The rapid expansion of railroads between the late 19th and early 20th centuries changed America’s economy and industry forever. New York city did experience its fair share of commotion that culminated in the expansion of railroads to other areas of the nation. Two big companies that were competing for neck-to-neck were the Pennsylvania Railroad that was managed by Alexander J. Cassette, a gentleman who was better regard are the rail industry’s most brilliant person.
The other gentleman was Mr. Vanderbilt of Vanderbilt rail. Stiff competition between these two companies and a few other players resulted in the remarkable185, 000 miles of railroad in the United States, a number that equaled railroads of all other countries combined. Such successes resulted in them being called robber barons (Folsom 19). Mr. Cassette had been the ultimate leader in the rail industry around New England. Vanderbilt on the other hand controlled the island of New York. Only the Brooklyn Bridge and Vanderbilt’s Tunnel that connected Manhattan to the mainland.
New-York’s expancion
Other railroad companies-built waterfront terminals along with NJ and NY, then operated ferries to carry passengers across waters. This pissed Cassette because he operated, Pennsylvania, America’s best-managed Rail company yet he had no way of crossing his trains to the city. He, therefore, had to find a solution to make a way for his railroad to cross the one-mile glacially created Hudson River. He was annoyed that his companies could only ferry passengers to fringes of New York City, whereas his archrival, Vanderbilt, ferried clients to the heart of the city, which was facilitated by its tunnel and rail network in the city.
Vanderbilt was regularly buying other companies, which ended up creating one of the largest rail companies in the country. He further purchased estate close to the current 42nd street and constructed America’s largest train terminal He had immense government support, because of the increasing train accidents in the city. He further bought depots that consisted of workshops, blacksmiths, and other assets that made his operations less costly and efficient than competitors.
As the New York population expanded, Vanderbilt was eager to provide the crowded New Yorkers with more ways of getting around. This culminated in the construction of the Depot, Grand Central’s predecessor, which became the first American station to rival those in Europe. The Depot had 7 tracks, 12 platforms, and 85 trains daily. The depot was however filled with smoke from engines. Vanderbilt’s employees facilitated ways for engines to disengage from cars and accelerate, but leave wagons on platforms. This worked wonders. Given the vast area that Vanderbilt trains served, the depot became the departure and arrival port of choice for passengers traveling to far-flung areas.
Vanderbilt’s death so the entry of his son William into company management. He worked closely with financier J. P. Morgan. The rivalry between Vanderbilt and Pennsylvania intensified as the former started acquiring several companies to counter the competition (NYT Editor p2). Both companies were utilizing colossal amounts of money, which could have easily led to their downfall and bring with them the American economy. On observing this, Morgan invited leaders from both companies for a talk regarding the imminent dangers on their companies and the American economy. An agreement favorable to both parties was reached and the looming crisis averted. This successfully entrenched J. P. Morgan deeper into the rail industry; he became a power to reckon with (Vaughn).
The Vanderbilt’s New York deport kept growing with leaps and bounds. This exerted pressure on the Depot, which necessitated its expansion. It is during this time that three floors were added and a French renaissance tone was added to the architecture. In 1899 the station renovation was started; more tracks and sheds were added. Station activities were not affected by the reconstruction. After the completion in 1902, the company still struggled with the smoke and steam that filled tunnels and had to find a solution. An accident that happened later in the year due to smoke in tunnels forced the company, albeit under public pressure, to get a new solution.
This led to the electrically powered engines. The electrification led to the underground construction of train tracks. The sale of the valued real estate above underground tracks funded electrification of the system. The electrification led to the construction of current shops that have increased passenger comfort in the facility.
Entering New York City
From Port Authority Bus Terminal
Tourists arriving in New York through this terminal and intend to go to downtown Manhattan have a first choice of taking cub. But for scenic reasons and experiencing the city life, tourists can hop onto the downtown bound blue (ACE) train that runs along the eighth avenue. Canal Street is the last stop of E train; the last sop used to be the World Trade Center. The last stop for both A and C trains is on Broadway-Nassau station. Alternatively, the individuals can walk down the 42nd street to the Times Squire, where they can use red (1, 2, 3) and yellow (N, R, Q, W) downtown bound trains. There are also buses plying these routes but trains are the most efficient way to get around and experience New York.
From Grand Central Station
Tourists going to downtown Manhattan from grand central are more convenient using the green (4, 5, 6) downtown-bound trains. The last stop for the number six train is at Spring Street while numbers 4 and 5 trains last to at Manhattan is at Bowling Green station.
From LaGuardia International Airport
Passengers arriving from either LaGuardia or JFK Airports can use various taxi and shuttle companies that ply the route to Manhattan. Most of the charged fare over $40. Budget travelers can however use a Port Authority Express Shuttles that serve the Manhattan-JFK-LaGuardia route, with descent $15 fares. The busses arrive on 42 Street, next to Grand Central Station. Passengers can therefore cross the street into Grand central and use downtown bound green trains as explained above.
References
Burton, Folsom. The Myth of Robber Barons. Washington: Young America’s Foundation, 1991.
The Editor. “A Railway War Begun; Mr. Vanderbilt’s Entry Into Pennsylvania. First.
Move Of The Pennsylvania Central–An Unlooked For Blow–Lively Times Expected In Pennsylvania.” The New York Times. 1883, p. 2.
Whisker, Vaughn. Tales of the Allegheny Foothills. 2008 Everettarea.org. Web.
America during the last three decades of the nineteenth century witnessed unparalleled economic expansion, growth that encompassed agricultural, manufacturing, and transportation sectors. The gross national product (GNP), in constant dollars, almost quadrupled during the 1870-1900 period, while per capita real income (in constant dollars) increased approximately 80 percent [Poole, 1999].
The touchstone of this multiple expansion was the railroad industry—by the end of the century, the largest industrial employer in the nation. In 1870 total railroad mileage amounted to 45,000 miles of mainline track. By 1890, that figure had risen to 170,000 miles of trackage. Rolling stock figures are even more telling. “In 1876 (the first year when records were kept), there were 385,000 freight cars, 14,600 passenger cars, and 15,600 locomotives. In 1890 the numbers were 1,062,000 freight cars, 21,700 passenger cars, and 31,800 locomotives [Poole, 1999].” It was, of course, the increase in freight cars, effectively a yardstick of the expansion of the industrial economy, which points to the exponential increase in the nation’s manufacturing sector during the years in question. Nonetheless, the railroad industry had its detractors.
Farmers—still, collectively, the largest single occupational class—blamed falling commodity prices on the railroads that shipped the products, along with grain elevator companies and banks. The recommended ‘cure’ took the form of a combination of ‘cheap money (unlimited coinage of silver at a fixed ratio to gold) and greater regulation of the industry itself. In terms of partisan politics, this ‘us against them attitude—sometimes called prairie radicalism—was encapsulated in the People’s Party, the Populist movement.
This report examines those factors relating to the expansion of the rail net during the last years of the nineteenth century, the motivations of the men responsible for these developments, and popular perceptions of the industry and its prime movers.
Background
Railroads were the first modern industry in the sense that their development, construction, operation, and even maintenance were significantly independent of the communities they served. “Prior to the 1830s, when the first railroads were constructed, the largest businesses in the world were textile mills. However, even the largest of these mills could be viewed in a few hour’s walk. The physical scale of even a small railroad made it qualitatively different from all business organizations that preceded it [Poole, 1999].” Equally important, the manner in which railroads functioned magnified the importance of the logistic aspect of the industrial production-distribution process.1
The railroad industry was at the ‘cutting edge’ of late-nineteenth-century technology. As such, it either established demand for industrial equipment that it did not produce (e.g., locomotives, freight cars) or indirectly encouraged reorientation of production and provision of services (e.g., the steel industry.2 and telegraphy3Respectively). According to Field, “The 1880s were a big decade for the expansion of such MBE [modern business enterprise] intensive sub-sectors as steel, cigarettes, meatpacking, and petroleum refining. Use of this organizational form required the availability of the reliable railroad and telegraph service and was necessary for manufacturing to exploit economies dependent not just upon scale per se but on ensuring high levels of capacity utilization and rate of inventory turnover [April 2006].”
