Category: Trojan War

The legend of the Trojan wars with its heroes like Achilles, its tale of a wooden horse, and Helen the most beautiful woman in the world has fascinated people for thousands of years. The historical evidence from archaeology and modern scholarship has been unable to conclusively prove accounts of the war left to us by poets such as Homer. Written evidence from the Hittites tablets suggests it’s possible that the Greeks attacked Troy, whilst the field research of greek archaeologists Schliemann and Korfmann provide physical evidence that Troy was a wealthy and substantial location. However, given the fact that neither the Greeks nor the Trojans were a literate society at the time, the search for concrete proof is unlikely to be fulfilled.

The city of Troy has been kept alive through many generations but many thought of this ancient town as just a myth. It has been the excavations carried out by many archaeologists including, Frank Calvert, Heinrich Schliemann, Wilhelm Dorpfeld, Carl Blegen, and Manfred Korfmann, all who have contributed to the discovery of this prolific city. It has been speculated that the ancient city of Troy is now known as the modern town of Hissarlik. Hissarlik is located in the Northwest of Turkey in close proximity to Gallipoli. This town is located at the mouth of the Dardanelles, a waterway that would have given the Trojans many wealth and riches as they would have been in charge of most of the trade within the country. Due to a low amount of primary sources, we can not fully support the idea of the Trojan War from the Greek myth perspective. Though there are vast amounts of sources that suggest the geographic location of Troy is that of the modern town of Hissarlik. The evidence suggesting this theory can be taken from Homer’s epic poems the Iliad and the Odyssey which suggest a similar geographic location to Hissarlik as well as records kept by the Hittite empire. These records are known as the Hittite tablets and in their writing, it states that villages on the coast of the Aegean sea in Turkey were being raided by the Mycenaean Greeks during the time period that The Trojan War would have occurred. This evidence supports the fact that the Greek civilization in this era were attacking cities around where Troy is thought to be located. Though these raids can also be explained from an economic perspective, competition for trade due to the strategic position that the Trojans had acquired, they were in control of the Dardanelles which meant that they controlled what entered from the Aegean sea to the Black sea.

Archaeology has played a major role in defining whether or not the Trojan war did occur. Excavation by the German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann has helped to solidify this idea, he used the words of Homer to depict what a modern city was that of Ancient Troy. In 1871 Schliemann began excavation on a man-made mound in the city of Hissarlik, his idea when completing the excavation was that the era he was digging for would be the lowest layer in the mound. During the excavation, he found many strata levels or cities. Schliemann came to the conclusion that the second last strata level was the one that Homer spoke about in his epic poems. This level had been destroyed in a drastic fire that wiped out the town, this evidence supports the myth because as stated in Homer’s epic poems the Greeks burnt Troy to the ground. Another significant find in this excavation were a vast amount of treasures including, gold, silver, vases, gold bracelets, headbands, earrings, diadems, electrum, bronze, and the most important find which became known as “Jewels of Helen”. These riches became known as the ‘Treasure of Priam’. King Priam is known as the last king of Troy before its downfall by the hands of the Greeks. This was important to Schliemann because by identifying the riches as the ‘treasure of Priam he had drawn the line between fact and myth. He made this correlation as he thought the jewelry fit into the time period where the Trojan war was thought to have occurred. This archaeological find if correct proved that Troy was in fact a wealthy country, this may be due to its strategic placement and its control of the trade routes. The archaeological finds by Heinrich Schliemann including ash and treasure have provided physical evidence that helps to prove that the Trojan War is not a myth but in actuality, it did occur.

After Schliemann finds another archaeologist by the name of Manfred Korfmann also set out to provide truth to the ancient myth. From 1982 to 1987 Korfmann excavated at Besik Bay in Turkey, a few kilometers from Hisilark the depicted location of Troy. Korfmann is one of the most recent archaeologists that has found evidence at the site. Korfmann was able to find the greater dimensions of Troy and also found evidence that suggests a battle did indeed occur. The evidence found consisted of arrowheads and sling shots at the site. As well as a wide ditch that was placed around the citadel, he believes that this was used to stop enemy chariots. These finds provide insight into the conflict that occurred in this city as well as help to provide physical evidence to prove the Trojan War did occur.

Though there is evidence that suggests that the Trojan War did in fact occur, this includes The Hittite tablets, Priam’s Treasure, Ash, Strata levels, and Homer’s epic poems. We can not conclusively say that the Trojan war did happen due to a lack of primary sources. The sources provided do show that some sort of war did occur but we can not accurately depict that it was the Trojan war. Due to a lack of key evidence like the Wooden horse, written sources from the time or skeletons we can not certainly say but sources like the Hittite tablets and Priam’s treasure do provide truth to this ancient myth.

