Introduction

Iraq, which is officially referred to as the Republic of Iraq is a semi-desert country located in the Western part of the Asian Continent and shares its borders with Saudi Arabia and Kuwait to the South, Turkey to the North, Syria to the North-west, Iran to the East and Jordan to the West. Apart from the political instability caused by the wars that have characterized Iraq of late, it does have a very rich history which dates back to the ancient times of Mesopotamia, the place which serves as the cradle of civilization (where civilization first began- it is believed to be the original birthplace of writing, philosophies, laws, science, and mathematics). [Mesopotamia is between the river Tigris and the Euphrates]. The two rivers also double up to help neutralize the desert condition of Iraq to make it a little bit habitable (W. Eilers (1983).

The year 2003 saw a lot of changes taking place in Iraq, thanks to the inversion of Iraq by the British, American, and other multinational forces. The inversion had far-reaching consequences especially in the political arena, some of which include:  Establishment of a more democratic parliament, rise in Civil Violence, Worldwide official Recognition of Iraqs minority groups (Kurdish and Shiite Arabs), Ousting and Eventual Execution of the former Iraqis president dictator Saddam Hussein and finally the inversion resulted to the citizens active political participation and a significant economic growth (Tripp, Charles, 2000). It is now six years since this happened; this essay will try to highlight some of the areas that have gone under a significant metamorphosis; in the structure of governance as well as the economic scene of Iraq. It will also touch on the perception of the world on the Post War situation of Iraq.

History

After its foundation, Iraq was put under the succession of one emperor after another, starting with Cyrus the Great up to Alexander the Great who ruled until the Seventh Century when the Islamists conquered Iraq and put it under Islamic Caliphate. By the 8th Century, under the rule of the Abbasid Caliphate, the city of Baghdad was so well established that it was the leading metropolis of the Arabs and the entire Muslim World. It held this position for five good centuries. In the 13th Century, Baghdad had a population of over a million people and was the largest multicultural city of its time. The Republic of Iraq came into being after the abolishment of the monarch system in 1958. From there on there was a series of overthrows and revolutions which saw power exchange hands from one leader to another&until 1979 when Saddam Hussein took over as Iraqi President upon killing many of his opponents (Hiltermann, Joost R, 1994).

Iraq under Saddam Hussein

With Saddam in power, Iraq and its neighbors changed from good, to bad and finally to worse so drastically that it called for the intervention of the international community (Through the United Nations). Saddam attempted to make nuclear weapons in 1977 but this plan was thwarted by the Israelis in 1981 when the Israeli aircraft bombed a 40 MW light-water nuclear Material Testing Reactor (MTR). Disability further deepened after the success of the Islamic Revolution that supported the establishment of the Shiite Muslim Theocratic State. They began opposing some of Saddams actions; this marked the beginning of Saddams woes which never ended till the day of his hang. In 1980 Saddam waged war with Iran, claiming that the Iranians wanted to overthrow his government. He attacked Iran killing both Iranian soldiers and civilians with Chemical weapons (Black George, 1993).

As a result of American and Western Support of Iraq, in what the Americans referred to as dual containment, the war ended in a stalemate in 1988. The Iran-Iraq war left Iraq in an economic disaster that needed to be addressed. To Saddam, the option that he chose was to conquer Kuwait and possess the oil-rich state, and use the resources to rebuild the Iraqis economy. He went against the United Nations orders not to attack Kuwait and did so then went further to declared that there is no longer any such country like Kuwait since it is now part of Iraq (AFP, 2007). The UN in retaliation passed a heavy sanction against Iraq and ordered it to withdraw from Kuwait, but Saddam heard none of that. In 1991 under chapter seven of the UN Charter which authorizes all its member States to use any necessary means to restore international peace. The coalition forces overpowered the Iraqi forces Saddam was forced to withdraw from Kuwait&he eventually accepted the inevitable after his men were destroyed and brought to their knees.

Just after the war, in the same year the war ended, the Iraqi civilians staged protests against Saddams regime, but the presidents response was so violent that the protesters had to cool down. Saddam was not just about to give up, for he continued with his bad boy behaviors even after the war:  in 1993, the private investigators reported that he had planned to assassinate the then US President George H. W. Bush and in 1998 he chased away UN weapon inspectors. To counter this breach of the regulations, economic sanctions were imposed on Iraq by the UN resulting in the death of more than 0.5 million Iraqi children.

Government, Politics, and Economy of Iraq

Iraq is defined by its current constitution as a Federal Government under a Democratic, Islamic, and Federal Parliamentary Republic. The government consists of the Executive, Legislature and the Judiciary, and other independent Commissions. The country had been under the Baath Party for 32 years until when the US-led inversion put to an end the rule in 2003. The citizens made history in 2005 by coming out in large numbers to democratically participate in a vote against the proposed new constitution, they then proceeded to conduct their first-ever general election under the developed new constitution.

The Iraqi economy depends highly on oil. Oil is the dominant contributor to their well-being, contributing about 95% of the total foreign exchange earnings. The Iran-Iraq eight-year war caused a major slump in the Iraqi economy due to the destruction of oil export facilities, massive borrowings, and of heavy accumulation foreign debts which left the economy just staggering to keep balance. The total economic losses from the war totaled at least US$ 100 billion. But after the inversion in 2003, the economy has gradually grown and with the help of the international community, the US taking a leading role, the country looks poised to revamp and recapture her lost glory.

War and Its Impacts

In 2002 the Iraqi administration after being accused of trying to acquire Uranium from Niger fell bowed to the pressure and accepted to allow weapon inspectors into the country, but by this time, America was already poised to start the war, they just went to prepare the battlespace in Iraq and create room for the US military Forces. It was on March 20th, 2003 when the US inversion set off. The main reason for going to this war is that the Iraqi government had refused to honor UN Resolution 687 and have continued to manufacture weapons of mass destruction and the need to outs the oppressive authoritarian leader Saddam and restore democracy to Iraq. The war was a great success to the US and a big slump and failure to Saddams regime. Apart from being kicked out of power, he was later even charged with a series of crimes against humanity and hanged.

The war led to an average of 2 million people fleeing (mostly from persecution) the country at the onset of Saddams regime. Most of them fled to Jordan and Syria (UN High Commission for Refugees Report). After the inversion quite a number have been reported to have started returning to the country, out of this number, only 46,000 had so far returned by October 2007.