At the same time, agriculture—bound up with the natural cycle of plant growth—was less amenable to orienting its production to accommodate optimized railroad scheduling requirements. To a limited extent, this was ameliorated by the expansion of the grain elevator system.4 However, the more aggressive agrarian response was a demand for increased government regulation.5 At the same time, MBE industries, largely reliant on immigrant unskilled or semi-skilled labor, had little incentive to accommodate employee interests that conflicted with corporate goals.6 In the case of railroads, the outcome would be the bloodstained strikes of 1877 and 1894.
Railroad business practices in the late nineteenth century
There were a number of distinct, albeit related, fundamental business ideas and practices that defined railroad operations during the postbellum period.
The modern business enterprise (MBE)
Railroads were the first MBEs. “Modern business enterprises employ a multidivisional structure, depend on management information systems, and are run by a cadre of professional managers. Nineteenth-century MBEs used the telegraph to move information quickly, the typewriter to create and maintain administrative records, and the vertical file to store them. The linotype machine and innovations in making cheap paper from wood pulp spelled dramatic reductions in the cost of mass media, which were in turn increasingly utilized by department stores, mail-order houses, and manufacturers to stimulate demand for their products or services through advertising [Field, 2006, 19].” Also, under such conditions, relatively small start-up companies—ones that produced only a small line of finished goods—could find an adequate consumer base. “MBE made possible and in turn was technologically dependent on nationwide systems of telegraph communication and railroad transportation. You could not have MBE without the telegraph, and there was no rationale for it without the railroad [Field, 2006, 19].” Agricultural commodity production, of course, could never fully accommodate itself to such a logistic system.
Consolidation
Recurring financial crises (e.g., 1873, 1893) had a disparate impact on the railroad industry: smaller roads often went under financially, while the larger corporations were able to ride out the economic storm. “The dominant national trend in railroad management and finance from the 1880s on was consolidation. By purchase, lease, or trust arrangements, the larger systems absorbed smaller lines. The giants of railroad strategy and finance, such as the Big Four and New York’s Vanderbilt group, reached out far beyond the regions where they had begun so as to control railroad interests to which they might tie their older holdings [Van Ophem, 2003, 26].” While this likely increased efficiencies in product delivery,7 A factor certainly appreciated by urban manufacturers and dwellers, it certainly had the ancillary effect of increasing the social distance between rural farmers—who previously may have been on personally friendly terms with the owner-operator of an independent spur line—and the conglomerate organization that latterly assumed ownership.
Opposition to unionization
A number of occupation-oriented unions (e.g., Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen, Brotherhood of Railway Brakemen, in 1873 and 1883, respectively) were organized during the post-Civil War years. The main goals of the brotherhoods were the promotion of the economic interests of their members. Their main tasks were negotiating wage and hour schedules, lines of promotions, and other issues. On the whole, the brotherhoods were not strike-minded but were ready to use this method to enforce demands they believed in [Van Ophem, 2003, 20].”
A number of railroads took advantage of the economic depression of the mid-1870s to both reduce wages and increase work output demands.8 “When company after the company started announcing wage cuts, a series of violent strikes by railroad workers in a dozen cities followed. These strikes shook the nation as no labor conflict had done before [Van Ophem, 2003, 21].” Strike outbreaks spread across the industrial belt, extending from Illinois to New York. Some were organized; others followed the ‘wildcat’ pattern—support for railroad men by workers in other industries (e.g., steel, rolling stock manufacture). In several states, governors responded to the unrest by calling out state militias, organizations composed of ill-trained men, in an era when modern approaches to crowd control and dispersal were yet unlearned. Several dozen people were killed during the period, the majority of them innocent bystanders. While the public appeared to have little sympathy for the strikers—after all, they were disrupting the flow of national business—there was nonetheless considerable disgust at the manner in which the labor dispute was being handled.9 Arguably, such corporate behavior laid the groundwork for the regulatory reform movement that would bear fruit in the first years of the 20th century.
Popular perceptions of the railroad industry
Popular attitudes toward large institutions, public or private, is often a function of the specific interests of affected individuals. In times of prosperity, providers of public services are often considered benevolent agencies. In times of economic downturn, those same organizations may be perceived as contributing to or aggravating an already unpleasant situation. (The example of the 1877 rash of strikes described above is a case in point.) Publicly expressed farmer dissatisfaction during the post-Civil War period tracked with the depression in grain commodity prices. During the Grange movement period (ca. 1867-1887), wheat fluctuated between 30 and 58 cents per bushel [Poole, Graph P: ‘Corn Production’].
Following the 1893 financial panic,10 wheat fell to 20 cents per bushel, in a year in which over 250 million bushels were delivered to market [Poole, Graph P]. (During the earlier period, total production little more than half that of 1894.) “Farmers blamed the falling prices on the railroads, elevator companies, mortgage rates, trusts, and so on. Their cure for the deflation was the ‘free’ coinage of silver.11… In fact, railroad rates fell faster than the overall price level throughout this period. Indeed, the number of bushels exchanged for the distance shipped was constant if not falling throughout the period. The railroads were not guilty of ‘gouging’ the farmers [Poole].”
As it happened, wheat prices slowly recovered over the next two decades. (This was inversely reflected in the draw-down of the fortunes of the Peoples’ Party, a radical agrarian movement that actually succeeded in electing a few members of Congress in 1894. The Populists, as they were called, favored unlimited coinage of silver, state ownership of grain elevators, and increased regulation of railroads. As economic conditions improved, these proposals drew concomitantly less popular support.12)
Final thoughts
It must be borne in mind that—despite financial panics, industrial working conditions that killed and maimed with appalling regularity, low returns for agricultural production, and labor strife that took dozens of lives—the last three decades of the nineteenth century were years of extraordinary economic expansion. “Per person, GNP provides a rough approximation of trends in income during the late nineteenth century, although these data do not speak directly to its distribution among groups. This macroeconomic evidence suggests that industrialization raised the standard of living for the majority of Americans. Life expectancy at birth lengthened significantly between 1870 and 1900 and registered a greater gain over the next twenty years, reflecting advances in the standard of living and investments in public health during the Gilded Age [Campbell, 1999].”
References
Campbell, B. C., Understanding economic change in the Gilded Age, Organization of American Historians, 1999
Chasson, G., Railroad competition and its management in the United States and Britain before 1914, Business and Economic History, Second series, Vol. 17, 1988, pp 190 et seq.
De Long, J. B., Late nineteenth century growth [address delivered before the Economic History Association], National Bureau of Economic Research, 1995
Field, A. J., U.S. economic growth in the Gilded Age, Analytical study, Santa Clara University/Department of Economics, 2006
Morser, E. J., Grassroots rebels: municipal power and railroad regulation in La Crosse, Wisconsin, 1883-1900, Business and Economic History, Vol. 3, 2005
Noyes, A. D., The panic of 1893, Forty Years of American Finance [New York: G. P. Putnam Sons, 1909], in Great Epochs in American History, Vol. IX, 2002
Poole, K. T., Railroads: the first big business [statistical data], University of California/San Diego, 1999
Railroads and the increase in fixed capital, George Mason University/Department of Economics [no date]
Van de Creek, D., The panic of 1873, Illinois during the Gilded Age, 2002
Van Ophem, M., The iron horse: the impact of the railroads on 19th century American society, From Revolution to Reconstruction [an historical project of the Department of Humanities/University of Groningen (Netherlands)], 2003 [updated]
Footnotes
A comparison with river steamboats is instructive. While the steamboat was naturally restricted to navigable waters, it nonetheless had the flexibility to operate anywhere within those waters. By the same token, however, it was in competition with other steamboats on the same waters for the transportation trade. Thus, the logistic component was large—if not entirely—a function of the production cycle. Railroads were different. Single roads usually enjoyed what amounted to a monopoly on transportation services above the horse-drawn wagonload level. In practical terms, railroads were in a position to optimize their operations by encouraging producers to synchronize manufacturing processes to meet optimized railroad scheduling. (This almost invariably worked to the benefit of the manufacturer. Extremely reliable rail net operations translated into reductions in manufacturers’ inventory requirements: the railroad would deliver such material when actually needed.)
According to Poole, “In 1874, it was estimated that railroads required 150 tons of iron per mile (rails and rolling stock). During the Civil War, the Pennsylvania railroad installed some steel rails because of the wear and tore on its mountainous system. By 1880, 25-30 percent of railroad trackage was converted to steel rails, by 1890 80 percent, and by 1910 all trackage had been converted to steel. Andrew Carnegie was largely responsible for this changeover because of the innovative management of his iron and steel business. In 1873 steel rails cost $120 a ton, and by 1898 the price was down to $17 a ton. All his competitors were forced to copy his business methods, and the result was cheap, high-quality steel [1999].”