The Trojan War

The Trojan War is a book by Barry Strauss in which he describes the Trojan War in a more modern view. The Trojan War is a highly controversial war that scholars debate over today as some believe it occurred while others believed it was made up by the ancient Greeks. Within the book, Barry talks about what he believes actually happened in the war and I will be taking a closer view on what the soldiers’ lives would have been like in the war. It is in my opinion that how Barry depicts the average soldier’s life within this long war is as close as factually accurate as one can get.

The first chapter of the book doesn’t pertain to my specific area of analysis of the book because it is about the political and social reasons the war was started and thus has nothing to do with the ordinary soldier fighting within the war. The second chapter of the book deals with the Greek warships sailing to Troy in order to fight over Helen. “Before him [Agamemnon] in the harbor lie hundreds of wooden ships… carrying men and supplies…” (31) This quote illustrates that the soldiers were seen more as objects for war however, later in the chapter, Strauss compliments the Greek army on being very proficient in naval warfare which means that the Greek soldiers have a lot of pride in their warfare. As the Greeks sailed to Troy, they prepared to fight a long ongoing battle.

Chapter 3 begins with the Greeks getting ready to land near Troy and the Trojans seeing them, “… shiver at the flutter of the polished firwood oars…” (49) This description shows that the Trojans were not a warfare-based society and that they valued other things such as trading. The chapter then depicts the Trojan soldiers getting ready to face off against the Greeks as they are about to land. However, before the Greeks landed they stopped at an island called Scyros and pillaged it. The book illustrates that the soldiers “lived like Olympians” (53) and this shows that the Greek soldiers lived an even better life when they were out fighting versus living at home because whatever they took, they kept. After the men had their fill and the generals discussed their strategy, they headed for the mainland. When they landed, the battle began and the first casualty was Protesilaus who was the king of Thessaly. This first battle was very important but, Strauss tells us that not a single ordinary soldier’s role is not talked about. This demonstrates that the Greeks didn’t care about the ordinary man as much as a hero. In the end, the Greeks won the first battle and were about to attack Troy.

Chapter 4 begins with the Greeks giving the Trojans “… one last chance for peace; the alternative was enmity and death.” The Trojans refuse to surrender and choose to fight. The Trojans are surrounded by 33 feet high walls and it is up to the Greeks to go on the offensive. This chapter doesn’t go into too much detail about the ordinary soldier but, it does talk about the shortage of food and that the armies would need a group to always be hunting for it. He does also mention that the Greeks tried to fight the Trojans to reach the walls of the cities but always failed. For an ordinary Greek soldier, this must have been exhausting because they were in a foreign land and constantly low on supplies such as food. However, for the Trojans, this inspired them as they were able to keep defending their homeland against this great army. In the end of the Chapter Strauss talks about the Greek soldiers climbing up siege ladders and getting to the top of the wall only to be stabbed and falling back down. This portrays the life of the ordinary soldier as they are only used as pawns to achieve a goal.

In Chapter 5, Strauss describes the Trojan War as a series of hit-and-run tactics by the Greeks on many Trojan cities outside its walls. He tells the reader that the Greek soldiers mainly attacked civilians and this gives the sense that the soldiers did not care about killing those who were defenseless. The ordinary soldier within this chapter seems as if they are greedy and don’t care about who they kill or what they do as long as they become richer after the fight. Strauss also says that the soldiers fought amongst themselves over who got the spoils after a raid. This shows that the soldiers weren’t as interested in defeating the Trojans themselves as much as obtaining their goods. This chapter paints the soldier in a bad light as they only care about themselves.

Chapter 6 begins with the Greek soldiers suffering from a plague that has been rampant for 9 days. This would have demoralized the soldiers as they were now not only dying from the enemy but also a disease. On top of this, about 5% of the Greek army pulled out because Achillies told his men to leave since the king, Agamemnon took his prize, Briseis. All of this would have led the average soldier to want to leave too and it showed when the Greek army was about to get back on their ships if it wasn’t for Odysseus to call them cowards and even beats a Greek who favored leaving. Odysseus’ speech “… had broken the mutiny with sharp, well-chosen words…” (113) and instilled within the soldiers, a feeling of pride. This showed that an ordinary soldier is quick to retreat and collapse without a good leader and a sense of purpose.

In the beginning of chapter 7, Strauss doesn’t talk about the typical soldier only of the champions Paris and Menelaus. However, later on when the Trojans break the truce during the battle of the champions “… a pitched battle ensued.” (120) Strauss then goes on to talk about the weapons used such as spears or swords, and formations of battles. Strauss describes what battle is like for the normal soldier and shows it is blood-shed. Afterward, the two armies call for a ceasefire in order to bury their dead. This must have been a very sad time for a soldier as they are now having to bury their comrades who they had just fought with. This chapter shows the excruciating truth of war and what the ordinary soldier had to go through in every battle they faced.

