (Karaman et al., 2018). This move was handy in ensuring noise pollution caused by aircraft is lessened. With the latest technologies, even large airplanes such as the Airbus A380 and Boeing 787 produce small amounts of noise. Compared to the 1960s, modern airplane models have reduced noise pollution by about 26% (ICAO, 2019). Other technologies like the geared turbofan engines and the Pratt and Whiney technology will mean even lesser noise for the new Bombardier C Series aircraft.

Moreover, there is a need to situate aircraft departure and approaching zones of aircraft in areas with fewer noise impacts to people, like in less densely populated areas. This can be achieved by avoiding the night-time approach as the noise is louder and more aggravating and by placing runways over water bodies to ensure minimal noise impacts people (Karaman et al., 2018). In extreme cases, ventilation and sound insulation can be installed on buildings to reduce the noise levels. Noise as a result of air pollution is a public health concern. It impacts peoples mental capacities, interferes with activities like learning and sleep, and has been attributed to health issues like cardiovascular diseases. Recent studies also reveal it is linked to stress and anxiety in some people.

Several technical amendments have been developed to help mitigate the negative impacts of aircraft on the environment, such as the use of efficient fuel and less noisy engines (IATA, 2019). Some of the interventions also involve adjusting flight procedures; such s the execution of CDA, where an airplane descends from an optimal position with minimal thrust, and CCD, where an aircraft can cut the amount of fuel it consumes and the emissions it produces by obtaining the initial cruise flight level at minimum velocity with optimal engine thrust settings (Karaman et al., 2018). These techniques help reduce more than 150kg of CO₂ that would have been emitted through the other alternative conventional methods. Adjusting aircraft wingtips has also reduced fuel consumption by close to 5%.

ICAO has laid regulations for producing new-generation aircraft that ensure the newer versions adhere to the commitment to reducing climate change impact. Several airways like Virgin Airways and British Airways have also been working on alternative sources of jet fuels, especially the potential switch to 100% biofuels. A report by ICAO (2019) indicated that airplanes had become more energy efficient by about 71% compared to four decades ago. At most airports, there are pre-conditioned air supplies at terminal gates that the planes use to switch to auxiliary power, thereby decimating pollutants and the use of fossil fuels. With proper management, reduced taxiing and holding times at airports have been realized. Congestion at airports has been reduced with more direct taxiways.

The Future of the Aviation Industry

The future of aviation depends on elements that will further augment the three pillars of sustainability, increase economic viability and explore various environmental and governance opportunities. Currently, emphasis is also being placed on corporate social responsibility to further social sustainability, especially the occupational health and safety of employees and the health and safety of the aviation ecosystem. ICAO (2019) suggests sustainability of the sector should be guided by environmental initiatives for sustainable aviation organizations, evaluation of factors that make operations in aviation sustainable, and focus on sustainability of the working environments.

As identified earlier, sustainability is a cyclic process and a long-term strategy for ensuring continuity, growth, and prosperity in the various facets of life (ICAO, 2019). Future trends in aviation are hinged on tackling climate changes, air pollution, and noise reduction while ensuring the safety and health of the people and making profits. Moreover, the future goal of the aerospace industry should be the development of a sustainable culture than just a day-to-day practice. Zhang and Graham (2020) identify the key factors that will dictate the industry is headed; technology and human capacities, and partnerships.

The continuance of growth in the aviation sector presents serious challenges for sustainability. The air transportation sector has made major strides in as much as sustainability is concerned, and the future is promising to be even brighter for the aviation industry (IATA, 2019). This will be possible through rigorous research and the improvements and technological advancements currently being witnessed. The kind of innovations and inventions in the sector is likely to be the key to its transformation into a sustainable industry owing to the large funding channeled towards research (Ansell and Haran, 2020). However, most technological advancements are likely to be environmental, focusing on green energy and more efficient aircraft. Since airports do not have any direct linkages to the development of technologies, their main input in ensuring technological advancements is through supporting the research of other institutions through actions such as funding and technical and human capacity support.

