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Overview of practices in adult ESL instruction

Language teaching has emerged as an independent professional discipline in recent times with unique concept methods that outline a systematic teaching methodology for acquisition of language theories and practices. Language learning constitutes the concept of applied linguistics with relevant formulation and methodologies.

Methods applied in language teaching exemplify techniques and practices that can be interpreted by adult learners in various ways in the same classroom (Smith, 2007). Adult foreign English language learners are different from other adults who are native English speakers. They include immigrants and asylum seekers with different cognitive capacities and intelligence.

The composition of adult learners is complex and diverse as immigration patterns keep changing. People from different regions of the world such as Africa and Asia among others migrating into Europe seek to develop their literacy skills in English as adults.

The process of learning English as a second language among adults demands for the use of best practices in teaching as well as giving instruction. Curriculum development should factor in the interests and capabilities of the adult students from different regions of the world (Berlin, 2005). The content of the subject should equally reflect best practices and approaches in language teaching in a complex environment.

Differentiated instruction

Differentiated instruction is a flexible approach in learning that takes into account the different abilities of students in teaching. Students are therefore exposed to various means of synthesizing ideas and knowledge. This is a teaching method that incorporates various instructions techniques which equally apply to different students in the same classroom.

The method of differentiated instruction calls for teachers to be flexible in terms of adjusting the curriculum content and teaching methodology in line with the expectations and capacities of their students (Purmensky, 2009).

It is therefore an efficient method of teaching adult students from different backgrounds without a bias on a rigid curriculum. Students are able to excel in acquiring language skills through a flexible approach that is associated with their goals and expectations.

Differentiated instruction removes barriers to learning where teachers and students are equally engaged in the education process. Students access to materials and curriculum content is further enhanced through this method of teaching in various classrooms.

Differentiated instruction actually involves the appreciation of students needs, background, language and interests in developing a flexible teaching method which incorporates the variations in learning potentialities of the individual students (Nevin, Villa & Thousand, 2007). The students academic background and proficiency in learning the language determines the teaching preferences adapted by the instructor.

Differentiated instruction appreciates the learners abilities in language teaching in order to align the teaching methodology with the interests of the student. The method therefore identifies the actual position of the student in language acquisition and assists individually the learning of new concepts.

The student learning profile illustrates his/her readiness to study, potential to learn new skills and ability to develop talent. The teaching curriculum which entails the content and standards used to benchmark the teaching process if therefore aligned to the student learning profile for the purpose of helping the learner excel at individual level.

What the instructor does during teaching is dependent on both the curriculum and the students profile and how integrated they are. The differentiated instruction helps in planning the teaching module for individual and group categories of the same class.

The process of differentiating instruction requires that the content of the curriculum is deconstructed to create a procedure that appreciates the student profile in processing the final product in learning (Sanz, 2005).

Content

The content of the instruction consists of concepts, principles and skills which support the learning process. It is important that students are accessible to the guidelines and materials of the language curriculum which acts as a gauge for exploring and explaining the learning process.

Goals and objectives of the learning process are then set. Differentiated instruction actually seeks to align the learning objectives with different tasks in the classroom in a defined manner. The learning goals are benchmarked on standardized tests in an incremental manner towards a higher state of skills acquisition (Smoke, 2008).

According to Smoke (2008) differentiated instruction content is therefore an objectives-driven procedure that effectively outlines a stepwise approach in teaching language. The degree of complexity in the curriculum content is differentiated to suit the variation in learning potential. The concepts and principles are taught using an instruction model that identifies defined steps and matches goals to content.

Process

Differentiated instruction seeks to help the individual student through a process that recognizes the input of flexible grouping in learning.

The strategies of grouping students with different learning abilities focus on teamwork and mutual interaction in teaching various language concepts (Kompf & Denicolo, 2005). Students help each other to learn new content during their group interactions.

Teachers actually introduce the entire class to the topics of study and for group discussions in advance. Tasks are then assigned to individual students and groups in the same class for exercise.

The topic under study defines the composition and structure of the group. Students are allowed to join any groups while the teacher provides insight and oversight in the learning process.

Regular evaluations of the group performance are carried out with respect to the learning objectives for the purpose of adjusting the content with learners abilities. Designing the classroom for differentiated instruction exercises is a crucial element in teaching language. Management of the classroom activities rests upon the teachers discretion.

Products

Pre-assessment ad subsequent regular assessments of the student learning profile are important in determining the effectiveness of the learning process. The initial pre-assessment assists the teacher to gauge the student readiness to participate in the learning process.

These assessments provide insight into the different ways teaching could be done taking into account the variation in student abilities and interests (Edelsky, 2006).

Assessment can be done through interviews and surveys in addition to academic evaluation strategies which recognize individual student potentialities and interests. Teachers expect that their students shall be active and responsible during the learning program engaging one another in discussions.

The content of the curriculum should elicit learning consciousness in the mind of the student provoking healthy exchange of ideas and information. Such interested and active students should be facilitated to access materials for language acquisition and understanding the necessary skills at individual and group level.

The time spent in learning should be properly evaluated for the success of the outcomes with respect to the different approaches. The feedback received from students in relation to differentiated topics of study.

The variation in student understanding of the concepts is noted and the differentiated content is thereby evaluated (Hedgcock & Ferris, 2005). Measurement of student scores and outcomes to the different learning methods is a factor of the varied demonstration of knowledge acquisition and responses from diverse students sharing the same classroom.

Towards differentiated instruction in language teaching

The teacher is expected to clarify to the class about the general principles and concepts which constitute the curriculum. Learners should be helped to assimilate the details of the curriculum as well as develop the necessary knowledge base for subsequent discussions and evaluation (Nelson & Price, 2009).

Since learners have differences in skills and abilities, the teacher adapts differentiated instruction to ensure that essential concepts and principles are understood by the whole class. This enables the classroom to be balanced before group activities and deliberations are launched.

A stepwise technique is utilized in teaching accompanied with periodic assessment tools which serve to guide the students towards achieving learning objectives. The assessment is done before and during the learning process in alignment with the student profile and curriculum expectations.

Classroom lessons are designed in a manner to emphasize creativity and innovation in learning. The tasks and activities assigned to students should foster practical application of content rather assimilation of knowledge. Students are therefore expected to be active in applying meaning to the varied tasks while the teacher inspires and supports constructive thinking and dialogue.

The teacher should ensure that all students are properly engaged in the learning process. Lessons should be designed in a manner to reflect student differences in the classroom activities (Kasper, 2000).

Materials and equipment that facilitate learning should be available and accessible to every student. No drilling of students should be applied during teaching but the entire classroom session should consist of tasks and activities which are both motivating and inclusive.

Differentiated instruction creates balance between the teacher assignments and students interdisciplinary preferences. This balanced working structure creates the foundation for the application of differentiated learning methodologies and evaluation of the outcomes mutually.

The student profile and the teacher lesson design are flexible to the variations in the classes. In essence, students are given options in learning which towards mutual interactions and exchange of ideas (Kazemek, 2009).

Differentiated instruction effectiveness

Empirical validation of the independent student learning profiles in differentiated instruction during language teaching is evaluated based on the concept of readiness of the student. The complexity of the learning curriculum is differentiated depending on the variation in the mastery levels of the individual students.

Teachers use the curriculum content selectively through approaches that recognize the learning profiles of the class and the extent to which educational objectives are realized.

The range of instructions employed in teaching corresponds to the dynamic challenges in the modern classroom where students from diverse nationalities and literacy levels are engaged in constructive dialogue and interaction that promote sustainability in learning (Ryan & Krueger, 2009).

Project-based learning

Adult students participating in a project that interests them promotes teamwork in learning. The learners identify a common project and develop appropriate responses to the subject matter. Project-based learning greatly facilitates adult literacy initiatives from a common perspective through inquiries that enhance progressive education (Miller & Beckett, 2006).

The functional context through which project-based learning is carried out adopts the K-12 approaching teaching and participatory education in adult learning. This is particularly important in second language acquisition among adult learners with differentiated potentialities and interests. Projects are indentified from different fields but should correspond to the mutual interests of the adult team.

The role of the teacher involves the task of introducing the idea of the project to be studied to the class in order to weigh their level of understanding among the students. The teacher also describes the different phases that the project should be explored without unnecessary emphasis on the rules of engagement.

In essence, adult students are at liberty to select a project that interests them within the confines of the curriculum through established learning phases. The project phases consist of the initial identification of the relevant project issue, reconnaissance surveys, planning, assigning of roles, research, and implementation and finally developing and evaluating the product (Wesche, Snow & Brinton, 2008).

Project based learning applies knowledge in meaning contexts for the purpose of collaborative learning and individual student growth. The emphasis is placed on the benefits of group learning rather than cognitive development in language education.

Teachers monitor student activities during project development in order to align them with classroom expectations. Project-based learning and progressive education are connected through common approaches to knowledge acquisition and social interactions.

Project-based learning enables adult students to identify individual cognitive challenges with respect to the degree to which concepts are acquired and applied. The curriculum content is understood based on constructive dialogue and meaningful interactions between teachers and likeminded students (Reis & Renzulli, 2007). The group identifies a common problem, develops remedies and evaluates progress of the proposed solutions.

Group interaction and deliberations provides the basis for problem solving and cognitive development. Project based learning facilitates joint decision making and problem solving opportunities through concerted knowledge acquisition and cognitive development.

Curriculum content is studied through the social context of the learners group as exemplified through individual reflection and teamwork. Literacy is developed through a social context that corresponds to the content of the curriculum. Adult learners develop their literacy and language proficiency through project identification and implementation.

Knowledge and ideas are actualized through community projects which apply to the curriculum content (Belzer, 2007). Adults with variation in literacy levels are privileged to respond to appropriate community issues within the scope of the language curriculum in a concerted manner.

Variety

Projects identified for learning and community service emphasize personal development and self-actualization through relevant group activity. Projects encourage development of learners cognitive capacities apart from processing learning outcomes and products that benefit the entire society.

The project directs the learning process through a criterion that allows students to give feedback to community issues that interest them while applying content of the curriculum in knowledge development. The functional context of project based learning is based on students capacities and community issues (Fleener, Morgan & Richardson, 2008).

Benefits and skills gain

Teachers create themes for development of project-based learning while students identify common interests for constructive dialogue. Since students are involved in identifying common projects for learning, they are motivated towards developing the best practices in second language acquisition (Shanahan & August, 2007).

Learners are actively engaged in the inquiry process during project-based learning. Learners are equally inspired to propose solutions to challenges and problems they are involved in. They also develop a common professional ethic in carrying out tasks and duties. Group interaction and socialization enables learners to encourage one another towards resolving community problems and tasks.

The social context of group learning facilitates mutual interactions that inspire moral support and enhancement of communication skills. Learning outcomes are presented in a scheduled manner promoting a timeline perspective in achieving learning objectives. Adults are therefore facilitated to develop their academic skills towards second language acquisition through sufficient teacher-student integrated support.

The excitement of developing the learning curriculum through practical project learning initiatives inspires innovation among students. Adult learners are involved in competency tests that measure their academic performance towards standardized language proficiency parameters (Appel & Lantolf, 2004). Language and literacy becomes integrated through practical learning approaches within a defined social context.

Project-based learning offers multiple learning options to students with a variety in needs and talents. Group interaction promotes socialization and teamwork in learning. The project agenda is the lowest common denominator in second language acquisition through its practical application of concepts.

Individual students are therefore motivated to develop their learning abilities through dialogue and writing projects that align with their second language acquisition initiatives. Engagement and involvement in common team activities promotes skills development on literacy and language portfolios (Matsuda & Silva, 2001).

Challenges are practically discussed and implemented through procedures that correspond to the curriculum content. To this end, learners benefit from project-based learning through community service and self reflection. Learning outcomes are evaluated first on the group objectives followed by individual development of learning skills.

Individualized Group Instruction

Second language acquisition among adult students is measured against individual achievement of assigned tasks. Teacher instructions are designed on student to student basis in language teaching. This is in appreciation with student differences in learning a second language.

The teacher is the reference point in teaching since he/she guides each student based on assigned tasks. Individual performance is used in the subsequent coaching and revision between the teacher and the student (Nunan & Richards, 2000).

The teacher is therefore in a position to identify the problems of individual students for further assistance. This model of teaching is more thorough and involving taking into account the complexity of the curriculum and the classroom. Students are therefore in a better position to gain first hand from the professional experience of their instructors towards solving their individual problems.

The curriculum is taught to the whole class but emphasis is put on the individual students outcomes. The teacher assigns the class tasks but evaluates student performance at individual level. This narrows teaching to individual students while it promotes talent and knowledge acquisition in a specific manner.

This methodology helps adult learners to express their individual problems directly to their instructors without fear of reprisals and peer embarrassment. The burden of second language acquisition is shared between the teacher and the student through approaches that best fit to the individual student (Doyle, McDonald & Leberman, 2006).

The teacher is able to assess the performance of each student based on the degree of acquisition of basic skills in the second language such as grammar and pronunciation. Individual problems are highlighted for correction and evaluation based on the content of the curriculum. The performance of the whole class is an aggregate of the individual outcomes.

The teacher inspires excellence through approaches that recognize individual effort and prowess on completion of assigned tasks. The best performance is publicly recognized, approved and rewarded in order to inspire hard work in the class. Exchange of ideas is facilitated by the teacher who monitors the contribution of individual students on a shared topic.

This helps in developing the individual personalities of the learner within the group. The class provides the social context through individual potential is recognized and rewarded based on a common curriculum.

The performance of the class is a product of the cumulative individual efforts on various tasks assigned by the teacher based on the content of the teaching curricula (Nasta, Griffin & Gray, 2000). The performance individual performance is evaluated against the aggregate outcome of the class.

Collaborating with Students to Build Curriculum that Incorporates Real-Life Materials

The teacher and the student are engaged in curriculum development with a bias on the needs assessment of the student in the context of the general society. There is sustained collaboration between the student and teacher in designing the lessons and the content of the curriculum.

The content of second language acquisition curriculum reflects learners needs rather than a purely academic module. The variation in learners abilities and literacy levels is factored in an integrated module that equally matches with standardized education scores (Brockett & Merriam, 2007).

The teacher explains the expectations of the education curriculum and the standardized tests that correspond to second language acquisition among adult learners.

Adult learners respond by giving feedback on their understanding of the underlying concepts and principles. The teacher takes note of the different responses in modifying the content of the curriculum with students needs. This ensures that learners needs do not contradict with the standard curriculum expectations.

Collaborating between students and teachers facilitates the learning with process by reflecting on curriculum content in a practical manner (Smith, 2007). Quality teaching is therefore achieved through a procedure that allows for feedback from students on the subject matter.

Teaching entails approaches and techniques which are practical in nature. Second language acquisition is taught through such literary styles as narratives, poetry and drama in explain the content to students.

The dramatized ideas reflect the problems and issues of interest in the society. Expression of these issues through such literary styles facilitates acquisition of language skills in a practical manner.

The curriculum is designed in a manner to actively engage learners on current issues in the society while teacher serve as the reference resource on the content and concepts taught in class.

Student needs are continuously assessed before and during learning in terms of the different abilities and potentialities of the learners (Berlin, 2005). The relevance of the teaching method is evaluated based on application of the curriculum content the different needs of learners.

Content based Instruction

Teaching materials are content based and learner-centered. The curriculum serves as the yardstick in evaluating relevant teaching approaches that best apply with learners needs in different contexts. Learners come from different backgrounds and vary in terms of abilities and literacy levels.

However, second language acquisition follows a paradigm that recognizes learners potential to synthesize ideas, concepts and principles in the curriculum. Based on the needs assessment of the adult class, the content is taught through instructions that correspond to learners ability (Purmensky, 2009).

Materials and equipment used as teaching aids in language teaching do not just disseminate the content to learners but also address the needs of the students. Students are therefore taught the principles and concepts which apply to the second language acquisition in order to lay the foundation for subsequent discussions on the application of the knowledge.

The content of the curriculum is the reference while designing teaching approaches while outcomes are investigated based on the relevance of the teaching instruction with respect to the student needs. Matching of the learners literacy status with the curriculum content informs the methodologies applied in teaching adults a second language.

Adult learners from diverse nationalities but studying the same second language may not interact properly in groups due to the complex nature of their native languages. The content of the curriculum should therefore identify similarities and differences that exist in the same class while designing the teaching methodology for second language acquisition.

Students from countries that speak the same language can be grouped together during lessons in order to create appropriate working student clusters in a class where nationalities of the students are extensively varied (Nevin, Villa & Thousand, 2007).

Similar tasks could be assigned to the different groups while evaluating the degree of compliance to established standards. Periodic evaluation of the group and individual outcomes with respect to the subject matter provides the impetus for subsequent teaching.

National Center for the Study of Adult Learning

Adult learning requires a close teacher-student relationship. Adult students are people with practical experiences from different disciplines and life. The task of teaching adult students a second language requires that they are actively engaged in the learning process.

The focus should be placed on development of relevant skills which include reading, writing, research and verbal communication. Reading and writing lessons can be carried out together while research and speaking skills can be taught through projects assigned to individual learners.

Students need to be guided on how to carry out extensive research without distorting the curriculum content. The expectation of adult learning is to help the students develop their literacy skills without too much burden on their schedule (Sanz, 2005). Group interactions are equally fruitful in the sense that they inspire group learning through exchange of ideas.

Brainstorming sessions characterize such group activities each having a common agenda. The curriculum is deconstructed through group activities that engage adult learners in practical means of understanding concepts.

Theoretical principles are taught through methodologies that demystify knowledge and promote assimilation and practical application of information. The teacher attaches ratings to the different techniques used in learning from dialogue, discussions to creative thinking and practical reading of passages.

Understanding the vocabulary, note taking and essay writing illustrates progress and the teacher assigns a high rating for the score (Smoke, 2008). Presentation, research and interviewing skills are also developed through group activities assigned common topics for study.

Participatory education is therefore part and parcel of the adult learning process with proper facilitation from the teacher and the active involvement of the learner.

The outcome of such group interactions is the enhanced student motivation and self esteem while promoting team building for purposes of developing working relationships. Adult learners from diverse nationalities are mutually engaged in brainstorming and group sessions which serves to develop cross-cultural integration.

Language and culture are closely integrated since they mutually promote the wellbeing of the society. Collaborative working relationships between the teacher as the curriculum instructor and students from diverse nationalities promote skills development in second language acquisition (Kompf & Denicolo, 2005).

Adult learning proceeds beyond the classroom through an approach that incorporates real life experiences and participatory education in training and project development. The teacher encourages team building and participation in group activities that transform theoretical concepts through the experiential mode into practical initiatives.

Hard skills taught in second language acquisition include reading and writing while soft skills include dialogue and presentation skills. Adult education is based on the understanding that some adults have limited literacy and language acquisition skills.

Theory of experiential learning

Learning in general seeks to enlarge the knowledge base of information. This requires that the information is stored for future reference or otherwise memorized (Edelsky, 2006). The skills and facts acquired during the learning process should empower learners in solving their daily problems through applying them appropriately.

Individuals have a natural ability to learn from their experiences. It therefore explores a method of obtaining information by learning from experiences. The knowledge is then acquired and transformed to solve problems that individuals have as well as the environmental concerns. Experiential learning is a continuous process that incorporates the experience with theory, reflection as well as solutions.

Experiential learning is based on the principle that individuals learn better from their personal experiences. Peoples actions in this theory are more important than what they have been taught. It therefore employs a learning process that is self fulfilling and enjoyable in order for the learners to face the challenges appropriately. It also empowers the individuals with the ability to become creative and innovative.

The theory of experiential learning therefore based on firsthand experience and observation. Reflection in experiential learning is very critical. I t provides the link between the real life experiences and theoretical concepts. Participants in the learning process are given an opportunity to interact with

Introduction

Rapid globalization in the world in the recent years has led to a number of shared environmental problems. As globalization continues and the earths natural processes transform local problems into international issues, few societies are being left untouched by major environmental problems. (Environmental problems, 1999, para.1). One among these, a serious concern for all environmentalists is the problem of pollution. The problem of environmental pollution which cannot be overlooked has proved to be exigent and uncontrollable. They have become very critical, kept unresolved or overlooked over longer time horizons. The government of every nation faces this challenging problem. The given case study presents a scenario where the public utilities department of a town has failed in implementing a sound water distribution system due to low-accountability and performance issues of the employees. This has resulted in the death of the residents which unless controlled with immediate effect would prove to be more fatal.

Aim:

• Determine the cause for the failure of Meadow Brooks Public Utilities division and Water Delivery System
• Recommend measures to overcome the problem by developing a Performance Management System.

Purpose of Study

The purpose of the study is to develop a performance management system based on Commission process, services and employees. There is also a scope for creating a public awareness plan to be established in the town of Meadow Brook

Statement of Problem

The Meadow Brook town has encountered a local tragedy due to the unaccountability of employees in Public Utilities Commission. Water contamination has claimed the life of many and has proved to be uncontrollable. The problem which could have been controlled in the earlier stages itself has proven to be fatal due to the untimely actions and frivolity of the authorities.

Review of Literature

Water Management

Water which has no substitute is a unique resource which is a very fundamental source of life. According to Postel (1999), the roots of water problems lies in the fact that unlike any other scant resources, water is used to stir up all aspects of life. In his journal A Long Term View of Water and International Security, Aaron T Wolf states that water management is a kind of conflict management. He says There is no such thing as managing water for a single purposeall water management is multi-objective and based on navigating competing interests.

(Wolf, 2009, p.67). According to the Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) of Global Water Partnership the major challenge faced by countries in their economic and social development are more related to water which include Water shortages, quality deterioration and flood impacts.

TAC reports that some countries do only little in water resources management with complete openness and transparency which gives no access to the public to information. It says the continuation of this approach can be counterproductive. The risky areas in water management involve extreme climate conditions, public health and environmental damage. According to TAC the usage of water is integrated as water for people, water for food, water for nature and water for industry and other uses. There is great need for integrating the quantity and quality. The decline in the quality reduces its usability. Clearly, institutions capable of integrating the quantity and quality aspects have to be promoted to influence the way human systems operate in generating, abating and disposing of waste products. (Agarwal, et al, 2000, p.25). It emphasizes on the importance of Public Awareness as a tool to mobilize sustainable water management and inducing changes in behavior and action to achieve the objective of water management.

Water Delivery System

The state legislature of Arizona says that a water delivery system involves an entity that distributes or sells potable water through a pipeline delivery system. This system is owned by either a city or town which is under the rules and regulations of the government, a private entity which is regulated as a public service corporation or an entity of water supply system which is regulated by the environmental quality department. (Definition of municipal water delivery system, 2007).

In their study Developing a sustainable water-delivery system in rural El Salvador the team works on assessing the feasibility of implementing a water delivery project. Different types of water pumps, filtration mechanism and a good water supply network are the most essential requirements of a successful fresh water supply system. (Wing, et al. 2007).

The first step of the study involved creating a map showing the distribution location. A successful Water delivery system involves structural engineering for infrastructure design, water- filtering to address health related issues and timely maintenance and operations. (Wing et al, 2007)

Surface water which is supplied through the distribution channel comes from rivers, lakes, and reservoirs. This water is disinfected and filtered and subjected to other treatments before it enters the distribution system. This surface water usually travels miles through underground pipes before it reaches the people.

Ground water wells or surface water are the source of our drinking water. Most of the rural populations have ground water wells with simple piping system. There are many other people in populated areas who get water from large water supply wells via complicated distribution system. Ground water supplies are usually extracted by a pump, treated and disinfected when necessary, and delivered to homes and businesses through a network of pipes called a distribution system. (New Englands ground water resources, n.d., p.116).

The Iowa Association of Naturalist says that both ground water and surface water are equally important as they supply drinking water for people and livestock and for other uses such as irrigation and industrial production. The pollution of these two water systems is categorized: Point Source and non-point source. Pollutants that cannot be tracked to a single source are Non point source. Chemical run-off, soil erosion and animal waste are examples of non-point source. The point source can be traced to a specific source and are also called end of the pipe pollution. Some examples for point source pollutants are leaking chemical tank, effluents from waste treatment or industrial plants, manure spill etc. the point source becomes a major threat for household, communities and industries. (Iowa Association of Naturalists, 1998)

The best solution to the problem of water pollution is by asking oneself how much are we willing to change our lives and how much are we willing to spend to ensure that the water we use every day is clean and pure? (Lowa water pollution, n.d., p.23).

Microbial contamination of water

According to New England Interstate Water Pollution Control Commission micro organisms when ingested in drinking water pose potential health problem causing a number of life threatening diseases like cholera, typhoid, hepatitis and gastrointestinal diseases. Microbial contamination of the water is attributed to the following sources:

• Sewage disposal,
• Agriculture
• Wild life
• Storm water run-off. (Protection measures to prevent and control microbial contamination, n.d., p.1).

A number of studies highlight that grazing livestock causes faecal contamination of water resources which are indicated by E.coli and other bacterial pathogens. This contamination happens mainly when the livestock dispose faecal material in water bodies (Collins, 2001). Giardia, cryptosporidium, salmonella, campylobacter, and Escherichia coli (E.coli) are the most commonly identified microorganisms found in mammals and birds. (Protection measures to prevent and control microbial contamination, n.d., p.1).

Public Utilities Department

A public utility is defined here as an organization that is majority owned and controlled by government and could consist of number of different forms, some of which may be undistinguished from the government unit that they may be part of. (Baietti, 2006, p.2). Water Supply & Sanitation Working Notes says that urban water supply and sanitation services are commonly provided by state-owned and colossal water organizations. It adds, successful public utilities are still the exception because the people in many developing countries are under the authority of public utilities. This has resulted due to ineffective, misdirected policies and the monopolistic nature of the sector.