Post-war

The war had got good and bad effects alike, the country made a major leap to the front in an attempt to boost their economy and international relations. Infrastructural development came up; telecommunication, road network, water, electrification, and provision of all other necessary needs were given facelifts. But above all was the utilization of the countries huge reserves of oil& To help the country regain the lost status, the current government has also embarked on the development of a parliamentary democracy system which will be composed of eighteen (18) governorates (referred to as Muhafadhat).

Since the war to remove Saddam ended in 2003, the insurgency cases have never stopped in Iraq up to this very date. That is the chief reason why the US established a Coalition Provisional Authority (www.iraqcoalitiion.org&CPA Website) to help with the governance after completely removing Saddam. This was then followed by an Iraqi Interim Government in 2004 and finally, in October 2005, the Iraqis elected their permanent government.

Though the war ended, there are still over 140,000 coalition troops in Iraq. Iraq is now a fully governed state but the reports on the civilian deaths are so much worrying that the coalition forces have decided to remain within the county and keep vigil. Lately, Just less than one month ago, the Iraqi parliament approved that the US forces can still keep around for the next three years. The reasons are so obvious, for reports indicate that some of the terrorist groups like Al-Qaeda took advantage of the insurgency after the inversion and got entrenched in the country. This has caused a security threat in the country. Iraq is the fifth most politically unstable country in the world after Sudan (Carnegie Endowment for International Peaces Foreign Policy Report, 2008). The continued sectarian violence cases reported in the country are suspected to be of ethnic cleansing. These attacks mainly target the minority groups of Iraq like the Mandan, Yezidis, and the Assyrians.

Conclusion

Therefore, owing to the ongoing security situation in Iraq, we are not just about to see the last of the coalition forces leaving the country. But with time they will all clear off and Iraq as a Democratic Republic Nation will once again be on its own. But this is not expected until the 31st of December 2008 when the mandate of the multinational forces in Iraq expires as given by the UN in 1790. But on the other hand, the United States is working on a strategy to grant its forces freedom to continue with their operations in Iraq. Intelligence reports have it that the US government has been putting pressure on the Iraqi government to enter with them some kind of alliance that has got imposing conditions acting in favor of the US. If this plan goes through, then the US will be able to establish fifty military bases in Iraq. All these bases will contain US troops, with their personnel enjoying full legal immunity. And to add onto this, the United States will never have to inform the Iraqi Government the number of troops on their soil, when they are coming or leaving (Gwynne Dyer, 2008).

Work Cited

  1. Charges against Saddam dropped as genocide trial resumes, AFP, 2007
  2. Black, George [1993]. Genocide in Iraq: the Anfal campaign against the Kurds / Western Asia Watch. New York Washington ” Los Angeles ” London: Human Rights Watch.

Hospitals should account for many factors while designing intensive care units (ICU). Such aspects as patients security and comfort should be combined with nurses ability to monitor patients and deliver proper and timely care. In this case, the introduction of intelligent technology allows hospitals to combine these elements. The video The ICU at the 2014 Intelligent Hospital Pavilion describes some devices that can be used in the ICU settings. It is necessary to outline the advantages and possible concerns of this equipment to see whether it should be used in a hospital.

Improving the quality of dying old adults is essential. Dying older adults have diverse mouth problems. They experience dry, painful mouth, and have oromucosal infections. They may also experience salivary gland dysfunctions and dysphagia. Besides, their oral cavity may be affected by the side-effects of their treatment. Any form of swallowing disorders may cause aspiration pneumonia among the terminally ill. Dental professionals must implement proper and regular oral care for patients who are under palliative care. Terminally-ill patients should have regular health monitoring for both patients who exhibit oral distress. Oral care for dying adults prevents common oral hygiene problems such as periodontitis and tooth loss. It reduces tooth loss, halitosis, and caries development that may compromise the patients self-esteem. Venkatasalu et al. (2020) note that palliative care patients usually lose their ability to express their suffering and, therefore, may lead to underreporting of their oral health challenges and problems. Venkatasalu et al. (2020) also note that Xerostomia, oral candidiasis, and dysphagia are common oral conditions that affect patients undergoing palliative care. As a best practice, palliative patients should have an early diagnosis of their oral conditions to minimize the effects of pain and suffering that comes with it. This paper presents a teaching plan for Joe, an 84-year-old patient who has pancreatic cancer and is experiencing Xerostomia. The paper presents intervention measures, diagnosis, and an education plan for the patient.

Xerostomia among Cancer Patients

Cancer patients experience diverse side effects from their treatments. Radiotherapy and chemotherapy are common causes of Xerostomia among cancer patients. Furthers, prescriptions given to cancer patients may cause damage to the salivary gland and cause side effects of cancer treatment. Cancer patients, therefore, must seek remedy to the condition to stay hydrated (Nakajima, 2017). There are several ways to manage dry mouth. The patient may apply water frequently, always after 2 hours during the day and after waking up. Saliva substitutes and lip moisturizers are possible remedies for the condition.

The Case of Joe

The client, Mr. Joe, is a terminally-ill pancreatic cancer patient aged 85 years suffers from Xerostomia. He has a dry mouth and suffers from oral candidiasis. He also experiences stomatitis. Improving the dry mouth condition is an important intervention to managing the problems of stomatitis and oral candidiasis that affects Joe. In regular care, it is important to address the problem of dry mouth through standard oral care. Oral cavity screening would be similarly important to address Joes problems. Another intervention measure would be hydration therapy when Joe complains of thirst. The common cause of thirst is the drugs, and it can be resolved through hydration therapy. Oral care is also important to improve in improving oral cavity conditions. Joe does not know how to apply saliva substitutes. The saliva substitutes are effective in helping Joe keep his mouth hydrated. It would help Joe to swallow food and reduce the pain that can potentially occur in the throat. It is important to encourage Joe to consistently use the saliva substitute to avoid a dry mouths side effects. Saliva substitute would improve Joes oral hygiene and potentially help him reduce the effects of having a dry throat while speaking.