Aggregate annual telegraph messages rose between 1867 and 1893 along the same asymptotic curve as rail track mileage increased. Increasing reliance on telephone communications brought about a reduction in annual telegraph messages, starting in 1893. See Poole (1999), graphs J (‘Railroad Mileage’) and K (‘Telegraph Messages’) for details.
These, of course, were the great silo-type structures constructed adjacent to rail lines. To the extent that the farmer was dependent on elevators to store his grain and rail lines to transport it, he could find himself pretty much at the mercy of logistic providers, without the concomitant benefits that accrued to industrial producers. One ameliorating solution was increased government regulation, an approach that the railroad industry bitterly opposed.
This is discussed in some detail below.
The 1894 Pullman Car Company strike is a case in point. The unrest caused by the strike resulted in disruption of the mails, a federal offense. President Cleveland ordered federal troops to maintain order and secure delivery of the mails. This had the ultimate effect of breaking the strike, no doubt much to the delight of the Pullman Corporation. However, Cleveland was less than pleased with Pullman’s refusal to deal honestly with strikers. “A federal investigating commission appointed by President Cleveland denounced Pullman’s refusal to arbitrate the dispute after hearing testimony from railroad officials, strikers, union leaders, and public servants. The report urged compulsory arbitration as insurance against future railroad strikes. The commission concluded that ultimate responsibility ‘rests with the people themselves and with the government for not adequately controlling monopolies and corporations, and for failing to reasonably protect the rights of labor and redress its wrongs’ [Van Ophem, 2003].”
According to Campbell, “Lowering the costs of shipping permitted a reduction in the prices customers paid for food and durable items. In forging connections between production and distribution, railroads accelerated the trend toward localized manufacturing of products for sale over wide areas. The evolution of national markets stimulated new levels of competition. Three facts symbolized the railroad’s influence on the creation of national markets: the completion of the first transcontinental connection in 1869, the adoption of four standard time zones for the continental United States in 1883 (a cooperative railroad venture), and the agreement on the standardization of track width in 1886 [1999].”
This evidently resulted in an increase in employment-associated deaths and injuries. “Railroad work was one of the most dangerous jobs in America; over two hundred workers were being killed each year, and thirty thousand injured. In the eyes of the railroad companies, these accidents were ‘acts of God’ and should be ascribed to the carelessness of the workers [Van Ophem, 2003, 21].”
While it is speculative at best, there may be some correlation between the 1877 civil disturbances and the Supreme Court’s 1877 decision in the Granger Cases. (Grangers were farm organizations found primarily in the Midwest.) The Granger Cases grew out of rural dissatisfaction with railroad rate setting, preferring state regulation in lieu thereof. “In 1877, the Court ruled in favor of the states’ regulatory power and against the corporations. The Court held that railroads were no ordinary business. Drawing from an English common law doctrine that had long been in used in American law to justify giving railroads extraordinary privileges, the Court declared them to be businesses ‘affected with a public interest.’ As such, they ‘must submit to be controlled by the public for the common good.’ The Court further held that the fixing of rates was not a proper matter for judicial review, asserting that this function belonged only in the legislative branch [Van Ophem, 2003, 29].”
This was primarily a liquidity crisis, one in which the principal victims were financial houses and railroads. (It is sometimes called the ‘railroad panic.’) For example, “On February 20 [1893], the Philadelphia and Reading Railway Company, with a capital of forty million and a debt of more than $125,000,000, went into bankruptcy; on the 5th of May, the National Cordage Company, with twenty million capital and ten million liabilities, followed suit. The management of both these enterprises had been marked by the rashest sort of speculation; both had been favorites on the speculation market [Noyes, 1909].” With the contraction of rail operations, there was a concurrent rippling effect through the rolling stock manufacturing sector. The crisis itself would not be resolved until recently developed gold strikes (e.g., the Yukon, South Africa) delivered their output to the financial markets.
This, of course, would have been an inflationary step. Silver was a glut on the market, given the enormous silver strikes in Nevada and Montana. Under a regime of ‘unlimited coinage,’ an ounce of silver—worth roughly 25 or 30 cents—would be valued at one dollar. This, following Gresham’s Law, in turn, would drive ‘gold’ dollars out of circulation. From the farmer’s perspective, this would be an excellent outcome. They constituted a national debtor class—in terms of the mortgage and cash advancements to cover annual production costs—and would be able to make repayments in ‘cheap’ dollars.
However, as is so often the case in American politics, these ideas—in one form or another—were co-opted by the major political parties.
The rate at which ships do sink in UK or US is warranting such that maritime inquiries are very necessary. Due to the accident that happened in March 1987 around 193 people died and a report was written on this in the cause of sheens report (Dennis and Randall, 2004). The report was about the cause of the accident and other findings that could be concluded from the car ferry accident. Therefore, the lord justice sheens report was basically to find out details on how and why the ship sank and the human errors that the associated with the tragedy plus the consequences of the accident for the shipping industry.
The human error
According to the investigation that was carried on the accident that happened in March 1987, it was realized that the cause of the accident was due to human error linked with management faults as a contributing factor. Lord justice sheen in his inquiry then described the management failures as “the disease of sloppiness” on the moss of the Herald of free enterprise (Houben, 2005). After the incident had taken place, legislation was passed on the safety management of ships. The IMO adopted a resolution that provided guidelines on the management of ships for safe operation and pollution prevention. This act was passed in October 1989 two years after the accident had taken place. The guidelines were focusing on those responsible for the management and operations of ships whereby they were expected to develop a framework for the paper development, implementation, and assessment of safety act pollution prevention measures concerning the best practices.
This legislation was very important since the accident was a result of management failures from the top to the bottom at all levels from the board of directors down to the junior employees according to a report written by Lord Justice Sir Barry Sheen in July 1987 exactly four months after the accident. If even a small amount of water could make the ships capsize then it could be said that the corporate body was suffering from a disease of sloppiness (Robert,2001).
The use of the guidelines
The use of the guidelines that were developed by the 16th Assembly by IMO A.647 (16) led to the enactment of the international management code for the safe operation of ships and for pollutions prevention (the ISM code), which became mandatory in 1998. The legislation or code provided the safety management objectives and requires the shipping company to establish the safety management system, which is spelled out as the shipowner or any person, such as the manager or bareboat charterer, who has assumed responsibility for operating the ship. Through the legislation that was passed by the IMO, the company was supposed to develop and implement the policy to realize the stated objectives in the safety management system. The policy that was to be developed or established was to include the relevant resources and shore-based support.
According to the legislation, every shipping company was to a point an individual ashore having direct access to the highest level of management. Lack of proper coordination between the top managers and the lower superintendents was one of the causes of the accident. To ensure effectiveness in the implementation of the ISM code, an independent expert group was put in place by the IMO secretariat to study the effects of the legislation established on the safety management system.
A report on the activities of the expert’s group would then be submitted to the Maritime safety committee. Generally, the safety management system was to ensure that ships are safer when on water and the seas are kept clear and clean. Water pollution was a serious environmental issue brought about by oil spillage on water. Poorly constructed or developed ships were found to have the cause of water pollution. Those who would be found going against the legislation passed under the ISM code were to be dealt with according to the framework under the ISM code. It would be very foolish if one abdicated another person’s idea, which is considered to be important (Ism. code 1987).
The legislation that was passed to ensure safety management was very much okay since it meets the goals that were set out by lord justice sheens. One of the goals that were set by lord justice sheen was to ensure accountability and coordination of activities. This was spelled out in the ISM code set by the IMO. Each individual or individual was to be appointed to guide ashore having direct access to the highest level of management. According to Fisse and Braithwaite (1994), the process of allocating responsibility within the company was rather uneven. The ship’s master was subjected to internal disciplinary action and the matter was sorted out when he resigned. From the sheen’s report, the assistant bosun, who was directly responsible for closing the doors, was asleep in his cabin, having just been relieved from maintenance and cleaning duties. The sheen’s report aimed to find out safety management procedures in which everyone is assigned responsibility.
Lack of accountability
Under accountability, every employee starting from the marine director to the sweepers should be accountable for the work done on daily basis. If members of an organization do not perform the duties, they are given appropriately then things would be disorganized. The disease of sloppiness that management of the company was suffering from was a result of a lack of accountability (Elliot, 2006). The tragedy was associated with human errors since it was even found that a small amount of water entering the decks made the car ferries capsize.