The report uses a case study approach to bring into light the essential features of a rationalized public utility and tries to find out key competencies that have a greater impact on performance. Performance management issues are important concerns of public utilities. Benchmarking system can provide the opportunity to monitor each sector performance. With a national utility; this is best achieved by establishing cost or profit centers for each self-contained system within the entire network and monitoring performance regularly on this basis. In a decentralized setting, governance needs to be tightened considerably by increasing transparency and the accountability of mayors for improving local services. Benchmarking performance of the government units themselves is one way of making mayors more accountable to their constituents because comparative results can be made available to the public on a periodic basis. (Baietti, 2006, p.31).

Other means of investigating the issue

Need assessment

The various data collection methods have been used in this context to analyze the problems related with municipality of Meadow Brook town in providing contaminated water supply to the people. Different types of need analysis are available in order to find out the problems behind this. A key success to need assessment is to gather the correct data among the certain groups of people. The different types of methodology used here for needs assessment are done by conducting surveys and interviews among selected focus groups in order to identify the actual problem. The focus group selected here are peoples living in the Meadow Brook town itself. It is very important because these people will be having very good knowledge regarding the problems happened in the Meadow Brook town regarding contaminated water. The need assessment includes opinion about these people to reduce the problems happening in the water and how purified water can be provided for the people. It is understood that contaminants are added in to the water from many sources. The origin of drinking water can be from river, lake, ponds etc. So it is very clear that water needs to travel through many surfaces. So the chance for having water get contaminated is very large. Contaminants that may be present in source water include microbial contaminants; inorganic contaminants; pesticides and herbicides; organic chemical contaminants; and radioactive contaminants. (Annual drinking water quality report for 2007, n.d., p.1). So it is very much important that authorities need to take effective measures in order to remove this contamination from water before it reaches in to the population. Failing to do so will bring lots of health hazardous in people.

Survey

Certain groups have been focused in order to conduct the survey. Here two surveys are conducted among two sets of people. This is for analyzing the problem very clearly. Just conducting one survey wont give accurate result. To avoid that two surveys are conducted.

Survey is to understand how the certain groups of people are raising their voice about this problem and what are their opinions regarding this issue. This is one of the important or effective measures for data collection.

During the survey with first set of people it is understood that focused group of people are very much aware about the problem they commented that these problems are happened just because presence of E. coli bacteria in water is very much high. Also these people mentioned that other different sources which are necessary to make water contaminants are radioactive, microbial, organic and inorganic contaminants or the presence of pesticides and herbicides. Water can be said to be purified only when all these contaminants must be removed. During the survey, people complaint that the person in charge was not a high skill full person for doing this job. This is the main reason for happening all sorts of problem regarding contamination of water. His lack of awareness that is even though Kramer realized water is contaminated after test he didnt take any action. This shows lack of dedication. People are very much angry also for occurrence of this kind of problems.

The second sets of people are also actively participated in the survey. They also mentioned same issue or problems mentioned by first set of people. In addition to this they mentioned is to improvise the system which is used for purifying the water. The person who is operating the machine must be having high skill full in this activity. Addition to this theses people suggested some other measures to purify the water to make this more effective for drinking purpose. People also mentioned inspection and monitoring of the machine and water should be done in regular basis to ensure everything is proper.

Interviews

Interviews are conducted with eminent people in order to identify the tools for this problem. People selected for the interview are with one of the officials selected from health departments and other person is the CEO of a company which is manufacturing the machines for water purification.

Short portrayal from an interview conducted with one of the officials from health departments:

During an interview, official of the health departments mentioned some activities for which contaminated water may be used. (Kreger, 2007, para.2).

In his view he mentioned there is no problem in using this water for washing dress, bathing etc. But at same he mentioned very precaution must be taken while this water is used for bathing purpose for children. Because there is a chance for digesting that water, during such case serious harmful effects will take place. Official mentioned that if there are small amounts of contaminants present then that water can be used after sterilizing. By this way bacteria might get killed. Also official said while washing dishes or utensils one need to be very careful and dont forget to use water which is boiled. Another important point mentioned while winding up the interview official mentioned that every one should have some concern on for what purpose contaminated water can be used or not, also one must have minimum knowledge on how to sterilize the contaminated water. That is one must be always prepare how to deal with water containing E-coli and other types of bacterias. He also advised people to consult the water quality report that you should receive annually from your local water system, or call your local water system directly. (Drinking water contaminants: Basic information about E. Coli 0157: H7 in drinking water, 2006, para.14).

Short portrayal from an interview conducted with CEO:

CEO mentioned that in order to avoid such issues happened in Meadow Brook town one need to use very good water purification system. Not only this person who is responsible for operating the machine must have very well knowledge regarding the operation. CEO mentioned that locals must contact authorities to get water quality report in order to make sure locals are getting purified water. CEO also suggested different steps water need to undergo before it gets purified completely. First step is aeration. The treatment process begins with aeration, which reduces carbon dioxide levels to lower treatment costs and also improves taste. (Wilmington water department, 2004, p.3). Next important step is alum is added into the water. This is done to remove color particles from water. Next, in order to remove iron and manganese particle potassium permanganate is added in to the water. It is because presence of these iron and manganese will add unwanted color and smell in water. There are two more steps such as settling and filter basins before water gets chlorinated. CEO mentioned this is the actual classic step for removing unwanted contaminants from water. He also mentioned that presently there are microprocessor based control system monitors and displays the water quality and other conditions and generates an alarm if an abnormal condition arises. (Water purification machine, 2009, para.1). CEO mentioned by using such kind of machine one can guarantee purified water to the public.

Detailed description of possible action plan

Action plan includes variety of options in order to address the problems. The problem here is failure of Meadow Brooke water delivery system to provide purified water to the public. To over come such issues taking place in future some action plan must be implemented. One of the important issue is high skill full person must be placed as an operator. He/she must have very well knowledge in understanding in which level water gets contaminated. Also very well acquaintance about the machine is desirable for the operator. Even if any problem happened to the machine he/she must have familiarity that some problems happened and need to correct it. Such awareness is very important. To have all these, person who is appointed as an operator must undergone different steps or exams to analyze the person is capable. Authorities must always keep an eye on this operator in order to see everything is fine.

Presently it was annually the purification report of the water is published. It must change to quarterly so that everything will be effective. Similarly water purification machine must be best one. As mentioned earlier by one of the CEO of the water purification company said, the machine used for purifying water must be best one with all the features for testing the contamination present in water. Also machine should need display devices to show how much water is purified, that is the ratio. Also machine should need an alarm system in case contaminated water pass through the machine then sound will come from an alarm so that everyone will be aware about it so that people can step away from using that water. These are two important action plans.

Other than this authority must always watch the happenings taking place. They should check the machine properly in regular intervals it is because a minute problem in machine results unpurified water to go through which can results various hazards among those who intake that water. Next important issue is people should be given an option for submitting feedback report about the water they are using. It will be very use full. Feedback can be put through electronic media or in person. The reason is if a person assumes any kind of unfamiliarity while using water they can put a feedback which will be an eye opener for authorities for checking the water. Authorities must see whether any feedback has been received. This must be checked daily. Otherwise there will be no use.

Most effective solution to the problem

Among the various models and solutions mentioned in the above step, the best solution that can be applied to this organization is selected. The best solution is mentioned below;

• Provide both theoretical and practical training program for the employees in certain areas such as;
• Continuously monitoring and controlling the chlorinating system of the company.
• Preparing a quarterly performance report and presenting it to the higher authority.
• Before labeling the water samples the public utility commission has to make sure that the water is taken from trusted sources.

Based on the discussions on the case study, it was found that by concentrating on these aspects it is easier for the company to bring out talented and efficient employees who will be able to maintain the over all performance system of the company.

By giving appropriate training program to the employees, their knowledge and skill related to the task will develop and this lead to efficient and effective management of the available resources within the organization. According to Ivancevich, training is the systematic process of altering the behavior of employees in a direction to increase achievement of the organization goals. (Importance of training, 2009).

The problems that are raised due to the carelessness of the employees can be reduced by giving them adequate training. The employees should be given a clear idea regarding the chlorinating system that is practicing in the organization. It is better to create a group of employees to control and monitor the performance of the chlorinating system. The proportion of the chlorine content should not be low or high. The chlorine proportion should be maintained as per the rule of the ministry of water authority. The chlorine proportion should match the proportion of the bacteria presented in the water. The lab manager is responsible for testing the samples within the organization, the quality of the water can be identified through qualitative testing process. The lab manager should be trained well because the overall efficiency of performance system is based on test result provided by lab manager.

The overall performance must be evaluated and must be presented in a performance report.

This can be done quarterly. This quarterly report must be submitted to the higher authority and to the department of environmental quality (DEQ). Department of environmental quality is responsible for handling issues that are related top environment. So that any deviations in performances can be identified and appropriate measures can be taken. Normally in organizations the performance report are presented on an annual basis. But here the problem is very serious and it has also lead to death of people. So it is essential for the company to analyze whether the solutions implemented is beneficial for them. So for this year the performance report must be prepared and presented to the higher authority on the basis of quarterly performance. After solving all these problems the company can change its report format into an annual report that must be presented in each year.

The pubic utility commission is responsible for selecting the sources from where the water has to be taken. The sources from where the water is taken should be verified and laboratory test of those samples should be done. Any faulty information provided by the organization should be penalized. By following all these aspects it will be easier for the organization to build an appropriate performance management system.

Strategies formulated to implement the recommended solutions

A performance management system is implemented in an organization to bridge the gap between the expected performance and the actual performance of the resources within the organization. Performance management is the process of creating a work environment or setting in which people are enabled to perform to the best of their abilities. (Susan, 2009, para.1). For implementing the recommended solutions certain strategies has been developed. The strategies that can be implemented in the organization to increase their efficiency are listed as follows;

• Outsourcing the resources from a trust worthy and recognizable entities.
• State wide segmentation has to be developed to analyze the high relevant efficiency of the resources used by the organization.
• The technique of social marketing can be implemented by which it will create awareness among the people regarding the pollutants responsible for the water pollution.
• A website can be developed which provides all informations regarding the issues related to the water pollution and precautions that has to be taken against it

An appropriate marketing plan is framed based on the these strategies;

Marketing plan

This plan forms the basis for the organization to solve the issues that are currently faced by them. This plan serves as a public awareness plan for the people. The plan is composed of certain components that are explained as follows;

Mission

The mission of the organization is to provide good quality water for the customers in the locality. Water filtration units are established to attract the people and to create awareness in the minds of the people that the water is fit for use.

Marketing objective

The objective of the company is to increase the consumption rate of the people or customers.

Financial objective

The financial objective includes increasing the growth rate annually.

Target segments

The target market for this product is the general people who are consuming water that is distributed by the authority. It includes all segments in the market. The organization is focusing on this group because it has focusing towards building a trustworthy relationship with the people.

Positioning

The organization will position itself as a customer oriented organization where the water will be delivered to the customers at a reasonable cost. After implementing the solution in the organization the performance of the organization will increase and this will increase the quality of the water whereby the trust among the people towards the commission will increase.

Strategies

In the strategies the main objective of the organization is to regain the goodwill that has been lost among the people due to the present problem. The marketing strategy is framed to provide an awareness among the people that the water has been purified and it is fit for use.

Marketing mix

• Pricing: The pricing of the water delivery is at a reasonable cost and it is framed by the public utility commission.
• Place: Public utility commission is responsible for the distribution of water in the locality
• Promotion: The promotion can be done by giving samples to the public. Certain awareness programs must be conducted to generate idea in among the people that the water has been purified and it is fit for use. An awareness advertisement by the government will be very helpful for the organization to get back its reputation and trust.
• People: The concept of marketing mix becomes successful only when the product is positioned in the minds of the people. Through this plan the organization aims to reduce the serious problems in future by emphasizing more on safeguarding the life of the people and thereby increasing the satisfaction level among them.

Market research

Market research is conducted through survey method, interview and data collected from the focus group.

Design measures by which to evaluate the success of the proposed implemented solution

The Medow Brooke is facing a lot of problem which is so severe to cause a challenge in the lives of people; the proper management and the immediate action are to be undertaken for the prevention of the hazardous disease and the infection caused by the water pollution. The epidemic should be nullified from the city and the precaution should be taken by the respective authorities.

The main problem faced by the meadow Brooke are the little concern by the respective authorities, the ignorance by the persons have the adverse effect on the people, the minor ignorance of the microbial has led to a tragedian situation causing deaths, diarrheia and kidney failure. The main reasons for the different kind of the water pollution are the global warming, organic and thermal pollution, sewage and waste water, industrial waste, eutrophication, suspended matter and the oxygen depletion. Water pollution despite from the different sources has the heinous effect on inhabitants. If the pollution comes from a single source, such as an oil spill, it is called point-source pollution. If the pollution comes from many sources, it is called nonpoint-source pollution. (Types of water pollution, 2008, para.1).

The point sources are easy for the identification were the non point sources are difficult in the analyzing as they constitute of the different external factors.

The implementation measures

The water pollution should be prevented in order to create a healthy environment and free from any kind of the pollutions occurring. The prevention of the pollution should always be a function of government as a strict action plan for the well being and due consideration to economic, social and the public. The alternative to the government assuming it amongst its functions is for the control of water pollution to be left at the hands of the general public and, in particular, to the initiative of citizens who have a cause for complaint which is actionable before the courts. (Preparing national regulations for water resource management, n.d, para.3). The different steps have to be considered and practiced for the water pollution.

The laws for the complete improvement

The law should be implemented for the prevention of the water pollution, it should be useful in such a way that the law should be stressed, if the law are violated it should be considered as a serious offence. The policies are to be implemented which emphasis on the sewage treatment, rules of the water pollution, the discharging of waste to the fresh water, the pollution from the chemical industry and the toxic waste that are deposited, the dumping of the materials that are non renewable. The environment protection policy should be put in practice by the people and the rules of the environment protection should be implemented. The quality standards are to be adopted and the ground standards have to be considered. The local government should take an active role in the identification of the pollution related aspects for the well being of the firm. They should also involve in the large scale inspection to find whether the proper plans are been implemented and practiced. The inspection should be in the nook and corner in order to eradicate the pollution from the scratch.

Prioritize the action plans by the authoritative body

The pollution is enormorosly increasing heinous act of the society, the global developments are vast and widening to have the rise in the countrys wealth and the economy, the income can be increased by the implementation of the different business groups and the industries, the waste discharge from the industries are not treated in a proper way, the organic and the chemical products find the place in the lakes and river, this is the reason of the decease of the river. The public has the reduced level of the interfere in the pollution related matters and they find the large scale use of the resources. The local committee grants are to be imposed and the separate information sharing groups are to be hired and the people interested work groups are to be formed and the separate actions can be provided.

Transition of policies and measures

The transition of the policy and the measures are to be put in practice as the precaution step for the water pollution, the different steps like the transition from the point source pollution to the large river basins and lakes, to the entire process control. The di

Introduction

The teachers decision about their ability to teach is dependent on their will and confidence to execute that particular task. Understanding this concept can go a long way in helping educators boost the teachers self-efficacy in mathematics. This concept is commonly known as the I can or I cannot belief. Self-efficacy is the most important factor that predicts teacher effectiveness in the classroom (Alsup, 2004; Kazemi, Lampert & Ghousseini, 2007; Rimm-Kaufman & Sawyer, 2004). The challenges that pre-service mathematics teachers encounter can be partly explained by the lack of confidence in their skills (Aemi, 2008). Teachers can improve their performance and self-efficacy through training and experience. When teachers learn and apply some key strategies, their students performance improves. Pre-service teachers come with previous experience in learning and teaching mathematics (Fajet, Bello, Leftwich, Mesler, & Shaver, 2004; Tatar & Buldur, 2013).

However, the self-efficacy theory is changeable. In essence, the most important period for the lifelong development of the teachers self-efficacy entails the years of training (Briley, 20012). The investigation of the relationship between pre-service elementary teachers and self-efficacy has been the focus of several educational studies. Results of such studies suggest that the relationship between the two aspects is one of the factors that predict the teachers behaviors, attitudes, and effectiveness in the classroom context (Albayrak & Unal, 2011; Haverback & Parault, 2008). Part of the existing literature demonstrates that teachers who are conscious of their self-efficacy and teaching efficacy work effectively and efficiently (Briley, 2012). Besides, they endeavor to spend more time on their work and with students to increase their chances of success (Onen & Kaygisiz, 2013).

Different research works indicate that the teachers efficacy influences the students achievement by increasing their motivation and self-efficacy to accomplish more academically (Haverback & Parault, 2008). Several studies have demonstrated that the mathematics methodology course increases pre-service confidence in solving numerical problems (Briley, 2012; Swars, Hart, & Smith, 2007). Despite these positive effects, Albayrak and Unal (2011) lament that only a few studies have examined the impact of various teaching programs on the attitudes and beliefs of future educators. The current research on the subjects of mathematics teaching self-efficacy mostly focuses on the quantitative aspects. A proper understanding of this training is indispensable if future educators are to make an impact on the students academic success.

Moreover, there is a need to understand how to promote the pre-service teachers perceptions of their skills, competence, and ability to teach mathematics with the view to informing policy and future direction on the teaching the subject (Ball & Bass, 2003; Musser, Peterson, & Burger, 2008). This study seeks to fill these gaps in knowledge. Consequently, it is important for future researchers to include direct interaction with individuals to be aware of the impact of the pre-service teachers self-efficacy belief. The study was carried out with the intention of examining the impact of the mathematics methodology courses on the pre-service teachers self-efficacy and beliefs, coupled with examining the possible factors responsible for their teaching efficacy.

Self-Efficacy

According to Albayrak and Unal (2011), Alberta Bandura introduced the self-efficacy concept as a part of the social cognitive theory in the 1970s. This concept forms one of the fundamental beliefs of the social-learning theory. Besides, it continues to be incorporated into contemporary teacher-education programs to increase teaching confidence (Bray-Clark & Bates, 2003). Self-efficacy refers to the beliefs in ones capability to organize and execute the courses of action, which are required to produce given attainments (Bandura, 1997, p. 3). Bandura emphasized that peoples choices to handle or avoid challenges depend on their level of self-efficacy.

Bray-Clark and Bates (2003) posit that self-efficacy is a task-specific belief that regulates choice, effort, and persistence in the face of obstacles and in concert with the emotional state of an individual (p. 14). Albayrak and Unal (2011) argue that efficacy beliefs govern how people think, feel, motivate themselves and behave, and determine whether coping behavior is initiated, how much effort is expended, [and] how long the behavior is sustained when faced with obstacles and unfavorable experiences (p. 183). Additionally, these authors note that individuals must demonstrate the necessary knowledge, skills, and efficacy beliefs to develop the capacity to perform specific actions efficiently. Following this explanation, Berna and Gunhan (2011) acknowledge that individuals with a strong sense of self-efficacy beliefs may show more effort when they face challenges and continue to demonstrate confidence and faithfulness to the struggle as they achieve the skills necessary to overcome the obstacles.

Self-efficacy is also generally categorized as a motivational make, with available literature demonstrating that the beliefs contained in this construct not only affect the peoples judgments and perceptions, but they also shape how an individual can perform in a given scenario (Pajares & Graham, 1999; Phan, 2012; Hinton, Flores, Burton, & Curtis, 2015). This research study seeks to connect the self-efficacy and the relevant theoretical perspectives, as explained under the theories of expectancy-value and self-concept in the available literature. According to the expectancy-value theory, Individuals will be motivated to engage in tasks when they value the outcome expected; they will be less predisposed to perform tasks whose outcomes they do not value (Pajares, 1996, p. 558). This assertion implies that positive self-efficacy beliefs will lead to a positive contribution to the expectation for action. For instance, if a teacher tends to show a great level of lesson planning, it is most likely that his/her expectations will be very high.

The available literature demonstrates that the self-efficacy belief has two components  outcome expectancy and efficacy expectation (Bray-Clark & Bates, 2003). The efficacy expectancy refers to the belief that an individual has the capability to finish a job successfully. On the other side, the outcome expectancy underscores the belief that the accomplished task will result in the desired outcomes (Bandura, 1986). Most people develop self-efficacy through observational learning and experiences in social settings to develop ones personality (Czerniak & Schriver, 1994). The experiences that people go through provide them with an opportunity to develop self-efficacy.

Abilities, attitudes, and cognitive skills make up self-efficacy, which plays an important role in peoples perception of situations and responses to these different situations (Bandura, 1986; Kranzler & Pajares, 1997; Swars, 2005). In practice, people believe in their abilities, and thus they take chances in accomplishing tasks based on self-efficacy (Grossman & McDonald, 2008). Such individuals trust themselves and believe that they will achieve reasonable results when they focus on doing something (Hall & Ponton, 2005). Conversely, people who possess low self-efficacy have little belief in their abilities, and thus they often remain doubtful about their ability to achieve positive outcomes (Pendergrast, Garvis, & Keogh, 2011). Accordingly, their efforts and determination will always fall below the standards, thus forcing them to get undesired results.

Sources of Self-Efficacy

Bandura (1977) identified, four factors of self-efficacy, which include performance accomplishment, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological states (p. 86).

Performance accomplishment

This aspect is also referred to as masterly experience, and it is considered the most contributor and influential source of efficacy information because individuals who have succeeded in a task are likely to perfume outstandingly in similar tasks in the future (Charalambous & Philippou, 2003). However, not all successful experiences reinforce efficacy. For instance, an individuals sense of self-efficacy cannot be reinforced when success is attained through unbalanced external assistance or exposed to an easy and unimportant task (Bray-Clark & Bates, 2003). Successful completion of a task strengthens ones sense of self-efficacy, which allows individuals to believe that they have the requisite skills to produce every task. However, the failure to deal entirely with a challenge or task will undermine and weaken ones self-efficacy (Enochs, Smith, & Huinker, 2000). Hackett and Betz (2009) explain that mastery experiences allow pre-service teachers to develop a stable sense of efficacy.

Vicarious experiences

As demonstrated by Hoy and Spero (2005), vicarious experiences are modeled by someone else. Research indicates that vicarious experiences may modify efficacy beliefs, expectations, or judgments about self-competence through comparison with the achievement of others (Berna & Gunhan, 2011). This aspect implies that watching competent and convincing individuals with more or less the same capabilities as the observer can influence the observers self-efficacy beliefs (Charalambous & Philippou, 2003). Hoy and Spero (2005) argue that the degree to which the observer identifies with the model moderates the efficacy effect on the observer (p. 3). This assertion means that the more directly an observer relates with knowledgeable, motivated, and credible individuals, the stronger the outcome of his/her efficacy. Therefore, when pre-service teachers watch other experienced teachers complete their tasks successfully, they will also want to trust their abilities and work hard to achieve the same. According to Battista (1994), Bandura explained that when people see others with whom they have similar characteristics succeed through sustained effort, they raise their belief that they have the same capabilities and chances of success. Thus, in the training program, the educator could increase self-efficacy by administrating or molding the desired skills.

Verbal or social persuasion

Verbal or social persuasion provides a further opportunity for reinforcing the beliefs or expectations of an individual, particularly in the context whereby significant others express confidence and faith in the capabilities demonstrated by the individual (Charalambous & Philippou, 2003). This assertion also holds when encouragement is provided effectively and realistically by real experiences (Berna & Gunhan, 2011; Bursal & Paznokas, 2006; Phelps, 2010). Hoy and Spero (2005) add that verbal or social persuasion may entail a pep talk or specific performance feedback from a supervisor or a colleague, or it may involve the general chatter in the teachers lounge or in the media about the ability of teachers to influence students (p. 3). Individuals are more likely to do the task when they are persuaded that they can succeed. Social persuasion is a major source of self-efficacy in removing past hindrances responsible for encouraging self-doubt and disorder. Additionally, it influences the credibility, trustworthiness, and expertise of convincing individuals (Hoy & Spero, 2005). In the training program, pre-service teachers are exposed to colleagues who succeed, which in turn influences them to raise their confidence so that they can also excel. For instance, they go through a self-reflection process to identify the weaknesses that undermine their ability to succeed and focus on eliminating these weaknesses to perform like other teachers (Enochs et al., 2000; Hackett & Betz, 2009).

Physiological states

Psychological states underscore how positive feelings such as relaxation and confidence or negative feelings such as faster heartbeat, exhaustion, and pain affect the peoples decisions (Charalambous & Philippou, 2003). Battista (1994) argues that emotional reactions and responses to situations influence the development of self-efficacy. This assertion implies that emotions, moods, stress, and physical reactions have effects on a persons opinion of his/her abilities in a given situation. However, the actual awareness of a physical or emotional reaction is not a very significant aspect of the relationship between psychological responses and the development of self-efficacy. On the contrary, the most significant factor is the perception and interpretation that a person uses to reduce stress and elevate mood during challenging or difficult tasks (Ashton & Webb, 1986; Battista, 1994; Cakiroglu, 2008).

Self-Efficacy in the Pre-Service Teachers Context

Literature shows that most pre-service teachers specializing in mathematics or other related subjects have low levels of self-efficacy (Swars et al., 2007). This observation holds despite the fact that they understand the significance of self-efficacy in mathematics, and, thus, they should show high levels of teaching efficacy (Ashton, Webb, & Doda, 1982; Smith, 2008). Indeed, some pre-service teachers have confirmed their enthusiastic dislike for subjects that they are supposed to teach once they begin their profession (Bates, Latham, & Kim, 2011). Students observe their teachers self-efficacy about the subjects and adopt the same behaviors towards the subjects. Often, the attitudes and judgments of teachers concerning their ability will have a direct impact on the attitudes and outcomes of their students toward the subjects (Hackett & Betz, 2009; Kazmpour, 2008).

A study by Albayrak and Unal (2011) acknowledges that teachers with a positive sense of self-efficacy belief can influence student motivation and achievement. The most common forms of efficacy behaviors demonstrated by these teachers include elevating expectations, valuing, pushing (encouraging), greeting behavior, opening, and closing ritual, equalizing response opportunities, feedback and teacher help, waiting, praising and respecting (Albayrak & Unal, 2011, p. 184). Other studies have underscored some characteristics associated with pre-service teachers with high levels of self-efficacy. First, these teachers view challenging problems as tasks that must be mastered (Bates et al., 2011; Cone, 2009).