The Iliad by Homer showcases the god’s obsession with controlling humans for their own personal gain. The Iliad centers around the Trojan War which legend has it that was started because Paris, a prince of Troy, had to choose who was the most beautiful out of three goddesses, Hera, Aphrodite, and Athena. Paris was given gifts to sway his decision from the goddesses and he rewarded Helen from Aphrodite who was Menelaus’ wife. This led to Menelaus waging war on Troy to get his wife back. The Trojan War is a story caused by the divine for their own personal gain. Aphrodite caused a major conflict just to have her be called the most beautiful by a mortal. The goddess was acting selfishly for a minor prize. This demonstrates the way the Greek gods would interfere in human affairs. They did not get involved to see the humans prosper or live life the way that they are supposed to. The gods get to insert themselves for their own enjoyment even if it is for something as insignificant as a golden apple that says they are the most beautiful.

As the Trojan War continues many good soldiers are dying and the gods are swaying the war in the direction they want. Every soldier is fated to die at a certain point, and they cannot do anything to change this fate. The gods however do have the power to intervene and save them if they please. Zeus sees that his son, and favorite mortal, Sarpedon is going to die. Zeus says, “Before Ilion, after Patroclus himself has killed Many a youth, among them Sarpedon, my son” (Homer 142 66-67). Zeus says this in a discussion with Hera. Hera explains how if he were to save Sarpedon then all the gods would want to save their favorites. This is another example of how much influence the gods have and how interested they are in humans that are so far below them they can decide if they should live or die. Sarpedon could have been saved while another soldier could have been left to his fate all because he was Zeus’ favorite mortal. The Greek gods have very superficial feelings that for the humans in Greek myth can result in catastrophic or life-changing circumstances.

After the Trojan War, Aeneas, a Trojan soldier, escapes Troy as it is burning and starts a quest to find Rome. On his journey to discover Rome, he is sidetracked and lands in Carthage. In Carthage Juno plans for him to fall in love with Dido to distract him and keep him from making it to what will eventually be Rome. Juno says, “I’ll pour down black rain laced with hailstones And make all the heavens rumble with thunder. The hunters will scatter in the enveloping gloom, And Dido and Aeneas will find themselves In the same cave” (Virgil 56 140-144). Juno is manipulating the weather just to get Dido and Aeneas alone. Juno is so concerned with Aeneas’ journey that she is prepared to put Dido through emotional turmoil, which eventually leads to her death, to try and stop an individual from fulfilling his destiny. Juno in this scenario, just like the gods in other Roman and Greek stories, is obsessed with this one human’s dealings and is willing to destroy, manipulate, and do anything to stop Aeneas from discovering Rome.

The concern of the individual like the Greek and Roman gods is not as prevalent with the Judeo-Christian God. This god only interacts with individuals when it is to discuss or to spread a message to His people. It is not for God’s personal gain it is for the group to live a certain way. Early in the Bible, in Genesis, God creates a covenant with Abram. The covenant states that God has chosen Abram, whose name changes to Abraham, to be the father of his chosen people and that He would give Abraham many descendants. Genesis, says, “He took him outside and said: Look up at the sky and count the stars if you can be. Just so, he added, will your descendants be” (Genesis 15:5). God promises that he will give Abraham many descendants, something that Abraham wanted very badly, and Abraham will lead these people to be God’s chosen group. God is communicating with Abraham directly for the benefit of humans, specifically the Israelites. The contact with the divine does not have a personal agenda.

One of the main stories told throughout Greek mythology is the story of the Trojan War. In the story, the Greeks and The Trojans battle for the fair Helen. When it appeared that the Greeks had lost, they set sail, leaving behind a wooden horse. When Troy decided that they were victorious, they accepted the giant wooden horse into the gates of the city. Little did the Trojans know that inside the hollow horse, Greek soldiers were hiding, awaiting nightfall. The decision of the Trojans to accept the horse was ultimately a bad decision.

When the Trojans saw the magnificent horse, they looked upon it as a trophy. Although Cassandra the prophetess and Laocoön the priest of Apollo had both argued against allowing the horse into the gates, the Trojans ignored the warnings. Cassandra was cursed by Apollo to always predict the truth but to never be believed. She warned Paris not to go to Sparta. She “continued to predict the calamities in store for the Trojans” but was never listened to. Laocoön also warned the Trojans not to allow the horse into the gates when he said, “I fear the Greeks even when they offer gifts”.

He too was ignored and was punished by the gods for his warnings. The giant horse loomed outside of the gates while the soldiers inside held their breath, waiting for victory. When the Trojans had come upon the statue, “they believed it meant that the Greeks had withdrawn, leaving them the victors”. The tremendous statue was allowed into the city of Troy. When day turned to night, the Greeks snuck out of the statue and destroyed the city of Troy. Fires were created and men were killed. Women and children were stolen from their homes and sent or sold away.