The role of disruptive technologies in increasing the efficiency of operations is on the rise, with a focus on how data and data analytics can be the focal point for helping airlines and airports double down on emissions and lessening their carbon footprint. Each new generation of aircraft being developed is about 20% more energy-efficient, but with over $15 billion being spent on research annually, the efficiency will get even better (Ansell and Haran, 2020). There are projections that hybrid and electric airplanes might hit the aviation sector for short-haul flights in the coming decade. Aviation technologies are developing rapidly, and several are projected to hit the markets very soon, among them electric aircraft, UAVs, autonomous flights, avionic aircraft management technologies, advanced material, and cyber security. In the multilevel paradigm, these technologies rely on the choice of hardware as they influence the internal operations of the aircraft; therefore, the focus will also remain on producing more efficient hardware like software.

In its principles, International Air Transport Authority (IATA, 2018) says that the aviation industry of tomorrow will be guided by the need to put the safety and security of the people first and should be robust and flexible enough to evolve with the constantly evolving global environment. One such way of realizing that it suggests is the need for safety network teams and sound occupational safety and health standards in the workplace, both for the employees and the customers. Moreover, it suggested that those tasked with the duties at the airports should be qualified and competent to be able to handle the responsibilities bestowed on them (IATA, 2019). Currently, there is a shortage of the right people with the right skills in the aerospace industry. Going forward, more emphasis should be placed on educating people of all ages and adopting a sustainable workforce model that has elements of equity, diversity, and inclusion.

Individual companies have always made research efforts, but recently there has been a paradigm shift for global collaboration for a stronger post-pandemic future. This has been motivated by the fact that the various companies and firms have different approaches to finding solutions to the challenges faced in the industry. The most viable way forward is by harmonizing their operations toward achieving a common goal (IATA, 2018; IATA, 2019). Sustainable aviation and aerospace research will also rely on engaging and supporting regulators with research and evidence to craft modern and sufficient regulations. Trends are now inclining more towards plans to support and mobilize support for the future of aviation.

Theoretical Framework

Sustainable development is based on the theoretical framework for operationalizing sustainability by Lange

Introduction

Glass ceiling is used in the field of economics to mean a situation where a person who is qualified in terms of education and experience cannot progress on an upward mobility in his/her place of work. This is usually caused by discrimination against him/her on basis of sex or race. When glass ceiling arises, it is normally at a very low level in the profession and therefore the victim may not have voice even to air his/her grievances. To day the term glass ceiling is also used to means discrimination against the deaf, disabled and those who are blind as well as those who are aged. It is therefore generally right to say that, majority of the victims of glass ceiling are usually the minority in the society because of the perceived weakness by the rest members of the society and especially the top people in the managerial positions. Mostly the advancement is awarded in terms of whether one gives in the conditions such as sexual advancement for thee case of ladies. At other times, because of the social set up and the culture instilled in the mind of a certain community at large, most key people in the management have the stereotype that, thy should always favor those who are from their race every time there is an opportunity for a higher position in the job place. The issue of the problems cause by existence of glass ceiling is of great concern because as the name suggest, this kind of obstacle in the job place in not visible and is not formal and everyone knows of its unethical nature. Mostly the problem affects the women in the society as well as the minority especially if it is a case of black among white. The obstacle is transparent and there are no official polices clarifying that, a particular position cannot be held by the minority. It is therefore possible to distinguish a glass ceiling from formal obstacles because the latter are written down policies and include things such as academic qualification and the amount of experience one has in particular field as well as the quality of service in his/her specialization which include on whether the person delivers or not all which are viable to those who have interest with the position and even those who do not have interest. (Fernandez, 1999)

Research has shown that, glass ceiling has been affecting women that any other category of victims making them not to hold the most prestigious positions in their job places which also happen to be among the best paying. If this situation exists for along time in a certain region, the women and the minority being discriminated develop an attitude that, they can never have enough capacity to manage these positions and tend to pass the same culture of feeling to the next generation. Those who are enlightened and happen to be aspiring for these positions may also think that their seniors are not serious with the outcome of their performance in the job place and therefore do not look at them as potential candidates. (Smith, 2004)