Intervention Session, Assessment, Diagnosis, and Planning

The patient teaching and education intervention session will involve explaining to Joe how to apply saliva substitute to the mouth without swallowing. It will be a 30 minutes intervention session with Joe and the patient. The patient suffers from Xerostomia, a condition that occurs when the salivary glands cannot produce sufficient saliva to ensure the mouth remains moist. The patient, therefore, lacks saliva for chewing, talking and taking in food through the esophagus. Joe has a dry feeling in the mouth, which feels sticky. He experiences pain in the tongue, which is dry and tough, and mouth. He has cracks in the lips and experiences difficulty talking. Further, he has mouth sores and infections that include thrush. Joes chemotherapy and the radiation therapy sessions he has undergone have affected his salivary glands. Besides, most of the medicines that Joe uses compromise the production of saliva from the glands. As a strategy to address the condition, Joe should use saliva substitutes. Several saliva substitutes are available for use.

The Scenario and Elements of Basic Learning

The patient education session occurs in a palliative care facility, which serves as the learning environment. The palliative care facility is the ideal learning environment because it has equipment applied to relieve the patient of pain and improve their quality of life. Although Joe is aged 84 years, he has the physical capacity to learn the stages of applying saliva substitute. He has the intellectual ability to learn how to apply the saliva substitute. He is not frail and, therefore, can apply the saliva substitute without extra assistance from a care giver.

Demonstration and return demonstration is the preferred learning style in Joes case. Saliva substitute should not be swallowed, and, therefore, Joe should keenly apply it. The demonstration is effective to show Joe how to apply a small volume of the substitute in the mouth. Joes feels uneasy having a dry mouth and is, therefore, motivated to learn how to apply the saliva substitute. He understands that the saliva substitute is important to enable him to maintain the desired saliva balance. Because of his motivation, he will undergo the training session. The necessary resources for learning in Joes case include the saliva substitute. A written instruction manual and the substitutes direction for use are critical learning resources for Joe. Joe will understand the directions and follow through with the steps outlined in the label.

2022)

Infections are the most common complication in patients in intensive care units. Despite the presence of a large number of antibacterial drugs in the doctors arsenal, the results of infection treatment remain unsatisfactory.

Causes of UTI

The most common factors causing UTIs (urinary tract infections) are bacteria, less often viruses, fungi or parasites. The prevalence of certain types of bacteria isolated from the urine of patients largely depends on the studied population (Tian et al., 2020). Most often, Escherichia coli acts as a microbial pathogen, which is almost always present on the external genitalia. Bacteria enter the urinary tract ascending through the urethra, then into the bladder and then into the kidneys. Regardless of the level of the urinary system that the bacteria have reached, they can cause inflammation. (Edwardson & Cairns, 2019)

Treatment

General principles of treatment of urinary infections: 1. Antibacterial treatment. 2. When choosing a drug and the method of its application, the following factors are taken into account: 3. drug sensitivity of the bacterial strain; 4. patient tolerance of the drug; 5. severity of infection; 6. medical expenses. (Wang et al., 2019) Symptomatic treatment depending on the type of ailment: 1. bed rest; 2. regular and complete emptying of the bladder; 3. painkillers, antispasmodics; 4. fluid intake (diuresis of more than 1.5 liters per day); 5. rejection of nephrotoxic drugs.

Prevention

Drinking a sufficient amount of liquid helps to wash out bacteria along with urine. Do not tolerate for a long time when there is an urge to urinate  prolonged stagnation of urine in the bladder increases the risk of infection. ” Women are recommended to wash in the direction from front to back (from the pubis to the anus) (Nimer

e-Medicine Description

E-medicine / telemedicine

  • Use electronic means for medical data transfer;
  • Performing clinical practices;
  • Medical record keeping, data processing, and information sharing;
  • Teleconsultation (Isabalija, Mbarika, & Kituyi, 2013).

e-medicine or telemedicine is an innovative solution enhancing health service deliver. It is based on electronic platforms to transfer medical data from different locations. At advanced stages, e-medicine is deployed to support or provide clinical services through telecommunication methods, such as teleconferencing (Isabalija, Mbarika, & Kituyi, 2013). Simple usages include keeping of medical records, data capture, data processing, and information sharing. Further, e-medicine is effective for teleconsultation, which involves consultancy services to patients and/or physicians.

Factor responsible

  • The Internet;
  • Smartphones / technologies;
  • Savvy healthcare consumerism / educated patients;
  • Information revolution;
  • Innovation and Quality Improvement efforts (Om, 2015).

The Internet is largely responsible for driving e-Medicine. In addition, increased usages of communication mobile devices and networks across the world have increased the applications of such devices in healthcare delivery. Educated patients continue to use technologies and demand flexibility while information revolution supports knowledge acquisition (Om, 2015). Constant innovation and the need for Quality Improvement in the healthcare industry are also responsible for e-Medicine growth.

e-Medicine Description

e-Medicine Description

e-Medicine Benefits

  • Overcome geographical limitations;
  • Enhanced access to healthcare;
  • Cost-cutting;
  • Speed up referral processes;
  • Eliminate unnecessary referrals;
  • Improve care quality and reduce readmission (Isabalija et al., 2013).

e-medicine offers some benefits in situations where access to healthcare is constrained with various factors. Geographical location limits accessibility to healthcare services and resources. It reduces cost while improving access (Isabalija et al., 2013). e-medicine enhances communication and speed of referrals, eliminates unnecessary referrals, readmissions while advancing Quality Improvement.

e-Medicine Benefits

Telehealth Description

Telehealth

  • Means of providing healthcare services and public health via information and communication technologies;
  • Facilitates:
    • Diagnosis;
    • Consultation;
    • Treatment;
    • Education;
    • Care management;
    • Patient self-management (American Hospital Association, 2015).

Telehealth is a method of providing healthcare services and public health through information and communication technologies. It facilitates diagnosis, consultation, treatment, education, care management, and patient self-management when the patient and the physician are in different locations. It enhances patient self-management and caregiver support for patients and includes synchronous relations and asynchronous store and forward transfers (American Hospital Association, 2015).

Telehealth Description

Telehealth Traditional Modalities

Real-Time:

  • Live video-conferencing.

Store-and-Forward:

  • Videos, digital images, audio, and clinical data captured and transferred to physician.

Remote Patient Monitoring:

  • Patient data captured to monitor patient remotely (American Hospital Association, 2015).

Traditional, telehealth has operated on three modalities. Real-time involves live communication between the patient and provider. It involves the use of video conferencing to support telepsychiatry, telehomecare, telecardiology and remote consults (teleconsults) with specialists, primary care physicians, counselors, social workers and other health care professionals (American Hospital Association, 2015).