The idea only sprouted because the Greeks were losing the battle of Troy. Helen had been stolen from the Spartans and Menelaus was furious. His army was determined to get her back for their king. The giant horse was created by the Greeks under Odysseus’ command. Odysseus knew that trickery would be the only way to win against Troy. Odysseus had “ordered a gigantic wooden horse to be built, hollow inside to accommodate many Greek soldiers.” With the hope of tricking the Trojans into accepting the horse, Odysseus and other Greek soldiers hid in the hollow horse while the rest of the Greek soldiers were sent home on their ships. Just Sinon was left behind in order to trick the soldiers into accepting the gift. The Trojans were so overcome with excitement, that they accepted the horse as a trophy with little thought.

Allowing the horse into Troy was a bad decision because Troy was taken over and fell with the Trojan War. The Trojan War “lasted ten years and was successful only because of the Trojan Horse, a work of deception” (“War Engines: Land and Sea”). If Odysseus had not thought of the giant statue, the Trojans would have won the war. Despite the multiple warnings toward the Trojans, the “gift” was accepted into the gates of the city.

The Trojans “dragged the horse inside the walls and held a raucous celebration. Late in the night, after the drunken revelers had fallen asleep, Odysseus and his men climbed out of the horse and sacked the city. Menelaus returned home with Helen”. The city of Troy fell and the Greeks were victorious. The lesson the Trojans learned with their ten years war was that things aren’t always what they appear and that one should always look a little deeper into what appears to be a victory. They also learned that Cassandra had been right all along. This helped lead to the classic Greek mythological idea of fate and destiny.

The famous Greek myth of The Trojan War is an excellent example of a decision gone wrong. The decision of the people of Troy led to the downfall of the city. Ignoring the warnings of those who opposed the giant horse, Troy was destroyed by the clever Greek men hiding inside. The one decision that was made completely changed the outcome of many lives.

Thesis The Trojan War started in c.1200 BC when Aphrodite offered Paris of Troy Helen of Sparta for the apple of discord, He accepted her offer. Aphrodite made a plan to make Helen of Sparta fall in love with Paris; She disguised Paris as a diplomatic emissary. Then he went to Sparta, Helen welcomed him with open arms, while Menelaus was away in Crete, The god of love Eros, shot an arrow at her making her fall in love with Paris. They married and left for Troy. When Menelaus returned home from Crete, he realized that Helen had run off with Paris. He and Odysseus went to Troy to retrieve Helen, But all diplomatic attempts failed So Menelaus invoked the oath of Tyndareus and with help from his brother Agamemnon, Called all Greek leaders who had previously been in line to marry Helen to fulfill their pledge. They also needed the help of Achilles, because of the prophecy that Troy would only fall with his help. Odysseus, Telamonian Ajax, and Phoenix went to Skyros where they knew Achilles was hidden. Achilles was disguising himself as a woman, Then there, they either blew a warhorn, on the sound of which Achilles was the only woman that took a spear in hand; or they appeared as merchants selling jewels and weapons. Achilles was the single woman interested in the weapons.

The reason the war started is technically that of Menelaus; he failed to sacrifice one hundred oxen to Aphrodite which began her wrath. The story of Trojan War highlights how deeply the Greeks and Trojans believed that the Gods and the rituals used to appease them affected everything they did in their daily lives.The Cause Of the Trojan WarIt started at the wedding of Peleus and Thetis where Eris, The goddess of discord, threw a golden apple to Aphrodite, Hera and Athena addressed “To the Fairest.” The reason Eris had thrown the apple was that all the Gods and Goddesses were invited attend except Eris. Zeus refused to judge the goddesses and gave the task to Paris, A mortal prince, to choose who was the fairest; He couldn’t decide between the three, so The Goddesses bribed him with gifts. Hera offered to make him king of all men if she had been chosen as the fairest, Athena promised him victory in war, and Aphrodite offered him the most beautiful woman in the world. Because of her offer he selected Aphrodite, she told him that she would get him, Helen of Sparta, the only catch was that she was married to Menelaus, King of Sparta. Paris went to Sparta while Menelaus was in Crete, Helen welcomed him with open arms. Eros, God of love, shot an arrow at Helen and made her fall in love with Paris, They eloped immediately and went back to Troy.