Research has revealed that, regarding the history of glass ceiling, discrimination on the basis of sex was made illegal in the United States when civil right act was enacted in 1964. This was done with a goal in mind to ensure women have equal access as men in following upward mobility in any place of work if their academic qualification as well as experience met the requirements. Initially, this term only referred to invisible obstacles limiting women from progressing upward with their careers regarding promotions in work force. However, at glance, there appeared as though the path to promotions was obvious but research could tell that, women could only advance with their careers to a certain level beyond which they could not proceed and stagnated for rest of their working life until retirement. Studies have indicted that, the minorities begin experiencing glass ceiling earlier than it was ever thought. (Crook, 2002)

Importance of the study

The study will enhance the understanding of various forms of barriers encountered through glass ceiling in different types such as varying pay packages even when the employees are performing the same type of task under the same conditions and even after having served the same period of time. The victim will be denied promotion even when he/she has better performance in delivering duties assigned. Another form of glass ceiling is observed through sexual harassment in the job place or discrimination on ethnic and racial lines and sometimes even on religious affiliations. Absence of family polices that are friendly to the entire working team is also classified as another form of glass ceiling. (Jensen, 2001)

Definition of terms

1. Glass ceiling- I is a state of stagnation experienced in a workforce where a qualified individual cannot progress in his/her position of work.
2. Victim of glass ceiling- this are the individual who are mostly negatively affected by the obstacles that prevent upward mobility. There are usually the minority in the community such as women, the blind and the physically disabled as well as those who do not belong to a particular race.
3. Sexism- it is the attitude the community has on the ability of an individual depending on his her sex associated with the role the society expect to be accomplished by a particular sex. The society uses this attitude to determine who deserves a certain promotion and which job fit a particular individual regardless of the academic qualification.
4. The minority in the society- these are the less represented in a given community and therefore their voice is not usually heard even when they have what it takes to be awarded a particular recognition. They include the weaker sex; the females, the disabled and the deaf as well as the blind.
5. Wage gap- this is the average difference in allowances and pay packages between individuals who have the same qualification and performing same type of work in a work force.
6. Right and freedoms in a job place- these are the privileges that human being should naturally enjoy regardless of his race, disability and sex as long as they thy meet qualifications.

Summary

The quality of job promotions and upward mobility in general should be made of appropriate managerial responsibilities to all the employees. Parameters used in ensuring every employee climbs the ladder should satisfy all those who are interested with the position by equally considering they qualification based of academic excellence as well as their experience. The major contributor in the introduction of glass ceiling in any organization is the attitude the community has on the role of women in the society as belonging to home chores and the perceived weakness in people with various disabilities. Women on one hand have also been blamed for making initiatives in prioritizing their careers that are more flexible to fit their attendance of their families as they work. However, most countries are reviewing their legal frameworks that define different punishments for those who discriminate the minority by putting up the invisible obstacles liming them from upward mobility. (Jensen, 2001)

Effects of glass ceiling on sexism

Research has found one of the key indicators that are reliable in explaining how glass ceiling has impacted on the gender and this is the difference in the amount of wages as well as earning awarded to male and females. Studies have revealed that, even when a woman has the same experience and academic qualification as her male counterpart, she tend to earn less in terms of wags and other earning in form of allowances. Even when there is a comparison in all these determinants, there has been an assumption that, women tend to earn 75.3% on dollar compared to men and this has even been put on statistics at global level. This trend is assumed to be taking effect in all job places in united state of America throughout the year. (Powell, 2006)