Store and forward is a mode that allows images, videos, audios, and clinical data to be captured, stored and forwarded to physicians for analysis. It is common in teledermatology and telepathology.

Finally, remote Monitoring collects data from sensors and monitoring devices for remote monitoring of chronic conditions, such as diabetes, heart diseases, and asthma among others.

Telehealth Traditional Modalities

Compares and Contrasts Available Models and Systems

Teaching plan for Joe
Purpose: To provide patient with information necessary to address dry mouth problems (xerostomia).
Goal: The patient will be able to apply saliva substitutes to address dry mouth problems (xerostomia).
Learning Outcomes Content Outline Method of Instruction Time Allotted Resources Method of Evaluation
After a 30 min. session, the patient should be able to do the following
Demonstrate, in steps, the stages of applying a saliva substitute List the stages
Description of various items required
List the stages
Description of various items required
Instruction 5 minutes Description of the saliva substitutes use Post-testing
Verbal
” Written
” other

Introduction

When you have measured in units of carbon dioxide, the brunt borne by the environment, due to any kind of human activity, you have made a measurable carbon footprint (UNFCCC, 1992; EC, 2007). These traces of human activity can have a prolonged disastrous effect, a lot more potent than the worst tsunami, merely because of their virtual irreversibility. The planet is vulnerable to the carbon emissions that can damage its climate and probably lead to its total destruction  a thought that is extremely frightening, but highly probable. It is this palpable fear that has led to the close monitoring of carbon emissions today. The Carbon Footprint Protocol seeks to regulate the use of all materials that contribute to the increase in carbon dioxide levels, including that caused by the transportation of construction materials (ECCM, 2007).

The carbon footprint calculator

Every activity undertaken today in the transportation sector can be assessed in order to calculate the carbon footprint that it leaves behind. The calculations are based on the analytical studies and recommendations of both governmental and non-governmental agencies, the prime objectives of which are reduction of carbon emissions. There are private firms who offer information on such calculations based on the metrics from UKs Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA), the UKs Department for Transport and the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Based on these regulatory recommendations, one such firm, Carbon Footprint Ltd. helps to calculate the impact of carbon emissions, with its easy to use carbon footprint calculator (CFC, 2007; WWF, 2007; TNC, 2007).

The third edition of The Green Building Bible gives a long and detailed account of how one can ensure a lower rate of carbon footprints, by following the eco-friendly suggestions offered. From building techniques, to alternative sources of energy, to a vast array of green building alternatives, the book focuses on the dangers of following the trends that have been in place till now. There are references to the use of locally available materials as opposed to the transportation of materials from distant locations (Hall, 2005).

Some of the highest levels of carbon emissions are caused by the transportation of various materials in the construction industry. In many developing countries today, there are construction materials that are not only hazardous to use but also pose a lot of hazards in their transportation. It is only now, that there is an increased awareness on the kinds of transportation that is used; the focus on reducing carbon emissions is becoming more widespread now.

Impact on Carbon Footprint

One of the chief impacts on carbon footprint caused by the transportation of building materials is the fuel combustion emissions from ships, trains or trucks that are used in the transport of timber. A report of the ECCM on carbon benefits of timber in construction throws light on the statistics involved, when timber is transported. This is not only due to the fact that the use of timber has a direct impact, but also that the mode of transportation only augments the carbon footprint already created. Detailed calculations show the quantum of emissions caused by transporting building materials for various purposes such as residential as well as commercial buildings (Burnett, 2006).

Construction and development at the cost of ecological impairment is certainly not acceptable any more. Using eco-friendly material might be an attractive proposition, but it is not enough to mitigate the impact of the emissions of the various modes of transport that need to operate as part of the construction industry. This is where supporters of diesel instead of petrol have a say. It has been proved that the emissions of vehicles run on diesel emit a lower level of pollutants when compared to their petrol run counterparts. However, it must be noted that petrol vehicles have a very low level of particulate matter (ActonCo2, 2007).

Recommendations

While on the subject of carbon footprints, one needs to mention the concept of carbon credits and carbon sinks. Trees are repositories of carbon, which can offset and absorb the amount of carbon dioxide in the air. Increase in the green cover can result in the lowering of carbon footprint impacts, especially those created by the transportation of building materials.

It would also be wise to assess the impact of building materials and their transportation in terms of carbon footprints before the actual construction is begun. This would take into account the kinds of materials used, the location of the same and hence the related transportation costs. One could go in for materials that are either locally available or that which can be used after recycling is successfully carried out. Architects keen on monitoring carbon footprints have put forth their views on reducing the ill-effects of using materials that are not eco-friendly. (BCN, 2007).

Conclusions

The Bali Climate Change Conference has further stressed upon the need to monitor and lower emissions from various sources in a desperate bid to save the planet from a ticking time bomb  global warming and climate change (Hawthorne, 2007). Reduced usage of transport in the building industry and the usage of green construction materials would contribute to this cause to a very large extent (Kane, 2007).

References

ActonCo2, 2007. With help from you, we can reduce CO2. Web.

BCN. 2007. . Web.

Burnett, J. 2006, Forestry Commission Scotland Greenhouse Gas Emissions Comparison Carbon benefits of Timber in Construction. Edinburgh Centre for Carbon Management, Ediburgh. Web.

CFC. 2007, . Web.

EC. 2007, Environment: The Kyoto Protocol. Web.

ECCM. 2007, CarbonFree Product Certification: Carbon Footprint Protocol. Web.

Introduction

Kathmandu experienced a sequence of earthquakes in the 20th century. More than eleven thousand people died during an earthquake that occurred in Nepal. Apart from the loss of lives of thousands of people, the government of Nepal was also shaken and its political and economic positions were affected. It is estimated that about 40% of the building that was on the valley were destroyed and more than 25% of the households in Kathmandu.

This was not the first earthquake to shake the region; others with similar magnitude had occurred in the 19th century. Its believed that there is a seismic zone along Kathmandu valley which makes it vulnerable to earthquakes. A scientist has recorded that earthquakes of similar magnitude occur after a period of 75 years. This is a clear indication of the probability of recurrence of other similar earthquakes.