This aspect implies that high self-efficacy enables teachers to master challenging problems so that they can be solved successfully both presently and in the future (Bray-Clark & Bates, 2003). Accordingly, they develop the prerequisite skills that boost their confidence in related tasks or other challenging problems. Second, high levels of self-efficacy cause pre-service teachers to develop a solid and stable interest in the activities that they undertake (Charalambous, Philippou, & Kyriakides, 2008; Grossman & McDonald, 2008). An intense interest in something allows an individual to acquire the skills and knowledge that will guarantee positive outcomes. When mathematics teachers have little interest in the subject, they will achieve poor results, as exhibited in the performances of their students (Hackett & Betz, 2009; McClain & Cobb, 2001).

Third, pre-service teachers with high levels of self-efficacy are likely to develop and form a strong sense of commitment to their activities. This move-in turn allows them to acquire new skills since they are often ready to learn new approaches and strategies for tackling math problems and the challenges that their students face (Czerniak & Schriver, 1994; Riggs & Enochs, 1990). Fourth, pre-service teachers with high levels of self-efficacy are hands-on and self-organized. In most cases, they do not wait to tackle their problems when they occur, but they work to eliminate or minimize possible challenges. Finally, pre-service teachers with high levels of self-efficacy have an excellent ability not only to recover from disappointments and impediments very quickly but also to work toward the next success (Huinker & Madison, 1997; Kagan, 1992).

In a study aimed at measuring the self-efficacy of in-service teachers in Slovakia, Gavora (2011) cited other research studies to demonstrate that teachers with high levels of self-efficacy have the following attributes.

1. Open to a new idea
2. Less critical with their learners
3. Have the ability to reach students in spite of external factors(family, school, and community) and individual factors
4. They are highly enthusiastic
5. They are usually highly committed to their teaching;
6. They are highly effective in managing the classroom
7. Persevere in the face of challenge
8. Foster humanistic approach in the classroom
9. They are not teacher-centered

These observations are consistent with the assertion held by most social learning perspectives that the self-efficacies demonstrated by teachers are of huge importance in determining how they approach various tasks, challenges, and goals related to student learning (Lampert, 2001). Normally, self-efficacy correlates positively with the effective teachers actions in the classroom context (Gavora, 2011).

Conversely, pre-service teachers who have a negative self-efficacy display characteristics that function to disrupt or affect the students educational outcomes and achievements. Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2007) posit According to social-cognitive theory, teachers who do not expect to be successful with certain pupils are likely to put forth less effort in preparation and delivery of instruction and to give up easily at the first sign of difficulty, even if they actually know of strategies that could assist these pupils if applied. Self-efficacy beliefs can thus become self-fulfilling prophesies, validating beliefs of either capability or incapacity (p. 80).

First, teachers with a negative developed sense of self-efficacy often tend to keep away from demanding and difficult tasks. In most cases, they believe that challenging situations and tasks are beyond their abilities. The practice becomes routine among teachers who avoid difficult tasks, which undermines their ability to acquire the required skills to solve various challenges. Second, these teachers tend to concentrate on their limitations, failures, and negative outcomes (Bates et al., 2011; Charalambous et al., 2008). Third, these teachers lack the ability to come back and start planning for future success. Finally, they lose confidence in their personal abilities and stop working on tasks that they think they will not manage. Some of the common behaviors demonstrated by teacher professionals with low self-efficacy beliefs and expectations include lowering expectations, sorting, lessening, questioning, and distancing (Albayrak & Unal, 2011). Self-efficacy beliefs influence an individuals previous performance (Bandura, 1997). Therefore, it suffices to conclude that past unsuccessful experiences of pre-service may form the underlying reasons as to why teachers develop low-efficacy beliefs and internalize some of the negative behaviors indicated above (Cone, 2009).

Self-efficacy enables teachers to create strategies that enhance performance and provide the desired feedback for positive results (Cone, 2009). Teachers who have a high level of self-efficacy can create some strategies that they use to approach different class problems (Ashton et al., 1982). Accordingly, they have some alternatives that allow them to develop a strong sense of success. In teaching practice, the best results are often attributable to the sourcing and utilization of several strategies (Charalambous et al., 2008).

The performance of various students in mathematics may depend on various factors. However, teachers with high self-efficacy believe that performance is mainly subject to the experiences obtained from classrooms (Cone, 2009; Hart, 2002; Phelps, 2010). Accordingly, teachers will use their self-efficacy to ensure that all children perform well in mathematics regardless of their backgrounds and histories (Bursal, 2007). For example, teachers who understand self-efficacy will stress its significance to the learners and maintain it during the learning process (Stipek, Givvin, Salmon, & MacGyvers, 2001). Bandura (1986) stated that self-efficacy allows teachers to achieve the desired outcomes even with students who have learning and behavior difficulties in performing. In this case, a teacher believes that external factors such as parents, background, intelligence quotient (IQ), school conditions, and environment do not affect the outcomes of learning as long as the teacher uses the best and most appropriate strategies to deliver different units of the course (Battista, 1994; Charalambous et al., 2008). Therefore, these teachers will adopt different inclusive strategies that allow students to learn, develop interest, and work hard to pass the subject.

Teacher Efficacy

Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2001) explain that the teachers efficacy refers to the belief that ones abilities and strategies will bring the desired results for all students learning and engagement. The teachers efficacy belief is an adaptive and forceful contract (Kim, Sihn, & Mitchell, 2014). In literature, it holds that the teachers beliefs shape the students learning and achievements (Albayrak & Unal, 2011). Besides, the capacity of teachers to perform particular teaching tasks successfully in their current teaching conditions depends on self-efficacy (Lampert, 1990; Steele & Wildman, 1997).

In teacher efficacy research, it is evident that classroom activities implemented by a teacher influence the students learning outcomes (Bray-Clark & Bates, 2003; Isiksal, 2005). Consequently, the concept of teacher efficacy, as documented in various teacher-education studies, has two types of beliefs. The first one is personal teaching efficacy. The second one is teaching outcome expectancy, which states, Teachers believe that effective teaching can affect the students learning and grade achievement (Albayrak & Unal, 2011; Cohen, 1988; Lee, 2010). Bandura (1986) called for a distinction between these two dimensions of teaching efficacies, because a teacher may assume that student learning originates from effective teaching while being uncertain of his/her essential capabilities for the successful delivery of lessons. The concept of teacher efficacy focuses on the factors that enhance their confidence and enable them to achieve the goals and objectives associated with class instruction and management, reflective teaching, student motivation and engagement, and stakeholder engagement in the educational process (Kazempour, 2008).

The investigation of the influence of self-efficacy on teaching has been a leading concern for several educational studies (Bray-Clark & Bates, 2003; Hoy & Spero, 2005). Most of these studies relate the concept of self-efficacy belief with the teacher efficacy belief to demonstrate how the latter enhances the student-learning outcomes in school. Albayrak and Unal (2011) acknowledged that

&teachers who believe student learning can be influenced by effective teaching outcomes expectancy beliefs and who also have confidence in their teaching abilities self-efficacy beliefs should persist longer, provide a greater academic focus in the classroom, and exhibit different types of feedback than teachers who have lower expectations concerning their ability to influence student learning (p. 184).

Other studies have indicated that teachers with positive teaching efficacy beliefs not only engage in risk-taking behaviors such as sharing classroom control with students but also they invest time and resources into teaching to enhance the basic performance of students in spite of the difficulties faced (Arslan & Yavuz, 2012; Berna & Gunhan, 2011). Teachers with high teaching efficacy employ inquiry and student-centered strategies for efficiency and effectiveness. Besides, they demonstrate a personal belief of having the capacity to influence student achievement and motivation (Ashton & Webb, 1986; Savran-Gencer & Cakiroglu, 2007). Kim et al. (2014) acknowledge that the students development of mathematical proficiency is related to teachers efficacy in teaching mathematics and highly effective teachers have a positive effect on the student learning outcomes because effectiveness influences the teachers determination for a task, willingness to take risks and the adoption of new ideas in their teaching (p. 2).

Teacher efficacy is shown using various instructional and student-centered approaches. A diversity of instructional approaches means that the teacher does not use the same teaching methods from the first day to the last (Hofer & Pintrich, 1997). Such teachers play the role of a supervisor and mentor who trains students on how to acquire information and use it as knowledge (Cady & Rearden, 2007; Charalambous et al., 2008). Accordingly, students tend to work in groups to acquire and synthesize knowledge, and they approach the teacher only when they experience a significant setback or challenge (Czerniak, 1990). In contrast, teacher-centered learning entails a situation whereby the teacher controls all class activities and allows little room for student contribution (Hoffman, 2010).

The views, perceptions, and beliefs held by teachers affect their ability to teach and manage learning activities effectively in the classroom. It also affects the students achievement (Guskey & Passaro, 1994). Additionally, it is related to the behavior of teachers in the classroom in what Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2001) note as their openness to new ideas and their attitudes towards teaching (p. 215). Research works also indicate that teacher efficacy tends to influence how a student eventually performs in course work, the attitude of the student toward what is being taught, and the eventual social, mental, and cultural growth of the student.

Summary of Research Studies on Teacher Self-Efficacy

The available scholarship on teacher self-efficacy demonstrates that the concept has been studied from many perspectives (Alsup, 2004; Bleicher, 2004). Besides, it has been at the core of teacher-education studies for several decades as one of the most fundamental aspects of influencing the behaviors, attitudes, and effectiveness of teachers (Albayrak & Unal, 2011). Drawing from social-learning theory, it is evident that the self-efficacy in contemporary teacher training is important in its role of enhancing the development of specific beliefs that reinforce the capacity to deal with modifications and promote desired behaviors (Kim et al., 2014).

Another study conducted by Isiksal (2005) found the effects of gender and program year on both the pre-service teachers performance and self-efficacy scores (p. 8). Specifically, the study found that female pre-service teachers scored higher as compared to their male counterparts in performance. However, no notable differences were discovered between the two on mathematics self-efficacy scores. Furthermore, senior pre-service teachers scored higher on performance as well as mathematics self-efficacy scores as compared to newer students enrolled in the education program.

In a study conducted by Savran-Gencer and Cakiroglu (2007) to investigate the efficacy beliefs of the Turkish pre-service teachers and their classroom management, it was found that pre-service science teachers usually expressed positive efficacy beliefs. Moreover, the study found that their teaching practices were the most important factors that affected their teaching efficacy.

In another quantitative study exploring the effect of a mathematics methodology course on elementary, pre-service teachers mathematics teaching efficacy beliefs in Turkey, Albayrak and Unal (2011) found that attending a mathematics methodology course changes the teaching efficacy beliefs of elementary pre-service teachers positively.

Arslan and Yavuz (2012) conducted a study at Istanbul University in Turkey seeking to establish potential (pre-service) teachers self-efficacy beliefs about mathematical literacy coupled with investigating these beliefs against a set of variables that included teaching department and gender. The study found that prospective teachers mathematics self-efficacy beliefs did not change according to the department. In another research study, Charalambous and Philippou (2003) found that pre-service teachers teaching efficacy beliefs gradually improved while they were participating in a TPP. Besides, they established that the main source of the development of their efficacy beliefs was masterly experience or actual experiences in a certain domain. Finally, they found out that teaching tasks and personal capabilities interacted with cognitive processing to result in different levels of teacher efficacy beliefs even though individuals may have similar experiences.

Informed by the need to explain ways through which teacher efficacy can be enhanced, Kim et al. (2014) conducted a study to investigate the South Korean elementary teachers mathematics teaching efficacy beliefs and the factors that increase the efficacy beliefs demonstrated by teachers (p. 1). According to these authors, it is evident that teachers who believe that teaching can influence student learning (teacher efficacy) and who demonstrate high self-efficacy may provide a greater academic focus in the classroom and offer diverse feedback according to the students academic backgrounds more than teachers who have low mathematics teaching efficacy beliefs (Kim et al. 2014, p. 3).

The Role of Cognitive Domain in Math Teacher Performance

The teachers efficacy beliefs form strong determinants of the extent to which they can accomplish various tasks (Pajares, 1996). Most cognitive domains are related to how individuals perceive their self-efficacy (Artistico, Cervone, & Pezzuti, 2003). For example, Harrison, Rainer, Hochwarter, and Thompson (1997) posit, Increased performance with computer-related tasks was found to be significantly related to higher levels of computer self-efficacy (p. 85). On the other hand, performance tends to decrease as the individuals level of perceived self-efficacy drops. Studies have revealed contrasts in cognitive task performance, but they have also shown that the results are similar. For example, Artistico et al. (2003) note that an individuals sense of self-efficacy could be used to predict how well s/he can accomplish problem-solving tasks, regardless of age. This study also showed that participants with higher self-efficacy levels could outperform those with lower levels of self-efficacy. This observation gives credibility to Bandura (1993), who noted that depending on variations in the self-efficacy perception, an individual with the same level of knowledge and skills can still have poor, satisfactory, or highly satisfactory performance.

According to Turner (2010), teacher self-efficacy has a positive association with the willingness or eagerness of a teacher to start new teaching ideas and use them as variations in teaching strategies. Swars (2005) collaborates this argument by observing that teachers with a high perception of self-efficacy are more likely to use inquiry and student-centered teaching strategies, while teachers with a low sense of self-efficacy are more likely to use teacher-directed strategies such as lecture and reading from the text (p. 2). As such, it is common to find teachers with a low level of self-efficacy in classroom contexts using a traditional or t

Executive Summary

The presented paper is devoted to the in-depth investigation of social commerce and the way it evolves and functions in China. The choice of the issue is stipulated by the high speed of the development of social commerce and its successful transformation from e-commerce firms. The choice of China is impacted by the increasing popularity of various platforms such as Taobao, Pinduoduo, and Xiaohongshu, and the high annual incomes generated by these companies. The main goals of the research are:

• to define and overview the phenomenon of social commerce
• to analyze all current trends peculiar to this sector, including the major concerns, problems, and how they can be solved
• investigate successful examples of social commerce such as Amazon, eBay, Taobao, Xiaohongshu, and Pinduoduo to improve its understanding
• evaluate the peculiarities of social commerce in China
• outline business models and strategies that are utilized in the sphere
• analyze regulations of the Chinese government that are introduced to regulate the domain and monitor its further development
• to create the basis for the future investigations of this popular phenomenon

Acquired results prove that social commerce remains one of the most fast-growing modes of trade associated with the work of the Internet. It broadly employs such popular networks as Facebook, Twitter, or WeChat to promote socialization and communication between people and impact their buying behavior. In China, the three analyzed platforms, Taobao, Xiaohongshu, and Pinduoduo, have stable positions and continue to grow by attracting new clients and utilizing e-commerce, social commerce, and group buying oriented business models. However, there are some concerns associated with ineffective governmental regulations, problems with private data, frauds, and poor quality of fake goods.

The study also creates the basis for future research that can be devoted to the analysis of possible solutions to the outlined problems.

Introduction

The prior goal of this research project is to investigate the widespread phenomenon of social commerce, its central features, and the way it functions in China. The central motif for the selection of this very issue for the study is the scope of this practice, the high speed of its evolution, and increasing topicality, especially in the selected area. The further growth of social commerce might transform it into one of the most effective and spread modes of trade.

Background

The fast development of technologies can be taken as an essential prerequisite for the growth of various forms of online interactions between clients and sellers. Accepting multiple advantages associated with the rise of technologies, individuals want to save their time and enjoy the opportunity to go shopping online (Pinvidic, 2019). This factor preconditioned the emergence of such platforms like eBay, Amazon, or Ali-Express. They became able to meet the requirements mentioned above and offer a wide range of goods that can be bought, not leaving homes. The growing level of clients satisfaction resulted in stable revenues, and the appearance of companies functioning in similar ways, which became another essential aspect driving change and shifting priorities from tradition to online forms of trade.

There are also modern payment systems that are utilized by various online sellers, and that might guarantee the security of all transactions. They became an important step towards the popularization of multiple platforms and e-commerce across the world. Being sure in the ability to pay online, clients engaged in this sort of cooperation and contributed to its empowerment at the international level (OReilly, 2007). Companies acquired an opportunity to generate revenues using new payment systems that became available in almost all regions.

Justification of the Research

The choice of the given topic is preconditioned by the unprecedentedly high speed of the development of social commerce, which managed to evolve from e-commerce and acquire top positions. The given process impacts international trade and introduces several factors that should be considered and evaluated. First of all, regarding the high income and new opportunities associated with it, there is a critical need for government regulations to ensure that the further empowerment of social commerce will also support the rise of the national economy and remain controlled by the existing taxation policies. This task is solved by states in different ways, which means that there is a need for their improved understanding.

The choice of China as the main reason for the investigation of this model of e-commerce is also justified by several factors. Today, China is taken as one of the most promising regions that offer multiple opportunities for investors, entrepreneurs, and other actors who want to generate income (Eckart, 2013; Rad & Benyoucef, 2011). Additionally, the economic sector of the country continues to grow extremely fast, and it is predicted that the given speed will preserve (Eckart, 2013).

Goals of the Project

The choice of the topic preconditions the formulation of specific research questions and goals that will help to cover the issue and guide our investigation. In such a way, the following objectives are introduced:

• to define and overview the phenomenon of social commerce
• to analyze all current trends peculiar to this sector, including the major concerns, problems, and how they can be solved
• investigate successful examples of social commerce such as Amazon, eBay, Taobao, Xiaohongshu, and Pinduoduo to improve its understanding
• evaluate the peculiarities of social commerce in China
• outline business models and strategies that are utilized in the sphere
• analyze regulations of the Chinese government that are introduced to regulate the domain and monitor its further development
• to create the basis for the future investigations of this popular phenomenon

Social Commerce Overview Definition

The term social commerce that is widely used today was firstly introduced in 2005 on Yahoo! The application Shoposphere with pick lists was an attempt to engage people in this sort of interaction by commenting and reviewing product lists (Wang & Zhang, 2012). In general, the term can be defined as a form of commerce that is mediated by social media and working both in online and offline environments (Wang & Zhang, 2012).

It incorporates four big domains that drive the functioning of any entity, which are technology, people, information, and society (Wang & Zhang, 2012). Interaction of these elements contributes to the appearance of an opportunity for the creation of innovative ways to cooperate and provide products and services (Gordon & Michael, 2011; Stephen & Toubia, 2010). That is why being firstly introduced in 2005, the term triggered the appearance of multiple speculations and forecasts associated with its further development and rise (Barnes-Vieyra, & Claycomb, 2001; Lee, 2001). People, or the consumer domain, were ready to accept the new ways of cooperation because of the existence of peer-generated content and multiple sources of information that could be used to discover a particular product and make a decision about its purchase.

Evolution of Social Commerce

Business transformation impacted by the growing power of e-commerce became a distinctive feature of society and global trade. Having realized multiple benefits provided by the Internet and technologies, companies entered the virtual space by overcoming barriers such as difficulties in the interaction between departments, or large firms size (Lee, 2001). The new mode and Web technologies provided an opportunity to overcome these obstacles and reach clients in different places. The attraction of a new form of business can be evidenced by the fact that the dollar volume of the whole U.S. e-commerce sector reached about $4,5 trillion by 2005 (Ariguzo, Mallach, & White, 2006). To some degree, it can be associated with the euphoria related to the further spread of the Internet and its impact on international relations.

Web 2.0

The term web 2.0 was introduced to describe all factors and elements of a unique environment that was facilitated by the dominance of various forms of social commerce (Constantinides & Fountain, 2008). It was applied to sites, services, and networks that rested on the creation and generation of the content by users, instead of the previously employed forms presupposing the work of editors and specially hired content creators (OReilly, 2005). The radical decentralization also became one of the results of the revolution caused by social networks (Newman, Chang, Walters, & Wills, 2016). It introduced a new chapter in the development of interactions between people and social commerce.

Social web 2.0 services created a framework characterized not only by the enhanced interactions between users and their friends, colleagues, or other individuals. Moreover, it enabled people to cooperate with companies, brands, and participate in various events and social groups (Rainie & Wellman, 2012). This opportunity also meant that there was a need for the creation of detailed profiles with the description of preferences and interests to acquire updates, various offerings, and proposals from many entities across the world (Newman et al., 2016).

The social web of this generation empowered clients by providing them with the tool to impact companies, their approach to management, and the pool of products they can offer (Mazurek, 2009). That is why this new approach to the functioning of the Internet should be taken as an important step in the transformation of social commerce and its becoming one of the leading forces of the modern business world.

Today, social networks and commerce are inseparable as they merged under the impact of new clients demands and methods used by companies to manage sales. More specifically, they became two forces that create new stimuli for the development of each other and future growth. The majority of the online platforms that exist today function in terms of web 2.0 as users demand content that would be interesting for them and provide this very content (Parise & Guinan, 2008). Social web 2.0 ended the era of non-customized and non-personalized offerings that were previously used by companies that operated on the Internet (Newman et al., 2016).

Instead, a new form of interaction resting on the enhanced collaboration between users emerged and triggered radical changes in the traditional method of management (Yadav & Mahara, 2018). The ability to generate stable revenues and monitor the state of markets becomes an essential option that is available to corporations or brands that adhere to the social commerce model (Huang & Benyoucef, 2013). It offers them multiple advantages if compared with the traditional one, such as better customer service, topicality of offerings, flexibility, and topical content (Huang & Benyoucef, 2013). For this reason, social networks remain a powerful driver of the development of the business world and innovative forms of e-commerce that presuppose the broad utilization of web 2.0.

The dominance of new forms

The prevalence of new forms of cooperation also evidences a fundamental alteration in peoples behavior. The fact is that the popularity and growth of social media represent a shift in consumers thinking from individual to collaborative decisions (Diao, He, & Yuan, 2016). This process triggered multiple responses in the way companies or organizations work. For instance, about 74% of all business organizations in the USA create, support, and utilize social media applications, and 88% of them want to achieve a higher level of spending by integrating the most popular social media into their functioning and core systems (Diao et al., 2016).

Furthermore, Facebook, Amazon, and other traditionally popular and successful companies continue looking for new ways to increase their presence on social media (Diao et al., 2016). These facts evidence the direct correlation between the development of platforms used by individuals for cooperation and e-commerce (Oinas-Kukkonen, Lyytinen, & Yoo, 2010; Rowley & Keegan, 2019). Additionally, more investment in social media advertising is observed as about $8,2 billion are devoted to this sort of activity, and the number continues to grow (Diao et al., 2016). The given numbers prove that marketers start to accept and recognize the power of social commerce and networks that could be used to enhance customer service and engage in better cooperation with them.

The refusal from previous e-commerce forms and the popularity of new ones can also be explained by the fact that it was not able to satisfy all the needs of clients. The existence of a rich choice and multiple offerings turned out to be not an advantage but a confusing factor for individuals (Kim & Srivastava, 2007). There were not able to compare the quality and price of demanded products and had to look for the information about a certain kind of good they needed (Diao et al., 2016). At the same time, the adherence to the product-centered model was ineffective when speaking about diversity peculiar to various customers (Diao et al., 2016).

The level of dissatisfaction grew, especially if expectations connected to a certain product failed. Thus, the lack of trust became a fatal strike to the future development of e-commerce and its ability to fulfill current needs (Lamb, Hair, & McDaniel, 2013). The shift to social networks as the platform for trade became apparent as it provided people with an opportunity to communicate with more experienced users and make a decision about the purchase (Laudon & Traver, 2014). Companies and entrepreneurs also realized the idea that social networks consisting of numerous individuals who generate content and provide limitless access to information are the future of the sphere.

Amazon

Amazon can be considered one of the most successful companies working in the given domain and generating stable revenue every year. Today, it is recognized as the largest Internet company by revenue in the world (Chaffey, 2018). The key factor of the overwhelming success of the brand is the correct choice of the strategy, monitoring of the market, and the ability to meet existing clients demands. Amazon was founded by a single person, Jeff Bezos, on July 5, 1994. The main reason for its foundation served that existing forecasts about the future of the Internet and web commerce with the planned growth of about 2,300% (Shah, 2018).

Having recognized the power and growing popularity of the given paradigm, Bezos launched an online book store that proposed to customers a wide range of the most popular offerings. Because of the growing popularity of the given model along with the multiple advantages that became available to buyers, the firm turned out to be a success. During the first two months of its existence, Bezos managed to sold books to 50 states and about 45 countries (Feedvisor, 2019).

With the given popularity, Amazon also started to generate about $20,000 per week (Kirubakaran, Keong, Ching, & Joshi, 2016). The positive outcomes peculiar to the first stages of the companys evolution proved the effectiveness of the selected approach and its popularity among individuals all over the world. The initial investments in the project comprised about $250,000 provided by Bezos parents; however, they were soon compensated (Shah, 2018).

The example shows that e-commerce became one of the critical factors for the rapid development of Amazon. In 1999 the company launched its publishing department with the primary idea to work in the sector (Donici, Maha, Ignat, & Maha, 2012). Furthermore, it started to sell other products online, which transformed it into one of the most influential representatives of e-commerce. In the 2010s, the corporation became one of the worlds most powerful companies combining both online and physical presence. Being firstly created as an e-commerce brand that offered a certain kind of goods to its clients, Amazon soon was restructured and reorganized.

One of the critical features of the modern corporation is its adherence to the framework offered by e- and social commerce. For instance, Amazon Prime is a service that promises subscribers multiple advantages and opportunities for socialization, communication, and experience sharing (Investopedia, 2019). Correctly realizing the prevailing and the most dominant tendencies peculiar to the market, the brands management guarantees that all clients will enjoy the benefits of web 2.0 by participating in content-making and offering their ideas regarding particular goods.