The safety management system was going to meet the goals that were set out by lord justice sheens by ensuring that pollution issues were checked. Oil spillage on water or sea was an issue that was to be addressed by the legislation. The design of ships has to be checked such that only strong ships could be allowed to sail on water. This was because the accident of the Herald free enterprise was a result of design errors on how the ships were made. The regulations, therefore, were to ensure that a roll-on, a roll-off ship could maintain stability with the car deck flooded probably to a depth of fifty point eight centimeters, which is roughly twenty inches. According to the legislation, additional floatation devices were to be installed within the hull, or alternatively, the company was to install internal partitions (bulk) heads within the hull. All these modifications were to ensure that any disaster or accident such as the herald of Free Enterprise in which many people were killed does not take place again. Preventing the occurrence of such a disaster was one of the goals that were set out by sheen during his report. He wanted to ensure that standardized ships are established by the companies, which are capable of floating for at least half an hour after being irreparably holed. (National Marine Safety Commission of Australia, 2000).
Ship characteristics
The ability of a ship to float on water is one of the determining factors on whether the ship or boat is going to capsize easily or not. It was realized that the materials that were used to make the ships and boats the company used were defective. This was one of the causes of the accident. The shipping industry was required to develop new ships using the current design methods and technologies. The materials were used in making ships were too heavy whereby sinking was very possible. Designers according to the act were to add some gadgets within the hull to ensure that floating on water is made possible. If the designers could have put the floating devices within the hull then the accident could have not occurred. I believe this is why the accident was associated with human errors. Therefore the legislation was going to reduce the chances of occurrence of any other accident in the shipping industry.
According to justice sheen, the ship characteristics set out in the building industry were not exhaustive. This showed that not all the various materials and elements that were necessary for determining a good ship were included in the structure of the ship. Navigation involves movements on water from one place to the other and sometimes this can be risky if the ship used is not properly designed. To make navigation easy, inflatable balloons and other equipment, analogous to cargo that makes the ship float on water are very important. All ships designed should therefore contain all these materials or devices to ensure safety measures are taken care of. The ships used should be strong and must have all the requirements that should make them float on water.
Conclusion
After critically analyzing how the shipping industry in the UK operates, it can be said that a lot of carelessness exists. Almost everybody starting from the managing director to the lower employees down the line is not responsible for all that they are doing. I, therefore, suggest that the legislation that was passed on safety measures in the industry lacked one thing. Today the society requires people to be responsible and careful about their actions. This shows that anybody who acts against the law should be prosecuted and brought before a court of law. I, therefore, suggest that a law that could spell out the rules and regulations about those who are careless was necessary. Carelessness and negligence should not be tolerated in modern society. Currently, the shipping industry has led to the loss of many lives as a result of human errors. A strong action defined under a suitable legislation act was supposed to be established to ensure that those who break the law are punished severely. This was to ensure that safety measures are properly implemented and everybody was to be mindful about his responsibility.
Lord juice inquiry into the loss of the Herald of Free Enterprise famously described the management failure, as the disease of sloppiness was very important. People’s lives should not joke with meaning that unnecessary silly mistakes should not be condoned in society. Strong and effective laws should therefore be established to ensure that safety measures are observed by the shipping industry. Otherwise, if these minor mistakes continue to occur then the UK will still have to claim more deaths brought by the management error from the industry.
References
Brent, F & Braithwaite, J. (1994). Corporations, Crime and Accountability. London: Cambridge University Press.
Dennis R, J & Randall S.S (2004). International Human Resource Management: Policies & practices for the Global Enterprise. London: Routledge.
Elliot, R.A. (2006). The Herald of Free Enterprise Disaster. Issues in Business Ethics. London: Springer Publishers.
Houben, M. (2005). International Crisis Management: The Approach of European states. London: Routledge.
Information Resources on the International Safety Management code (ISM.Code). Web.
National Marine Safety Commission of Australia. “Managing Ship safety Beyond 2000”. (Kuo feb.1, 2000). Web.
Robert, S.J. (2001). International organizations: A comparative Approach to the management of cooperation. New York: Praeger.
The road networks connecting different states in the United States of America are a resource that is common to the states and there is no driver who is excluded from the use of the roadways but even with this freedom, drivers are frequently faced with the challenge of the heavy traffic which is a mark of the rivalry in the network consumption. A lasting solution to this problem requires overcrowded roadways to be widened through addition of lanes as well as introducing tolls in the usage of the roadways. This paper will discuss both sides of heavy traffic by focusing on the realistic view of traffic congestion at present and in future and the necessary actions that require to be taken to minimize it. (Lomax, 2005 pp23-27)
Widening roadways using additional lanes
Driving can only be regarded as good if the drivers are prepared for each and every eventuality and because it is rare to have an empty road even when it appears clear, the only way to prepare drivers for any eventuality is to minimize distracters. Majority of roads connecting interstates were built when the number of cars were few and also when they used to travel at a slow speed but today the growth of America’s population has overwhelmed the current road network. For example annual coverage of miles has increased by about 130% compared with a road mileage increase of about 5% and this has caused roadways to be dangerously overcrowded and consequently increasing road hazards. Due to the current few lanes about 33%of all traffic accidents occur when vehicles veer off the road hitting trees or other objects.
When a large truck is involved in an accident it is usually the other vehicle in this case the smaller vehicle that causes the accident due to the driver of the smaller vehicle failing to stay out of the blind spots of the truck. When the lanes are close there is little possibility of the truck driver seeing the passenger driver and this increases chances of collision. More time is also needed by large trucks when they are merging into traffic before they can accelerate and gain normal speed than a small car and therefore several lanes would help smaller cars to overtake on the outer lanes without causing a lot of traffic jam.
If a truck is facing a smaller car from the opposite direction there should be a wide distance between the two to avoid sideswipe accident as well as reducing wind turbulence between the two vehicles and this can only be made possible by introducing more lanes. (Down, 2004 pp34-39)
Tolls for using the roadways
Heavy traffic can also be reduced significantly if motorist are charged high tolls to discourage majority of people in using the roads trough private means. The money collected from the toll can be used to fund the enterprise coordinating the collection of charges to build more lanes as well as improving the already existing roads. Unfortunately most of the Americans reject this method because they fear it would be favoring the wealthy and many people would also be finding an alternative route for specific purpose so as to avoid paying tolls. (Alan, 2003 pp14-24)
Conclusion
Traffic congestion on the other hand can also be viewed as a balancing mechanism enabling people to make variety of choices concerning where to live and work especially when people decide to live in low density settlement areas and thus enjoying means of movement that are highly flexible. Congestion also helps people in rationing the scarce space of the available roads in periods when there are many people wanting to use it at once and also challenges the government to allocate more money in building enough roads and adding lanes to accommodate peak hour traffic with little delay.
References
Lomax T. (2005): urban mobility report: Texas transportation institute pp. 23-27.
Down A. (2004): stuck in traffic: Lincoln institute pp. 34-39.
Alan E. (2003): commuting in America: Eno transportation pp. 14-24.
Towards the end of the last century and the wee years of the new millennium, most cities have globally have registered substantial growth in the urban centers. This consequently has seen increased population levels that have poses monumental challenges for public transport, to be able to uphold the passenger integers the metro shuttles have been integrated into most cities as a strategy to contain congestion on the mobility industry.
In our contemporary society electrical and civil engineering has not been left behind by the enormous wave of technological advancements. Light rail systems that support metro buses are being deployed to facilitate rapid transit with minimal frequency in comparison with the heavier mass rapid systems. In this paper, we consider designing a metro shuttle in Riyadh as an alternative mode of transport. The paper, however, is biased, investigating the power supply, types of rails used, and how the metro is controlled. Metro transport systems are powered by light rail systems, a modern variation of transport where trains run separately from the road traffic. On this kind of system, stopovers are normally less and boarding is done over a platform.
Background
Light rail is a modern concept that is versatile in nature and it fits perfectly in the engineering visions of a bus and the heavy metro. In comparison with buses on the streets, it’s ideally an expensive venture to develop although it could also be cheaper in terms of the functionality on a given capacity, It’s however cheaper to build and operate at minimal commercial speed. It is also a form of transport that enhances smooth traveling, it doesn’t emit pollutants over pedestrians and its frequent run is somewhat economical.