Kathmandu has an approximated growth rate of 6.5 percent and it is believed that it is one of the biggest urban concentrations worldwide. The residents of this valley live in fear of the possibility of another earthquake striking the region. If other earthquakes occur as predicted, more people will lose their lives because of the growth in population and other damages will occur to the structural makeup and political position. In view of what has happened in the past earthquakes and the destruction which had been caused, the government did not seem to do much. It did not make attempts to control the growth in population and development despite what had happened before. Buildings were built without taking consideration of the seismic force and information concerning the risk of earthquakes was not complete and was only available to isolated agents of the government. This paper seeks to identify the major disasters that have occurred in Kathmandu valley, the suggested strategies to mitigate them and the governments move toward disaster management.

Overview of Kathmandu Valley

Nepal covers a geographical area of about 147,181 square kilometers. It is one of the densely populated countries in the world with a growing population of about 2.25% annually. It has three regions covering; mountains, Tarai and hills. The administration has 5 regions for development which are: central, eastern, western, and far-western and mid-western. About 47% of the total population in Nepal lives in the Tarai region because of the fertile soil for farming and 45% live in the hilly regions. Only 8% live in the mountains where the land is not good for agriculture (Shrestha 1).

Out of the total population, 1.5 million live in Kathmandu valley which is found in Nepals urban center. The valley is believed to be fertile and a variety of food can be grown there. These include vegetables, rice, and wheat. The population in the valley is growing at a very high rate resulting in water and air population which is becoming an issue. The valley is characterized by steep slopes, active tectonic processes, flimsy geophysical structures, dense population, high illiteracy rates, and poor economic activities. All these factors make the valley vulnerable to natural disasters such as earthquakes, floods, and landslides.

Earthquakes

Earthquakes are the major disasters in Nepal. They occur in the seismic zone which resulted from the subduction of the Indian plate. Records about the seismic activities have been there since 1255. The seismic zone in Nepal is made from a system of reactivated faults. These faults were created when the area near Kathmandu valley started splitting apart and a rift was formed. The rift that resulted from these activities failed and a weakness zone was formed under the surface in the earths crust. This was made even weaker when other rifting attempts proved unsuccessful. The faults are said to have made the rock to sink into the earths crust making the area of new Madrid weak and prone to earthquakes. Since then destructive earthquakes have been occurring in Nepal. The highest earthquake to have been recorded occurred in 1934 with a magnitude of 8.4. More than 4,300 people from Kathmandu valley lost their live and structures and buildings were damaged. Two other earthquakes were experienced in 1988 one with a magnitude of 6.5 and the other 6.6 (Balassanian, Cisternas and Melkumyan 74).

Landslides and Floods

Nepal has more than six thousand rivers which flow from north to south at high steep due to the steep terrain. This steep terrain is also rugged with an intricate geology. During heavy rainfall (especially during the monsoon seasons), landslides, floods and debris flow in most of the cities. This causes a lot of damage to most of the building which have been built without taking into consideration the risk of natural disasters in this area. Many people loss their lives and the agricultural land suffer from destruction. In 1993, a major flood occurred in Tarai region killing more than one thousand people and left others injured. Another one again in 1999 and left many destructions (Paudel Omura Kubota and Morita 1). It is predicted that other floods are deemed to occur in future if something is not done to prevent or mitigate them.

Fire

Another natural calamity that affects Nepal country is fire. This occurs in periods of high temperatures especially from April to June. The rural areas are the most affected because of poor constructions. Most of the houses in this area are made of timber and are built close to each other which increase their vulnerability to fire. A blaze occurred in 1999 and killed about 39 people; left others injured and affected more than one thousand families. It also caused other destructions to property, houses, and livestock.

The country is not free from epidemics of gastroenteritis, cholera, meningitis, malaria, typhoid among others which mainly occurs during summer and winter. This has been facilitated by the lack of good health and sanitation.

Disaster Management in Kathmandu

The growth in urban population, poverty, and socio-economic activities in Kathmandu makes it vulnerable to disasters. The history of earthquakes, floods, landslides, debris flow and fire, and the prediction of future disasters indicate that a major disaster might occur in that area. There is therefore need to establish strategies aimed at mitigating such occurrence or providing preparedness for the community. The Nepal government has been addressing some of the urgent and basic needs like shelter, food, and clothing although with very limited finances and technical support. To fight with the limited resources, the government is searching for strategies that will help in eradicating poverty as well as creating job opportunity for the youths. Disaster management is critical in ensuring sustainable development in any country. This can be done through building communities which can resist disasters. In doing this the following three areas are very crucial; the socio-economic sector, natural factor and the legislation (Shrestha 1).

Building disaster resistant community can be said to be a community based approach or a bottom-up approach being viewed from the socio-economic angle. It focuses on products and processes lying emphasizes on the end users and the local community. The aim of this approach is to provide community awareness, build government capacity, and modify the traditional disaster management in the urban centers.

Structure and Legislation

Disaster management in Nepal is done in the ministry of home affairs through the department of disaster management and drug control. It does this through formulating and implementing policies, mitigating disasters, data collection and propagation and collection of resources and its distribution (Anon. Kathmandu Valley, Nepal Disaster Risk Management Profile 7). The ministry of home affairs works in collaboration with 75 district officers who act managers in natural disaster event

Disaster Management Section under MOHA structures

Platform Description Models
Telestroke Remote evaluations, diagnoses and treatment recommendations BF Technologies, Global Media, InTouch Health, Librestream , Polycom, and Tandberg
Teleradiology Images and associated data transmitted Nighthawk model, PACS, RIS, PAVDOT
Tele-ICU Networks of audiovisual communication and computer systems for ICUs Philips, InTouch, GEs Centricity Critical Care system
Telemental Health Mental health and substance abuse services ATA, Behavior Imaging Solutions, Cope Today, Medweb
Telepathology For practice of pathology SL5 Dual Mode Real Time Telepathology, iMedHD
Minister For Home Affaires
State Minister For Home Affairs
Secretary

political and economic.

Introduction

Social theory explains the effect of social relationships on the social and economic institutions in the society. Many social theorists, classical, and neoclassical theorists have focused this field (Granovetter 481). The interaction between different structures of the society is becoming intense with most of the structures depending on others. In modern market economies, interaction between social and economic structures is narrowed to individual influences in each system or structure.

The growth of the society has resulted in the need for the opening of economics, and this is known as economic liberalization. The liberalization of economies and the development of competitive markets cause many questions concerning the embeddedness of political, social, and economic structures in society. Competitive market economies are controlled by generative market force. These forces are demand and supply.

These market forces continue to take shape in the society, and this causes questions on whether political and social structures still have a strong force in the working of free and competitive markets. This forms the main topic of this research. The topic of research is assessing the role and impact of social and political structures in the working of modern liberal markets.