When Menelaus came back from Crete and found out what happened, He had Odysseus go to Troy with him to retrieve Helen, When all diplomatic attempts had failed he invoked the oath of Tyndareus and with the help of his brother Agamemnon. He called all the Greek leaders who had been in line to marry Helen to fulfill their pledge. They had also needed the help of Achilles because of a prophecy that Troy would only fall with his support. Phoenix, Telamonian, Ajax, and Odysseus went to Skyros where they knew Achilles was hidden. Achilles was disguising himself as a female, Then there, they either blew a warhorn, on the sound of which Achilles was the only woman that took a spear in hand; or they appeared as merchants selling jewels and weapons. Achilles was the only female intrigued by the weaponry. The Siege Of TroyMenelaus’s brother happened to be Agamemnon, who was the most powerful king amongst the Greeks. Menelaus and Agamemnon visited all of the Greek Chieftains and persuaded them to take part in a colossal expedition which they were preparing to take down Troy, Agamemnon had been chosen as commander-inchief; next to him were the most important Greek heroes, his brother Menelaus, Patroclus, and Achilles. Two unrelated men named Ajax, Nestor and his son Antilochus, Teucer, Idomeneus, Diomedes, Odysseus, and Philoctetes, who, however, at the very start of the expedition had to be left behind. They didn’t appear on the scene of action right until the fall of Troy.

The entire army consisted of 100,000 Greek warriors and 1,186 ships assembled in the harbor of Aulis. Before they left for the expedition, they made sacrifices to secure the favor of the gods for the voyage to Troy. While making the sacrifice, a snake darted out from under the altar, went up a tree, devoured eight young sparrows, and the mother had finally turned into stone. This omen Calchas, the seer of the host, interpreted that it meant the war would last nine years and end in the tenth year with the fall of Troy. Agamemnon had previously met an oracle from Delphi that Troy would fall when the heroes of Greece fought amongst each other. In Homer, the crossing to Troy starts immediately, but in the following story, the Greeks accidentally land in Mysia, in the country of Telephus, They’re scattered by a storm and driven back to Greece, and then assemble anew at Aulis. Once they had arrived, they learn divine disfavor is preventing them from crossing into Troy until Agamemnon agrees to sacrifices his daughter, Iphigenia, to appease the enraged gods, this was an incident that was entirely unknown to Homer. After landing, skirmishing, and setting up their camp. Odysseus and Menelaus proceed as ambassadors to Troy, to demand the surrender of Helen, in spite of the inclination of Helen herself and the warning of the Trojan Antenor, never takes hold, owing to the opposition of Paris.

War was declared, the amount of the Trojans numbered less than one-tenth of the Greeks. Even though they had many brave heroes such as Glaucus, Aeneas, Sarpedon, and especially Hector, in fear of Achilles, they didn’t dare to engage a general attack and remained holed up behind massive walls protecting the city. The Greeks couldn’t do anything against the well-fortified and defended town, and see themselves confined to laying ambushes and devastating the surrounding area, and compelled by the lack of provisions, had to resort to foraging expeditions in the surrounding by sea and land by general Achilles. As the last decisive tenth year reaches, The Iliad narrates the events of this year, restricting itself to the space of fifty-one days. During the war, the Greeks have taken multiple war prizes from the encompassing countryside. One of these prizes is Chryseis, the daughter of Chryses, a priest of Apollo. He came in priestly garb into the camp of the Greeks to redeem his daughter from Agamemnon. He is rudely put down, and Apollo consequently visits the Greeks with a plague. In an assembly of the Greeks requested by Achilles, the seer Calchas declares the only means of the appeasing the god to be the surrender of the girl without ransom.

Agamemnon consents to the general wish. But, in the way of compensation, takes from Achilles, who he considers to be the instigator of the whole lot, his favorite slave Briseis. Achilles withdraws, furious, to his tent and implores his mother, Thetis to attain a promise from Zeus that the Greeks should meet with disaster in fighting the Trojans until Agamemnon returns the girl and restores Achilles” honor. The Trojans immediately take the open ground, and Agamemnon is induced by a promise of victory, conveyed in a lying dream from Zeus, to start the fight. The armies are standing opposing to one another, prepared to fight when they agree to a treaty that the entire conflict will be decided by a battle fought between Paris and Menelaus. Paris is defeated in the battle and is only saved from death by the interference of Aphrodite. When Agamemnon presses for the attainment of the treaty, the Trojan Pandarus breaks the truce by shooting an arrow at Menelaus, and the treaty breaks apart. The first open pact in the war begins, in which, under the safeguard of Athena, Diomedes performs marvels of courage and damage even Ares and Aphrodite. Diomedes and the Lycian Glaucus are on the verge of fighting when they recognize one another as genealogical guest-friends and stop their fight, an indicator of how important the concept of hospitality, XENIA, in Greek. The day ends with a tentative duel between Hector and Ajax son of Telamon. They make a truce to bury their deceased, and the Greeks, acting on the input of Nestor, surrounding their camp with a wall and trench.