Comparisons between Lisbon, Singapore, and Montreal Metro
Lisbon metro is a superlative transport system with numerous satiations that expediently and economically enhances swift transportation around the city. The metro stations exhibit magnificent artwork, which makes the metro in the offing slightly satisfying. The metro system offers an easy workout for tourists than buses. Lisbon’s metro however runs on the underground infrastructure, spotless and competent. Singapore on the extreme runs on a metro infrastructure system that is very expensive since it involves intricate networks that are very expensive to maintain. These networks are fundamentally underground interlocking major roads, rivers, and canals.
Nevertheless, Montreal metros are erected on LAHT (low-alloy high tensile) steel. The trains are pulled together in 3, 6, or 9-car lengths. Every piece of the three-car subdivision component consists of two motor cab cars encircling a trailer car. Each car is 2.5 meters wide and has four wide bi-parting leaf doors on each side for speedy customer entrance egress. The diminutive irritable segment of the cars tolerates easier construction under existing underground utilities.
The Metro services contain four direct-current traction motors coupled to reduction gears and differentials. Montreal’s metro trains use electromagnetic brakes, which create retarding forces against the side rails of the track. The electromagnetic brakes are generated by the train’s kinetic energy until it has slowed down to about 10km/h. The train then uses composite brake pads made of yellow birch injected with peanut oil to bring it to a complete stop.
Two sets are applied against the treads of the steel wheels for friction braking. Hard braking produces a characteristic burnt popcorn scent. Wooden brake shoes perform well, but if subjected to numerous high-speed applications they develop a carbon film that diminishes brake performance.
View of a track from a sand heap bumper-post showing the cross-section of guideways, concrete rollways, and conventional track Rubber tires make the Metro outstandingly quiet, owing to the minimal vibration transmit, this also aids the metro climb the hills more easily and negotiate rotations at high speeds. Nevertheless, the advantages of rubber tires are offset by noise levels generated by traction motors, which are noisier than the typical North American subway car.
Metros can climb slopes of up to 6.5% and economize the most energy when following a humped-station profile (track profiles that descend to accelerate after leaving a station and climb before entering the station). Steel-wheel train technology has undergone significant advances and can better around tight curves, and climb and descend similar grades and slopes. Despite these advances, steel-wheel trains still cannot operate at high speeds (45 mph) on the same steep or tightly curved track profiles as a train equipped with rubber tires.
Metro operation
Switches use conventional points on the standard gauge track to guide trains. Rubber tires keep supporting the full weight of the trains as they go through switches. Guideways are provided in order to ensure there are no gaps in the electrical power supply. All lines but the Yellow Line is equipped with automatic train control. Generally, the train operator supervises the opening and closing of doors, while the train drives it.
The train operator can also drive the train manually at his or her discretion. Signaling is effected through coded pulses sent through the rails. Coded speed orders and station stop positions transmitted through track beacons are captured by beacon readers mounted under the driver cabs. The information sent to the train’s electronic modules conveys speed information, and it is up to the train’s automatic control system computer to conform to the imposed speed.
Additionally, the train computer can receive energy-saving instructions from track beacons, providing the train with 4 different economical coasting modes, plus one mode for maximum performance. In the case of manual control, track speed is displayed on the cab speedometer indicating the maximum permissible speed. The wayside signals consist of point (switch/turnout) position indicators in proximity to switches and inter-station signaling placed at each station stop. Trains often reach their maximum speed of 44-45 mph (70-72 km/h) in 16 to 26 seconds depending on grade and load.
Montreal metro shuttles are driverless; they are computed to stop at given stations by the aide of a comprehensive odometer. Their braking system is coded and executes stoppage commands that are relayed by the track beacons before alighting at a given station.
With extra beacons at the station, accuracy in terms of stopping is achieved. The last beacon is located precisely 12 turns of the wheels from the end of the platform, which helps in improving the overall accuracy of the system. Metros tap two sets of 750-volt direct current (dc) through a bar/third rails on either side of each motor car. Calibration is, therefore, an imperative aspect in regulating and curtailing emerging power surges, arcing, and breaker tripping. Both methods employ electrical raking to assist primary friction braking, hence minimizing the need to surrogate the brake pads.
Montreal metro shuttles are driverless; they are computed to stop at given stations by the aide of a comprehensive odometer. Their braking system is coded and executes stoppage commands that are relayed by the track beacons before alighting at a given station, the beacons have also been mounted at particular stations to ensure a complete stop. The train draws current from two sets of 750-volt direct current by the use of the third rail. To prevent power surge traction technology has been employed in the control system. This research paper is geared towards finding a viable metro transport system in Riyadh based on a vivid comparison between the metro services in Montréal, Lisbon, and Singapore. From the establishment, the Montréal metro system could be the most viable venture in Riyadh.
Stations and Platform Screen Doors
The generously constructed underground terminals are air-conditioned and precisely fitted with a total of 250 escalators and lifts. All remittances are positioned one meter above the highest-ever measured flooding level of the city. They are enhanced with mobile barriers as a safeguard against flooding during the rainy season. Foundational screen doors offer passengers security and air-conditioning component.
They deter passengers from entering the track area on one hand and on the other hand, stop the cooled air from escaping from the air-conditioned stations into the metro tunnel. The platform screen doors always remain closed until the metro shuttle reaches the correct position. The platform door is interconnected with the correct spending train doors via signaling interfaces. The reduced distance between platform screen doors and train doors protects passengers from being trapped flanked by the two sets of doors.
Fare Management System
Passengers fare is normally automated by the use of an automatic fare collection (AFC) system that enhances efficacy in terms of regulation and collection of passenger fares. The metro employs a distance predetermined graduated fare framework, with innumerable smart cards/tokens constituting radio-frequency transceivers as fare media ad automatic blockades that have the ability to decipher and re-encode the fare media to control passengers entry and consequently their exit.
For speed flow in and out of the stations, automated gates are installed with bi-parting leaf flaps and divided into banks of entry only and exit gates. For surveillance reasons, the AFC component is offered in form of station computers and station cash office screening terminals interlocked with the gates, the token purveying machine is used for one-way journeys and the ticket office machines are deployed for multi-journey smart cards through the local networks.
Third Rail
Metro shuttles conduct power through the third rail that taps power from various stations constructed at certain intervals. Through a third rail, the metro is constantly fed with power alongside the rail track. The third manages to draw current through a shoe otherwise known as the slipper.
Third rails are manufactured in various designs and the shoe slides operate as a point of contact. Separation is effected by the use of a wooden paddle between the shoe and the current rail and then trying the shoe up with a strap or rope. Modest systems have their shoes mounted to offer a stable contact via a lever action. Top contact systems have protected covers over them. Side and bottom offer a reliable contact through spring loading.
It should also support completeness of the circuit, right from the energy source to the consuming object and back to the source, this prompts a necessity for the rail return mechanism. To better solve these anomaly steel rails are suitable for this. This also calls for advanced precautious measures to prevent the voltage from getting too high above the zero of the ground. Signaling circuits can also be used although special precaution is needed.
Connecting the return to brushes rubbing on the axle ends completes the circuit. Direct current (dc) is the widely used form of power, it is the best preference owing to the fact that it’s cheap to install and also maintain compared to overhead wires which are so involving. At the same time, alternating current is quite hefty to integrate since slight developments with these structures should comply with the anomalies of interpretability. This ultimately ushers in the option where already built infrastructures have been embedded upon.
Power Supply
Generally, the world’s metros adapt ac power conveyed by the public vendor to dc in order to supply the railway footing power supply system; this is normally at between 600 and 750 v dc third rail interlocks or up to.5KV for overhead catenaries. Modern transport metros deploy the asynchronous ac motors, which support two intricate systems to transform from ac to dc and back to ac.
Conclusion
Riyadh is the fastest growing city in the Middle East with a population so enormous in the sense that prompts the incorporation of contemporary transport infrastructures. Metro modes of transport have exponentially transformed the transport sector to great dimensions. Nevertheless, the Montreal metro system is the most appropriate system to be inaugurated in Riyadh. Since it’s rather cheaper compared to the one entrenched in Singapore and Lisbon. Both Singapore and Lisbon use underground conduits which are so expensive to develop and also maintain.