In such a way, Amazon can be considered one of the most successful examples of how e-commerce can serve as the basis for the development and rise of a small business company. The brand has its platform and site for sales that combine multiple practical solutions for improved cooperation with clients. Considering the current success of the corporation, it is possible to say that it creates modern social commerce by introducing the features that are followed by other companies.

eBay

Another company that can be taken as a leading brand employing the basic ideas of e-commerce and benefits from its use is an American multinational corporation eBay. At the moment, it is also taken as a potent player in the market with the high potential for further development and growth. eBay was founded by Pierre Omidyar in 1995 as a part of his site with the primary goal to sell some things that are not needed at the moment (Shah, 2018). Several factors ensured the success of the given startup.

First, as it has already been stated, e-commerce became popular because of the opportunity to buy goods using a platform that is convenient at the moment, and that can offer a product at a reasonable price. eBay, founded as a service to sell various things to other people, met this requirement. Internet users became able to look through multiple offerings and, which is more important, discuss them with sellers to acquire additional information and make a final decision. It became one of the strengths of the startup as the need for information peculiar to all customers was satisfied completely (How does eBay make money? n.d.). At the same time, they were provided a significant level of independence as there was no need for buying items from a particular seller.

Another feature was the creation of a user-friendly interface to look for the required services or goods or connect with other individuals. In such a way, eBay managed to introduce a platform for successful cooperation between individuals, which is a key factor in the success of any online company. The further increase in the number of clients preconditioned the need for diversification, and in the 2000s, eBay started to offer almost all saleable items to its users (How does eBay make money? n.d.). The given diversity became another factor preconditioning the fast evolution of the brand.

The company also managed to buy PayPal as a payment system that provides people on the Internet with an opportunity to perform safe transactions and enjoy this convenient way of interaction. The given purchase became a strategically important step for the evolution of this e-commerce corporation. It increased the speed of communication between actors using the platform and provided them with additional guarantees of safety, which was critical regarding the growing level of rivalry in the given sector (Shah, 2018). Altogether, eBay was successful in considering current trends on the Internet and the creation of its unique proposal that attracted clients by its convenience, simplicity, and possibility to discuss various items.

Features of Social Commerce

Resting on the information provided above, and on the successful examples offered in the previous sections, it is possible to distinguish several fundamental features and advantages of social commerce that contribute to the rise of its popularity. First of all, alternatively to old forms of online sales, this one offers buyers an opportunity to participate in the process by providing their feedback, recommendations, and creating the content (OLeary, 2019).

They can decide to purchase an item not using the description, but also by discussing it with their friends or other users. It also shows another critical feature of social commerce, which is the extensive use of social networks as a core component of a new paradigm of relations between companies and customers. The power of this tool, along with the availability of critical information about individuals, their preferences, and choices, helps sellers to acquire a high level of flexibility and offer most topical goods that will be appreciated by the targeted audience.

Another significant feature is the accessibility of online platforms due to the wide use of technologies and the appearance of mobile phones. Users might make an order or consult with other people in one touch, which introduces multiple shifts in the way companies work and cooperate and their clients (Hussey, 2019). Finally, another significant feature or advantage is the existence of many opportunities for further development and empowerment. The technologies will continue to evolve, and new forms of cooperation with clients will emerge. It means that social commerce can be taken as one of the possible modes of global trade that will shape interactions in the next several decades.

Concerns of Social Commerce

The first and the most important concern associated with the further empowerment of social commerce are multiple security issues that arise when using various social networks. Following surveys conducted among broad populations, it remains the primary barrier to adoption of this mode as 71% of respondents have fears about leaks of information, and 65% do not want any interference in their privacy (Hussey, 2019). Non-users of social commerce are sure that the so-called Big Data is a serious threat to their security as multiple agencies, companies, or other entrepreneurs acquire an opportunity to collect information that will be later used to create new offerings (Hussey, 2019). It remains a significant problem slowing down the evolution of the sphere and demanding serious attention.

Second, even though social commerce is on the rise, and Amazon, eBay, Taobao, and other similar services generate stable incomes, the target audience is still slow to adopt this new mode of interaction (Hussey, 2019). Networks are continuously designing applications and introduce new features to reconsider this situation and make all processes easier; however, in 2018, 82% of individuals have not used such options as the buy button to have a product directly from a site (Diao et al., 2016). These aspects are taken as the fundamental problems of social commerce that should be solved to guarantee its further evolution.

The possible resolutions for these problems include the introduction of clear, understandable, and comprehensive security privacy policies for customers to understand them. It will help to manage their fears and minimize the level of distrust peculiar to some groups. Additionally, there is an essential need for the protection of individuals purchases which can be ensured by devoting more resources to the consideration of their claims, and monitoring of every order (Diao et al., 2016). In general, concerns associated with data and its privacy are not new, and they remain topical for the modern digitalized world characterized by the availability of information.

Business Models

Regarding the fact that social commerce steps aside from traditional ways of generation of value and cooperation with clients, the business models utilized in the sphere are also different. Thus, the given term is used to determine how any firm creates value and delivers it to clients, and how their payments are converted into resources that are used to stimulate the further evolution of the company and its ability to make money and compete with the closest rivals (Diao et al., 2016). The traditional approaches presupposed complex supply chains and direct cooperation with the target audience to ensure that products will be sold.

However, the increased topicality of social networks and the shift to e-, m-, and social commerce preconditioned the appearance of new ones. Their improved understanding can be achieved by using a specific framework that includes its basic components such as value proposition, revenue source, capability, and sustainability (Diao et al., 2015).

As one can see from Table 1, as against previous forms used in e-commerce, in social ones, there are four new forms of value creation and proposing that are part of business models utilized by various platforms. First, there is a focus on the improvement of services for existing customers and interaction with clients to affect them more effectively. The ability to communicate in real-time eliminates such factors as distance and helps to achieve new levels of effectiveness (Hajli, 2014).

Second, there are socially oriented models that create value by the promotion of commercial activities by the interest communities. It becomes possible because of the integration of business elements with the existing social networks as clients can share shopping experiences in communities or groups established and managed by brands that want to enhance brand loyalty (Diao et al., 2016). Participation in these very groups can guaranty various advantages, such as lower costs for products or new proposals. Third, social network-oriented models use online friend ties to assist buyers in their decision-making and eliminating trust issues that might arise in the process of shopping (Diao et al., 2016).

It helps to attract new users and guarantee their interest in various products. Finally, the fourth mode is the group buying commerce that offers multiple benefits for traders, groups, and customers. The first cohort acquires an opportunity to promote better consumption and increase revenue; for the second group, it ensures that new clients will be attracted and become active users; for customers, there is an opportunity to discuss existing options and select the most appropriate one.

As for the revenue source, the offered business models of social commerce remain similar, and there are no critical differences among existing types. E-commerce oriented model presupposes the existence of capturing commissions that are paid on a certain volume of the transaction from a website (Zhou, Zhang, & Zimmerman, 2013). The given approach remains the most popular option for the majority of existing platforms as it combines simplicity and effectiveness. Another form is a subscription model presupposing that clients pay a fixed price for the participation or use of an offered service (Diao et al., 2016).

It guarantees specific support and availability of information that can be used to increase sales. The given model is also used by various networks that are focused on the provision of unique offerings to its clients. As for the third model, social commerce brands suggest an opportunity for other organizations to use their platforms for advertising and promotion of their products, such as Facebook, Google, Yahoo! (Diao et al., 2016).

This model is the most popular today as it guarantees stable advertisement fees that help to continue further evolution. Finally, a sales model is meaning that some groups of websites might split revenues with partners to guarantee that new clients will be acquired (Diao et al., 2016). It also contributes to the development of more effective collaboration tools and the further evolution of social trade.

As for the sustainability and options for future development, social commerce business models differ because of various goals and approaches. For instance, e-commerce oriented platforms should be ready to cultivate a specific climate on the Internet to ensure that the desired constructs will evolve and provide opportunities for expansion and the increase in sales (Diao et al., 2016). The introduction of social components helps to support clients and provide them with new opportunities. Group buying social commerce forms mainly focus on the use of various applications to create user groups that will discuss proposals and enjoy the existing benefits of participation (Diao et al., 2016). As for the interest-oriented modes, they provide clients with an opportunity to buy something resting on collective intelligence and social activities (Diao et al., 2016).

Individuals become a part of the global discourse that attracts them and provides them with goods that might be attractive to them (Diao et al., 2016). In such a way, the given models differ because of the goals and approaches used as the basis for the evolution, but they all contribute to improved sustainability.

Generally, resting on these business models and their core components, it is possible to outline four broad categories of social commerce that are relevant today:e-commerce oriented social commerce

• social network-oriented social commerce
• group buying-oriented social commerce
• interest-oriented social commerce

The first one, e-commerce oriented social commerce, such as Amazon, or Taobao, focuses on direct sales from web sites with the integration of social components such as the discussion with clients and the creation of a specific community to increase clients loyalty and acquire the stable source of revenue.

Interest-oriented modes are specially created platforms that employ the topic community formed around specific demands, attractions, common views, and requirements (Diao et al., 2016). The main characteristic of these very sites is that potential clients can read recommendations provided by other users, share their experiences, find the desired information, discuss it, and make informed decisions about the purchase of a particular item (Diao et al., 2016). These platforms also guarantee a connection with e-commerce sellers and suppliers to acquire benefits from the promotion of clients and their readiness to cooperate with a particular brand.

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Literature Review of References used in the Overrepresentation of African Americans in Special Education Programs.

The following literature review looks at peer-reviewed journals whose research topics relate to culturally diverse pedagogy, the teaching of students of color, and the experiences of special education, segregation, equity in educational opportunity, and African American student experiences in general and special education. The reviewed literature seeks to give support to the study of the topic of the overrepresentation of African Americans in special education programs.

Given the nature of special education and its primary beneficiary, the study by Blanchett (2009) supports the notion that African Americans, who are the major recipients of special education, of making the vast majority of the poorly educated population. This follows the fact that special education is different from regular education. With the historical analysis presented in the study by Blanchett (2009), one can see the relevance of the current problem and understand its origin. The review of the historical treatment of disability, challenges of education that people with disabilities face, and the use of special education to resegregate African Americans are the concepts that the study highlights. The importance of the study by Blanchett (2009) is in the fact that there are only a few attempts made on the examination of the relationship between special education and urban education.

African American students who attend special schools unwillingly lose their right to equal protection. In fact, public schools have only recently begun taking students with disabilities seriously in their education programs (Blanchett, 2009). Previously, they were not under the obligation of the law. As such, 2 million out of 4 million children with disabilities do not have sufficient education and education infrastructure (Blanchett, 2009). Given the high number of American Americans being part of the number representing children with learning disabilities, the expectation is that they will form a vast majority of the population in special schools.

The aim of special education, in theory, was to increase the ability of instructors and students to utilize the individualized teaching environment to achieve better grades (Irving & Hudley, 2008). The student would return to regular schooling upon achievement of the students potential. The development of the special education theory only led to the development of many self-contained educational settings that did not reflect the curricular content that general education schools provided (Blanchett, 2009). The theory of inclusion then emerged as a remedy to the self-contained nature of special education. It was aimed at preventing further segregation of people with disabilities (Brown-Jeffy & Cooper, 2011). Today, children with disabilities receive significant recognition and inclusion in the typical education classrooms, at least a part of their special education program. The exclusiveness of special education, in theory, should subside with increased access to general education (Blanchett, 2009).

However, in reality, the choice of attending special education is made by school administrators. As such, students can still be misled into receiving individualized instruction when they are capable of attending general education classes (Blanchett, 2009). A question that has been troubling to researchers is why there are so many African American students in special education. Besides, the existence of secluded special education programs and institutions and their high population of African Americans are also causes for concern. Therefore, evidence in the study by Blanchett (2009) provides support to the idea that African Americans, as the majority of the attendees in secluded special education schools, are the ones suffering most from unequal distribution of educational opportunity. The situation will persist as long as special education benefits and opportunities follow a distribution pattern that reflects race and social class dominance. Given that the majority of African Americans being in lower social classes, they become the main victims of an inequitable special education distribution system (Blanchett, 2009).

With a research base of the cognitive and social development theory, Irving and Hudley (2008) highlight the fact that African Americans end up struggling to understand their ethnic or racial identity because the American social milieu follows racial lines. Hypotheses on the difficulties that African Americans will face in their quest to find balance, identity, and embrace opportunities for education will always emerge because of the many negative racial stereotypes. Scholars can link the issue of discrimination and dominance of African American males in areas considered as highlights of under-achievement in education by drawing on historical marginalization and oppression of African Americans.

The problem highlighted by Irving and Hudley (2008) does not point to a lack of awareness by the African Americans regarding the importance of education. Rather, it brings out the lack of opportunities, which male students from the studied population experience. Furthermore, school practices increase the risk profile of African Americans, who have difficulties in establishing their identities amid racial and social class segregation problems. Schools that lack an identity development policy end up reinforcing social structures that oppress African Americans, despite their good intentions to provide education and other growth opportunities. Besides, African American males have to identify education as a means of achieving their desired identity outcome. The African Americans will participate in the education process half-heartedly as long as they remain ignorant of opportunities or abilities of being able to use education to get their desired identity goals. As a result, they will perpetuate systemic processes that limit their educational achievement (Irving & Hudley, 2008).

Cultural mistrust as a construction provides a basis for understanding the influence of discrimination on academic motivation in America. When African-Americans do not hold the belief that the education services are available and accessible on an equal footing in the United States, they end up mistrusting the systems ability to benefit (Irving & Hudley, 2008). As such, researchers attribute this trend to the lowered expectations and devaluation of striving for achievement that African American adolescents exhibit. This also comes from the realization that the adolescent period is also the ripe age of discovery of identity among individuals as they interact with social, political, economic, and physical identities (Irving & Hudley, 2008).

The theory used by Irving and Hudley (2008) to explain African Americans devaluation of education potential is cultural-ecological. This theory sees African Americans as a caste-like minority. Consequently, low achieving students from the community will adopt an oppositional identity to the education system and strong ethnic group identification. This will further their belief in the education system is unable to assist them to achieve their goals (Irving & Hudley, 2008).

Irving and Hudley (2008) also highlight moderating factors that affect the observation, which also play a role in testing their hypothesis that academic outcomes will depend on cultural mistrust, social, economic status, and oppositional cultural attitudes. The researchers confirmed their hypothesis through a survey done on 72 items of study to capture the variables highlighted in the hypothesis. As such, the study gave support to the observation of African Americans being overrepresented in special education. They have oppositional cultural attitudes that, together with cultural mistrust, provide sufficient reasons for the majority of general education programs to consider them candidates for special education (Irvine, 2010).

According to Irvine (2010), many teachers have little understanding of culturally relevant pedagogy. As such, they are unable to teach effectively in a culturally diverse classroom (Brown-Jeffy & Cooper, 2011). Consequently, they cause culturally diverse students to perform poorly in general educational systems. The expectation here, as reflected by Irving and Hudley (2008) and Blanchett (2009), is that the poor performing students who incidentally happen to be from culturally diverse backgrounds end up receiving recommendations for special education. With the mediating factors studied by Irving and Hudley (2008), there is a high potential that the behaviors of the students and attitudes will justify additional reasons of the general education system to keep the students in special education. Moreover, the socioeconomic status can aggravate the situation.

A predicted trend in the U.S. is that its schools, and the nation would become increasingly racial, cultural, and linguistically diverse. This prediction continues to become true and is part of the discourse that Ford (2008) focuses on. With an examination of historical, current, and future characteristics of the U.S. society, the scholar brings out the challenges that equity seekers in society will continue to face. The presentation of students from culturally diverse backgrounds as part of the population that does not achieve equity in standard systems makes the study relevant for highlighting and supporting issues that correspond to the hypothesis that African Americans are overrepresented in special schools.

The question of diversity will continue to be controversial, partly because of its reliance on perception. Scholars who explore different themes in diversity present some challenges that populations with racial, cultural, or linguistic minority characteristics will face. In regards to students, who form the focus of the special issues on exceptional children, as forwarded by Ford (2008), they are the ones who stand to benefit most from the realization of solutions to the challenges identified by many researchers regarding equity in education. There will be improvements in the way students and their families from culturally diverse backgrounds end up interacting with education systems. It is still important to bring out the challenges and limitations of traditional practices as precursors to their improvement. The inclusion of families by one of the researchers featured in the Exceptional Children publication creates a new understanding of special education in the context of family diversity. As such, it is possible to see what is likely to continue to hinder equitable delivery of education and aspects of the educational practices that hold promise, especially in the implementation of law in education (Ford, 2008).

Teachers of color are likely to experience challenges in teaching a culturally diverse class (Achinstein & Ogawa, 2012). In a 5-year study following 17 new teachers of color, Achinstein and Ogawa (2012) revealed that the teachers face three main pressures. These tensions match the following dimensions in culturally responsive teaching: cultural and linguistic relevance against the standardization and the community of learners against teachers transmission (Achinstein & Ogawa, 2012). Another dimension is social justice as contrasted to enhanced test scores. The teachers have to provide an equitable education to children, yet they continue to face challenges in the structures, tools, and environment they get in the delivery of education. Research by Skiba et al. (2011) shows that students of color end up having different conceptions and expectations in school settings. Consequently, they end up exhibiting a high risk of disciplinary contact. However, the sources of discrepancies in behaviors observed for students of color are not very certain, as several researchers have found out (Skiba, et al., 2011).

Consequently, teachers of color end up enacting contradictory systemic demands (Achinstein & Ogawa, 2012). They do this because of the existing government policies and their professional obligations. They also rely on the individual efforts required for their particular jobs. The significance of the study is that it presents the dimension of cultural diverse educators in a question that mostly focuses on the beneficiaries, who are children. Therefore, it helps to build up the context for the reader to understand how the numbers of African Americans in special education end up being dominant. In addition, the researchers, Achinstein and Ogawa, are white, which allows them to provide a research perspective from an observers point of view that is likely to offer additional validity for lack of biased influences.

With a research focus on commitments and practices of culturally responsive teaching and factors that shape teachers enactment of culturally responsive teaching, Achinstein and Ogawa (2012) can demonstrate that teachers also face or express oppositional cultural attitudes. The research report shows that teachers feel it is important for them to do something for the community (Achinstein & Ogawa, 2012). In this regard, teachers of color express that they would like to intervene in any way possible to alleviate the suffering of their people. Teachers get the additional motivation to keep intervening in the education process as necessary to increase the benefits of their studies to their community whenever they interact with members of their community that has been through the education program. However, the teachers also explain that they end up failing to teach in culturally relevant ways when focusing much on standards. This leads to the conclusion of the study that teachers of color face various tensions. They have to choose between following the teaching expectations of a general education system that is supposed to provide an equitable education to all or intervene in particular ways to ensure that their teaching is culturally relevant (Achinstein & Ogawa, 2012).

This research highlights the fact that teachers of color lack a relevant, general education program that will be useful in the culturally diverse pedagogy (Achinstein & Ogawa, 2012). It contributes to the hypothesis that the preferred option to get an equitable education or culturally diverse education would be to attend special education for students of culturally diverse backgrounds. They may get the same in general education, but it is only a percentage of teachers working against standards in delivering culturally diverse education; not all students from culturally diverse backgrounds stand to benefit (Anderson & Larson, 2009).

In questioning the kind of classroom that prevails, Achinstein and Ogawa (2012), show through quotes of surveyed teachers that providing a community of inclusivity and equality for learners is beneficial. However, the formalized structure of tests undermines the community concept of learning where students are free to speak their opinion and contribute to the learning environment for other students, as well as the teacher. Testing structures eliminate the provision for students to have their opinion of the learning process. With cooperative learning, students get an opportunity to incorporate their previous knowledge to their current learning experience. However, students end up developing a different perspective of the overall education process because testing only caters to their current education. Such findings support the notion of oppositions identity to educate as described by Hudley (2008). It also shows that teachers are the primary agents for presenting conflicting views of education to students. However, teachers do not do so on purpose. Rather, they are compelled to deliver their teaching through the available policy and testing structure.

The evidence by Achinstein and Ogawa (2012) challenges the idea of leaving no children behind, given that educational accountability that should lead to equity relies on a testing system that increases imbalance. The researchers fault education accountability measures because they promote equity without making the backgrounds of students relevant to their evaluation of educational gains (Card & Rothstein, 2007). The research also shows that high-performing schools face less pressure to provide educational accountability by doing well on test scores. Their low-performing counterparts, which may perform poorly because of additional factors, end up being the most pressured to focus on test scores, which eliminate opportunities for cooperative and community learning (Achinstein & Ogawa, 2012).

With the highlight of testing as presented by Achinstein and Ogawa (2012), it is important to also look at the test performance of the students to understand further the implication of the current education policy and structure on equity in education. According to Card and Rothstein (2007), students from black and white backgrounds should perform equally well when presented with the same challenges and learning environments. The authors allay fears that some particular cities or schools in cities will hinder learning and the development of students by showing that there is no understatement or overstatement of school segregation in the cities. However, this is only true for cities that have highly segregated neighborhoods. An additional finding is that integration efforts in schools become weak because they are affected by programs and behaviors, which end up increasing segregation in schools.

Eventually, the researchers show that the achievements of black students in SAT outcomes from the 1998 to 2001 cohort should be the same as those of white students, only that the existence of school and neighborhood segregation end up affecting black students performance negatively. This evidence is in line with the developing theory that the expected performance in the education of the minority will be poor in cities where the culturally diverse students are recognized as minorities and segregated. With blacks being the culturally diverse group in the Card and Rothstein (2007) study, there is evidence to show that they will end up being the most affected in a standardized education policy in a city. African American students will keep on going through education as a disadvantaged group unless the causes and effects of segregation in cities or schools are addressed.

On the other hand, the recognition of this shortcoming and effort to create a compensating environment will continue to fail, as long as there is no correction of the factors that lead to school and neighborhood segregation. The authors conclude that segregation should be taken seriously in programs aiming to ensure that black students achieve excellent educational performance. They also highlight the influence of neighborhood composition as a factor that ends up influencing school composition. This indicates that school segregation environments mimic their neighborhoods (Card & Rothstein, 2007).

In the interpretive case study by Anderson and Larson (2009), the researchers look at the Upward Bound program that seeks to expand educational opportunities. The program focuses on poor urban youth and contributes to the understanding of other studies on urban neighborhoods and education performance of students, such as the one by Card and Rothstein (2007). The research by Anderson and Larson (2009) gives a rich information context for neighborhood influences on identities, learning, and social experience by looking at three young men as the case study participants. Most importantly, the research validates the concerns of teachers of color about having to deal with standardized testing programs that do not provide room for cooperation and culturally diverse teaching. Achinstein and Ogawa (2012) agree with these findings. The Upward Bound program examined by Anderson and Larson (2009) focuses on the ethic of rugged individualism, and intense academic and test preparation program, in addition to the motivation for young men to concentrate on the future. It does not provide avenues for incorporating culturally diverse backgrounds of the participants in their learning process. Besides, it fails to increase young peoples freedom for focusing on academic achievement or to stay in the program. It emerges as a program whose structure and motivating goals are incongruent with the educational demands of the young men that it targets.

Anderson and Larson (2009) validate their study as a contribution to the understanding of why education equity and opportunity programs have failed to create positive outcomes by highlighting the fact that African Americans and Latino students are always lagging behind their white counterparts. The study is also important because it provides specified evaluation results of the Upward Bound program. As such, its recommendations can help transform the program into an achievable one, which serves as an example for practitioners and scholars to emulate.

It is also important to note that the evaluation of the Upward Bound program has been an annual process since the 1990s, yet there are still insights presented by Anderson and Larson (2009) showing that past evaluations were not elaborate in highlighting culturally diverse background issues for young men. The main agenda of the study was to find out why the Upward Bound as an intervention program was failing to enhance educational opportunities. Going with the social justice discourse, education should develop the human capability. In deprived communities, education is supposed to help children and youth to overcome hardships and be able to achieve a better social life as their non-deprived counterparts. While the goal is very clear, its realization is often a matter of debate with many trials and errors by policymakers dominating the equal educational opportunity scene.

Unfortunately, policies come with standardized formats for testing their education programs. These tests become influencing factors on the teaching methods of schools and other education intervention programs. Eventually, students end up being trained ways of passing tests, given that the tests are a representation of the attainment of educational levels capable of lifting them out of poverty. The reality is very different. Concentration on testing dilutes the essence of education and does not equip the target population with the appropriate skills for accomplishing the goals set for them. Nevertheless, the narrowing of the curriculum and increased focus on testing continues to be a trend (Anderson & Larson, 2009).

Programs like the Upward Bound increase educational access and experience by extending learning duration and opportunities. While this appears like an achievement of the goals of equitable educational opportunity, it does not meet the threshold of social justice researchers. It delivers the same education for an extended period with no lasting and widespread improvement in outcomes. In fact, Anderson and Larson (2009) quote other researchers who state that this type of education translates into too much schooling and too little education. Moreover, Anderson and Larson (2009) were able to come up with comprehensive results by spending time observing their research participants, in addition to interviewing them. Through bracketing and construction as methodologies of their research, Anderson and Larson (2009) were able to bring out factors that stood out within the context of their participants experiences. They then contextualized their findings to develop an understanding of how other factors like the economic, social, and emotional realities of young men ended up as factors affecting their access to opportunities for achievement.

There is an Upward Bound program that supports African Americans, Caribbean Black, Latino, and Hispanic, as well as multiethnic groups of young men who apply. Its difference from reasonable education programs begins with the location of the facility delivering the intervention. It is located outside the central campus at the Eastern University. The expectation is that the students in the program will appreciate their proximity to college life and the ability to interact with bright and motivated Eastern University students. The program concentrates on immersing students in challenging academic work so that they qualify for college. On the other hand, the program claims that it leads to increased freedom of students by offering a choice to be motivated or not. There is a realization that not everyone can be helped, with the goal of the program being to prepare students for entry into the most demanding universities. Grades and test scores matter most, and the intention of focusing on test scores is to increase the motivation of the students in the program so that they get better college opportunities and become more capable of overcoming poverty. This is similar to the claims for the education that is promoted by social justice researchers (Anderson & Larson, 2009).