Once the battle begins again, Zeus forbids the gods to take part in it and imposes that the fight shall end with the defeat of the Greeks. On the following night, Agamemnon already begins to think about fleeing, but Nestor advises reconciliation with Achilles. Agamemnon sends an embassy, including Odysseus, to make amends with Achilles. The efforts of ambassadors are, however, fruitless. Then Odysseus and Diomedes go out on a night-time reconnaissance mission, kill many Trojans, and capture a Trojan spy. On a succeeding day, Agamemnon’s bravery drives the Trojans back to the walls of the town; but he, Odysseus, Diomedes, and other heroes leave the battle wounded, and the Greeks retreat behind the camp’s walls. The Trojans advance and attack the Greek walls. The resistance of the Greeks is daring, but Hector breaks the rough gate with a rock, and the stream of enemies pours itself free into the camp. Once again the Greek heroes who are still adequate and can take part in the battle, especially the two Ajaxes and Idomeneus. They become victorious with the help of Poseidon in repelling the Trojans, while Telamonian Ajax makes Hector dash to the ground with a stone; but the latter soon reappears on the battlefield with the new strength given to him by Apollo at the order of Zeus. Poseidon is obliged to leave the Greeks to their fate; they retire again to the ships, which Ajax in vain defends. The Trojans advance still further to where they can begin torching the Greek ships. Hector and Achilles this point, Achilles allows his friend Patroclus to borrow his armor and enter the battle with their set of soldiers to help the distressed Greeks. Supposing it to be Achilles himself, the Trojans in fear flee from the camp before Patroclus, who chases them to the town and lays low vast numbers of the enemy, including the brave Sarpedon, whose corpse is only rescued from the Greeks after a relentless fight.

At last Patroclus himself is killed by Hector with the help of Apollo; Achilles” arms are lost, and even the corpse is with difficulty saved. And now Achilles repents of his anger, reconciles himself to Agamemnon, and on the following day, furnished with new and splendid armor by Hephaestus at the request of Thetis, avenges the death of his friend on countless Trojans and finally on Hector himself. The Iliad closes with the burial of Patroclus and the funeral games initiated in his honor, the restoration of Hector’s corpse to Priam, and the burying of Hector, for which Achilles allows an armistice of eleven days. Immediately after the death of Hector, the following legends bring the Amazons to the help of the Trojans, and their queen Penthesilea is killed by Achilles. Then arrives Memnon at the head of an Ethiopian contingent. He slays Antilochus son of Nestor but is also killed by Achilles. Death of Achilles now comes to the fulfillment of the oracle given to Agamemnon at Delphi; for at a sacrificial banquet a violent quarrel arises between Achilles and Odysseus, the latter declaring craft and not valor to be the only means of destroying Troy. Soon after, in an attempt to force a way into the hostile town through the Scaean gate, Achilles falls, killed by the arrow of Paris, directed by the god. After his burial, Thetis offers the arms of her son as a prize for the bravest of the Greek heroes, which provokes a fight among the Greeks for the title and the arms. Odysseus wins, and his main competition, the Telamonian Ajax, kills himself.

There have been many iterations of the tale of the Trojan War, with the Iliad being the most referenced account of the heroes that fought. William Shakespeare, having borrowed heavily from fellow writer Geoffrey Chaucer, recounts the Trojan War with the same events and heroes. However, in true Shakespeare style, the famous playwright offers his own spin on such events and heroes, introducing a very distinct sense of realism throughout the conflict in his play Troilus and Cressida. The Greek deities’ roles in the retelling are reduced to the point of non-existence, only referred to by name to those involved. Shakespeare’s break from tradition with the Homeric Iliad is evident in how Shakespeare portrays the heroes on either side of the conflict, his abandonment of the Greek deities’ actions, and the various anachronisms he introduces in his play. Shakespeare takes the legendary Iliad and draws the epicness out of it, replacing it, in his play, with a deep sense of realism in the heroes and plot.

The first hero of note to display Shakespeare’s break from tradition also happens to arguably be the most powerful warrior in the conflict, Achilles. In Mark Edwards’ take on the Iliad, the god Apollo’s rage-fueled plague against the Greeks “based not only on his support for Hector and Troy but probably also on the tale that Achilles killed young Troilus, Priam’s son, in the temple of Apollo” (304). The fact that Homer initially depicted Achilles as Troilus’s murderer apparently did not sit well for the plot of Shakespeare’s play as Troilus is one of the titular and thus significant characters. Interestingly, Achilles, by comparison, is given a minimized role in the play. This is interesting because the Iliad is sometimes referred to as the rage of Achilles, so the break from tradition in this instance of Achilles is clear.