Dry bulk cargo is heavy dry goods that include coal, iron ore, wood chips, cement, grains(maize, beans, rice), bulk mines, et cetera. Those goods are put in large containers which are heavy. The goods are unpacked but are put in a container so as to reduce space, for safety, and reduce the cost of transportation. But when unloading the cargo, it is either poured using shovel by people or being poured. Due to the negligence of the workers and those in authority, there are various challenges facing their transportation. Those challenges include environmental, risk to life among others.
Main body
The residues from dry goods while either loading or unloading is harmful to the environment especially water when using ships and when an accident occurs during their transportation, for example when unloading iron ore some can fall out to the waters. This risks the life of marine animals and people who might be within the area. When being transported on land, when an accident occurs, plants in that area are destroyed or even leads to the death of people. Also, garbage from the transportation of dry cargo is a risk to the environment. During transportation especially at sea, when storms occur some of the containers are released to the sea. Those containers might contain steel or coal which pollute water. According to Bruun (2007, p. 229), ‘It has been estimated that container ships lose over 10,000 containers at sea each year. Most go overboard on the open sea during storms but there are some examples of whole ships being lost with their cargo. When containers are dropped, they immediately become an environmental threat ‘. This problem can be reduced by minimizing the amount of garbage disposed of. The Intentional Maritime Organization (IMO) recommends complete clean-up of residues and put on intended cargo area or to a reception facility. Another problem with the environment is the pollution of the air. For example, when trains or Lorries are used on land, they produce a lot of smoke in the air which can cause disease to people. Also, Lorries destroy loads due to heavyweights leading to more expenses to the government. To control this, regulations should be put to control weight.
Transportation of bulk cargo is a great threat to operators. People who lose their life are many especially when the ship sinks due to heavyweight. But in the transportation of dry bulk cargo still have its own challenge. For example, when loading the cargo, it can lose control and fall on operators and due to its weight, all the operator perishes. Also, the risks can affect cargo or ships. To handle this requires complex procedures to ensure that no goods are lost or stolen. Loading and loading affect the center of gravity of the ship and are a big risk, and if not handled with care can lead to the sinking of the ship. Also, poor loading in some cases can lead to the occurrence of an accident. The carrier’s maximum weight should not be exceeded by any means.
Another great challenge is accidents that those heavy Lorries cause on roads while carrying those dry cargos, sometimes these vehicles may lose control and cause an accident to other motorists. The best way to avoid accidents is to avoid road transport and use railway transport instead. Alternatively, drivers can be cautioned on the importance of speeding avoidance and the need to observe discipline when on roads.
Dry cargo such as grains holds a great danger to bulkers. The reason is that grain settles when being transported, this creates space that allows free movement of the cargo from one side to the other. This destabilizes the carrier especially the ship by causing other cargo to start shifting. This can lead to an accident. The solution to this has been taken care of by the SOLAS convention which encourages tanks designed in a manner that prevents movement. They also encourage the use of trimming cargo to reduce surface area.
Another great challenge is the structure and condition of containers. Many people die due to this problem. According to Lüddeke (1993, p. 391), ‘In 1990 alone, 20 bulk carriers sank, taking with them 94 crewmen. In 1991, 24 bulkers sank, killing 154. This level of loss focused attention on the safety aspects of bulk carriers, and a great deal was learned. The American Bureau of Shipping concluded that the losses were directly traceable to failure of the cargo hold structure’. Other reasons found included, use of old aged ships which were not supposed to be in use, Lack of maintenance of the machines used and containers, no advanced methods of loading and unloading. The solution to this problem is to replace old ships before they make accidents, keep on checking the condition of ships and machines used for loading and unloading, use technology to avoid delay of goods.
Another challenge is insecurity for the sea users, for example, in the recent case of Somali pirates who threaten to blow the ship carrying goods intended for the port of Mombasa. This is most cases result in loss of goods and life especially when fighting. The solution to this is for the international organization to provide security to all sea users in order to allow smooth transportation of goods.
Moisture absorption of some goods is a great loss to the owners of the cargo. When dry goods are transported by the sea which is the only way, they absorb moisture from the environment. The moisture might lead to the destruction of goods such as grains that produce aflatoxin which may lead to the death of people if consumed. The solution to this problem is to provide good containers to avoid moisture absorption and test should be done on goods delivered before they are supplied to consumers. This will prevent death caused by aflatoxin.
Another great challenge is the rates at which goods are transported depend on demand and supply which fluctuates with time. Sometimes the goods are more than the available resources, for example, due to the high development of countries like China, more steel and iron is required for their industries and in Africa, more food is required at a very high rate to feed dying people. To solve this, the shipowners should have proper scheduling. This has the capability of improving economical growth and improving profit to owners.
Conclusion
To conclude, dry goods transportation is the key to development. Without those goods, no development can be felt. Therefore, challenges facing transportation must be dealt with to allow development. Although much is being done to avoid delay or congestion within the ports, insecurity to shippers is still a big challenge and the international community must deal with it to allow smooth economical development.
References
Blauwens G., Baere, Van de Voorde, (2007). Transport Economics. (Chester:Uitgeverij De Boeck).
Bruun P., (2007). Port Engineering. (Michigan: Gulf Pub. Co.).
Frankel G., (1987). The World Shipping Industry: Policy Analysis and Development : an Industry at the Crossroads. (London: Routledge).
Lüddeke F., (1993). Marine Claims: a guide for the handling and prevention of marine claims. (London: Lloyd’s).
As a child addicted to R/C racing and building Porsche starter sets, it was only a matter of time before Kevin Chen began racing actual cars in order to feed his ever-growing need for speed. The racing bug finally won him over at the age of 14 when he entered his first motorcycle race where he excelled at racing scooters and the Honda RS125 at the Asian Cup. By 1995, Kevin had set the bar higher for himself and vowed to become a force to reckon with in the car racing circuit.
Main text
Car racing required a new set of training demands from Kevin for he knew that although cars and motorcycles ran and won on speed, the dangers of car racing were double the threat. One single mistake on the track could cost him his life. So he trained extensively at the BMW Performance Training School, Maserati Driving School, Ferrari Driving School, and Japan Mazda Speed Racing school. These big-name schools are responsible for producing some of the best and brightest racing drivers in the world and, are also responsible for the rise to fame of Kevin. From them, he learned about the proper mix of safety and need for speed on the track.
Kevin’s first-ever amateur race was in 2002, the car of his choice? The Honda S2000. The newcomer began catching the eye of car racing enthusiasts when in the same year, landed in the top 5 of the SCCA Snow Bird National Race in California. This bump-up saw him racing at the SCCA T1 using a Subaru WRX STI where he consistently finished in the top 4. By the year 2004, his driving skills were so highly honed and polished that he was able to move up to National Pro Status. His driving skills were reaching such unbelievable levels that he amazed the other racers in his driving class when he bagged the championship title in the Touring 1 Class and eventually, the Regional Championship Title in the Touring 2 Class.
In 2005, Kevin began racing in the Showroom Stock B class. His car partner this time was a Mazda Miata and the BMW Z4. The combination of Kevin’s incomparable driving skills and fantastic engine qualities of his cars saw him set the fastest course record in his class, allowing him to take the pole position in 3 races. Kevin was on a roll. But a starting problem beset him at the 2005 Mid Ohio National Runoff, causing him to fall to 7th place overall. Still, Kevin capped the year by finishing 2nd at the South Pacific Regional National Class allowing him to snag an overall classification within the top 9 drivers in the Pro-Spec Miata series. In 2008, he began a partnership with Champ Motosport that he hopes will take him to the next level of his racing ambitions. In an interview announcing his partnership with Champ Motosport for the Formula V6 Series, he revealed that, ” I’m very excited to work with Champ Motorsport this season based on their winning history from the past years. Hopefully this new season gives me an opportunity to showcase my talents in front of some very influential motorsport people and I hope that it will bring me to the attention of the F3 Macau Grand Prix.” He also recently signed a sponsorship deal with Franz Collection, a fine arts ceramic dealer with headquarters in San Francisco and offices in various parts of Europe and Asia. With Franz Collections over
6000 selling locations across the globe, Kevin is intent on working closely with the company as a way of promoting the Asian roots and heritage that he has long been proud of. After all, Kevin has always been very vocal about how his Asian heritage has helped him become one of the emerging top race car drivers of his time.