The reason why this statistic are ironical to be relied on is that, after World War II, there was a general trend for increased participation of women in labor force. It is only in areas when women have received more education and exposure to the external world where they have been able to fight for their rights and have their salaries increased in comparison to that of men performing the same task. Another factor that has contributed to women starting to earn more than before is their reduced fertility for the last few years that has caused the ration on women to men to go down in job places. As the number of women decline in the job places, men have also been reducing in number as result of most of them declining available job opportunities so as to go and look for greener pasture especially in the manufacturing industries. If conclusion can be dawn from statistics on the tend of pay increase of women compared to that of men since 1990, then it is evident that, the pay has been increasing on the scale for women since it has increased by 9% between 1990-2003 while that of men has only gone up by 4.9%. The substantial gain made by women do not however men that, glass ceiling has been broken for them as research indicate a lot of discrepancies in their work places and therefore they still have a long journey to win the battle in breaking the ceiling. According to statistic collected in the year 2000, the average pay for a woman was recorded as $28,820 compared to $ 39,020 earned by men witho0ut even considering the differences in levels of ability in performing different tasks. Studies have shown that, wage based on gender is still enduring. (Powell, 2006)

Statistics of existence of glass ceiling at national levels

(Eyring, 2004) found that, figures at gloss national level have continued to indicate that, the highest paying jobs are still being held by men and some of these jobs are also the most prestigious which are considered as most powerful in the structure of most occupation. It is this kind of preservation of such jobs for men that has caused the difference in the pay structure leaving most women behind. The phenomenon of occupational segregation is characterized by men holding most top positions that deal with supervision and management, chief executive officers as well as operations in areas of production. Analysis reveals that, women normally concentrate on low ranks professions where they are paid lowly for the work done. Most of the professions that show overrepresentation of females include secretariats, teaching, selling, nursing as well as providing service for child care of children belonging to higher classes. His has lead to a culture where most work has been classified as belonging to males or ladies in specific. The stereotype makes these jobs perceived as belonging to men to be paying far much well than those perceived as belonging to women. The segregation consequently limit the women from receiving promotions since as they tend to follow upward mobility, there is always the distinction line that defines the segregation and this is what bring about glass ceiling and the power of the minority over others is thus far much limited. when the minority in the community experience occupational segregation, they are not able to access facilities such as insurance and other benefits as well as pensions and this trend comes and repeat itself with an aim of ensuring women are always put down whenever they dare to raise. If a woman holds a managerial position, she is more likely to be in the personnel than marketing and what makes most women become contented is that fact that, the difference even in their salaries is perceived as being as a result of inferences in their gender but very few of them thinks the disparity could have been caused by differences in their perceived low ability. (Eyring, 2004)

Contribution of women preference on glass ceiling

When research was done on the medical field, the outcome revealed that, areas that require family practices as well as pediatric are care are concentrated by women as opposed to areas like surgeons and other are that require a lot specialization will be more occupied by men. Wage gap based on gender has been found to exist in all areas of workforce dealing with blue collar jobs and managerial as well as professions. In America, research has shown that, positions in the top executive among the corporations that are classified as the largest, only 16% of them are managed by women. The average income for a working woman is also calculated at about 70% compared to that of an average working man. Studies have also shown that, the statistic is a typical representation of what happens in all sectors of work. The imbalance based on gender in most occupations has come as result of the fact that, women are the more likely to be adventurers of new fields; a act that makes them not to have the primacy as well as enjoy the extra pay that would be expected for a person who has become more senior. Inequality based on gender is often found in the social hierarchy and it manipulates how women and other people who represent the minority are perceived by the rest of the society members regarding leadership roles. There are various traits ascribed to women n comparison to men which influence selection process basing it on bias that has no foundation. The issue makes women and the minority to be viewed negatively in case they have extra trait beyond what they are expected to have. Research done in 2004 revealed that, if female is an expert in a certain field, the rest members of the society tend to feel and show her that, she has less influence in order to make her feel down. On the other hand, if a man is an expert in a particular field, everyone else tends to feel that, the expertise makes the man feel influential and therefore it is considered as positive. Such studies have therefore led to the conclusion that, there are other reasons that make women and the minority in the society in general to be discriminated regarding upward mobility in their places of work. It is not because they have fewer skills compared to men performing the same task. (Evetts, 2003)