Achilles’s relationships with others form an important part of the Iliad: his hatred of Agamemnon, his respect for Priam, his disgust with Thersites; but Shakespeare too breaks from tradition with this subject as well. In the Iliad, for example, according to Robert Fagles’s version, in regards to Thersites, supposedly the truth teller of the common Greek warrior, “Achilles despised him most” (II.256). Because of Thersites’s brutal honesty in how the Greek commanders are faring, there are very few among the leadership that hold him in high regard. In Troilus and Cressida however, upon one of the interactions with Thersites, Achilles offers him to feast with him. After a particularly deep lone lamentation on the part of Thersites, Achilles later asks why he has not joined him in feasts, “Where…Art thou come?…why hast thou not served thyself in to my table so many meals? Come, what’s Agamemnon?” (II.iii, 40-43). Achilles first asks where has Thersites been in his railing against the Greek leadership, extends a warm embrace in including Thersites in his feasts, and then empathetically asks what is Agamemnon to Thersites in a spirit of understanding. This represents a difference in relations between the Iliad and in Troilus and Cressida. In the Iliad, as plainly stated, Thersites is despised by all, including Achilles who is said to despise him most, yet in Troilus and Cressida, he extends the hand of friendship and understanding because they both, in reality, share the same message: this is not their war, this is Agamemnon and Menelaus’s war. Thus, Shakespeare openly breaks from tradition by including Achilles’s near brotherly manner towards Thersites, despite the insults occasionally slung his way.

The manner in which Achilles handles such insults, whether directed at him or to his cousin Patroclus, also shows Achilles rather cool headed demeanor in contrast to the fiery wrath portrayed in Homer’s Iliad. When invited to join Achilles in his feasts, Achilles seeks to understand Thersites’s views more completely and bids him to talk. The roles that Achilles, Thersites, and even Patroclus have is brought up for discussion, but it does not appear as though Achilles allows these words to affect him even as Thersites turns the subject into a slight against Patroclus. “Peace, fool! I have not done,” Thersites exclaims to Patroclus, to which Achilles responds “He is a privileged man. Proceed Thersites” (Act II.iii 56-57). Thersites had just railed on Patroclus, calling him a fool and both Patroclus and Achilles know well of Thersites’s vehement hatred towards Agamemnon along with most of the leaders of the Greek army. While Patroclus is quick to shut Thersites down, Achilles is the sympathetic voice, and perhaps it is because in truth, Achilles and Thersites share the same viewpoints on the Trojan War: that it is a useless war based on ego and greed. Achilles welcomes Thersites’s continued criticisms if for no other reason but to understand him better than he may understand himself perhaps. It is with this relationship with Thersites that Shakespeare perhaps offers one of the more acute breaks from tradition.

Finally, near the end of Troilus and Cressida, the differences of Achilles’s actions and character are completed as Shakespeare rewrites how Achilles ends Hector’s life. In the Iliad, Homer states that Achilles had a divine intervention: Athena had disguised herself as Hector’s ally, Deiphobus, in his frantic duel with an enraged Achilles. It was only after the illusion disappeared, that Achilles killed Hector, who was still completely armed and thus died an honorable death. However, Shakespeare has decreed that there would be no mystic forces or deities in his play Troilus and Cressida; he once again departs from tradition by offering a different rendition of Hector’s death.

Hector’s end, as depicted in the Iliad compared to the scene from Troilus and Cressida, does not come nearly so honorably on the part of Achilles who has ample assistance against an unarmed Hector. Near the end of another day of battle, Hector prematurely begins to disarm himself “Rest, sword, thou hast thy fill of blood and death.” Not one moment passes by when Achilles and his gang of Myrmidons interrupts Hector in his apparent reverie, “Look, Hector, how the sun begins to set…To close the day up, Hector’s life is done.” Hector pleads with Achilles to face him when he is armed, “Forgo this vantage, Greek.” Achilles, uncaringly, commands his men to attack “Strike, fellows, strike! This is the fellow I seek,” and Hector is then killed . It is clear here that Achilles does not care whether Hector’s death is honorable or not, and there is no confirmation even that Achilles was the one who had dealt the deathblow to Hector. Whether Patroclus’s death earlier in the play enraged Achilles to the point of not caring about honor or Achilles thought that Hector was admittedly foolish to disarm on the field and thus deserved his death all the more is quite open to interpretation. However, it is clear that Achilles’s killing of Hector was completely devoid of mysticism and honor, bravery and glory as told in the epic, thus confirming once more of Shakespeare’s break from the story told in The Iliad.