He is set to once again raise the bar for himself and the members of his racing team by concentrating his sights on becoming the first-ever Asian American to race in the highly intricate and demanding Macau Grand Prix Series this year. Held in November of every year, this is the only street circuit racing event for both cars and motorcycles. With over 300 drivers vying for a position at the race every year, Kevin has high hopes that his recent racing successes will help him become part of the Macau Formula 3 Grand Prix where notable racing luminaries such as Michael Schumacher, David Coulthard, Takuma Sato, and Riccardo Patrese got their starts. Kevin Chen hopes to add his name to this prestigious roster, as the first-ever Asian American to participate in, complete, and win the circuit race.
Summary
The Macau Grand Prix covers fast straights, tight corners, and death-defying crash barriers. In 2005, the Guia race was unveiled wherein various international car makers list their cars for competitions and prizes for the winning team. The Macau Grand Prix and the Guia Race compose the final 2 races within the FIA World Touring Car Championship.
Roads in the Middle East face the very same problems as the roads of the other countries. A great number of people use cars every day to get to their job or on private business in order to settle some personal affairs. In the modern world, people tend to drive cars more and more often refusing to use public transport because of its inconvenience. No one would agree to spend even thirty minutes in a bus or tram crowded with people where one has to argue all the time because of the occupied vacant place or stepping on somebody else’s foot, moreover “busses and trains tend to be hopelessly crowed, particularly during the rush hours” (Justine Vaisutis: 104). Especially terrible the public transport seems to be in summer when it is unbelievably hot. No one would contest that it is far more comfortable to sit in one’s own car with air conditioning and light calming music than to use the bus where you are deprived of a possibility to relax. Availability of cars at low prices makes it possible for most of the families to have their own means of transportation which they can use any time and which is always at hand when you need it. The condition of the roads in the Middle East is not as appalling as in some other countries this is why it does not seem to be that big a problem. Much more attention is to be paid to the problem of traffic jams since it is very vital and touches the lives of most people in the Middle East. No matter how problematic the traffic jams seem to be for the Middle East roads, no proper solution to this problem has been offered so far this is why there is a necessity to reveal the possible solutions which would help reduce the number of cars on the roads thus making traffic jams not so frequently observed.
Driving in Rush Hours
What should be mentioned above all is that not using the cars in rush hours would help avoid traffic jams which make most of the drivers nervous because of wasted fuel and time. Mehran Kamrava (2005) informs that recent decades have seen an astounding rise in the number of vehicles in the Middle East, so much so that traffic jams have become daily features of even smaller cities and towns throughout the region. It is namely in the rush hours that most of the traffic jams are formed because this is when people get back home from work, that’s why “daily peak-hour traffic congestion is inescapable in every large metropolitan area in the world” (Anthony Downs: 2).
Reasons to Refuse from Driving in Rush Hours
Of course, not a single person would appease the idea that he or she should not use the car for coming back home but if given a little thinking this idea does not seem to be so absurd. Indeed, there is no doubt that it would be much better to stay in that part of the town where the person works for another hour and spend this time shopping, sitting in the library or computer club or simply in a cozy café drinking coffee and having a little snack rather than to spend this very hour standing on the road trying to see where the traffic jam ends or sitting in the car beeping constantly trying to make the car which stands ahead move faster. While the latter is most likely to make a person nothing but irritated and exhausted when he/she comes home the first variant will make him well-balanced and relaxed helping avoid conflicts in the family as well as at work or public places.
Relevance of the Solution
By applying this method people would not only save fuel which is wasted when standing in the traffic jam but save some nerves which these jams take as well. And if somebody would prefer spending an extra hour at work instead of in the traffic jam, it would necessarily result in better working skills and increased salary.
Mounting Navigation Systems
Another solution to the problem of traffic jams may be using the cars which are equipped with a navigation system or mounting this system into the cars which do not have it. Most of the new cars already have navigation systems and people who use them impart that they are much more convenient and beneficial, offering a number of advantages and making driving a car an absolute pleasure.
The benefit of the Navigation System
Navigation systems are used to get necessary traffic information and are very easy to apply practically: “The navigation system notifies the provider’s systems about an intended itinerary. Every time new traffic information becomes available, an SMS message is created automatically and distributed to all registered navigation systems that are impacted by the event. After receiving the SMS, the route can be adjusted accordingly” (Uwe Hansmann: 85). Such systems are irreplaceable assistants on the road since they are extremely reliable and provide the most updated information about the current situation on the roads exempting the driver from the necessity of using inconvenient maps which distract the attention from the road and do not in any way notify about traffic jams, roads being on repair or car accidents that may have occurred on the driver’s route.
Appropriateness of the Solution
Therefore, by using a navigation system the driver will not only be able to know precisely the place of his/her location in case he/she is lost but will be informed about the parts of the roads with traffic jams being able to avoid them.
Using Bicycles as Alternative Means of Transportation
And finally, choosing a bicycle instead of a car as a means of transportation will significantly reduce the number of traffic jams on the roads let alone the fact that it would greatly contribute to the world’s ardent fight against air pollution.
Bicycles and Traffic Jams
It is a well-known fact that most people in China have already realized that with such a dense population it would be impossible to get to any part of the city by means of cars and accepted an alternative means of transportation, namely bicycles. China just like other countries are preoccupied with the problem of traffic jams but those citizens who chose bicycles have already appropriately estimated their advantage on the roads and now they get to work much quicker than those who still prefer cars:” Along some sections noisy truck traffic is unavoidable, and when a truck or bus breaks down there are giant traffic jams. Fortunately, cyclists can continue past these jams by carefully weaving through stalled vehicles” (Roger Grigsby: 42). More and more people in China get convinced that “bike gives you the best way to get through traffic jams” (Dave Glowacz: 117) and while the others are nervously beeping, the person who uses the bicycle calmly passes by and gets to work in time.
Suitability of the Solution
Driving the bicycle the driver does not have to think about how much fuel he has left and where the nearest gas station is, nor needs he/she has to bother about a policeman stopping the bicycle for exceeding speed or overdue motor vehicle registration card. Regarding the bicycle as an alternative means of transportation, it would be fair to notice that using it instead of a car would be a proper solution to the problem of traffic jams.
Conclusion
Taking into consideration all the facts mentioned above, it can be stated that fighting with traffic jams is not only necessary but theoretically even possible. What it requires is just a mere understanding of people that they themselves are the main cause of emerging of traffic jams which is why namely they are responsible for fighting with this problem. Only cooperation and taking common measures would help implement the solutions to the problem of the traffic jam stated above. Being a responsible citizen means taking care of the welfare of the native country and the city the person lives in. Avoiding driving in the rush hours will not only help reduce the number of instances of traffic jams but a number of accidents as well; using a navigation system won’t let the driver get lost in the city and will inform about the possible traffic jams on the route and the ways to past them; and finally, using bicycles instead of the cars at least in half of the instances will considerably lessen the occurrences of traffic jams and help the world in its fight with pollution.
References
Justine Vaisutis. Indonesia. Lonely Planet, 2007.
Uwe Hansmann. Pervasive Computing: The Mobile World. Springer.
Roger Grigsby. China by Bike: Taiwan, Hong Kong, China’s East Coast. The Mountaineers Books, 1994.
Dave Glowacz. Urban Bikers’ Tricks & Tips: Low-Tech & No-Tech Ways to Find, Ride, & Keep a Bicycle. Wordspace Press, 2004.
Anthony Downs. Still Stuck in Traffic: Coping with Peak-hour Traffic Congestion. Brookings Institution Press, 2004.
Mehran Kamrava. The Modern Middle East: A Political History Since the First World War. University of California Press, 2005.
The article describes the deteriorating condition of the car industry in Detroit, the very nucleus of life in this State. “The road to ruin” captures the effect of the ongoing bankruptcy of the industry and how it has affected the lives of the people, workers, and employers. The article lends itself to the discussion of socio-economic theories, notably those laid down by Henry Ford.
The car industry is the main economic activity in Detroit. The current struggle in which the main car companies, including Ford, life has had a negative impact on the livelihood of the people. The article primarily exposes how Detroit is witnessing a “meltdown”. The idea is conveyed by naming shops, restaurants, and such arteries of the economy, which have been closed down or seen their activity reduced sharply. Some working people, who collectively would constitute the working force of Detroit, are also named and their struggle to make a living is portrayed. They complain about how one job is no longer enough to make a living, now that economic activity has slowed down and jobs are no longer available in industrial firms.