The research problem

This research seeks to ascertain the level of interplay and contribution of political structures in shaping the working of modern economies. The topic of the research has been motivated by the continued argument on the embeddedness of political, economic, and social structures.

With considerable demand and direction towards completely liberalized economies, the level of embeddedness of these structures seems to decline. However, many researchers still hold to the view that these structures are embedded. They fail to produce real findings indicating that the structures are still embedded as argued by classical theorists and now neoclassical theorists.

Another aspect that warrants the attention of researchers is the impacts of detachment of one structural function from the working of another structure. A good example can be the elimination of political structures in respect to the working of economies. The difficult question that is posed to social theorists regarding this subject is the establishment of the most important structure that carries all the others. Does a social structure prevail within the larger economic structure or is the vice versa true?

Many economic theorists continue to argue for the essence of political influence on the working of economies. They base their argument on a number of economic crises that have occurred and the role that political structures have played in remedying such situations. This seems to be a logical argument, but attention should also be given to how such situations develop.

It cannot be denied that social and political structures impact on economic structures. The level of influence of these structures has to be given much attention too. Economic structures are said to have strong foundations in political structures. Free market economies, otherwise known as Laissez-faire, are outcomes of political economies.

As economies are set and keep working in the social environment, they are controlled by forces within them together with the influence of the social environment. Can social and political structures be separated from the working of economic structures or is it only the influence that can be reduced? This is an ignored concern in the modern economic operation where many people are used to associating the working of the three main societal structures.

Differences continue to be seen in terms of the changes that are taking place within each structure of the component. The modern society is undergoing a transformation. Transformation comes with many changes, and most of the changes result in the removal of facet points of linkages between one system and other systems.

The changing structure of the economy in the society has an impact on the embeddedness of the critical systems of the society. This is being sidelined with the emphasis on the existence of extensive relations between societal systems. This research attempts to fill this gap by tackling this ignored dimension of social research.

Main purpose of research

Most arguments on social theory have argued for the embeddedness of the three structures of the society. However, the organization of the society is changing with changes in the economic patterns of society. The world is adopting a liberalized market economy. The main purpose of this research is to prove the difference in the level of embeddedness between economic structure and the social and political structures.

Research objectives

There are four main objectives of this research study. These objectives will open up the research subject by streamlining the path taken in the research.

The first objective is to define the term embeddedness in relation to the three systems of society: social

Abstract

This report presents a detailed description of a cooperative work with Halliburton. Halliburton is among the worlds largest oilfield service companies with operations in several countries and over 100,000 employees. The company basic roles are directional drilling and measurements while drilling. The cooperative work consists of a fieldwork, workshop, and application of theories learned at the University. My role was a service field engineer, and I worked in various place in the Kingdom, which included Hardh, Shdgm, alhwayh, Othmanieh to Qatif for a period of three months and half. In the first chapter, I will shortly cover Halliburton, its various departments, and the work plan. The second chapter explores critical aspects of drilling and measurements while drilling technology. The third chapter covers aspects of directional drilling, which includes the description of data collection strategies while drilling. In chapter four, I focus on case studies that I experienced while working with the company. The first case study presents calculations from my courses and how they are applied based on engineering concepts used in drilling processes. The next case study explores common failures and challenges that take place during drilling operations and their solutions.

Company Identification

Halliburton

Halliburton was established in 1919. Today, it is one of the world largest service and product providers in the global oil and gas industry. The company employs over 75,000 workers spread across 80 countries, which represent 140 nationalities (Halliburton, 2013). Halliburton has grown significantly due to the focus on innovation and rapid expansion. The company has divided the Middle East into four geomarkets based on their various features regarding operational, technological, and reservoirs. Halliburton has classified Saudi Arabia has an independent geomarket or a strategic area.

The company has built its organisational structure in a way that promotes the use of the local expertise in order to focus on unique local reservoir challenges, logistical, and supply requirements (Halliburton, 2013). This strategy has led to the companys success in Saudi Arabia. Employees expertise, best technologies, and collaboration among teams in geology, reservoirs, geophysics, completions, and drilling have facilitated efficiency in the company (Halliburton, 2013).

The company has several divisions that specialise in the oil and gas industry. It is a leader in the oil and gas field with all services and products required. Its major divisions consist of Drilling, Coring, Cementing, Fluids, Drilling bits manufacturing and wire line. My Cooperative assignment involved working at the drilling division at Halliburton. The main units in this division include directional drilling, measurements while drilling, and logging while drilling. Section B of the coop report presents these units.

Departments

Halliburton has two critical areas of operations. The first section is the non-conventional drilling or directional drilling (DD). The DD involves controlling and changing the course of the drilling process through various geological layers in order to ensure a complete drilling of the reservoirs depth. The mud motors design and their working mechanisms relate closely to the DD process. DD has dominated the oil field industry because vertical wells require efficiency in drilling. One major advantage of the DD is its application and importance in the oil migration through formations and the need to achieve optimal production during well drilling.

Another main area is the measurements while drilling (MWD). Measurements while drilling has several sub-categories. MWD process involves real-time transmission of information while drilling in order to capture real-time data for decision-making purposes. It also focuses on drilling tools in order to ensure safe and efficient navigation processes through formations without any failures. MWD provides detailed information regarding natural features of the formation. The MWD sensors can indicate whether there is oil or not in a formation. It can also avoid hard formations, which normally cause corrosion and erosion on drilling equipment.