On the discussion of characters, one of the main characters in Troilus and Cressida, Pandarus, varies greatly from the play as compared to the epic of the Iliad. Pandarus, in the Iliad, is an archer who was a keen hunter and, following a brief truce between the opposing forces, is tempted by Athena with promises of glory and prizes were he to fell Menelaus with a single arrow. However, once the arrow is launched, Athena turns what may have been a fatal shot into a wounding one and thus the brutal war begins anew (IV.99-153). Comparing to the smooth talking, shady panderer that Shakespeare portrays in Troilus and Cressida, one could almost assume that it was a different Pandarus mentioned in the Iliad by how different the two are in their roles. The only similarities between the two depictions of Pandarus is that the Trojan warriors in the Iliad sought to block the view of Pandarus’s shot from the Greeks so he may aim critically without being seen, and perhaps there is some symbolism for that in Troilus and Cressida as Pandarus’s motives too are hard to truly derive. In a way, Shakespeare twists the character of Pandarus to suit his own needs to tell the story. While Pandarus was only famous for his missed shot in the Iliad as an archer, he is known to have hidden aims and is known to be a master manipulator in the Shakespeare’s play: a break from tradition most assuredly, but somewhat of a symbolic gesture one could assume.

Shakespeare’s handling of characters is not in the least what changes when comparing the Iliad to Troilus and Cressida; being a man of his times, Shakespeare twists his retelling of the events of the Iliad to relate to the audience by eschewing the Greek deities’ interventions and references to titles and sayings of religious nature. These anachronisms serve to further part Homer and Shakespeare in their respective tales. First, it is important to note that absolutely nowhere within Troilus and Cressida are there divine interventions of any kind. The mortals of the play only mention the deities by name, and only then by their Roman names. This is significant because it is theorized the survivors of Troy went on to found Rome, thus many believe that Shakespeare went so far as to favor the Trojans, supported by the cowardly acts of Achilles and the brutish demeanors of the Greeks towards Cressida.

One could even note that, given Shakespeare’s hinted religious affiliations in nearly all of his plays, that the connection made to Rome holds special significance in Troilus and Cressida. Rome, after all, is the birthplace of Catholicism, and once again, in true Shakespeare style, the playwright offers many small references to the faith. What’s more is it is entirely possible to complete the analogy of comparing to the Trojans to Rome by comparing the Greeks to England. It is no secret that in the 16th century, Henry VIII severed all ties from the Catholic Church after several disputes over the annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. Therefore, the comparison is now complete: covertly, the Trojans represented Rome and Catholicism while the Greeks represented the onslaught of Protestantism in the hearts and minds of the English led by King Henry VIII. It is important to note that this may be one of the subtler, yet controversial changes to the tone of the events originally portrayed by Homer as Shakespeare may have intended to spread his own views throughout the play.

Various anachronisms introduced by Shakespeare serve to further differentiate Homer’s work from the famous playwright. On the subject of religion, the characters of Troilus and Cressida, as indicated earlier, introduce the saying of amen in agreement or assertion of a point, something purely Christian in nature. Achilles, as a matter of fact, makes a reference to the Virgin Mary, perhaps hinting at Shakespeare’s own religious preference as Achilles begins talking of the visit by Hector and oncoming lottery. “Marry, this, sir, is proclaimed” (II.i, 120). Marry is taken to mean as though Achilles is stating ‘by the Virgin Mary’, in the same manner as one might say ‘by God’ in today’s time. Lastly, the introduction of the title of knight throughout Troilus and Cressida is another anachronism for the term knight implies nobility, honor, and chivalry and while this may have been a romantic term well known to the audience, such a title simply did not exist back in Homer’s era. These anachronisms, as a whole, assist Shakespeare in taking Homer’s Iliad and evolving it into a story more suited for his own needs and telling in Troilus and Cressida.

By portraying the Trojan War as thus, Shakespeare makes a statement of sorts: that sometimes heroes an audience glorifies are nothing more than mortals who share many of the same flaws and misgivings as the audience. The Greeks did not gain the honor they sought by attacking and sacking Troy in Troilus and Cressida, rather it is possible Shakespeare made an example of the Greeks’ lecherous and cowardly ways. Shakespeare morphs the heroes he depicts in his adaptation to more closely reflect his vision of realism in such times. More than that, Shakespeare perhaps introduces a bit of his own spirituality by the mentions of amen to seal powerful sayings, and even calling on the icon of the Virgin Mary. In the end, these anachronisms serve to further divide the play of Troilus and Cressida from the epic of Homer’s Iliad, and though Shakespeare may have been a fan of the epic, he clearly also had his reservations and critiques. By adapting Chaucer’s earlier work, Shakespeare gets to reinvent Homer’s epic in his own personal interpretation while dialing back the ferocity and power of both sides’ heroes to more realistic levels and removing all divine intervention save calling of Greek deities’ names. Plainly stated, Shakespeare’s telling of Troilus and Cressida can be described as an anti-Homeric Iliad, and perhaps he sought by taking the epic out of the epic, his audience could more closely connect with the heroes and ideals in this ancient war of pride, lust, and greed.