The failing car industry is presented in the article concerning the times when it was flourishing. Ford industries were pioneers, back in 1920, in mass production and have been considered one of the ‘Big Three’ of the industry, the others being Chrysler and General Motors (Pilkington, 2008) – also qualified as constituting an oligopoly (Keppler,2001,6). Indeed, Ford is presented as an embodiment of American industrialization because it revolutionized the car industry. It brought with it new ways of managing industries, notably mass production via skill distribution and high wages, and boosted the car industry so that Detroit has become the American hub for this industry.
Mass production is a key concept introduced by Ford industries. It comes hand in hand with large consumption trends. This idea pertains to Fordism, concerning Henry Ford the founder of Ford industries (Storper and Scott, 1992). Fordism believes in the virtues of mass production or large outputs to be achieved thanks to the distribution of tasks- the main organizational technique advanced by Ford. To absorb such production, Fordism puts forth the idea that wages should be high so that demand gets high in turn, as people would be able to afford to buy.
On the other hand, recession has shed light on the negative impact of Detroit industrialization. If Ford’s main managerial innovation is the distribution of tasks, this point is critical the theoretical dyad of skilling and deskilling. Whereas the aim for mass production is achieved through assigning to worker a particular task which they perform constantly and with time “mechanically”, such method in particular and capitalist forms of production in general lead to the deskilling of workers. This concept, attributed to Harry Braverman, shows that workers in mass production factories grow unskillful because they are reduced to small menial jobs (Arestis and Sawyer, 2000). This explains the state of pauperization to which the laborers of Detroit has turned into. Once the car industry recessed, they found no valuable skill within their hands that would help them take on other jobs. They have had to take on another a small/ low -kill job or two in addition to their work at the car factories. The high wages concept advanced by Henry Ford becomes here inappropriate. Workers labor low-skill jobs make them in turn earn low wages. This also explains the necessity to have more than one job. Hence the virtues of industrial transformation in Detroit are played down with the setbacks of the modes of production that validate to some extent the Marxist tenet that capitalism exploits workers.
In the end, this crisis will certainly lead to theorizing about better ways to manage the car industry. The call on the part of the major firms for a bail out is interestingly contributing to the current discussion of whether a measure of government regulation is needed as opposed to adherence to an independent market economy.
Reference List
Arestis, Philip and Sawyer, Malcolm. 2000, “Harry Bravermann” In A Biographical Dictionary of Dissenting Economists, Second Edition, pp. 79-86, Edward Elgar, UK.
Klepper, Steven. 2001, “The Evolution of the U.S. Automobile Industry and Detroit as its Capital”, Carnegie Mellon University, DRUID Winter Conference.
Pilkington, Ed. 2008, “The road to ruin”, The Guardian, UK.
Schwartz, Nelson D. 2008, “Global Car Industry Fearful for Detroit”, The New York Times.
Storper, Michael, Scott, Allen John. 1992, Pathways to Industrialization and Regional Development, Routledge, New York.
Airline pilots are individuals who are accorded high degree of trust and respect and require enough security for their safety as they embark on their flight. This is because of the mentality with the crooks and other terrorists that airway is one of the most and formidable way of committing international crimes such as terrorism and abduction. Airway is the latest means where terrorists prefer to humiliate and take revenge to their enemy for example the September 11 2001 terrorism attack.
Argumentive Essay
Pilots as I stated are individuals who are accorded high dignity and in the process their safety should be maintained without hesitation (Hopkins, 2004). Pilots are people who carry special dignitaries and if they are accorded that responsibility of carrying even the presidents, I don’t see the reason why they should be denied that chance of licensed guns. Therefore, I support the idea that pilots should be allowed to carry guns. Further more pilots do carry expensive things especially the commercial cargos and if they are trusted with those cargoes why then should they not be allowed to carry guns. In the first place it is very easy for pilots to communicate, collude or leak any information if they like but majority don’t. So I belief pilots should carry licensed guns. Many people oppose this idea of arming pilots including the airline officials themselves
This is because many people think that having guns in the airplane is very risky. This is so because attackers may target and posses the gun which later would be used to hijack the aero plane. But my argument is that prevention is better since not all airline crimes that may happen have magnitude as terrorism. For example, according to pilot Luckey, the terrorist attack of September 11, 2001, would have been prevented if the pilots were armed beside the Federal Flight Deck Officers. Some of the attackers are minor crooks who can be stopped by the pilots and other security details. For example an airplane may have an emergency landing in remote areas or in the forests and having a gun would stop any attack including wildlife animals.
It is absolutely necessary good to arm the pilots because in many events terrorism has occurred in the airplane when other officers such as air Marshall are armed. Therefore, they don’t protect the pilots absolutely because the Marshall protects both the passengers and the cabin. Again the federal flight deck officer protects the cockpit door but they are easily attacked without their knowledge because they are visible to the passengers and other people who would strike but the pilot is not. Therefore his gun would somehow easily help when these officers are outdone. Actually, commercial airline pilots ought to be armed after going a proper training on how to use guns and when depending with the scenarios. This is for their own protection since passengers are protected by the Marshall (Ellen Hopkins, 1997). I belief if commercial pilots are properly trained on how to use the arms, there would be no problem on arming them. Once again pilots are people who come along way and they are accorded high degree of respect and trust. Therefore, if they great respect are bad people that would be realized even before they qualify to be endowed with that of carrying even the head of states.
On the other hand, having a rifle in the cockpit would do little to prevent terrorism attack since this is always a well orchestrated mission by the terrorists when they strike and little would be done by the pilot with his gun to prevent it on that time of attack.
It is argued that pilots may corroborate with the terrorists and therefore little would be done to curb international crimes. Some countries fear arming the pilots because they don’t have trust in them. They believe that there are many kinds of terrorists because even the attackers are trained people some of them pilots. For example the September 11 2001 terrorists were trained people who had stayed in US before orchestrating their mission. It is argued that if such people are hired as pilots and allowed to carry guns can do bad things than expected.
According to Ed Davidson, who is an airline pilot, arming pilots would create high degrees or temptation for other crews to sneak into the cockpit incase of an emergency and they would take that chance to open fires to the passengers incase they want to robe them. This is because the pilot himself cannot have control of both the plane and the situation of thuggery. Many people recommend that responsibility should be given to special security details and not the pilot. The only thing the pilot can do is to land as quickly as possible. Otherwise hot tempered armed pilot may be tempted to open fire aimlessly incase of the attack and can create a hole in the plane that would later distort the balance of the plane leading to worse situation or can cause an accident in the cross fire killing many people.
I would recommend that even the pilot should be armed so that he can help in defending his cockpit territory and for their own safety. I belief that if the attackers know that pilots are always armed they would not hesitate to break in easily to the cockpit door as they do when they want to control the direction of flying. In this case even crooks who abduct the passengers would not do it with ease. Airway terrorism has been happening frequently; therefore pilots should be protect themselves because nobody know when and how the terrorism would strike.
It is argued that the best way to fight this vice of terrorism is to have strong and secure cockpit that cannot be opened by the attackers instead of arming the pilots (Shari Stamford, 1996). I would propose that besides arming the pilots, the cockpit should be reinforced to discourage access of terrorists to the pilot himself. I wonder why graduated pilots from Federal Law Enforcement Training Center should not be allowed to carry licensed guns and yet they are screened, properly evaluated and trained to carry out their responsibilities.
Conclusion
Actually, the work of the pilots is to fly and control the plane but this does not mean that pilots should not be armed. I know pilots are not trained to shoot and defend themselves but due to the trust that is accorded to them by the time they are allowed to fly expensive cargoes and heads of states, they should be trained properly on how to use the guns and hence licensed. Again, signatory mechanism to alert the pilot should be reinforced incase there is attack to enable the pilot to land immediately without hesitation. Otherwise, the continuous attack on airline by the terrorists calls for the arming of the pilots too.
References
A journal of the air line pilots association, Volume 69, Number 8, 2000 that addresses the need for training pilots so that they can resist attack.
Airway pilot magazine: journal of the air line pilots association, 2000, Volume 69, Number 10 by Ray Brice.
Air line pilots and their safety book by Hopkins, Web.
Arming of airline pilots for their own safety, Web.
Hopkins J (1997) the safety of pilots and their landing, University Academic Press, New York.
Shari Stamford and Krause (1996) airline pilots’ safety and accident investigation, McGraw-Hill, New York.