There are students failing to achieve the required motivation, despite the goals and the rigors of the program. Students that were targeted by the program become disillusioned due to the lack of jobs without a college education. Economic situations such as recessions and high unemployment rates worsen the matter as they contribute to the disappearance of low-skilled jobs in urban areas. To succeed, students have to qualify for the challenging college education requirements, which include a lot of tests (Brown-Jeffy & Cooper, 2011). In this regard, the program appears to fail in educating a majority of young people into finding jobs because it uses a method that puts the stakes so high that participants are in constant fear of failing. There are no options for gradual development. One has to commit fully to the program from start to finish and succeed (Anderson & Larson, 2009).

The head of the Upward Bound program admits that putting students under constant surveillance and having them as suspects whenever there is a crime committed by a performing student from a minority background is traumatizing. Regular ID checks done on black students increase the problems that participants of the Upward Bound program face because the checks are harmful to their human identity (Anderson & Larson, 2009). The reports of the study, which include accounts of racism, provide support to the findings by Achinstein and Ogawa (2012) that segregation is a major limiting factor in the educational performance of black students.

Given the above highlights of the challenges that students and teachers face in trying to achieve equity in education in a culturally diverse context, researchers have sought to come up with a framework that would provide a direction towards workable solutions. Brown-Jeffy and Cooper (2011) look at the culturally relevant pedagogy (CRP). The method holds that teachers should refrain from the judgment of student backgrounds. Teachers should be mindful of all the backgrounds of their students and focus on that when facilitating learning in classrooms (Brown-Jeffy & Cooper, 2011). The CRP approach presents an opportunity to bring equality in educational opportunities. It arises from studies that examined the mismatch of teaching styles and home community culture of students. It borrows from the findings of research in India that show it is possible to have the mainstream social culture introduced in a way that is less threatening to a childs appreciation of his or her culture that is different. The emphasis is on having culturally competent teachers that are able to transition the student into the social mainstream culture while retaining the students identification with his or her background culture (Brown-Jeffy & Cooper, 2011).

The pursuit of the CRP framework requires an exploration of race in the United States. Focusing on racial effects using the critical race theory allows scholars to bring out the effects of racism to educational inequality. The theory also helps to challenge hegemonic practices presented by the White supremacy. It makes it possible for researchers to review hegemonic practices of White supremacy objectively, which expresses itself subtly in the system of meritocracy. Addressing these concerns should lead to true equality in educational opportunities (Card & Rothstein, 2007; Brown-Jeffy & Cooper, 2011).

The CRP conceptual framework uses five principles. The principles are identity and achievement, equity and excellence, developmental appropriateness, and teaching the whole child. These principles relate to the relationship between teachers and students. The intention of the framework is to identify variations within the classroom so that teachers can embrace the reality of diversity and work with it. In addition to acknowledgment, teachers must also see diversity as an asset that assists them in delivering education objectives. Under development appropriateness, teachers use learning styles, teaching styles and cultural variation in psychological needs to achieve their teaching objectives. These approaches also correspond to the suggestions by Ansalone (2010) on promoting equity or academic achievement. The researcher called for the establishment of alternatives to tracking, which would go beyond highlight test scores and use factors presented by the modality theory and cooperative learning. In fact, the research by Ansalone (2010) shows that tracking, also captured in academic meritocracy by Brown-Jeffy and Cooper (2011) is a defective system.

Such a conceptual framework must be used in special education programs, as well as normal education programs. Research by Skiba et al. (2011) confirmed that in a national sample, there were significant disparities existing in African Americans and Latino students in school discipline. However, the patterns are complex and can be moderated by the type of offense that students commit. Skiba et al. (2011) reached a conclusion that differential selection at the classroom level can contribute significantly to addressing an already disproportionate representation of African Americans and Latino students in matters related to discipline. The findings contribute to the suggestions by Anderson and Larson (2009) on the Upward Bound program on maintaining student perception of education and equality to limit the association of the program with racial profiling. The factor that also contributed to the findings by Skiba et al. (2011) that the opportunity to stay within an academic program remains as the single most significant predictor of academic success, which should go on to inform interventions and policies. This finding also cements the understanding of other researchers that concentrating on student testing structures is not effective (Brown-Jeffy & Cooper, 2011).

References

Achinstein, B., & Ogawa, R. T. (2012). New teachers of color and culturally responsive teaching in an era of educational accountability: Caught in a double bind. Journal of Educational Change, 13(1), 1-39.

Anderson, N. S., & Larson, C. L. (2009). Sinking, like quicksand Expanding education opportunity for young men of color. Educational Administration Quarterly, 45(1), 71-114.

Ansalone, G. (2010). Tracking: Education difference or defective strategy. Education Research Quarterly, 32(2), 3-17.

Blanchett, W. J. (2009). A retrospective examination of urban education: From brown to the resegregation of African Americans in special educationIt is time to go for broke. Urban Education, 44(4), 370-388.

Brown-Jeffy, S., & Cooper, J. E. (2011). Toward a conceptual framework of culturally relevant pedagogy: An. Teacher Education Quarterly, 38(1), 65  84.

Card, D., & Rothstein, J. (2007). Racial segregation and the black-white test score gap. Journal of public economics, 91(11/12), 2158  2184.

Ford, D. Y. (2008). Culturally diverse exceptional students: remembering the past, looking toward the future. Exceptional Children, 74(3), 262-263.

Irvine, J. J. (2010). Culturally r

The current study examines the effects of a mathematics methodology course on the efficacy beliefs of pre-service elementary teachers, with a focus on identifying (1) how the teaching efficacy of these teachers is affected by the course, (2) teachers perceptions of their skills, competence, and ability to teach mathematics, and (3) the aspects of the teaching context that affect the self-efficacy beliefs of these teachers upon exposure to the methodology course.

Chapter 2 presents an assessment and synthesis of available research studies surrounding teacher self-efficacy beliefs and the teaching of mathematics. Specifically, the chapter assesses the literature on the following areas: Banduras theory of social learning; self-efficacy; sources of self-efficacy; self-efficacy in the pre-service teacher context; teaching efficacy; summary of research studies on teacher self-efficacy; the role of the cognitive domain in mathematics teachers performance; and effectiveness in the teaching of mathematics.

Banduras Theory of Social Learning

A number of studies (e.g., Berna & Gunhan, 2011; Bleicher, 2004; Cheong, 2010; Czerniak, 1990; Isiksal, 2005) have demonstrated the capacity of Banduras theory of social learning in providing an important framework for investigating the dimension of personal science or mathematics teaching self-efficacy from a cognitive science standpoint.

As acknowledged by Bleicher (2004), Banduras theory states that individuals are motivated to perform an action if they believe the action will have a favourable result (outcome expectation), and they are confident that they can perform that action successfully (self-efficacy expectation) (p. 384). From a widespread appraisal of the literature, Bandura (1997) was of the opinion that the evidence across studies demonstrated reliability in not only showing that perceived self-efficacy adds substantially to the intensity of motivation and performance achievements, but also in illuminating how the social influences that affect the performance of individuals are to a large extent dependent on psychological mechanisms.

This view is consistent with the perspective of most social cognitive theorists, that self-efficacy beliefs strongly influence the choices people make, the effort they expend, and the degree of anxiety they experience (Isiksal, 2005, p. 8). Consequently, as postulated by Bandura (1977), self-efficacy beliefs and expectations are critical in the decisions made by individuals on whether to engage in a particular task or activity, how much effort they are willing to expend in completing the task, and also how much effort they are willing to display in the face of challenges.

The basis of the theory is predicated upon the assumptions that individuals are creators as well as outcomes of social arrangements and that people exercise self-influence and hence function generatively and proactively rather than merely reactively (Berna & Gunhan, 2011; Isiksal, 2005). Other important elements of the theory include the presuppositions that social structures are developed by effectual human action, and that structural applications inflict restrictions and afford resources and opportunity applications for the individual development and operation of the human agency (Bleicher, 2004; Ediger, 2012).

A strand of existing literature demonstrates that Banduras theory of social learning and attendant self-efficacy expectations have been used in studies aimed at investigating why the performance attainment of individuals might differ irrespective of the fact that they may have similar knowledge and skills (Albayrak & Unal, 2011; Enochs, Smith, & Pintrich, 1997; Henson, 2002; Isiksal, 2005; Pajares, 1996).

Self-Efficacy

First introduced in the mainstream psychology literature in the 1970s by Alberta Bandura, the self-efficacy concept forms one of the central tenets of social learning theory (Albayrak & Unal, 2011) and continues to be incorporated in contemporary teacher education programs to increase teaching confidence (Bray-Clark & Bates, 2003).

Simply put, self-efficacy denotes a persons judgment about how well he or she can organize and execute courses of action necessary to realize certain goals or objectives (Albayrak & Unal, 2011), an individuals conviction in his or her competence to organize and execute the most probable path of action necessary to manage upcoming and potential circumstances (Bray-Clark & Bates, 2003), or a belief about ones own capability to reach the necessary levels of learning and behaviour (Isiksal, 2005).

As demonstrated by Bray-Clark and Bates (2003), self-efficacy is a task-specific belief that regulates choice, effort, and persistence in the face of obstacles and in concert with the emotional state of an individual (p. 14). Inciting the seminal works of Bandura (1977), Albayrak and Unal (2011) argued that efficacy beliefs govern how people think, feel, motivate themselves and behave, and determine whether coping behaviour is initiated, how much effort is expended, [and] how long the behaviour is sustained [when] faced with obstacles and unfavourable experiences (p. 183).

Additionally, these authors noted that self-efficacy convictions arbitrate in the correlation involving knowledge and action, implying that individuals must demonstrate the requisite knowledge, skills as well as efficacy beliefs and expectations in order to develop the capability to execute specific actions effectively. Following this elaboration, Berna and Gunhan (2011) acknowledged that individuals who demonstrate firm self-efficacy beliefs are also inclined to show more effort when they face challenges and continue to demonstrate confidentiality and faithfulness to the struggle as they attain the requisite skills needed to surpass the challenges.

Self-efficacy is also generally categorized as a motivational construct, with available literature demonstrating that the beliefs held in this construct not only affect the judgments and perceptions of people but also shape how an individual can perform in a given scenario (Pajares, 2002; Phan, 2012). The present research study attempts to expound on the self-efficacy concept, and its theoretical viewpoints cited comprehensively in available research studies under the theories of expectancy-value and the self-concept (Pajares, 1996). According to the expectancy-value theory, individuals will be motivated to engage in tasks when they value the outcome expected; they will be less predisposed to perform tasks whose outcomes they do not value (Pajares, 1996, p. 558).

This implies that self-efficacy beliefs, viewpoints and expectations relate to the expected outcomes of an action taken to demonstrate that ones beliefs can contribute to the expected outcomes; for instance, if a mathematics teacher is confident that his or her skills in lesson planning are exceptional, it is most likely that the beliefs and expectations of such a teacher will be very firm (Esterly, 2003).

The available self-efficacy scholarship demonstrates that the concept differs from self-concept in that, while the former denotes a context-specific assessment of proficiency to perform a particular task or activity, the latter is assessed at a broader intensity of specificity (Pajares, 1996; Tatar & Buldur, 2013). As observed by Bandura (1986), self-efficacy looks at the relationship created between what an individual perceives as self-efficacy and the functional cognitive development of the individual.

The available literature demonstrates that the self-efficacy concept has two dimensions, namely, outcome expectancy and efficacy expectation (Bray-Clark & Bates, 2003). Efficacy expectancy refers to the belief that an individual has in his or her capability to finish a job successfully, while outcome expectancy refers to the belief of this individual that the accomplished task will result in the desired outcomes (Bandura, 1986).

Most people develop self-efficacy through observational learning, experiences in social settings, and the reciprocal determinism to develop ones personality (Czerniak & Schriver, 1994). The experiences that people undergo provide them with an opportunity to develop high or low levels of self-efficacy. Abilities, attitudes, and cognitive skills make up a self-system that plays a vital role in peoples perception of situations and responses to these different situations (Bandura, 1986; Kranzler & Pajares, 1997 Swars, 2005; Swars, Hart, Smith, Smith, & Tolar, 2007).

In practice, people who have high self-efficacy believe in their abilities and take chances in accomplishing tasks (Grossman & McDonald, 2008); they trust themselves and believe that they will achieve reasonable results when they focus on doing something (Hall & Ponton, 2005). Conversely, people who possess low self-efficacy have little belief in their abilities and thus often remain doubtful about their ability to achieve positive outcomes (Pendergrast, Garvis, & Keogh, 2011). Accordingly, their efforts and determination will always fall below the standards, forcing them to get undesired results.

Sources of Self-Efficacy

Bandura (1977), comprehensively cited in Albayrak and Unal (2011), noted that the expectations of personal efficacy are derived from four principal sources of information: performance accomplishment, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological states (p. 183). In another study, Bandura (1997), cited in Charalambous and Philippou (2003), posited that there are four sources of efficacy information, namely mastery experience, vicarious experience, social persuasion, and physiological and emotional arousal. It is evident from the existing literature (e.g., Berna & Gunhan, 2011) that masterly experience is the same as performance accomplishment and that verbal persuasion and social persuasion are also the same.

Performance accomplishment

Performance accomplishment also referred to as masterly experience, is considered the most powerful source of efficacy information, in large part because efficacy beliefs are reinforced considerably when success is attained on difficult tasks with minimal assistance (Charalambous & Philippou, 2003). However, as noted in the literature, not all successful experiences reinforce efficacy; for instance, an individuals sense of self-efficacy cannot be reinforced when success is attained through disproportionate external assistance or when he or she is exposed to an easy and unimportant task (Bray-Clark & Bates, 2003).

According to Hoy and Spero (2005), the discernment that an individual has succeeded in accomplishing a particular task or activity raises his or her efficacy beliefs and contributes to the anticipation that performance will be proficient in the future, while the discernment that an individual has failed to accomplish a particular task or activity lowers his or her efficacy beliefs and contributes to the anticipation that future performance will also be inept.

Successful completion of a task strengthens ones sense of self-efficacy, which allows them to believe that they have the prerequisite skills to accomplish every task; however, the failure to deal entirely with a challenge or task will undermine and weaken ones self-efficacy (Enoch, Smith, &Huinker, 2000). In their study, Hackett and Betz (2009) explained that mastery experiences allow pre-service teachers to develop a firm sense of efficacy.

Vicarious experiences

As demonstrated by Hoy and Spero (2005), vicarious experiences are those in which the skill in question is modelled by someone else (p. 3). A strand of existing literature demonstrates that vicarious experiences may modify efficacy beliefs, expectations, or judgments about self-competence through comparison with the attainment of others (Berna & Gunhan, 2011), implying that watching admirable and convincing individuals with more or less the same capabilities as the observer can influence the observers self-efficacy beliefs (Charalambous & Philippou, 2003).

Bandura (1977), cited in Hoy and Spero (2005), argued that the degree to which the observer identifies with the model moderates the efficacy effect on the observer (p. 3). This means that the more closely an observer identifies with admirable and credible people, the stronger the impact on his or her efficacy will be; that is, the efficacy of the observer is undoubtedly enhanced when the admirable or credible person with whom the observer identifies with performs well and is substantially lessened when the person performs poorly.

In practice, when pre-service teachers watch other experienced teachers complete their tasks successfully, they will also want to trust their abilities and work hard to achieve tasks. Bandura (cited in Battista, 1994) explained that, when people see other with whom they have similar characteristics succeed through sustained effort, they raise their beliefs that they have the same capabilities and chances of success.

Verbal or social persuasion

Verbal or social persuasion serves as a further avenue for reinforcing the beliefs or expectations of an individual, particularly in the context whereby significant others express confidence and faith in the capabilities demonstrated by the individual (Charalambous & Philippou, 2003) or when encouragement is provided in a more effective and realistic manner and reinforced by real experiences (Berna & Gunhan, 2011; Bursal & Paznokas, 2006).

As acknowledged by Hoy and Spero (2005), verbal or social persuasion may be in the form of a pep conversation or an explicit performance response from a superior or a coworker, or it may relate to the common gossip in the staffroom or in the mainstream media outlets about the capacity of teachers to influence and motivate students. These authors further posited that although social persuasion alone may be limited in its power to create enduring increases in self-efficacy, persuasion can contribute to successful performance to the extent that a persuasive boost in self-efficacy leads a person to initiate the task, attempt new strategies, or try hard enough to succeed (p. 3).

Social persuasion as a source of self-efficacy may be instrumental in countering sporadic setbacks and challenges that may substantially inspire sufficient self-doubt to interrupt persistence; however, as acknowledged by Hoy and Spero (2005), the effectiveness or success of persuasion depends to a large extent on the integrity, dependability, and proficiency of the persuader. In the mainstream teaching occupation, pre-service teachers are routinely exposed to colleagues who succeed effortlessly, which in turn persuades them to raise their game so that they can also do better. For instance, they undergo a self-reflection process to identify the weaknesses that undermine their ability to succeed and focus on eliminating these weaknesses so that they can perform like other teachers (Ball & Bass, 2003; Enoch et al., 2000; Hackett & Betz, 2009).

Physiological states

Psychological states denote how thoughts of restfulness, confidence, and positive em*otions indicate self-assurance and the expectancy of upcoming success for the individual concerned (Hoy & Spero, 2005) and how negative feelings such as rapid heartbeat, fatigue, and pain indicate a lack of self-assurance and the expectancy of immediate or future failure for the individual concerned (Charalambous & Philippou, 2003).

Battista (1994) noted that personal emotional reactions and responses to situations influence the development of self-efficacy, implying that emotions, moods, stress, and physical reactions have effects on a persons perception of his or her abilities during a situation. However, the factual concentration of a physical or emotional reaction is not the most significant aspect of the relationship between psychological responses and the development of self-efficacy; on the contrary, the most significant factor is the perception and interpretation that a person uses to reduce stress and elevate mood during challenging or difficult tasks (Ashton & Webb, 1986; Battista, 1994; Cakiroglu, 2008).

Self-Efficacy in the Pre-service Teachers Context

A strand of existing literature demonstrates that most pre-service teachers specializing in mathematics or math-related subjects have low levels of self-efficacy (Swars, Hart, Smith, Smith, & Tolar, 2007), in spite of the fact that they understand the significance of mathematics self-efficacy and therefore should show high levels of mathematics teaching efficacy (Ashton, Webb, & Doda, 1982). Indeed, some pre-service teachers have confirmed their dislike for subjects that they are supposed to teach passionately once they begin their profession (Bates, Latham, & Kim, 2011). Often, the attitudes and judgments of teachers concerning their competence will have a direct impact on the attitudes and outcomes of their students toward the subjects they teach (Hackett & Betz, 1989).

A study by Albayrak and Unal (2011) acknowledged that teachers with a high efficacy belief have a tendency to behave in some specific ways to influence student motivation and achievement, with the most common forms of efficacy behaviours demonstrated by these teachers outlined as elevating expectations, valuing, pushing (encouraging), greeting behaviour, opening and closing ritual, equalizing response opportunities, feedback and teacher help, waiting, praising and respecting (p. 184).

Other studies have underscored a number of characteristics associated with pre-service teachers with high levels of self-efficacy. First, these teachers perceive challenging problems as tasks that must be mastered (Bates et al., 2011; Cone, 2009), implying that high self-efficacy enables teachers to master challenging problems so that they can be solved successfully both at the present moment and in future events (Bray-Clark & Bates, 2003). Accordingly, they develop the prerequisite skills that boost their confidence in related tasks or other challenging problems.

Second, high levels of self-efficacy cause pre-service teachers to develop a firm interest in the activities they undertake (Charalambous, Philippou, & Kyriakides, 2008; Grossman & McDonald, 2008). It is a shared belief that a keen interest in something allows an individual to acquire the skills and knowledge that will guarantee positive outcomes. When a mathematics teacher has little interest in the subject, he or she will achieve dismal results, as exhibited in the performances of their students (Hackett & Betz, 1989).

Third, pre-service teachers with high levels of self-efficacy are likely to develop and form a firm sense of commitment in their activities, which in turn allows them to acquire new skills since they are often ready to learn new approaches and strategies for tackling math problems and the challenges that their students face (Czerniak & Schriver, 1994; Esterly, 2003; Riggs & Enochs, 1990). Fourth, pre-service teachers with high levels of self-efficacy are proactive and self-organizing. In most cases, they do not wait to tackle their problems when they arise but work to eliminate or minimize possible challenges.

74Similarly, problems that occur are tackled in an organized manner without any delays (Battista, 1994). Finally, preservice teachers with high levels of self-efficacy have an admirable ability not only to recover from disappointments and setbacks very quickly but also to work toward the next success (Huinker & Madison, 1997; Kagan, 1992). For example, these teachers do not see failure as the end of their success or inability to achieve positive outcomes (Enoch, Smith,& Huinker, 2000); rather, a negative outcome is regarded as a one-time occurrence that allows them to work harder or acquire better skills required to solve future challenges (Hall & Ponton, 2005).

In a study aimed at investigating the self-efficacy beliefs of in-service teachers in Slovakia, Gavora (2011) cited other research studies to demonstrate that teachers with elevated intensities of self-efficacy beliefs (1) regularly experiment with new teaching approaches, (2) demonstrate a propensity to be less critical of their students, (3) are generally more helpful to their students both instructional and expressively, (4) demonstrate a propensity to guide challenged students, (5) are generally more passionate, (6) demonstrate more dedication to their career than other teachers, (7) demonstrate sufficient capacity to deal with the needs and expectations of low-ability students, (8) demonstrate elevated levels planning intensities, (9) are generally inclined to new ideas, (10) demonstrate a propensity to work with student-centered approaches, and (11) implement a more humanistic orientation to classroom management.

These observations are consistent with the view held by most social learning perspectives that the self-efficacies demonstrated by teachers are of immense importance in determining how they approach various tasks, challenges, and goals related to student learning (Lampert, 1990) and that a strong sense of self-efficacy normally correlates positively with effective teacher action in the classroom context (Gavora, 2011).

Conversely, pre-service teachers who have a weak sense of self-efficacy exhibit characteristics that function to derail or adversely affect student educational outcomes and achievement. Indeed, Gavora (2011) cited Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2007) to demonstrate the following:

According to social-cognitive theory, teachers who do not expect to be successful with certain pupils are likely to put forth less effort in preparation and delivery of instruction, and to give up easily at the first sign of difficulty, even if they actually know of strategies that could assist these pupils if applied. Self-efficacy beliefs can therefore become self-fulfilling prophesies, validating beliefs either of capability or of incapacity (p. 80).

First, teachers with a weak or poorly developed sense of self-efficacy often tend to keep away from demanding and difficult tasks. In most cases, they believe that challenging situations and tasks are beyond their abilities. The practice becomes habitual among teachers who avoid difficult tasks and hence undermines their ability to acquire the skills required to solve various challenges.

Second, these teachers tend to dwell on their shortcomings, failures, and negative outcomes (Bates, Latham, & Kim, 2011; Charalambous, Philippou, & Kyriakides, 2008). Third, these teachers lack the ability to bounce back and start planning for future success. Finally, they lose confidence in their personal abilities and stop working on tasks that they think they will not manage. Some of the common behaviors demonstrated by teachers with low self-efficacy include low or deficient expectations, sorting, undervaluing, excommunicating, using a high rate of speed to teach, questioning, and estrangement (Albayrak & Unal, 2011).

Owing to the fact that efficacy beliefs are to a large extent shaped by an individuals previous performance and experiences (Bandura, 1997), it is exceedingly feasible that previous experiences of pre-service teachers (e.g., disappointment with mathematics in school or pessimistic students attitudes toward mathematics lessons) may form the underlying reasons as to why teachers develop a low efficacy belief and internalize some of the negative behaviors indicated above (Cone, 2009).

Self-efficacy enables teachers to formulate strategies that enhance performance and provide the desired feedback for positive results (Cone, 2009). Teachers who possess a high level of self-efficacy often have the ability to formulate a number of strategies that they use to approach different class problems (Ashton, Webb, & Doda, 1982). Accordingly, they have a number of alternatives that allow them to develop a strong sense of success. In teaching practice, the best results are often attributable to the sourcing and utilization of a myriad of strategies. Accordingly, it is rare or impossible to find a teacher who uses only one strategy and remains successful (Charalambous, Philippou, & Kyriakides, 2008).

The performance of various students in mathematics may depend on various factors, but teachers with high self-efficacy believe that performance is mainly influenced by the experiences obtained from classrooms (Cone, 2009; Hart, 2002). Accordingly, teachers will use their self-efficacy to ensure that all children perform well in mathematics regardless of their backgrounds and histories (Bursal, 2007). For example, teachers who understand self-efficacy will stress its significance to the learners and uphold it during the learning process (Ipek & Camadan, 2012).

Bandura (1986), cited in Bursal and Paznokas (2006), stated that self-efficacy allows teachers to achieve the desired outcomes for students learning and engagement even among students experiencing learning difficulties and with minimal motivation to perform. In this case, a teacher believes that external factors such as parents, background, intelligence quotient (IQ), school conditions, and environment do not affect the outcomes of learning as long as the teacher uses the best and most appropriate strategies to deliver different units of the course (Battista, 1994; Charalambous, Philippou, & Kyriakides, 2008). Therefore, these teachers will adopt different inclusive strategies that allow students to learn, develop interest, and work hard to pass the subject.

General self-efficacy theories stipulate that self-efficacy beliefs determine the behaviors of people through the development of attitudes toward their capabilities (Bates, Latham, & Kim, 2011; Cone, 2009). Accordingly, when teachers develop an attitude toward their abilities, they tend to determine what they can do or not do with their knowledge and skills (Lampert, 1990; Steele & Widman, 1997).