Coop Work plan

Joint Secretary
Management Division
Joint Secretary
Personnel Administration Division
Citizenship & Arms Section
” Internal Management Section
” Financial Administration Section
” Parlour & Ceremony Management Section
Period in weeks Plan Supervisor Comments
2 Health and safety Induction, H2S course, Huit Survival course, Halliburton Integrity system and assigning supervisors Human resource: Yusuf Alsmdan and Safety manger: Abdullah Aldosseri, H2S course and Survival course are made by Rwabi united company and Huit International company.
4 R&M assemble, dissemble, tests, programming, Inspection, failures case study Senior Technician: Mufied, Reliability engineer: Mohammad Alabedh This is involves the basic of repairing and maintaining the work shop
3 Measurements while drilling principles and concepts MWD , LWD supervisors: Ala Alawami, Shadi Alkadi Studies about formations geology, technical background, and services offered
2 Directional Drilling concepts and Technology Directional Drilling supervisor: Ali Gebres Same principles as MWD
3 Advanced Drilling Systems ,Rig Familiarization, Well planning procedure, advance engineering software, Data mining tasks General Field Engineer : Mohammad Ali Theoretical and simulation for rigs work and lectures for software guiding drilling process
9 Field service engineer working in remote areas in different locations of S.A MWD Coordinator : Ala Alawami, Emad and Shadi Alkadi
1 Final week evaluation

Basic Concepts about Drilling

Mud System

Mud is a terminology that refers to the fluid used in drilling procedures. The fluid has several roles and benefits. As a result, mud has become the leading fluid in all drilling processes across the world. Initially, mud is presented in the form of water, which is applied in cuttings from effects of drilling bits. However, changes in technologies have resulted in production of superior fluids to replace water. Mud has several applications in the drilling processes, which include:

  • Cooling and lubricating bits
  • Carrying cuttings and shreds
  • Maintaining hydrostatic pressure in order to avoid formation from collapse while transmitting data
  • Driving motors with power to the bit
  • Identifying types of formation
  • Preventing wear and extreme temperatures at the lower ends of the hole

Categorisation of mud depends on its weight, components, and viscosity. Hence, there are oil-based mud, water-based mud, and KLC polymer-based mud among others. Pumping of mud involves the use of three high-pressure triplex pumps ME311. This process raises the mud to the gooseneck, which is an attached hose at the upper part of the rig floor. The suspended gooseneck ensures that the mud reaches the top of the drive and then it flows to the down hole. The mud jets through the bit nozzles at a high pressure of up to 8000 psi. High pressure ensures that the bit can cut and crush the formations and then go back via annuals with cuttings and shreds. Mud has high costs. As a result, there is a need to reuse the fluid again. There are two stages of cleaning the mud through shale shakers. The first stage involves big cutting elimination while the second stage involves elimination of small cuttings. This is a continuous process of pumping the mud. The company has developed a BHA table to guide all operations for optimum performances.

Bottom Hole Assembly

Prior to the identification of the process, it is important to explain technical terms for drilling tools, which involve the BHA bottom hole assembly. BHA is the tool composition for the drilling string. The BHA tool components consist of the drilling bit for drilling the earth formations. There are two categories of bits. The roller cone bit is made from steel, and it is mainly for slow efficient drilling. Conversely, fixed cutter bits come from polycrystalline diamond compact bits, PDC. They are effective for fast drilling in hard formations.

Roller cone bits crush formations as they drill, whereas fixed cutters drill by shearing formations (illustrated in fig. 1). Nozzles supply the mud that softens the drilled formation while shock subs absorb the shock that originates from the bit due to hitting formations. There is also a mud motor, which the report shall cover thoroughly in later sections. The third component is a non-magnetic collar, which stops steel parts from interfering with the magnetic field due to the sensitivity of sensors. The fourth component is the MWD, which is linked to the BHA. Stabilisers are also parts of the components, and they foil the axial and lateral vibrations. Stabilisers have fins, which are positioned in a manner that ensures that BHA remains in a central location. The system also has a heavy weight drill pipe (HWDB), which engineers can fix and assemble in the rig just like the drilling bit. The HWDB stops the pendulum effect that happens in drilling processes in the vertical hole. BHA assembling involves the use of crossover subs. Crossover subs have different thread designs to match with the different types and sizes of pipes. Drilling collars are pipes that freely allow the mud to flow through them. Drilling collars also maintain the whole tension of the BHA and provide a weight on bit. The weight on bit refers to the aggregated load added to the drill string in order to provide momentum for the crush formations. The rate of penetration reflects the instant velocity of bit and drill string.

Figure 1: roller cone bit and PDC bits (3, page 219)

Powering Drilling Process

All drilling processes have two types of power found in the drilling string, which include the BHA arrangement and drilling collars. The power rotates the entire drilling string by the use of the attached rotary table on the rig flower. The rotary table consists of an electrical motor with a high-speed of rotation, which drives the drilling process. Mud flow also supplies power to the drilling process, but this power only drives the drilling bit and the mud motor.

Measurements While Drilling (MWD)

MDW is an electromechanical gadget, which is applicable in the guiding process and collecting data during the drilling procedures. The main role of the MWD is to collect and transfer the required data during the drilling process. MWD consists of traks, which have various sensors for different functions. Traks in the system have different features and designs, but they all share a common elementary sensor known as the survey sensor.

Survey Sensor Directional Navigation

The original MWD specifically served the role of collecting and transferring data. However, sophisticated sensors have emerged to include other roles. The main role of the survey sensor is to provide the location of the BHA, which involves inclination and Azimuth coordination. Inclination shows the degree or the extent to which the BHA has deviated from the vertical angle while Azimuth shows the BHA angle in relation to the magnetic north axis and tools axis. Survey provides effective way of guiding the drilling process of the wellbore. Survey enhances how drillers develop high side or drop low side angles. Survey devices consist of an accelerator and a magnetometer, such as Gx, Gy, Gz, Bx, By, and B. The accelerator has an inclination reading in m/s2 while the magnetometer Azimuth reading is in the form of micro tesla. However, the Azimuth requires a correctional algorithm in order to eliminate errors that originate from the true north magnetic pole, which interferes with the survey readings.

Gamma Sensor

All processes of the earths formations bear elements of radioactivity radiations in different quantities. The sensor can determine the type of the formation, such as dolomite, sand, and coal. Generally, oil deposits are in the sedimentary rocks. However, the litho logy of the formation is likely because of the availability of various isotopes in minerals like potassium and uranium linked with them (as shown in figure 2 by the American Petroleum Institute). The system depends on a crystal emitting light, which flashes and interact with the gamma rays. A high voltage multiplier captures the flashes for amplification to the electrical current.

Figure 2: Gamma readings and litho logy (1, 39)

Resistivity sensor

A resistivity sensor is an electrical resistance of the current flow impedance. Generally, most of the earths formations have perfect insulators. However, the earths formations with salt water in ionic bonding that contains clay minerals lack qualities of perfect insulators. The resistivity sensor searches for the true sensitivity, Rt. This process involves electrical emission via an electrode (collar), which returns later after an emission. It applies Ohm law.