Another research done in 2006 by Lynes indicated that, it is hard form females to be promoted in leadership roles but if they received the promotions, they would give better results than they male counterparts. However, women were found to perform better only after they were promoted and therefore their improved performance was strongly associated with promotion. The study revealed that, according to the perception of the majority in the society, for females to be awarded managerial advancements, they needed to prove that they are highly impressive. This unseen qualification was not applying for men in the same positions and aiming to receive the same kind of promotions. Studies have also shown that, another factor that could be self limiting for females in acquiring upward mobility in various work forces is that, they tend to rely much on other factors when choosing a profession other than just pay an this is not the case with men who have the same academic qualification as the females. An example of this kind of preference is well illustrated in the field of healthcare where most women prefer to work because the nature of the work can make it possible for the female worker to continue with the work and at the same tie concentrates on the primary care for her children whenever they need her. They become more attached to this kind of jobs with such flexibility and research has shown that, it is or the same reason that make such a filed to be dominated by women or the minority among the poor who feel that, they are better placed to offer such services. A larger group of such minorities therefore do nit desire to hold positions which are involving in terms of travel or frequent job transfers as well as jobs that are potentially hazardous. Research has shown that, female employees are more likely to take frequent offs in their jobs and the total number of hours worked in day aso tends to be fewer as a result of other commitment. These extra roes are brought by the fact that, the structure of the society has brought unequal sharing of labor as far as child care is concerned. Domestic labor is also unequally distributed in addition to medical needs that are specific to females. There are also other issues in the family considered as the responsibility of a woman per every role assigned to a particular gender in a given society. Consequently, the total wages of a working woman tends to be low because of the extra responsibilities regarding their home as well as their children. Generally, high demands in the family cause a downward trend on the total income of women and this effect is spread throughout their working life. The greatest difference in term of wages between women and men is felt at the age of mid-thirties but the greatest impact of the difference is felt at the age of fifties.

Gender wage gap is also seen through another perspective based on the study that was done in 2008 where the relationship between role orientation regarding gender and gender itself as well as earnings in the labor markets. In the study, gender gap was not specifically looked at but more focus was made on the consequences that would arise from the interaction between the role orientation that was largely shaped by believes regarding occupation. The focus is on which occupation are mot suitable and more appropriate for both type of gender as well as the effect that gender impacts on the amount of earning especially on the side of women. (Evetts, 2003)

Influence of community culture on glass ceiling

(Finley, 2002) argues that, most of researchers who have working on the issue of gender and how it relate on the amount of wage earned by women and the minority are now in agreement that, economic factors may not be in a full capacity to explain the gap in terms of wage that result from gender related issue. Their argument is that, wage gap may also have been attributed to psychological components as well as attitude that has been held in various societies and which research has proved to be hard to break. One f the findings of the research was that, there was a positive connection between roles of various gender based on the traditions and the expected earnings by a person belonging to a particular gender. This relationship was greatly predicted by gender regarding the amount as well as the direction concerning how much should be paid to a particular gender in a given occupation. According to traditions based on gender roles, for example, men were given higher earnings than women as the orientation had a positive relation with males and higher earnings. By then, traditional gender role was oriented in such a way that, it had a slightly negative association between females and their earrings which was considered as weak. (Stroh, 2006)

The above consideration explains why glass ceiling exist especially for females because the attitude derived by the traditions tends to have men being rewarded with higher advancements as this is seen as a way of maintain social order. On the other hand, females workers are lowly rewarded even though they are not punished either. Generally, a conclusion drawn from the study is, in the modern times there is a major decrease on the beliefs based on the traditions regarding gender and promotions in the work places as well as the amount of wages the respective genders should be earning. However, wage gap has still continued to be felt as a result of the traditional orientation based on the gender role.

History of economic oppression among women and the glass ceiling

According to (Stroh, 2006), Daily lives of moist Americans have been affected by a great deal of advancement especially in the scientific field. This has partly been caused by landing of mayflower causing a shift of the Americans society fabric. While research has indicated some form of satisfaction brought by these changes because of the associated comfort the human being is deriving, studies have sho0wn that, there are still aspects in the societies of Americans where progress has not been felt. The existence of divine rights enjoyed by the kings is a concept that was denounced by age of reason and in place there was introduction of human rights and the individuality concept. It is from these ideologies that led to the todays United States of America gain its independence in 1776 from Brittan. This desire for Americans to be autonomous was characterized by more freedom but research has revealed that, it is quite unfortunate because this increased freedom was only felt by just a certain class of individuals. Data from historical records have continued revealing that, in America, men have continued to enjoy a bigger share of power as well as influence in most places of workforce. Even though there has been a shift in terms of the status quo, there is a greater tendency in the America social structure that has been found to focus in favoring men to dominate the general society. The consequence of this kind of structure in the American society is that, the second class citizen has existed and its representatives are and have continued being women. Women have been found to be restricted both in physical as well as in the intellectual world of freedom in comparison to their men counterparts. Research indicates that, it is not [possible for person to deny that, men are psychologically different from women but that truth has been misused to interpret that, it is justifiable for women to be treated unequally as men on issues that touch human interaction. Female gender has been shown as having been sidelined even in the legal system in American legal system through the reflected attitude that results to treatments that are not equal between men and women. The existing historical attitude American men have towards women may easily convince anyone that, psychological difference women have from men is basis of their choices of career and a basis in determining intellectual maturity they have reached at a certain age of their working lifespan. It also used to determine their credibility and their capacity in being effective contributors towards the progress of the society at large. These are used as a basis why women should receive different treatment in comparison to their men counterparts holding the same positions in their job places. The attitude has therefore consequently resulted to the attitude that, women are weak and their roe is therefore majorly on maintenance of home as well as taking care of the health of. On the other hand, men have been perceived as the major provider food as well as security in the homes especially protecting the weaker sex. This perception has up to today continued to put invisible barriers regarding the roles of women in comparison to men in the society. When research discovered the existence of this kind of spirit, a protective registration was enacted for women through Muller v Oregon which was enacted in 1905. This case was about a Laundromat owner who was made to pay a fine of $10.00 because of making a female employee exceed ten hours while working. He made an appeal against the fine but the court gave a ruling against him on the basis that, the physical structure of woman as well as discharge of maternal functions deserved justification in order t protect her from mens greed. However, studies have revealed that, the same laws that are supposed to be protecting women against such abuse appear to be friendlier to men than to women. Other researches have argued that, it would still cause great harm if men did not have laws enacted and meant for their protection to safeguard their health. The argument was that, lack of such protective laws for men could have been cause of more windows being recorded in comparison to widowers. (Cotter, 2007)

How politics have shaped the existence of glass ceiling

Research has also shown that, politics in the field of economics have a lot of influence on the extent of how females enjoy or fail to enjoy their rights and freedoms. If a career proofs to be hard for a woman where she cannot pursue it, or if she cannot afford enough finance to sustain her needs, she would tend to rely on the husband. Government agencies also extend support to unable women and the same has not been done for men. Statistics show that, in 1985-1986, one among four women in the US earned an average of $10,000 per annum and this was found to be less than the required wage for sustenance for that mothers who are singles and for those who are divorced and ha[pen to be having custodial children. Research has also indicated that, even for the learned women who have managed to acquire at least the first degree, the academic achievement does not offer them an added advantage in their career when they join the job market. On average, such women obtain an income just slightly more than a man holding a corresponding position and with the same type of academic qualification. (Cotter, 2007)

In American society, men are taken to be superior to women and the issues that concerns women are not addressed by the legal system because men are the ones who make decisions. There are women who are educated and graduate from school of law but they can not be employed in the legal system even if they are more experienced than me. The supreme court of justice has only one female representative and the rest are men. Forty women within the thirty states are the only ones who serve in the highest court and federal judges consist of 5.4 per cent women. This is because, in the legal profession, influential women are the minority making it difficult to raise an issue that can shape federal or state statutes in order to lift personal and social life of women. The few number of women representative in the higher offices makes them lack legal profession and fail to be powerful. Women stereotypes have been denounced even though they have not been empathized with which shows how they are being ignored and male victimize them because, movements that support women deals with human right for the benefit of both sexes instead of being a movement of women to fight against oppression by men. Public sentiment shape law in America but legal reform is important to make movements of women beneficial. When law does not consider women seriously, contribution of women would not be considered having value that men can abide by. There is an argument that, legal reforms do not help to end discrimination against women because, peoples way of thinking can not be changed by law but the laws can reduce discriminatory practices since it is difficult to evade concrete laws and theories about the right s of women. (Davidson, 2004)

Constitutions have failed to declare equality between men and women. Men are favored by constitutions which make them be more powerful than women who has direct link with matrimonial bond due to its ramifications and social definition. Men are taken to be the head of family and wife to obey him but wife is considered separately by the law in getting protection or benefits. The supreme court of Ohio gives definition of a wife as chattel with no property or personality and her feelings and rights could not be recognized. Women are taken to be individuals who have special need even if marriage is supposed to join men and women to become one. This means that it is not demonstrated practically that men and women are equal because, joining them to become one is only applicable in theory. A woman has life only inside her home and has no say outside all the basic needs are offered by the husband.

According to (Davidson, 2004), Restrictions have been put on women to restrict men due to the job opportunities that are referred to as feminine or awarding mothers with custody higher than the fathers even if the father is capable of bringing up the children. The laws requires man to provide financial support to his wife and children but the society does not consider giving men well paying jobs and their employment may even be terminated at any time without considering the role they play in the family. The society does not offer job opportunities such as secretary, teacher of elementary school or typist to men which make men who are qualified in such areas lack employment opportunities that can assist them in earning a living. Gender should not be used to determine how we can be productive but out abilities should be used to determine how productive a person can be in his or her work. Therefore, changes should be made on the law because, self respect and dignity help people to live independently and make decisions about how their life would be. When a wife depends on husband to be given financial support, hers individuals free will is deprived since marriage requires equal partnership where both parties make unilateral decisions without having negative effects on each other.

Sometimes, men encounter the same problems as women but women are affected directly by discrimination than men. The problems faced by women affect their social structure while the problems of men have no direct effect but are aberrations in the norm. Women become vulnerable in marriage bounds than men due t the little support she offers to the family while man contributes higher in terms of financial support. There are situations where family requires both husband and wife to work and earn income but the woman suffers because, she is denied employment opportunity even if she is experienced due to the belief that woman is supposed to engage in her conjugal duties. In many states, the law requires man and woman to have similar legal residence which explains the way a women gets married in another state where her registration as a vote is lost and eligibility to be elected in the state of her origin. Many women suffer a lot because, they fail to get employment opportunities or promotion if she is already employed if the employer believes that, once the husband moves, the wife will also move and terminate her employment. Married women have financial ramifications in states owned by the community. The husband has all the power over property of the community and can sell assets such as bonds and real estate without permission from the wife or without informing the wife. Before enactment of opportunity act of equal credit in 1974, women who were married could not use their own name in credit card without permission from the husband. Today, over twenty per cent of Express cards in America are owned by women and eighty per cent by men.

Women were not only mistreated by men in marriage but also when they wanted to dissolve marriage through divorce. In America, divorce affected women so much that, the were given the first priority by the child custody a woman can wok for nine days to earn what a man can earn in five days. American women liberation support single parents who are in need where statistics show that, in 1982 census, forty one per cent of the custodial mothers have children who are not supported financially while their ex-husbands use those payments to ensure their car payments are made on time. There are many factors that aim at reducing effective income of women making their earnings to reduce by seventy per cent immediately after divorce. Women are required to be good mothers and participate actively in bringing up their children. Alternatively, forces from outside expect them work hard and provide those children with basic needs and wants. The view that men are the only ones who can provide for basic needs has exception because; it requires one to have self respect and dignity in order to have a meaningful life irrespective of gender.(Weisshaar, 2006)

In the United States of America, legal history shows that, constitution shows that everyone is considered equally by being all inclusive but the reality is different because, those words do not bide legally. Constitutions do not fight against discrimination of women and women still experience psychological domination in the modern society. Privileges and immunities in the f