This may not be appropriate for teachers who are not flexible and dynamic because they have already predetermined their abilities and inabilities (Enochs, Smith, & Huinker, 2000). Therefore, skills and knowledge should be assumed to be powerful tools that can be used to solve any problem regardless of the situation. Self-efficacy is a fundamental factor in human competence since it mediates between beliefs and behaviors concerning abilities (Ashton, Webb, & Doda, 1982; Bandura, 1977; Bursal, 2007). The development of strong self-efficacy allows teachers to develop appropriate teaching efficacies, as discussed below.

Teacher Efficacy

Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2001) explained that the concept of teacher efficacy refers to the judgment and belief of a teacher that his or her abilities and strategies will bring the desired results for students learning and engagement for all students. Teacher efficacy belief is an adaptive dynamic contract (Kim, Sihn, & Mitchell, 2014), defined in the literature as the extent to which teachers believe that they can have a positive impact on students learning outcomes and achievement (Albayrak & Unal, 2011), the teachers individual beliefs in their competence to perform specific teaching tasks at a specified level of quality in a school context (Kim, Sihn, & Mitchell, 2014), or teachers belief or personal conviction that they can positively influence how well students are able to learn and cope with various learning challenges (Hoy & Spero, 2005).

The concept of teacher efficacy is different from teacher self-efficacy, as the former focuses on successfully influencing the performance of students in a classroom context, while the latter focuses on the capacity of teachers to perform particular teaching tasks successfully in their current teaching conditions (Kim, Sihn, & Mitchell, 2014).

In teacher efficacy research, it is evident that classroom activities implemented by a teacher are responsible for influencing students learning outcomes in key areas of achievement, motivation, and their own sense of self-efficacy (Bray-Clark & Bates, 2003; Isiksal, 2005). Consequently, a strand of existing literature demonstrates that the concept of teacher efficacy has two foremost aspects, namely (1) personal teaching efficacy, or the conviction in the individuals own capability and aptitude to teach, and (2) teaching outcome expectancy, or the conviction that effective teaching can affect student learning positively in spite of existing conditions such as the home environment, family settings, parental influences, school conditions, and IQ (Albayrak & Unal, 2011; Cohen, 1988; Esterly, 2003; Lee, 2010).

Bandura (1986), cited in Guskey and Passaro (1994), called for a distinction between these two dimensions of teaching efficacies because a teacher may assume that student learning originates from effective teaching, yet the teacher is uncertain about the essential capabilities for the successful delivery of lessons. The concept of teacher efficacy focuses on the factors that enhance teachers confidence and enable them to achieve the goals and objectives associated with class instructions, class management, reflective teaching, student motivation and engagement, and stakeholder engagement in the educational process (Kazempour, 2008).

The investigation of self-efficacy in relation to teaching has been a foremost concern of several educational studies (e.g., Bray-Clark & Bates, 2003; Esterly, 2003; Hoy & Spero, 2005), with many of these studies relating the self-efficacy belief concept with teacher efficacy belief in an attempt to demonstrate how teacher efficacy beliefs enhance student learning outcomes in school. One such study conducted by Gibson and Dembo (1984) and comprehensively cited in Albayrak and Unal (2011) acknowledged the following:

&teachers who believe student learning can be influenced by effective teaching (outcomes expectancy beliefs) and who also have confidence in their own teaching abilities (self efficacy beliefs) should persist longer, provide a greater academic focus in the classroom, and exhibit different types of feedback than teachers who have lower expectations concerning their ability to influence student learning (p. 184).

The available literature demonstrates that teacher efficacy influences teacher behavioral orientations in core areas such as persistence on a task, risk taking, classroom instructional strategies, investment in teaching effort, goal setting, and the use of innovations (Albayrak & Unal, 2011; Hoy & Spero, 2005), implying that teachers with optimal teaching efficacy beliefs and confidence attempt new teaching approaches that are difficult to implement (Bray-Clark & Bates, 2003), engage in risk-taking behaviors such as sharing control with students (Berna & Gunhan, 2011), invest much effort in teaching with a view to enhancing the basic performance of students despite the difficulties that may arise (Arslan & Yavuz, 2012), employ inquiry and student-centered approaches to be more effective (Ashton & Webb, 1986), and demonstrate a personal conviction that they have the capacity to control or at least influence student achievement and motivation (Savran-Gencer & Cakiroglu, 2007).

This elaboration is supported by Kim, Sihn, and Mitchell (2014), who not only acknowledged that students development of mathematical proficiency is related to teachers efficacy in teaching mathematics but also proposed that highly efficacious teachers have a positive effect on student learning outcomes because efficacy influences the teachers persistence on a task, willingness to take risks, and employment of innovations in their teaching.

Teacher efficacy is exhibited through the use of various instructional approaches and student-centered approaches. A diversity of instructional approaches means that the teacher does not use the same teaching methods from the first day to the last day; rather, he or she formulates various strategies that can effectively allow him or her to

Executive Summary

Every year, disasters tend to cause economic damages, human death, and environmental destruction. Despite technological improvements and increased knowledge, humanity is still struggling against disasters because they cannot either predict them or respond to them appropriately. Accordingly, disaster preparedness and management are the two topics that get the most attention in the era of electronic mass media and extensive research. On both national and global scales, regions suffering from disasters receive humanitarian aid that is required to decrease the distress. Still, it often happens that organizations are not able to respond promptly or transport the resources necessary for the ones in need. The current paper presents a thoughtful analysis of three specific disasters  the 2010 Haiti earthquake, 2005 Hurricane Katrina, and the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami  to provide possible alternatives to the existing logistics-related disaster response solutions.

The current paper provides the readers with a detailed discussion of the recommendations intended to improve the existing state of affairs in the area of disaster responses. It is established that integrated logistics is the best choice for preventing resource shortage during emergencies, with four directives intended to be respected: (1) to prepare all facilities to both disasters and catastrophes, based on the idea that these two are different; (2) to step away from opportunistic purchases and only ensure spontaneous shipments and donations that contain high-value items; (3) to attract the community to disaster management activities; and (4) to utilize social media to connect with the local community and disseminate vital information. The implementation plan for the above recommendations consists of four essential stages: (a) identification of essential resources, (b) identification of all secure facilities, (c) identification of appropriate response times, and (d) identification of the required number of local emergency resource facilities.

Introduction

Irrespective of the type of disaster affecting the society, the value of the communitys ability to adapt to emergencies grows continually. This means that the majority of fatalities and injuries (in addition to material losses) are linked to the inability to respond to disasters in a preventive manner or at least reduce the damage caused by natural calamities. Knowing that disaster management requires individuals and organizations to address the periods prior, during, and after disasters, it may be safe to conclude that logistics is one of the most critical industries for disaster response experts. The key objective of disaster management is to address huge economic and physical losses that may be expected in the case of inactivity. Another reason to consider logistics is the ability to speed up the reconstruction process through quicker goods delivery. When all operations are completed on time, it helps different organizations ensure that all the goods and equipment are delivered the fastest. The current study reviews the experiences of disaster management and develops a set of recommendations intended to help organizations positively exploit logistics and expedite the recovery process without additional expenditures.

Haiti Earthquake

Background

In 2010, the entire world felt sadness for Haiti and the Dominican Republic, countries located within the Caribbean on the island of Hispaniola. On January 12th, 2010, a massive earthquake hit about 15 miles from Port-au-Prince and had an initial shock that registered a magnitude of 7.0 and then they experienced two aftershocks, one measuring 5.9 and the other measuring 5.5 with several more aftershocks to come in the following days including one measuring 5.9 (Pallardy, 2010). This disaster killed over 300,000 people with several more left injured, missing and homeless as buildings had collapsed everywhere. An estimated 3 million people were impacted by this earthquake in one way or another, and several landmark buildings were destroyed or damaged such as the Presidential Palace, the National Assembly building and the Port-au-Prince Cathedral. Haiti is known for being a very poor country which many speculate is why so many buildings collapsed- a lack of building codes and proper requirements taken into consideration when structures were built, but it is hard to say whether or not any building could survive an earthquake of that magnitude. Exhibit A represents a graph that shows the perceived shaking each area received showing the regions of Port-au-Prince and Carrefour feeling the largest shock and then areas in the Dominican Republic would have felt moderate shaking caused by the earthquake.

Government

Haitis government was also severely impacted by this disaster with 14 out of 16 government ministries being destroyed, killing several government officials lives including the head of mission of the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH) (Cecchine et al. 2013). This is a critical fact about the Haiti Earthquake because without the support of a well functioning government, relief efforts become even more difficult to successfully implement and coordinate with other countries from a logistics point of view. The local government are the professionals in that country or region, so they are the ones who would be able to work most effectively with neighbouring countries such as the U.S. to create a plan to provide relief during a crisis situation such as this. Due to the implications of the earthquake that resulted in so many deaths in Haiti government ministries, logistics planning became a very difficult task for the U.S. and other aids as there was a significant lack of communication and support available from the Haiti government. The surviving members of the Haiti government contacted the U.S. government with Barack Obama as the president at the time, for assistance. The U.S. government responded by agreeing to offer assistance and created a separate joint task force to help provide relief and soon became a key factor in what was known as the largest international humanitarian response to a natural disaster in U.S. history (Cecchine et al. 2013). Relief missions immediately faced issues in Haiti as the destruction was widespread including the destruction of air landing strips and seaports. This meant that there was a lot of difficulty with the delivery of high volume amounts of essential items needed for relief so one of the top priority items on the list was to clear and reopen the airport and the seaport in Port-au-Prince so that supplies could arrive in Haiti quicker and in larger amounts. Although the U.S. was just one of the countries that offered assistance in this natural disaster, they were the largest contributor in terms of personnel that were sent to help and other capabilities such as supplies provided, so for the purpose of this analysis the U.S. will be examined with their responsive efforts. Although the joint task force was created to help Haiti, it was not created to bring Haiti back to its pre-earthquake condition, but rather help control near-term suffering and work on relief efforts with other organizations who were also helping. Haiti was not in a great position prior to the earthquake so because the severe damages that occurred because of the earthquake with buildings destroyed everywhere, loved ones lost or killed, people injured and the government not being in a great financial position to begin with, Haiti was left in a miserable state. With the lack of long term support planned and executed by the home country and neighbouring countries, many citizens were left with nothing.

Problems in the Disaster Response Efforts

The very first logistics issue that the U.S had with trying to provide relief for Haiti was with vehicle routes, meaning trying to get the U.S. military and other aid into Haiti with their vehicles so they could start providing relief. Communications were very limited as it was severly damaged by the earthquake, so all that was known was that the seaports were destroyed and the airport was closed. The Port-au-Prince international airport was closed and the control tower was also not able to operate, so the U.S. military had no idea if it was safe to land an aircraft there or not. Of course, having the runway open was essential to the relief plan so that not only U.S. military aircraft could land, but aircraft from other organizations needed to be able to use the runway as well. So the U.S. sent one aircraft there and once it landed safely just 26 hours after the earthquake, it had the runway open and running less then an hour after they arrived (Cecchine et al. 2013). Once the teams were able to get into Haiti, they then proceeded to the most affected areas and started working through the different phases that needed to be handled such as rescuing survivors, treating and evacuating the injured, delivering water, food, shelter and supplies, restoring essential services and facilities, and supporting long-term recovery efforts (Cecchine et al. 2013).

Another logistics issue to note is that Nine months after the Earthquake about 1.3 million people still lived in tents and informal shelter in the Port-au-Print metro area, indicative of the lack of access to any better options (Sheller, 2012). This indicates that there were issues with logistics coordination for support post immediate relief efforts. Unfortunately, these people lived in extremely poor conditions due to the consequences of the earthquake and there was not enough logistics coordination for long term support and it seems as though there was really only a focus on what the U.S. could do in the short term. This created long term issues for the residents especially when considering the state their government had come to after the devastating deaths of many of the Haiti government representative deaths. Some of the issues that these citizens had even months after the earthquake were not limited to shelter but extended to not having clean drinking water, lack of bodily security and sanitation. There was a lot of money investeed in this aid mission by not only the U.S. military but also from other organizations such as the redcross- both of which can be considered as relatively wealthy. Of course, the salvation army is a not for profit organization, but the funds are there so that they can help in situations like these. Although organizations like these did a lot of work for Haiti when this disaster came to light, they may not have done their logistics planning effectively with regards to distribution of money and essential items like food, water and shelter. Some felt that a lot of money was spent on the volunteers who went to Haiti to help with the rescue mission, in order to keep them comfortable. Of course, it was very important that the volunteers were comfortable and safe so that they could continue contributing to the rescue mission- but it is possible that the money was not effectively distributed between helping the citizens reach some sense of normalcy and their accommodations. In addition, there was thousands and thousands of units of essential items shipped to Haiti such as food and water, but whether it was distributed properly was questionable as so many citizens went without.

Alternatives

It is important to analyze the possible alternatives that Haiti could have chosen to proceed with after the aid from neighboring countries dwindled. The first alternative would be to do nothing and make no adjustments for future potential natural disasters and the logistics planning needed for human relief aid should anything occur again in the future. This alternative is obviously not a reasonable alternative as there was still over a million citizens living in horrendous conditions without basic human rights such as shelter and clean drinking water. Therefore, it would not have been a good course of action to proceed with because it is the general understanding that the government should be doing all that they can to help support and protect their citizens in situations like this. The second alternative would have been for the Haiti government to do more logistics planning themselves for post natural disaster support of its citizens and contact neighboring countries for financial support so that they could use those funds to help its citizens to return to safer living conditions. This would require that the Haiti government be in a position that they could handle the logistics of executing a plan to distribute the necessary goods, have the ability to return buildings to their prior state, and create temporary safe living spaces for their citizens while they work on ways to restore the country. This alternative would be very difficult as Haiti was not a wealthy country prior to the earthquake, so they would need substantial financial support from wealthier neighboring countries like the U.S. after they just provided substantial means of support to Haiti. In addition to this, wealthier countries may be hesitant on financially helping a country whose government has just lost over a dozen of its members, resulting in that formation becoming severely unstable. The third alternative would have been to have a better plan in place prior to the earthquake. It is not uncommon for this part of the world to experience natural disasters like this, so it would have been better if Haiti had a plan in place prior to this natural disaster that would allow for easier flow of logistics planning with regards to support, vehicle routes being available, distribution of essential items and other supports needed. Of course, this alternative was of no help after the Haiti earthquake had already happened, but it is a good learning experience to develop such a plan to be more prepared for the next time should something like this ever occur again. The Haiti government could take it upon themselves to develop an agreement with neighboring countries about how planning can take place, what ports they can use or any other alternatives should those ports be closed due to such a natural disaster, and the most effective ways to distribute essential services and goods. It is a good idea to have these things set in place prior to a natural disaster happening because as we have seen in this case, communications can be cut off and challenged to reach other countries and communicate important information. Another reason why it is so important is because as we saw in the case with Haiti, their government was severely compromised when there were 14 members killed during the tragedy. If the government were to have a plan set in place prior to the disaster, the necessary information needed to be communicated with other countries could have been done before there were so many deaths within their government. It is also important to consider long term support, and how it could have been handled better in this disaster. We understand that the U.S. military who played the largest role in relief to Haiti was only temporary and did not look to restore the country to its pre-existing state prior to the earthquake. Due to this, the citizens suffered, and lived in terrible living conditions without basic human rights being satisfied. There is an obvious need for better logistics planning for long term support, not just short term, immediate survival support.

Indian Ocean Earthquake and Tsunami

Background

On December 26, 2004, a 9.2 magnitude earthquake created a powerful tsunami that transformed the cities surrounding the Indian Ocean. Not only did this tsunami change the lives of the affected areas, but it would also change how logistics for humanitarian efforts would be performed. At the time, this was the most destructive tsunami in recorded history; an estimated death toll of 230,000 people even though the actual number will never be known due to the devastation in the area and the number of people who were carried out to sea (Mills, 2014). Aside from the death toll, there were 1.7 million people displaced and forced to live in refugee camps. Although the area was known to be an earthquake hotspot, there was no technology in the area to warn of incoming tsunami waves which was a contributing factor to the size of devastation that the tsunami brought to the affected areas. The affected area was immense in size as it expanded from Indonesia to India to Somalia, the size of the affected area can be seen in exhibit B. Roads were completely removed from the face of earth, buildings destroyed, cities flooded, vehicles crushed, houses washed away, and water and food contaminated. As one can imagine, the relief effort was going to be massive and needed to be efficient and effective to stop the death toll from climbing due to secondary effects such as hunger, thirst, and diseases (Mills, 2014).

Each natural disaster is preparation for the next, one country really does not know how prepared or ready they are logistically for a disaster response until the disaster hits. In the aftermath, lessons can be learned as to what went wrong and things that need to be improved on to lessen the effect a natural disaster has on an area. Disaster response logistic activities can be broken down into two categories; preparedness and post-disaster (Heaslip & Barber, 2014). Preparedness in disaster response refers to the ability of governments, professional response organizations, communities and individuals to anticipate and respond effectively to the impact of likely, imminent or current hazards, events or conditions (HumanitarianResponse). The activities in the preparedness involve using mitigation measures such as positioning of critical supplies, development of response plans, and heightened building codes (Holguin-veras et al., 2013). The post-disaster activities can be broken down into the immediate relief efforts and the long-term recoveries. The immediate relief efforts refer to the activities that happen immediately after the disaster has occurred, while the long-term recoveries are the efforts and work that happens for months and even years to build the impacted areas back to the original state (Kovacs & Spens, 2007).

Problems in the Disaster Response Efforts

There were problems evident in both phases of the disaster response for the Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami of 2004, which was described as a logistics nightmare (Hoffman, 2005). This natural disaster was said to be one of the greatest logistic challenges of modern history with logistic efforts being stretched to their breaking points. From transportation bottlenecks, poor coordination, and buildup of supplies; a number of things went wrong during the relief efforts. That is not to say that the relief efforts were ineffective as they were successful; however, there is always room for improvement.

One of the greatest barriers that was noticed during the relief efforts, was the lack of coordination (Hoffman, 2005). There was a trickledown effect from the lack of coordination that led to other problems for the logistics of the disaster response that will be touched on later. Professionals have traced the poor coordination of the relief efforts back to the massive scope of the efforts. The scope was just too large for one organization to take on by itself. The affected area stretched over 11 different countries; not only is that a large area of land to aid, it also creates political problems (Mills, 2014). At the time, there was not a large number of humanitarian organizations established and there was not a specific disaster response logistics cluster of the United Nations that would be used in the more recent natural disasters. This led to a problem of cooperation amongst the companies that did come to aid the affected areas. This was an increase in competition amongst the aid agencies so they would not share all the information amongst each other (Perry, 2007). With a lack of large-scale humanitarian agencies existing, a lot of the relief efforts came from the militaries of foreign countries such as the United States, Australia and China. The coordination amongst the relief efforts was so poor that the militaries and groups that came to aid had to set up their camp far away from the disaster zone. Ultimately impeding the response times to certain locations and creating an inability to assess the full damage within the disaster zones (Hoffman, 2005).

The first indicator of the lack of coordination could be noticed at the airports, as experts say this was the first bottleneck in relief efforts. Supplies that were being shipped to the disaster zone were piling up at airports and not being transported to the disaster zones. The supplies became stranded and inaccessible, leaving 10s of thousands of people not receiving the relief that they needed (Hoffman, 2005). Another major problem with the supplies was that the affected regions were receiving such large donations of equipment and supplies that they were receiving unnecessary goods, this led to a supply-chain overload and a contributor to the buildup of supplies at airports.

Another cause for the bottleneck of the relief efforts at the airport was that the countries that were hit with the tsunami were underdeveloped and were not geared towards the type of operations that were needed for the relief efforts. For instance, an airstrip was forced to shut down when one of the loaned 747 freighters that were bringing medical supplies struck a herd of cattle (Hoffman, 2005). With already limited places to land, it became even more difficult when the airstrip closed as it was crucial for the delivery of medical supplies, food, and sanitation equipment.

The lack of preparedness, the initial phase of disaster response, was also noticed during the relief efforts for the 2004 tsunami in the Indian Ocean. The area was known for being a hotspot for earthquakes but still lacked the technology and infrastructure to alert the surrounding countries of South-east Asia of an oncoming tsunami; however, the technology did exist at the time (Mills, 2014). Aside from the technology and infrastructure, the knowledge of tsunamis amongst the residents and tourists in the region did not exist. For instance, when people seen the water starting to pull back out to sea  happens often with tsunamis due to the energy build up in the oncoming waves  they walked closer to the beaches to get a closer look (Mills, 2014). Thus, the people of the area were caught with total surprise due to the lack of knowledge and response plans, contributing to the large death toll from the tsunami. In addition to the lack of knowledge, and no detection system, the area also did not have protective infrastructure in place to mitigate the damage caused by tsunamis to the shoreline such as a breakwater (Symonds, 2015).

As one can see, there were problems at all phases of the disaster response logistics for the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. The lack of coordination, poor disaster preparedness, lack of large-scale humanitarian agencies, and supply movement created problems in a time of rapid need. The relief efforts were successful and aided hundreds of thousands of lives that were in deep need of help; however, the efforts could have gone smoother contributing to lessons to be learned from these relief efforts.

Alternatives

Looking back on the Indian Ocean tsunami disaster relief efforts, there are some processes and infrastructure, from a logistics standpoint, that could have been implemented that would have increased the efficiency of the relief operations. It is always easy to look back and see the things that should have been done, but with disaster response, looking back or lessons learned will make the disaster response more effective and efficient which will lead to the overall impact of a natural disaster in the future being reduced.

2005 Hurricane Katrina

Background

On August 29, 2005, Hurricane Katrina made landfall in Louisiana as a Category 3 storm. The hurricane caused severe flooding damage and had catastrophic effects to city of New Orleans (see Exhibit C), Louisiana, and along the coast of Mississippi (CNN, 2019). The tropical depression that rapidly transformed into Hurricane Katrina formed over the Bahamas on August 23, 2005, and meteorologists quickly began to warn people of the Gulf Coast states that a major storm was expected to hit. By August 28, evacuations had begun across the region. The storm and its aftermath resulted in over 1800 lives lost. Financially, the total damages were an estimated $161 billion and insurance companies paid an estimated $41.1 billion on 1.7 different claims for damages to personal injuries, homes, vehicles, and businesses (CNN, 2019). This was a storm that affected the Gulf Coast states in unimaginable ways and would require substantial logistic operations both during and after the storm. But, despite the warnings and evacuation measures that were taken, no one was adequately prepared to deal with the destruction that Hurricane Katrina and its force would cause.

Problems in Disaster Response Efforts

In December 2004, the National Response Plan (NRP), a United States national plan, to respond to emergencies such as national disasters or terrorist attacks came into effect. It was anticipated that when Hurricane Katrina hit that this plan would be actioned to help with the devastation that the storm caused. Disaster-relief logistics requires the effective management of the needs and requests for help from victims, available supplies and donations, inventories that deteriorate, location of supplies, storage and transportation, coordination of relief and government organizations, and cost versus available resources (University of Arkansas, 2005). Although many of these factors of disaster relief were addressed, some experienced delays and failures, leaving ample room for lessons to be learned.

Major problems encountered during Hurricane Katrina disaster response were around situational awareness, damage assessments, and coordinating teams for operations. Each of these issues exhibits problems with the logistical response of this situation, specifically in terms of logistics assignments, location-distribution models, and distribution in disaster response.

A point emphasized in this situation was that local first responders are best suited for handling local emergencies, but what happens when the first responders are overwhelmed as they were in Hurricane Katrina (Select Bipartisan Committee, 2006). Hurricane Katrina overwhelmed local, state, and national response groups due to the high amount of damage and need for various resources. On August 28, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) deployed medical teams, search and rescue teams, management teams, rapid needs assessment teams, and food, water, and other basic necessity materials. However, given that Hurricane Katrina hit on August 29^th, this was too late to begin the pre-deployment process (Select Bipartisan Committee, 2006). This was a lack of planning as it did not provide enough time for any first responding group to adequately plan and prepare for the devastation that this storm would cause. The damage caused by Hurricane Katrina covered 92,000 square miles, creating serious problems in how resources and materials would be assigned to each area.

Due to the vast area that experienced devastation there quickly became shortages of commodities. The disaster plan that had been in place used an overly centralized logistics system. The high volume of requests and pleas for resources and materials caused the system to be overwhelmed by the requirements of the three large disasters. Prior to Hurricane Katrina striking, requests were being placed and calculations were being to determine what each state would require, but in the end the numbers calculated did not meet actual demand and each state did not receive what was anticipated. This resulted in officials asking for permission to purchase commodities from elsewhere to supplement those that were being provided by the implemented centralized system (Select Bipartisan Committee, 2006). Local and national government and nongovernment agencies could not keep up with the requests or efficiently organize a distribution model to meet the demands. However, Wal-Mart, a successful business that had mastered transportation logistics and management of goods and supplies, quickly and efficiently responded to areas in need (University of Arkansas, 2005). Unlike the government, the company did not have a disaster plan in place but instead used their expertise in logistics and supply chain management to serve areas hit by such a horrible natural disaster. During this time of crisis, they were able to quickly shift their focus on help to deliver and distribution products to those in need. This ability to change direction and adapt to the environment and needs of people is what is needed during such disasters.

Recommendations

Based on the information presented above, it may be concluded that integrated logistics could become the best way to resolve the issue with logical and timely disaster responses. There are four recommendations related to integrated logistics that could help organizations across the world respond to emergencies in a much more efficient way. The first recommendation is to have every logistics facility prepared for both catastrophes and disasters  especially knowing that these two are not the same (Tatham & Rietjens, 2016). Therefore, the main reason for promoting integrated logistics as one of the solutions is that there is no personal perspective when it comes to emergencies. If an organization utilizes integrated logistics, it will be able to respond to disasters the quickest while also assessing the impact of the crisis on society.

Another important recommendation is to control opportunistic purchases and material convergence. The problem of convergence can be solved with the help of organizations that contribute much-needed supplies instead of focusing on getting rid of inappropriate, useless items that would not have been successful in the market (e.g., expired medications, wedding gowns, or any other similar goods) (Ransikarbum & Mason, 2016). Therefore, material convergence in integrated logistics should contain three key categories of goods: (1) high-priority shipments that are ready for consumption and distribution, (2) low-priority shipments that could be useful in the future, and (3) non-priority shipments that would not represent any value for the emergency area.

The third recommendation is to make sure that the civic society actively participates in response efforts and disaster management activities. Examples from Haiti demonstrate that improved networking could be one of the key elements of emergency response plans, as the local communities would have a chance to distribute critical supplies to survivors if logistics had any problem reaching the most distant and hardly accessible destinations (Kirac & Milburn, 2018). In a situation where there are no trucks available to transport the vital resources, the latter should not be piled up at the facility but distributed among the civic society in order to have community members transfer the goods to those in need.

The ultimate recommendation that goes in line with the idea of implementing integrated logistics is to harness social media and make sure that the local population gets informed about the critical conditions as soon as possible. The fact that social media emerged as one of the most potent instruments in the industry also shows that during disasters, it could be utilized to reach out to an infinite number of people promptly and at the same time (Bealt & Mansouri, 2018). The value of this recommendation is that some channels to access social media are available even when electrical power is out.

Implementation Plan

Four essential steps will have to be completed to implement integrated logistics properly and make sure it is apt for emergency responses. The first is to identify all the resources that should be present at every secure location. Every organization should have area

Introduction

Rapid globalization in the world in recent years has led to a number of shared environmental problems. As globalization continues and the earths natural processes transform local problems into international issues, few societies are being left untouched by major environmental problems. (Environmental problems, 1999, para.1). One among these, a serious concern for all environmentalists is the problem of pollution. The problem of environmental pollution which cannot be overlooked has proven to be existent and uncontrollable. The problem has become very critical, is often kept unresolved and has been overlooked over long periods. The government of every nation faces this challenging problem. The given case study presents a scenario where the public utility department of a town has failed in implementing a sound water distribution system due to low accountability and performance related issues by its employees. This has resulted in the death of residents which unless controlled with immediate action will continue to prove fatal.

Purpose of Study

The purpose of the study is to develop a performance management system based on Commission processes, services and employees. There is also scope for creating a public awareness plan to be established in the town of Meadow Brook.

Statement of Problem

The Meadow Brook town has encountered a local tragedy due to the unaccountability and unacceptable performance of its Public Utilities Commission employees. Water contamination has claimed the life of many and has proven to be uncontrollable. The problem which could have been controlled in the earlier stages itself has proven to be fatal due to the untimely actions and frivolity of the authorities involved.

Review of Literature

Water Management

Water which has no substitute is a unique resource and is a very fundamental source of life. According to Postel (1999), the roots of water problems lie in the fact that unlike any other scant resources, water is used to stir up all aspects of life. Water management is a kind of conflict management. There is no such thing as managing water for a single purposeall water management is multi-objective and based on navigating competing interests. (Wolf, 2009, p.67). According to the Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) of Global Water Partnership, the major challenge faced by countries in their economic and social developments is related to water which includes water shortages, quality deterioration and flood impacts.

TAC reports that many countries do very little in water resource management with complete openness and transparency which results in very limited or no access to information by the public. It says the continuation of this approach can be counterproductive. The risky areas in water management involve extreme climate conditions, public health and environmental damage. According to TAC, the usage of water is integrated as water for people, water for food, water for nature and water for industry and other uses. There is great need for integrating the quantity and quality. The decline in the quality reduces its usability. Clearly, institutions capable of integrating the quantity and quality aspects have to be promoted to influence the way human systems operate in generating, abating and disposing of waste products. (Agarwal, et al, 2000, p.25). It emphasizes the importance of Public Awareness as a tool to mobilize sustainable water management and suggests changes in behavior and action to achieve the objective of effective water management.

Water Delivery System

The state legislature of Arizona says that a water delivery system involves an entity that distributes or sells potable water through a pipeline delivery system. This system is owned by either a city or town which is under the rules and regulations of the government, a private entity which is regulated as a public service corporation or an entity of water supply system which is regulated by the environmental quality department. (Definition of municipal water delivery system, 2007).

In their study Developing a sustainable water-delivery system in rural El Salvador the team works on assessing the feasibility of implementing a water delivery project. Different types of water pumps, filtration mechanisms and a good water supply network are the most essential requirements of a successful fresh water supply system. (Wing, et al. 2007).

The first step of the study involved creating a map showing the distribution location. A successful water delivery system involves structural engineering for infrastructure design, water- filtering to address health related issues and timely maintenance and operations. (Wing et al, 2007)

Surface water which is supplied through the distribution channel comes from rivers, lakes, and reservoirs. This water is disinfected and filtered and subjected to other treatments before it enters the distribution system. This surface water usually travels miles through underground pipes before it reaches the people.

Ground water wells or surface water are the source of our drinking water. Most of the rural populations have ground water wells with simple piping systems. There are many other people in populated areas that get water from large water supply wells via complicated distribution system. Ground water supplies are usually extracted by a pump, treated and disinfected when necessary, and delivered to homes and businesses through a network of pipes called a distribution system. (New Englands ground water resources, n.d., p.116).

The Iowa Association of Naturalist says that both ground water and surface water are equally important as they supply drinking water for people and livestock and for other uses such as irrigation and industrial production. The pollution of these two water systems is categorized: point source and non-point source. Pollutants that cannot be tracked to a single source are non- point source. Chemical run-off, soil erosion and animal waste are examples of non-point source. The point source can be traced to a specific source and are also called end of the pipe pollution. Some examples for point source pollutants are leaking chemical tanks, effluents from waste treatment or industrial plants, manure spill etc. The point source pollutants become a major threat for household, communities and industries. (Iowa Association of Naturalists, 1998)

The best solution to the problem of water pollution is by asking oneself, How much are we willing to change our lives and how much are we willing to spend to ensure that the water we use every day is clean and pure? (Lowa water pollution, n.d., p.23).

Microbial contamination of water

According to New England Interstate Water Pollution Control Commission micro organisms when ingested in drinking water pose potential health problems causing a number of life threatening diseases like cholera, typhoid, hepatitis and gastrointestinal diseases. Microbial contamination of the water is attributed to the following sources:

• Sewage disposal,
• Agriculture
• Wild life
• Storm water run-off. (Protection measures to prevent and control microbial contamination, n.d., p.1).

A number of studies highlight that grazing livestock cause fecal contamination of water resources which are indicated by E.coli and other bacterial pathogens. This contamination happens mainly when the livestock dispose fecal material in water bodies (Collins, 2001). Giardia, cryptosporidium, salmonella, campylobacter, and Escherichia coli (E.coli) are the most commonly identified microorganisms found in mammals and birds. (Protection measures to prevent and control microbial contamination, n.d., p.1).

Public Utilities Department

A public utility is defined here as an organization that is majority owned and controlled by government and could consist of a number of different forms, some of which may be undistinguished from the government unit that they may be a part of. (Baietti, 2006, p.2). Water Supply & Sanitation Working Notes says that urban water supply and sanitation services are commonly provided by state-owned and colossal water organizations. It adds, successful public utilities are still the exception because the people in many developing countries are under the authority of public utilities. This has resulted due to ineffective, misdirected policies and the monopolistic nature of the sector.

The report uses a case study approach to bring into light the essential features of a rationalized public utility and tries to find out key competencies that have a greater impact on performance. Performance management issues are important concerns of public utilities. Benchmarking systems can provide the opportunity to monitor each sector performance. With a national utility; this is best achieved by establishing cost or profit centers for each self-contained system within the entire network and monitoring performance regularly on this basis. In a decentralized setting, governance needs to be tightened considerably by increasing transparency and the accountability of mayors for improving local services. Benchmarking performance of the government units themselves is one way of making mayors more accountable to their constituents because comparative results can be made available to the public on a periodic basis. (Baietti, 2006, p.31). All of these factors and related data must be considered when analyzing the issues facing the failures of the water delivery system in Meadow Brook. Additional investigation must be completed to better understand the breakdown of performance and policy by the Public Utilities Commission employees that resulted in the fatalities and illnesses of Meadow Brook residents.

Needs assessment

The various data collection methods have been used in this context to analyze the problems related with the municipality of Meadow Brook town in providing contaminated water supply to the people. Different types of needs analysis are necessary in order to find out the problems behind this issue. A key success to needs assessment is to gather the correct data among various groups of people. The different types of methodology used here for needs assessment are done by conducting surveys and interviews among selected focus groups in order to identify the actual problem. The focus group selected here are people living in the Meadow Brook town itself. These individuals will provide firsthand information related to their experiences with the water supply problems and the communication breakdown that resulted in the fatalities of local residents. The needs assessment includes opinions about these problems and ways to reduce the problems happening in the water and how purified water can be provided for the people. It is understood that contaminants are added in to the water from many sources. The origin of drinking water can be from river, lake, ponds etc. Thus, it is very clear that water needs to travel through many surfaces and therefore the chance for having water become contaminated is very large. Contaminants that may be present in source water include microbial contaminants; inorganic contaminants; pesticides and herbicides; organic chemical contaminants; and radioactive contaminants. (Annual drinking water quality report for 2007, n.d., p.1). Due to this fact, it is very important that authorities take effective measures to remove this contamination from water before it reaches in to the population. Failing to do so can result in major health hazards for the people, even death.

Survey

Certain groups have been focused upon in order to conduct the survey. Here two surveys are conducted among two different sets of people. This is to ensure accuracy.

The first survey is to understand how this group of people is communicating their concerns about the Meadow Brook problem and what their opinions are regarding this issue. Their conclusions will be essential in obtaining effective data.

During the survey with the first set of people it is understood that a focused group of people are very much aware of the problem. These individuals commented that these problems have happened due to very high levels of E. coli bacteria in the water supply. Also these people mentioned that the different sources which are necessary to make water contaminants are radioactive, microbial, organic and inorganic contaminants or the presence of pesticides and herbicides. Water can be said to be purified only when all these contaminants are removed. During the survey, people also complained that the person in charge, Kramer, was not a highly skillful person for doing this job. According to this group, this is the main reason for the happenings of all sorts of problems regarding the contamination of the towns water. Even though Kramer realized the water was contaminated after the test, he didnt take any action. This shows lack of professionalism and a disregard for consumer health and safety. People are very angry with Kramers inaction and the resulting problems.

A second set of people also actively participated in the survey. They, too, discussed the same issues or problems mentioned by the first set of people. In addition, the second set surveyed mentioned the need to improve the system which is used for purifying the water. The person who is operating the machinery must be highly skillfull in this activity. In addition, these people suggested that additional measures to purify the water to ensure safety are necessary. People also mentioned that inspection and monitoring of the machinery and water should be done on a regular, consistent basis to ensure everything is working properly.

Interviews

Interviews were conducted with eminent people in order to identify the tools for this problem. People selected for the interview included one of the officials selected from the health department, as well as the CEO of a company which manufactures the machinery used in water purification.

Short portrayal from an interview conducted with one of the officials from the Health Department

During an interview, officials of the health department mentioned some activities for which contaminated water may be used. (Kreger, 2007, para.2).

In his view, he mentioned there is no problem in using this water for washing or bathing etc. But at the same, he mentioned that every precaution must be taken while this water is used for bathing purposes for children. Because there is a chance for digesting that water, during such cases serious harmful effects may take place. Officials mentioned that if there are small amounts of contaminants present then that water can be used after sterilizing. By this way, bacteria might get killed. Also, officials said that while washing dishes or utensils one needs to be very careful and not to forget to use water which is boiled. Another important point mentioned while concluding the interview, was that everyone should have some concern for what purpose contaminated water can be used or not and also one must have some knowledge on how to sterilize the contaminated water. The point is that one must always be prepared to deal with water containing E-coli and other types of bacterias. The official also advised people to consult the water quality report that you should receive annually from your local water system, or call your local water system directly. (Drinking water contaminants: Basic information about E. Coli 0157: H7 in drinking water, 2006, para.14).

The CEO mentioned that in order to avoid such issues as what happened in Meadow Brook, one needs to use a very good water purification system. Not only must the person who is responsible for operating the machinery be very knowledgeable regarding the operation, the local consumers of the water must take the responsibility to contact authorities to get water quality reports in order to make sure they are getting purified water. The CEO also suggested different steps that the water needs to undergo before it gets purified completely. The first step is aeration. The treatment process begins with aeration, which reduces carbon dioxide levels to lower treatment costs and also improves taste. (Wilmington water department, 2004, p.3). The next important step is that alum is added into the water. This is done to remove color particles from water. Next, in order to remove iron and manganese particles, potassium permanganate is added in to the water. It is because the presence of these iron and manganese will add unwanted color and smell in water. There are two more steps such as settling and filter basins before water gets chlorinated. The CEO mentioned this is the actual classic step for removing unwanted contaminants from water. He also mentioned that presently there are microprocessor based control system monitors that display the water quality and other conditions and generates an alarm if an abnormal condition arises (Water purification machine, 2009, para.1). The CEO mentioned by using such a machine, one can guarantee purified water to the public.

Action plan

The action plan includes a variety of options in order to address the problems. The problem here is the failure of the Meadow Brook water delivery system to provide purified water to the public. Within this particular instance, with the water system testing positive for e-coli, a no-use city water emergency situation would be implemented immediately, which would result in an extensive public awareness campaign. The system would be flushed with levels of gaseous chlorine to kill all bacteria present. The system would be tested numerous times during a 24-hour period and samples would be taken in many locations. Since certain fatalities have resulted from this situation, the EPA and DEQ would be notified and asked to take over the investigation on an emergency basis. All documents, records and personal logs concerning the issues would be sent to all the appropriate regulatory agencies. A massive media campaign would be implemented to ensure that no human use of the water takes place until approved by the EPA and the DEQ. Outside consultants would be notified immediately to run the water system on a temporary basis. Frequent testing and an extensive search to determine the cause of the contamination would occur simultaneously. In addition to the cities lab results, a certified outside lab would be used to confirm the cities own test results. These lab results would be communicated to the public via the local media outlets including television stations, local radio stations, the internet and local newspapers. Public meetings would be scheduled with the local patrons to update them on the progress that is occurring.

To prevent such issues from taking place in the future, additional actions would be implemented. One of the important issues is hiring of a certified and licensed individual to function as an operator. He/she must have thorough knowledge in understanding at which level water gets contaminated. Also, he/she must be very well acquainted and knowledgeable in the operations of the machinery involved. In the event that any problems occur with the machinery, the operator must know which problems have happened and how they are to be corrected. Such awareness is vitally important. In order to be qualified for this position, the individual who is appointed as an operator must have undergone excessive steps/training and have completed numerous exams to demonstrate that he/she is truly capable and qualified for this important position. They must have an appropriate certification and licensing. Furthermore, authorities must always keep an eye on this operator in order to determine his/her competency levels and to ensure that all areas of compliance are being met. Outside auditors must be brought in to review procedures and records on a regular basis.

Presently, the purification report of the Brook Meadow water quality is published annually. The reporting of this information must be changed to a quarterly publishing so that all areas can be monitored more effectively. Additionally, the quality of the machinery must be foremost. As mentioned earlier by the CEO of the water purification company, the machinery used for purifying water must be the best available and have all the necessary features for testing the contamination present in water. The machine or machinery should have display devices to show how much water is purified and ensure that all required ratios are met. Also, the machine should have an alarm system in case contaminated water passes through it to alert individuals not to use the water. Authorities must always be aware of the accidents that are taking place as minutes are crucial for public safety. Machinery must be checked in regularly scheduled intervals and any failures reported immediately.

The next item for the action plan is to ensure that people have an opportunity to submit feedback reports about the water they are using. This information will be very useful in analyzing problems in the water. Feedback can be provided through electronic media or in person via telephone. Thus, if a person assumes any kind of unfamiliarity while using the water, they can provide feedback to alert authorities. This will provide a method to alert authorizes of discrepancies in the water system. Authorities must be responsible for following up on public feedback within a timely designated manner at least once daily to ensure that its safety is maintained.

Most effective solution to the problem

Among the various models and solutions mentioned in the above step, the best solution that can be applied to this organization is selected. The best solution is mentioned below:

• Provide both theoretical and practical training program for the employees in certain areas such as:
• Continuously monitoring and controlling the chlorinating system of the company.
• Preparing a quarterly (instead of annual) performance report and presenting it to the higher authority.

Before labeling the water samples, the public utility commission has to make sure that the water is taken from trusted sources. The organization will have accountability measures to ensure that this is done.

Based on the discussions of the case study, it was found that by concentrating on these aspects it is easier for the company to hire and continually train talented and efficient employees who will be able to maintain the overall performance system of the company.

By giving appropriate training programs to the employees, their knowledge and skills related to the task will develop and this will lead to efficient and effective management of the available resources within the organization. Training is the systematic process of altering the behavior of employees in a direction to increase achievement of the organization goals (Importance of training, 2009).

The problems that arise due to the carelessness of the employees can be reduced by giving them adequate training and ensuring that they are competent in their abilities. The employees should be given effective training related to the chlorinating system that is essential to ensuring water safety. Employees must be trained to effectively control and monitor the performance of the chlorinating system.

The proportion of the chlorine content should not be low or high. The chlorine proportion should be maintained as per the rule of the ministry of water authority. The chlorine proportion should match the proportion of the bacteria presented in the water. The lab manager is responsible for testing the samples within the organization and thus he/she must be trained well and understand the overall importance of ensuring that his/her job is completed in a professional manner as to ensure the safety of the public. The magnitude of his/her job must not be understated and reporting must be true and accurate.

The overall performance of employees must be evaluated and must be presented in a performance report. This can be done quarterly. This quarterly report must be submitted to the higher authority and to the department of environmental quality (DEQ). The Department of Environmental Quality is responsible for handling issues that are related to the environment so that any deviations in performances can be identified and appropriate measures can be taken. Normally, in organizations performance reports are presented on an annual basis. But here, job performance is crucial to the safety of the public and the problem is very serious and it has even led to several fatalities. Therefore, for this year, the performance report must be prepared and presented to the higher authority on the basis of quarterly performance.

The Public Utility Commission is responsible for selecting the sources from where the water has to be taken. The sources from where the water is taken should be verified and laboratory tests of those samples should be completed. Any faulty information provided by the organization should be penalized. By following all these aspects it will be easier for the organization to build an appropriate performance management system.

Strategies formulated to implement the recommended solutions

A performance management system is implemented in an organization to bridge the gap between the expected performance and the actual performance of the resources within the organization. Performance management is the process of creating a work environment or setting in which people are enabled to perform to the best of their abilities (Susan, 2009, para.1). For implementing the recommended solutions, certain strategies have been developed. The strategies that can be implemented in the organization to increase their efficiency are listed as follows:

• Outsourcing resources from trustworthy and recognizable entities.
• State wide segmentation has to be developed to analyze the high relevant efficiency of the resources used by the organization.
• The technique of social marketing can be implemented by which awareness among the people is created regarding the pollutants responsible for the water pollution.
• A website can be developed which provides all information regarding the issues related to the water pollution and precautions that have to be taken against it.

An appropriate marketing plan must be framed based on these strategies.

Marketing plan

This plan forms the basis for the organization to solve the issues that are currently faced by them. This plan serves as a public awareness plan for the people. The plan is composed of certain components that are explained as follows:

Mission

The mission of the organization is to provide good quality water for the customers in the locality. Water filtration units are established to attract people and to create awareness in the minds of people that the water is fit for use.

Marketing objective

The objective of the company is to increase the consumption rate of the people or customers while providing a safe and accountable delivery of the product.

Financial objective

The financial objective includes increasing the growth rate annually.

Target segments

The target market for this product is the general people who are consuming water that is distributed by the authority. It includes all segments in the market. The organization is focusing on this group because it has the goal of building a trustworthy relationship with the people.

The organization will position itself as a customer oriented organization where the water will be delivered to the customers at a reasonable cost with safety as the highest priority. After implementing the solutions in the organization, the performance of the organization will increase and this will increase the quality of the water whereby the trust among the people towards the commission will increase.

The main objective of the organization is to regain the goodwill that has been lost among the people due to the present problem. The marketing strategy is framed to provide awareness among the people that the water has been purified and it is fit for use.

Marketing mix

Pricing

The pricing of the water delivery is at a reasonable cost and it is framed by the Public Utility Commission.

Place

Public Utility Commission is responsible for the distribution of water in the locality.

Promotion

The promotion can be done by giving samples to the public. Certain awareness programs must be conducted to generate ideas among the people that the water has been purified and it is fit for use. An awareness advertisement by the government will be very helpful for the organization to get back its reputation and trust.

People

The concept of marketing mix becomes successful only when the product is positioned in the minds of people. Through this plan the organization aims to reduce serious problems in future by emphasizing more on safeguarding the lives of people and thereby increasing the satisfaction level among them.

Market research

Market research is conducted through the survey method, interview and data collected from the focus group.

Performance Management Training Plan

A performance management training plan has to be developed in order to ensure that not only the newly hired operator, but the rest of the personnel know about their obligations at the working place. This training should not be optional; the employees that refuse to undergo the training should not be allowed to work on the positions that require increased attention, responsibility, conscientiousness, and accuracy. This, together with the actions mentioned above, will help to control water contamination in Meadow Brook at the current stage. Moreover, it will prevent the like problems taking place because of personnel issues.

The employee training program will hardly take much time. The time taken is going to depend on the managements desire to have a skilled and educated working force. Since the management should understand the scarcity of time that the employees have (due to personal and other reasons), it is better for the training program to take place during the working hours. For this, at least an hour of the employees working day will have to be spent for training. The time required for carrying out of the plan depends on the number of employees that have to be trained. In general, the employees will have to be divided into two groups that will undergo the training in turns. The total time required for the program training is four weeks. Each of the groups will undergo training three times a week. This means that each group will take 12 specially designed classes in the course of which the employees will learn the following:

• The legislation regarding the negligence at the working place (classes 1-4);
• The responsibilities of each employee with regards to his/her position (classes 5-7);
• The interrelation of different positions (how the irresponsibility of one employee may affect the work of the others) (classes 8-11);
• How to report about the accidents at the working place and the consequences of the failure to report about them in time. At this, special attention should be placed on reporting about the accidents that an employee is trying to conceal (class 12).

A person in charge of the training program implementation will have to be assigned. When the training ends, the employees will have to pass an exam on what they have learnt during the program. Successful implementat

Introduction

When setting up a company it is very important to consider different factors before starting to assess the viability of the company in the future, in addition, it helps to do research about the companys success in the targeted market. The research may revolve around the expected operations the company is expected to undertake. This is usually necessary as it gives the entrepreneurs a chance to have in advance a taste of the expected results of the performance of the company they intend to set up. The research is better taken directly from the field as this apart from getting credible data one is able to interact with would be future customers who may even assist with ideas one can sharpen and make even better the initial business plan. Although, there is not much difference between any other company and a garbage collection center; there are different and additional factors that have to be considered before setting up one. There are several factors while setting up a garbage collection point one has to consider, before setting it up in an area. First and foremost, for example, one has to consider the nature of waste being disposed of this is because there is a variety of wastes of which there are equally very many different means of disposing of them.

Presence of customers that is if the area is populated well enough, in addition to the size of the population there is a need to consider age groups spread of the target population as this determines amounts of waste. Secondly, on the nature and number of customers, it is also good to look into the aspect of social status and lifestyles of the people. It is not merely enough to analyze that population is high and conclude that the venture is worthwhile. Thus in addition to the population, it is important to analyze the distribution of age, families, presence of house help which determines the wastage disposed of. This influences the amount of waste or garbage to be disposed of and the frequency of the wastes. Disposal points or locations of the waste collected, legal matters like the permit to undertake such a business in the area are also among the many factors one has to take into consideration. Furthermore, it is of paramount importance to consider the cost i.e. the initial capital required for such undertaking and more to that the government or local council policies which govern the disposal and wastage collection which may work to either the peril or advantage of the venture. Moreover, another factor one has to look at is the composition of the garbage i.e. if the garbage is recyclable or not, to determine whether there are chances to resell and make additional income for the business. This may be beneficial to the company given its income is monthly.

I have had the desire to set up a garbage collection center in either Al Mosoud or Farajhazza. These two areas are well populated and have many residential houses. There are other garbage collectors but due to the large populations, they are not in a position to satisfy the market for collection of garbage within these two locations. The plan is to start the venture before June 2011. The initial capital had already been raised the only hindrances that was on the way was a feasibility report to assess the profitability, nature of work to be undertaken, nature of the customers and their age groups and their impacts on the amount of garbage collected which would be translated to income. To attain the above objectives a research was done to analyse the impacts of family, age and presence of house help in the garbage distribution. The data and results of the research are given, analysed and results and conclusion drawn from it within this paper.

Methodology

I got an opportunity to do my research from a garbage collection company where I had been working as a part time garbage collector for about five months since leaving the school; this was very good opportunity as it would facilitate getting valuable and accurate data that I could work with. The data for this project was collected from the field through the help of staff and the management of the company I was conducting research from. The method applied was direct collection of data and observation. To collect the data I decided to take the two areas I had passion setting my own garbage centre in, among the various areas serviced by this company. In addition, I decided upon these since they had well cut differences in that there were only two colours of garbage bins black and green ones used to collect garbage from these locations which were different from those used in collecting garbage from the other areas. In addition to this these areas were in cross proximity and were the hub of most of the customers serviced by the company. Furthermore it would involve less effort to manage and organize my research team since I had been assigned to be working between these two locations.

The company had a policy of keeping track of garbage quantities and the varieties of garbage collected so as to assess the trend in the market and determine the strategic steps to be taken. This facilitated in the collection of data as I had just to make copies of the work reports which indicated the quantity of waste collected, from which area, different varieties of the waste collected. The research involved collection of garbage, and filling in the work report required by the company as accurate as possible and then making copy which would be the primary data. This was necessitated since I needed wanted first hand information so s to be precise in the decision making and any judgements or estimates I was due to make concerning the venture should be based on factual data. Thus the research involved going to the field and collecting garbage from random sample of people either males or females, families, house hold. These details of status of customers I observed them and recorded on the field, while others like the age I got from the database of the company through the help of the I.T technician. Once the data was collected from the field I had to analyse it, the break down of the analysis is given below.

The aim of the research was to determine the possibility of and the degree to which the nature of customers as a factor that affects setting up a garbage collection centre and again if there was a chance of making profit from selling the recyclable part of the garbage collected. Secondly to determine the best among the two areas under consideration ranks higher than the other, so as the decision of the location to set the business can be made factually.The data given in tables below relates to composition of garbage bins collected in both Al Masoudi and Falajhaza. The data relates to the garbage collected in either the black or green bins during the month of February 2011 from Monday 21 ^st to Monday 28 ^th. The percentage of the useful or recyclable composition of garbage collected was determined through sorting and recorded. In a given day garbage collected was separated according to the area it was collected from and given a sample ID either FH for garbage collected from Alajhazza or MA from garbage collected from Al Masoudj. Immediately after sampling from location each bag is determined its weight. After which it was thereafter analysed in different categories of waste products. The composition may compose of plastics, cartons, aluminium wastes, glass, paper, HDPE cans, PET, Mix cartoon, textiles, fabrics, leather etc. Once the garbage bin for a certain day is sampled into respective compositions, then the percentage of each composition in terms of weight is determined and noted. A sample of data summarised is given in the tables below.

Analysis

The table1 below is an example of one of the sample collected from the two areas under consideration, which reveals the type of data that can be collected from the source. Where the garbage collected was analysed as per the date it was collected i.e. from 21 February to 28 February 2010. The garbage was sampled in terms of the location it was collected from e.g. If it was collected from Falajhazza, it was given the code FH while on the other hand if collected from Al Mosoudi it was coded as MA. I analysed data into different compositions as shown so that one could have an idea of the composition of garbage collected. This could also assist to determine the nature of the composition to foretell if there is any feasibility as to which type of wastes are to be recycled or which ones are to be sold off for some income. This was assessed based on the percentage of contamination which implies the higher the percentage the greater the value of the garbage, as it can be resold.

The total kilograms of the garbage collected over the eight day period was 4,549, of which composed of 119.15 Kg for plastic, 88.80 kg for carborn waste, 11.33 Kg aluminum waste, 67.50 kg metal waste, 87.50 kg glass waste , 0. 46 kg of paper waste, 63.69 kg of HDPE cans, 116.55 Kg of PET waste and finally 436.48 kg of mix cartoon waste. The net weight column represent the amount of kilograms of the total weight garbage bag that is recyclable, for example on 21 February garbage from Farjahaza was 170 kg of which 36 kg was contaminated or recyclable which was 21.18 % ( from the % of net recyclables column ) of the total garbage collected. While the total weight column represent the kilograms of garbage which was not recyclable which constituted a given percentage of the total weight as given in the % of (garbage) collected.

Table 1: Composition of Garbage Delivered in Black BIN

Table 2: Al Mosoudi Composition of Black Bin Garbage

Black

Table 2 above is an analysis of the quantity of the black garbage collected from Al Masoudi. Whereby it represents the amount of garbage collected from the 15 different samples taken from the area. Each sample is properly classified into the total amount in kilograms and the amounts out of the total which are recyclable. Again for each sample taken the total for the eight days is taken, then totals for the contaminated of the same sample is taken then divide with the total sum earlier to determine the percentage of contamination of the specific sample i.e. For sample one 18.1 % of the sample was found to be recyclable. This is repeated for the fifteen samples within the eight days time period. Sample M A 10 and M A 8 both had the highest the highest percentage of recyclable waste with every thing being reusable, followed by M A 6, M A 9, M A 3 and M A 5 respectively.

Table 3: FalajHazza Composition of Black Bin Garbage

Table 3 above is an analysis of the quantity of the black garbage collected from FalajHazza. Whereby it represents the amount of garbage collected from the 15 different samples taken from the area. Each sample is properly classified into the total amount in kilograms and the amounts out of the total which are recyclable. Again for each sample taken the total for the eight days is taken, then totals for the contaminated of the same sample is taken then divide with the total sum earlier to determine the percentage of contamination of the specific sample i.e. for sample ten (Ma 10) 26.9 % of the sample was found to be recyclable. This is repeated for the fifteen samples within the eight days time period. Sample F H 13 had the highest the highest percentage of recyclable waste with 48.6 % of the total being reusable, followed by F H 7, F H 8, FH 9and F H 6 respectively.

Green

Table 4: Al Mosoudi Composition of Green Bin Garbage

Al Masoudi Composition of Green Bin (Recyclables)

Days

Ma1

Ma2

Ma3

Ma4

Ma5

Ma6

Posted in Uncategorized Posted on December 20, 2024 | by Laureen Subject: The Effects of Including Co-Curricular Activities on Veteran Student Performance: Final Evaluation Design Plan. The goal of this memo is to introduce an evaluation design plan to be applied to the Armed Services Arts Partnership (ASAP) program and the analysis of the effects of its co-curricular activities on student veterans. First, the discussion of the main veteran concepts, the program, and program theory will be developed within the literature review. The next step embraces the evaluation of goals and questions within this project. Then, the description of a data collection plan and a data analysis plan will be given in order to create a definite background for working and communicating with stakeholders, including veterans and the founders of the ASAP program, through the prism of a properly developed data collection instrument. Program evaluation is a good chance to combine empirical evidence and real-life information about the current program and policies and identify their impact on ordinary people. There are many non-profit organizations that want to implement their approaches and increase the quality of human life. The idea to support veterans cannot be neglected, and the evaluation of the ASAP program has to be developed in accordance with a strong and well-prepared plan. Role of Veterans in US Society Todays US society is based on a number of important principles and rules, support for human rights and freedoms, democracy, respect for each other, and equality. In addition to this impressive list of virtues, the role of veterans cannot be neglected. US veterans introduce a population with certain values and codes of conduct that are determined by obedience, command, and order (Olenick, Flowers, & Diaz, 2015). People of different ages are ready to demonstrate their attitudes towards veterans and their place in this word. For example, an 11th-grader, Caya Wollman (2014), published an article where she defined veterans as the backbone of the nation without which there would be no USA, life, and liberty. Her discussion promotes an understanding of veterans as a pledge of democracy and justice that have to be spread around the whole world. Therefore, the idea to provide veterans with an opportunity to study and improve their academic performance seems to be a normal contribution to the social and ethical development of the country. Student Veterans and Their Concerns The concept of a student veteran continues playing an important role in US society, and many steps are taken to promote the idea of higher education for people with such an experience. In 2009, the Post 9/11 GI Bill was introduced and promoted an education opportunity for more than 600,000 veterans (Griffin & Gilbert, 2015). At the same time, this decision helped many veterans receive full tuition, monthly housing payment, and the coverage of money expenses on books and other educational supplies (Callahan & Jarrat, 2014). Within a short period of time, the quality of veteran life was considerably improved, and new co-curricular activities were introduced. However, certain concerns and challenges cannot be ignored in this field. For example, it is expected to learn the effect of higher education on the future of veterans and understand the urgency of academic activities for both veterans and communities where they have to live. Co-Curricular Activities Facilities that offer higher education and prepare veterans for their academic success continue developing in modern society. There are many subjects and projects with the frames of which veterans demonstrate their skills and define their potential hobbies. For example, the investigation of Steele (2015) shows that the majority of veterans are usually interested in such subjects as foreign languages, literature, mathematics, and laboratory experiments. At the same time, many people want to develop their social skills and communication. The establishment of trustful relationships among people is one of the first priorities for the developers of co-curriculum activities for veterans. To promote the achievement of this goal, faculty presence is required during which people can share their emotions and experiences and observe the reactions of other veterans (Sutton, 2016). The exchange of information in real-life settings without guns and bullets disturbing their ordinary lives is an important part of human life, and veterans must learn how to develop this activity in a correct and less harmful way. Programs for Veterans and Well-Being Improvement Many academic programs are offered to student veterans within the existing system of higher education in the United States. Some programs are available to all the participants, and some courses have a serious criteria system according to which veterans should take tests and prove their appropriateness for a particular facility. In addition to the already mentioned GI Bill, the Department of Veteran Affairs supports the development of various non-profit organizations and programs. Veteran Success Jam, Veterans for Education, and Student Veterans of America are the programs that inspire and help veterans get back to their education and have a chance to find a good job (Powers, 2018). Veterans well-being can be improved in terms of oral and writing abilities, critical thinking, communication skills, and decision-making. Each program has its focus, goals, and methods of education. This project helps evaluate the worth of one particular program for modern veterans in the United States. ASAP Program The ASAP program is available to veterans who live in Alexandria, Washington. Its purpose is to reintegrate veterans into their communities by means of art and education (Armed Services Arts Partnership, n.d.). The role of veterans in modern society is underlined by demonstrating respect to people who survived traumas, losses, and lifestyle changes. It is the responsibility of every citizen to protect the nation and participate in military affairs in case there is an opportunity. With time, it is a responsibility of society to protect its veterans and offer them appropriate conditions to improve their lives and knowledge. The ASAP program includes four classes for the integration of different co-curricular activities. Veterans and their families are free to choose if they want to participate in comedy classes in order to encourage their creative thinking and remove any sign of shyness or Improv classes, the goal of which is to promote team-building and cooperation (Armed Services Arts Partnership, n.d.). In addition, veterans may visit storytelling and writing classes where they learn how to share their thoughts, tell about the gained experience, and inform about the peculiarities of US military services. Program Theory A logic model is the program theory chosen for the evaluation of ASAP activities. It is frequently used because of its simplicity and accuracy in identifying goals, effects, and other components (Chen, 2015). There are six elements of a logic program according to which personal judgments and observations must be developed (Langbein, 2012). The first step is to identify a problem statement or needs assessment (ASAP helps cover the lack of opportunities for veterans to develop their skills and improve their knowledge). Then, the identification of program objectives is required (ASAP aims to reintegrate veterans into society and improve the quality of life). The evaluation of inputs or resources cannot be ignored, and ASAP includes the work of volunteers, free donations, and cooperation with different foundations. The activities that are developed by ASAP, create a supportive environment, and develop writing, speaking, and thinking tasks have to be discussed. The next stage of evaluation is the analysis of outputs, which are the courses, public performances, and different classes. Finally, the outcomes of the ASAP program should be recognized. Veterans can introduce their opinions and share attitudes using their knowledge and skills. The already developed diagram can be applied as a part of program theory: Evaluation Goals and Questions This program evaluation is a combination of systematic studies, the goal of which is to identify the strengths and shortages of program performance, and the chosen management practices. It is expected to identify the objectives of the program and combine them with the reached outcomes and observed results. Sometimes, the effects can be justified, and all planned improvements have certain benefits on its participants. In some cases, program evaluation shows that developers do not use their potential to reach the goals or demonstrate the high efficiency of the program. Therefore additional recommendations may be given to make sure that all goals are achieved and all questions are answered. In this project, the task is to evaluate the ASAP program with its potential benefits to veterans. The goals of the evaluation are directly derived from the goals of the program. For example, one of the main program goals is to promote reintegration of veterans into local communities. Regarding this expectations, an evaluation goal is to measure change in veteran social performance before and after education and practices that are offered to them by ASAP. The second goal of the program is to improve student veterans performance, including their literacy level, critical thinking, and communication skills. In this case, the evaluation goal is to analyze the proficiency level of veterans by ASAP developers regarding their observations and cooperation with veterans at different stages of their education. A final goal of the program is to continue developing new training courses and co-curricular activities in order to increase veterans quality of life and attitudes towards their communities. The evaluation goal is to examine if new activities, social media sources, and stakeholders contribute to the personal and professional growth of veterans. In total, the main evaluation goal is to check how the ASAP program can change veterans literacy and attitudes towards their social activities and community reintegration by offering new co-curricular activities and involving new people into ASAP courses. Regarding such a wide evaluation goal, there are three major questions that have to be answered in this project: Will the program be able to change veterans attitudes towards life? Will co-curricular activities improve the level of performance among veterans? Does the presence of new stakeholders in the ASAP program promote increased literacy among veterans and improve their satisfaction with the possibility to be reintegrated into communities, using their knowledge and gained skills? Can new training activities provide veterans from the ASAP program with additional opportunities to expand their skills and learn how to develop public speaking, writing, and thinking techniques in comparison to veterans who do not participate in the chosen program? Does the application of credible social media sources create a good chance for veterans to learn more, share their experiences, communicate at a high level, and stay satisfied with living and working conditions after military services? Will the level of veteran satisfaction with the offered services increase after improvements? Data Collection Plan Any data collection plan has to follow a properly developed research design, indicators, and instruments. The peculiar feature of this program evaluation is the necessity to cooperate with different people and observe the results before and after people join the ASAP program. Therefore, a decision to follow a quasi-experimental design is made for this project. Its essence lies in the necessity to compare the achievements of several groups of people who participate and do not participate in the intervention and identify the worth of the offered idea. This type of data collection is preferable by many researchers and writers due to its simplicity, validity, and the absence of random sampling (Langbein, 2012). Inclusion criteria have to be established to reduce an endogeneity bias and invite participants who can demonstrate the necessary outcomes and give clear answers to research questions. A quasi experiment is based on several indicators that measure the effects of the intervention. In this evaluation, dependent and independent variables have to be chosen to investigate veterans activities and attitudes towards education and available opportunities. Training, social media, and stakeholders are the independent variables the essence of which is to use as they are and provoke some changes and formulate new opinions. Independent variables such as satisfaction, life attitudes, and literacy have to be developed with time after the intervention is offered. In addition to the indicators being given, a quasi-experimental design is characterized by the presence of pretest and posttest activities in order to gather data for program evaluation. These tests are used to identify the opinions of participants and compare their results in regard to a given opportunity (Chen, 2015). As soon as all these concepts and tasks are identified, a plan of data collection can be developed for the ASAP program evaluation and the analysis of the worth of new change mechanisms. This program evaluation should begin with gathering information about ASAP and the life of veterans in the chosen district. It is necessary to surf the official site of the organization and learn the goals and methods of learning that veterans can use. This source also helps to find out the intentions of its developers, future plans, and the list of organizations that donate, support, and contribute to veterans welfare within the frames of ASAP. As soon as this information is obtained, it is expected to communicate with veterans who can become potential participants in the quasi experiment. Clear questions have to be developed in written (printed) and online formats. A survey is the main method of gathering data about the program. The survey turns out to be a reliable source of collecting information for evaluating a program within the frames of a quasi-experimental design (Langbein, 2012). It is possible to invite a different number of people, from five people to more than one hundred participants. Surveys can be organized in three ways: face-to-face (when a researcher poses questions during a real-life meeting and is able to observe reactions and interprets behaviors), telephone (when a researcher uses phone calls and asks participants to answer the questions in real time), and mail (when a researcher sends survey questions via e-mails and communicate with participants online). Regarding such facts as busyness, unwillingness to communicate at certain periods of time, or other personal reasons, some participants cannot answer survey questions in real time. Therefore, compared to telephone or face-to-face surveys, the mail survey is defined as the most credible and less expensive method of gathering information (Langbein, 2012). It will be used in communication with both veterans and ASAP developers. However, it is also important to admit that data collection will be developed in three stages. The expected number of veterans to participate in this evaluation is one hundred. They will be divided into two groups  experimental and control. An experimental group should join the ASAP program, and a control group remains unknown about this intervention. To avoid misunderstandings, conflicts, and confusion, an experimental group is provided with brief information about ASAP, its purposes, and changes that can be observed in behaviors, emotions, and feelings. A collection protocol is a significant part of a data collection plan as it includes informed consent with important descriptions of tasks, expectations, and standards. All veterans are informed about the possibility to withdraw the experiment any time they want as free will and autonomy are appreciated. The participants of the experimental group are provided with anonymity and confidentiality so that no personal information is revealed during the evaluation. The first stage is called pre-implementation and should last for one month. An evaluator focuses on direct communication with veterans who served in American armed forces and are no longer on active duty at the period of communication. It is important to include two groups of veterans: those who participate in the ASAP program and those who have not heard about it. Communication will help to compare the level of veterans knowledge, their literacy, and abilities to express their thoughts. A survey also helps to recognize the current needs and expectations of veterans from their communities. Sometimes, veterans are not eager to talk about their demands because of the already survived activities, changing morals, and new perspectives. The aim of the pre-test communication is to create a basis for the intervention and describe the main aspects of veteran life. The questions for the pretest stage are given in Appendix 1. Veterans will be able to evaluate their skills and readiness to participate in various activities. They can also observe what they can do or want to do in the future and take a step to make their dreams come true. The second stage includes the description of the intervention and communication with the ASAP staff. Three months is an approximate period of time that can be spent to gather the necessary material. This data collection cannot be ignored as it helps to answer one the research questions about the level of literacy among veterans and explain the essence of the intervention. The employees of the chosen organization share their opinions about veterans who have just joined the courses and who are going to finish their education. They compare the level of literacy, the desire to communicate, and the intentions to show personal skills in different fields of art. They can disclose current co-curricular activities and the role of different stakeholders in veterans development. Information about an overall development of the program with its benefits, costs, and possible improvements can be obtained from this kind of communication. Their answers to the list of statements (see Appendix 2) create a solid contribution to the program evaluation. In addition, this stage in the overall data collection plan aims at defining objective opinions and facts about the program, veterans attitudes, and learning abilities. The third stage of data collection includes a post-test survey for veterans. It will last about one month to make sure that all veterans who participate in the first pre-test survey can join the last stage of the evaluation. A list of close-ended statements will be offered to participants. The peculiar feature of the survey at this phase is the presence of the statements used in the first stage. Such an approach helps to compare the attitudes of the same people towards the same issues at different periods of time, underlying the worth of the intervention. At the same time, this survey indicates change in the level of literacy and academic performance after the courses of the program are taken. The list of questions that can be posed to veterans at this stage of a data collection plan is properly identified in Appendix 3. In total, a data collection plan consists of three main tasks: gathering information about the ASAP program, communication with veterans as the direct participants of the intervention, and cooperation with ASAP developers as the main contributors to the improvement of veterans literacy levels. A brief plan of data collection is given in the diagram below: Data Analysis Plan The choice of a data analysis plan design is one of the integral parts of any program evaluation. It is not enough to gather credible information; a researcher has to think about how to present this data in a clear and readable way in the project. Therefore, the analysis has to be developed for both qualitative and quantitative information of a quasi experiment. There is a number of specific basics with the help of which all gathered information can be introduced. Any data analysis plan should include the following steps: the review of evaluation goals, the division of data into qualitative and quantitative with their worth to the project, the analysis of quantitative data with simple counts being used, and the evaluation of qualitative data through content analysis. In the end, the interpretation of the obtained results can be developed to prove the role of the chosen public, non-profit program for veterans. In the case of this program evaluation, surveys with veterans and the ASAP stuff are the main sources of information. Regarding the fact that all responses are anonymous with a simple language being used, it is easy to analyze the results and obtain a large amount of information in a short period of time. According to Langbein (2012), survey data remains frequently underanalyzed without a possibility of controlled comparison. Therefore, each step has to be properly taken with all the purposes and outcomes being identified before and after the actual process. First, it is necessary to enumerate all evaluation goals and questions and choose a focus for data analysis. A clear reason why the evaluation is necessary has to be given. In this case, it is the necessity to understand how co-curricular activities chosen for the ASAP courses can change current veterans attitudes towards life, motivate them to develop new skills, and use their experience to express their thoughts and ideas. This step will help to organize data and use the most appropriate data analysis tools. It is expected to organize data in a chronological order where participants (veterans) share their military experience and life after military services and experience new emotions within the frames of a new program. Then, an outcome-based evaluation must be developed in terms of which all the indicators are mentioned and explained. The next step of the program evaluation is the identification of data types. To strengthen this evaluation, the researcher must gather enough information about the program from local resources. Census data and vital statics can be used to identify how many veterans are in the country and in the region, and what their major needs and concerns are. The benefit of using these sources is the possibility to work with them online anytime. These records are objective and effective in developing qualitative and quantitative data analysis and interpretation. The data analysis should include quantitative information about the participants and given by the participants. Quantitative analysis methods are useful as they help to test models and apply simple calculations to answer research questions (Chen, 2015). Today, researchers can rely on a variety of data analysis software programs that can be purchased, downloaded for free, or borrowed. The most frequently used options are Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, also known as SPSS, and Statistical Analysis System, also known as SAS (Langbein, 2012). In some cases, students prefer to use Microsoft Excel and complete the required calculations. Quantitative information has to be analyzed in a certain order. First, all questionnaires and answers of the participants should have copies to make sure they can be used in case the original versions are missing or damaged because of some reason. Then, it is important to choose a format to make notes, and many researchers choose to tabulate the information, add numbers, and create ratings. There are one hundred participants in the program evaluation who are provided with anonymity and confidentiality rights. Therefore, it is not expected to explain the answer of each participant but give numeric information like 45 people out of 100 strongly agree with statement 1 or 20 participants out of 50 (control group) disagree with statement 5 . In this quasi-experimental design, the decision to use a difference-in-differences strategy is made. A basic regression model will help to analyze quantitative data gathered from surveys (Langbein, 2012). The plan is to calculate the frequency of distributions and identify the relationship between an outcome (i.e., veteran satisfaction and literacy level) and the intervention (the promotion of co-curricular activities through inviting new stakeholders, using social media, and promoting training). Only one group of veterans receives the possibility to participate in the ASAP program, and a comparison group has to be observed during the same period of time without receiving the same intervention. There are four main conditions that have to be identified in the analysis: Ge1 (pre-test condition of an experimental group), Gc1 (pre-test condition of a control group), Ge2 (post-test condition of an experimental group), and Gc2 (post-test condition of a control group). The following calculations have to be made: Ge2  Ge1 = Ge Gc1  Gc1 = Gc Gc  Ge = G. In this case, Ge is the difference between what happens to the experimental group before and after the intervention, and Gc is the difference between what happens to the control group before and after the intervention. Finally, G is the difference between the two already-defined differences. The same scheme has to be applied to find the answers to the three research questions posed at the beginning of the program evaluation. In the end, different results prove the correctness of the chosen strategy and define the worth of co-curricular activities like training, new stakeholders participation, and social media sources from the point of view of veteran satisfaction and literacy level (two last evaluation questions). In order to answer the first evaluation question about the attitudes of veterans to life, qualitative data has to be gathered and analyzed. In the list of close-ended statements (Appendix 1 and Appendix 3), content analysis can be used to underline the main changes and feelings of veterans before, during, and after the intervention. First, it is important to read all the data gathered during the evaluation and make notes if they are appropriate. Then, it is expected to underline the main topics and label several categories or themes for future analysis. As soon as the main patterns are identified, the researcher can leave commentary using past studies, census data, or other arguments he/she finds reliable. Data analysis usually lasts between one to three months after the intervention is complete. There is no possibility to add new information about participants or develop additional answers. No fake answers and participants should be present in the program evaluation. If a smaller number of participants agree to participate, or some people do not meet all the inclusion criteria, the researcher should explain the outcomes and inform the reader about the unexpected changes in the project. As it is a plan of data analysis, the expected number of replies remains 100, including 50 veterans from an experimental group who participate in the intervention and 50 veterans from a control group who do not participate in the intervention. The final stage of data analysis is to interpret and represent information after it is gathered and analyzed. For example, the comparison of the results has to be combined with the original program goals. The opinions of veterans must be properly developed, the contributions of the ASAP staff have to be mentioned, and the strengths/weakness of the program should be identified. The next step is giving recommendations to promote the improvement of the program and the development of new co-curricular activities with the help of which the level of literacy and satisfaction among veterans can be increased. Finally, conclusions about the work done and the contributions made are given in a clear and justified way. It is important to make sure that all evaluation questions and goals are answered and achieved. Plan for Working and Communicating with Stakeholders Program evaluation consists of a number of important steps with their goals, specific methods, and outcomes. To develop strong and effective evaluation, it is important to identify and engage stakeholders and choose appropriate ways for working and communicating. In this part of a plan, special attention will be paid to stakeholders and their role in the program. On the one hand, the work with stakeholders can increase the evaluability of the program for assessment, and, on the other hand, this type of cooperation promotes several pragmatic recommendations to improve the program and develop a responsive evaluation (Chen, 2015). The establishment of working relationships between stakeholders and researchers or evaluators is an integral step in program evaluation. To be working, stakeholder-evaluator relationships have to be culturally relevant and well-determined. Regardless of the type of program for evaluation, stakeholders are usually defined as people or organizations invested in a program in a variety of ways (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2014). For example, they may be involved with program operations and services and be a part of the program staff or funding agencies. In this case, the main representatives of this group of stakeholders are the employees of ASAP, as well its funding partner who offer their financial support to the programs development (Barclays, NEX Giving Day, or Advisors Real Estate). Stakeholders can also be the individuals who use the services within the program or are affected by its results. As a rule, they are patients, clients, students, and other community members who are aware of their rights and use their social wisdom (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2014). In the ASAP program evaluation, the opinions of veterans, their families, and local community members as the current or potential stakeholders may define the assessment. The results of evaluation depend on how well researchers define and understand the perspectives of stakeholders and incorporate them with overall evaluation purposes. However, one may think that the less a stakeholder knows about goals and intentions of evaluators, the better and more objective his/her participation can be. Chen (2015) challenges this approach and underlines that stakeholders participation can shape the scope of the evaluation. Stakeholders use their knowledge and experience with ASAP in order to formulate effective questions, discuss the chosen evaluation designs, and reflect the reality before, while, and after the evaluation. Their participation turns out to be more effective when people are involved in the process, unless many of them can ignore or criticize the results of evaluation just because their opinions are neglected. Therefore, the rule number one in working with stakehol