R= KV/I ohm

  • k is the geometrical factor of the emitting electrode
  • V voltage measured between electrode and formation, and the current, which result in the same resistivity

Resistivity sensor helps in identifying shallow gas and percentages of hydrocarbons.

Vibration Sensor

The drilling process entails many vibration activities. This leads to the need for another sensor. MWD reading is prone to interference from the vibration, and there is a need to avoid vibration as much as possible. This is a valid stick slip sensor. Normally, there are three common types of vibration. First, there is the axial vibration x and y. This type of vibration results from the increase in WOB beyond the recommended level, and it can cause BHA failure. The second type of vibration is the lateral vibration, which is potentially risky than the axial vibration. This type of vibration requires a stabiliser in order to avoid failure. Finally, the stick slip (SS) is the most dangerous type of vibration. It is common in the drilling process. Stick slip happens when the tool rotates and stops for a given period while the bit rotates in the opposition direction. SS causes mechanical stress (torsion) on the drilling pipes and make them to stick in the formation, i.e., the BHA cannot move either up or down in the drilling process. It can also cause the formation to collapse. Stick slip could also result from stick formation, which takes place when it exceeds the bit lifetime, in low torque and high mud weight. In case SS happens, engineers can adopt two methods to handle it. First, they can apply the safest method of picking up the BHA and stopping the drilling process. The second option involves enhancing the WOB in order to pass the formation with high ROP.

Other services In MWD and Traks TM names

Trak is a name that accompanies different services offered in drilling processes. In order to avoid complexity, it is imperative to abbreviate them. The coop work involved working with the Navi-gamma trak, on trak, Litho trak, and Azi trak. Hence, this report provides in depth accounts of these traks. The following table provides other traks and their features. These traks can also be combined in the BHA sensors in order to enhance their efficiency and effective results.

Table 1: Halliburton trak services

Company overview

Archstone Company is a self-governed Real Estate Investment Trust (REIT). The company ranks among the major developers, operators, and investors of real estates in the US. As of 30 June in the year 2011, the portfolio of the company contained 434 real estates situated in Europe and the US, which denoted 77,084 entities, taking into consideration units going through construction.

Almost the entire portfolio of Archstone is centralized in big cities at the coastal regions of Boston, Los Angeles, San Francisco, San Diego, and Seattle. Archstone was made private following a 22 billion US dollars purchase by the non-public real estate companies Lehman Brothers Holdings and Tishman Speyer in conjunction with numerous major investment banks in the US in October in the year 2007 (Murray 5-8).

Economic data of the US

  • GDP- over 1.7 per cent
  • Rate of unemployment- 8 per cent
  • Inflation- 2 per cent

Population inclinations and demographics: California

The state of California is situated at the West Coastal region of the US. In North America, California stands as the most densely inhabited sub-national unit. If California existed as an independent nation, it would be the 34th most populated nation worldwide. In comparison with the next largest state in the US, Texas, the population of California is a third larger.

California overcame New York State by population size and took the first position by population size in the year 1962, a position it has held to date (Joppke 23-27). The state of California is home to some of the largest inhabited areas in the US (San Francisco Bay and Los Angeles Area), in addition to eight among the top fifty greatly inhabited cities (for instance, San Francisco, San Diego, and Los Angeles).

In the year 2011, the population of California was approximately 37,691,912. This population size represents a 1.2 per cent augment when compared with the population indicated by the census of the year 2010. By the close of the first decade of the 21st century, Californias population escalated by 3,090,016 naturally.

The population data of California illustrates a population of approximately 38,292,687 people as at the beginning of the year 2009. In the year 2010, unlawful aliens comprised an approximated seven percent of the entire inhabitants in California.

The seven percent population represented the third greatest proportion by State in the US, representing approximately 2.6 million people. Of the unlawful alien population, over half came from Mexico.

From the year 2010, inhabitants born in California formed the preponderance of the population and thus denoted the foremost instance ever since the California Gold Rush (Harris 2-5). In terms of the highest growth by states in the US, California ranks number thirteen and its fertility rate stood at 2.2 in the year 2008.

There is not a single race or ethic community making preponderance in terms of population in California, which makes it a marginal-preponderance state. The number of non-Hispanic whites in California constitutes 40 per cent of the entire population. By the year 2005, 58 per cent of people in California spoke English as mother tongue, whereas 28 per cent spoke Spanish, making Spanish the second most used language in California.

Approximately half of the total 60 native languages in California are no more used, and the remaining half is endangered. In this state, the official language is definitely English (Joppke 28-31). The assumptions of demographers affirm that the State of California will comprise of a Hispanic preponderance at some point in this century because of the high immigration and birth rates when judged against those of non-Hispanic society.

Market matters

Archstone has numerous advantages for being in the Californian market since the year 1946. Throughout this period, Archstone has formed powerful connections with residents as well as members of the municipal (Pacelle 3-6). The aforementioned connections assist the company with letting and new expansion schemes.

Archstone Company is susceptible to a number of local economic situations with the greatest part of their portfolio in the Californian market, which makes them vulnerable to Californian market situations because of their deficiency with respect to market diversity (Wilson and Zurbruegg 257-278).

Capital formation

Throughout the last 5 years, Archstone has not been successful in demonstrating constant income on its investment in real estates, projects, and buildings.

Dividend and return of capital

Archstone has a sturdy dividend history. The company has constantly issued a dividend since the year 1992 with consecutive increase for the last fifteen years (since 1997). This signifies that the company boasts of a well-created stand in its markets and gives expectations to have a dividend issuance into the coming years. The table below shows the most recent dividend information for the company.

Trak name Services provided
Navi-Gamma Trak Navigation and gamma ray
On TrakTM Resistivity, Gamma ray, Annular Pressure, VSS.,ECD
Auto Trak TM Near bit Inclination , Steering unit
Sound TrakTM Advanced acoustic logging
AziTrakTM Deep Azimuthally Resistivity, Resistivity , Gamma ray, Annular Pressure, VSS.,ECD
LithoTrakTM Porosity, Permeability, Imaging,
TesTrak
Dividend Information
Dividend Yield: 6.00 %
Dividend Yield 5yr Avg: 6.60 %
Dividend Rate: $ 4.85 %
Dividend Payout Ratio: 1,868.00 %
Dividend Payout Ratio 5yr Avg: 625.00 %
Dividend Growth Rate 3yr Avg: 4.92 %
Dividend Growth Rate 5yr Avg: 7.50 %
Dividend AllStar Ranking: