Category: Transportation

Introduction

Singapore has been touted as one of the countries with some of the most sustainable urban transport policies in Asia. This is mainly indicated by the country’s apparent success in containing traffic growth, vehicle ownership and emphasizing and expanding the role of public transport systems (Barter 6).

Low motorization through sustained car ownership has ensured energy efficiency in Singapore’s public transport system compared to many Australian cities (Barter 7).

There are distinct features that differentiate Australian cities from European, Asian and European cities. These features include the transport systems that the cities have adopted. In Australia for instance, the cities including g Melbourne combine urban compactness present in European cities and the suburban characteristics that are dominant in American cities.

The cities like Melbourne have heavy rail systems that were built primarily to cater for suburban expansion rather than metropolitan expansion (Mees and Dodson 5). Following the success of the Singapore transport system, many experts have mulled over the possibility of applying the Singapore model on Australian cities especially Melbourne.

Despite its success, it’s important to acknowledge that both cities were designed with different aim and objectives and both cities’ infrastructures have taken root to an extent that they cannot be easily changed. The simple answer therefore as to whether the Singapore model can be applied in Melbourne is no. this is because of various reasons

Singapore Model unlikely to work in Melbourne

First of all both cities are planned differently. It’s important to note that one a city has chosen a planning model it’s difficult to change it. As a result, the cities work differently. Singapore’s development gained momentum in recent years while that of Melbourne is a bit old. Furthermore, Singapore is the capital and its infrastructure is planned to serve a wider and bigger population t5hat that of Melbourne.

The two cities spot two different rails systems that will be difficult to change in the case of Melbourne. In Singapore, the city has a mass rapid transport system (MRT) while that is chiefly meant to contain the population increase due to metropolis expansion (Bernick & Cervero 399). Melbourne on the other hand spots heavy rails built primarily to cater for the suburban expansion (Barter 5).

Even if the Singapore model was applicable in Melbourne, it’s likely to face severe financial difficulties strain (Rodrigue 20). Singapore is a city-state and as such has access to sizable amount of resources that Melbourne cannot match. Additionally, the cost of labour in Australia is higher compared to Singapore. Hence, any such venture is likely to cost highly due to the costs involved.

It’s also important to note that both cities economic activities differ significantly. Melbourne has only one central business district compared to Singapore’s multiple. Singapore city has several regional centres that serve as business districts because of the city’s expansiveness. Implementing such a plan in Melbourne is likely to misfit and any resizing will not work effectively.

Unlike Melbourne, political interventionism is common in political and economic management (Han (a) 8) in Singapore. In Melbourne, the authorities tend to follow liberal policies that are defined by predetermined laws with limited political influence.

Additionally, the fact that Singapore is a city state enhances the political intervention. Unlike Melbourne therefore, Singapore is likely to benefit from political will to development through avoidance of the bureaucratic procedure that Melbourne may be experiencing.

There is also the role that the government of Singapore has played in the growth and management of the city. In Melbourne, the state government makes most of the decisions with limited federal government participation. Due to the federal limitation, implementing a plan in Melbourne in the magnitude of Singapore will be straining to the state government.

According to Mees and Dodson, there is also lack of network planning principles in the system context in Melbourne, and also lack of reform plans in the city (13). Mees generally points out that administrators in the city of Melbourne have failed to take advantage of the city’s expansive network to plan and management it better for better transport delivery(104).

Through Melbourne cannot implement the system present in Singapore, they can learn a lot from Singapore’s approach and probably implement piecemeal reforms on the transport system to rid the city of its problems. The following section gives suggestions on the areas that Melbourne can lean from Singapore

What Melbourne can learn from the Singapore experience

The important role that motorized private car and public transport can play in a unsustainable transport system cannot be overstated. In Singapore, the authorities have managed to control private car ownership while developing a parallel public transport system that is efficient and reliable.

Hans says that motorization and effective management of transport system of the countries have helped the island nation contain transport woes experienced in many part of the world including Melbourne. (316).

Cervero says that it’s important that city planners liken in Melbourne to plan their cities for people rather than for cars (330). According to Mees, the rail system in Melbourne is so slow that it makes people prefer cars to trains. Maybe it should be a starting point for Melbourne city planners to implement an “MTR” in the city.

Melbourne should implement a range of policies that favor development of public transportation. The planning of an efficient and fast network that is specific on service characteristics for all operators and subsidies is what Melbourne needs (Mees 104). There is also need to establish efficient metropolitan institutions that are proactive in city planning in Melbourne (Bernick et al 335).

Government intervention is necessary if cities like Melbourne will implement changes that suit its transport system. According to Cervero strong and creative political planning system like Singapore’s will help a great deal in alleviating the transit problems of the city (338).

Mees concurs with the above assertion by alluding that planning is the critical in the realization of efficient transport systems (108). In Melbourne for instance, it will be prudent to have a single central authority that responsible for the overhaul and maintainace of the transit system

In the event of planning, there is need to incorporate the principles of speed, efficiency and consistency to the systems. Mees insists that simple and direct structures like those of Singapore will ensure the above factors are achieved. The system will be facilitating convenient transfers that provide clear and consistent information and marking in the transport system.

Additionally, there integrated planning will be key in alleviating the transport system in Melbourne. In Singapore, planning and land use planning were crucial to the integration of transport facilities and building development. Furthermore, there is need to integrate all modes of transport in the city so that there is efficient and seamless intermodal transfer and integration of various, management policies and mechanisms.

Works Cited

Barter, Paul. Singapore’s Urban Transport: Sustainability by Design or Necessity?’ in Wong, Tai-Chee; Yuen, Belinda; Goldblum, Charles (Eds.) ‘Spatial Planning for a Sustainable Singapore’ Springer, Dordrecht, (2008) pp. 95-114.

Bernick, Michael et al. Transit villages in the 21st century, Singapore: The Master Planned Metropolis

Cervero, Robert. The transit metropolis. Washington D C: Island Press, 1998.Print.

Mees, Paul & Dodson, Jagon. Public Transport Network Planning in Australia: Assessing current practice in Australia’s five largest cities. Brisbane: Urban Research Program, Griffith University, 2011.

Han, Sun Sheng(a) Land Transport Policy and Development in Singapore. Melbourne: Urban Planning Faculty of Architecture, Building and Planning The University of Melbourne

Han, Sun Sheng (b). The Singapore Experience. 2010. Print.

Mees, Paul. Transport for Suburbia: Toronto and Melbourne revisited. London: Earthscan, 2010. Print.

Literature Review

Labour can be described as the effort by laborers in the production of goods and services. Primarily, labour unions arise from the wage earners who form the unions with an aim of serving them in relation to their wages and working environment. Indeed, labour unions have been in existence for a long time.

The importance of the labour unions is emphasized as they have contributed towards many reformations like the United States free market. In addition, the railway labor law was passed in 1926, prohibiting discrimination against labour unions (Shills, 1971, p32).

When Roosevelt became president in 1932, his new deal included fair labor act that gave workers the right to bargain and a rise in the wages, as a result unions arose and workers were represented. Heavy taxation of the wealthy, relief for the unemployed, recovery of banks were some of the major changes that arose in Roosevelt’s new deal program.

Fate of Labour Unions in a Changing Economy

The public suffers from the several unions’ competitive interests that result to labor unrest. Craft unions felt that skilled workers needed to be protected, whereas the industrial unions only protected the unskilled workers, therefore deeming them unsuitable for union organization.

However in the 20^th century the industrial unions outweighed the crafts unions, posing as a controversial shift; as the unskilled workers were viewed as unsuitable for union organization. The move by AFL to organize the unskilled workers expelled some union groups; however these unions formed the congress of industrial organization (CIO), as a result it led to the representation of several craft unions.

Thereafter, competition among unions in the representation rights arose. Today, the union membership has declined and this poses great effects to the United States economy, of which its main basis is a free market.

Wachter’s (2007 p584) article explains how labor unions have played a major role in the economic policy. Union membership increased drastically when the national labour relation act (NLRA), which had replaced the (NIRA) came to existence.

The shift in employment is one of the key factors, whereby, employment is shifting from the traditional union industries.

This leads to decline in labor and market of the traditional industry product; new formation of unions has proved that unions are not only limited to craft workers, thus disadvantaging the traditional industries. The opposition of unions is higher today as compared to the earlier years due to the fact that union’s pay is higher.

Health and safety Acts, pensions, and benefits serve as a substitute for unions in today’s world. In this case, employees are eligible for these benefits even without having to form a union. In the United States, labor unions have been operational with the government’s assistance in ensuring that wage levels are favorable and labor is well distributed throughout the industries.

Due to the rapid expansion of the global market, competition is becoming stiff, which leads to cost reduction; employers are forced to revisit employees’ wages that affect productivity. The big question however is on what matters most – employee’s job security or an organization’s productivity?

Getman (2003, p125), in his article, explains further on the national labour relation act (NLRA), which was formed with an aim of spreading unionization and collective bargaining, thus carefully structured. This act provided determinants of whether employees wish to be represented by a union, and the right for an employer to bargain with the union.

This law aimed at protecting employees by ensuring that they had the right to bargain, strike, and join a union. However, the employer has a right to discharge an unproductive employee, despite the NLRA accusations on discrimination.

Getman (2003, p.132) further explains that NLRA Act was discovered a threat to employees’ strikes, and to the organization operations. The Act played a huge role in granting employee’s power and dignity, as well as the right for an employer to discharge an employee on genuine basis.

Collective bargaining gave the American unions’ political power, resources, and leverage, thus forcing an employer to make reasonable rules that promote productivity. Dispute resolution was therefore successful and fast.

According to Getman (2003), courts surprisingly started viewing NLRA issue on collective bargaining as interference, other than solution. It is however evident that lack of right to strike leads to ineffective collective bargaining, thus the desire to join unions is crashed.

Baird (1987, p.934) further suggested that the whole unionism should be eliminated and pave way for a rather voluntary one, which incorporates less conflict between labor law and labor management co-operation. The author views compulsory bargaining as a threat to the development of labour management, hence appealing for laws that contain no threat.

Baird adds that the Clayton Act (1914), Norris-La Guardia Act (1932), and the NLRA (1934) generally affected the labor market. This is evident as the Clayton Act contributed to the granting of immunity to the labour unions from the trust laws, while the Norris-La Guardia Act outshined the yellow dogs contracts, which existed between the employees and employers.

The Clayton and Norris-La- Guardia law states that, one union could represent majority of workers in an industry, without fear of violating neither the anti-trust laws nor antitrust persecution. In addition, the exemption of labour union from the antitrust laws contributed to the stiff competition between already existing labour unions and the interlopers.

When different unions represented employees from different industries, competition would be evident among the unions. NLRA characteristics involved union representation, union security, and the creation of job property rights for the employees involved in strikes.

Such characteristics hindered the discovery of other forms of labor-management relations, which would have assisted the unionized industries in adapting to the changing market conditions.

The presence of a bargaining agent hinders competition among unions in the same firm or between union and non-unions, since individual employees are incapable of representing themselves.

A certified bargaining agent has a monopoly power granted by the government that allows innovations aimed at benefiting both the employers and the employees (Baird, 1987, p.941). It is however clear that the compulsory bargaining power in the NLRA Act should be disregarded.

According to Hogler R, (2006 p101), in the fifty’s the united states union membership was a third of the non- agricultural workforce, however by 2004 the membership had dropped to 12.5%. However with the presence of NLRA act, workers found a means of equalizing power through collective bargaining, as a means of national uniformity.

The employee representation plans were given attention in 1870’s due to their advantageous factors that included the reduction of labor conflict, (Hogler, 2006 p110). The transit management and transit unions recognized the need of working together in order to achieve a common interest, hence maximizing on collective bargaining.

The amalgamated transit union (ATU) was to fight for the rights of workers. This union led to the formation of urban mass transportation act (UMTA) which preserved the union’s rights, (Oestreich & Whailey, 2001 p8).

Today, both the management and the unions in the transit industry play a vital role in ensuring that the industry remains competitive, through initiating of a collective bargaining agreement. Therefore a clear indication of the importance of unions and management co-operation in relation to employees and the industry welfare.

Conclusion

Due to the continued decline, there is need for a union labor force that is self-perpetuating in our current economic state, the need for a legal and institutional review is important in the determination of whether the current labour laws are supportive of the public welfare needs and remain competitive in a new global economy.

There is an arising need to amend labor laws that act as a threat to labor and management collaboration. Concentration should be based on a new form of labor laws, which will ensure the existence and development on fresh unionism, which does not pose as a threat, but as an advantage to both employees and the employers.

The need for labor laws that are beneficial to employees in term of enhancing their lives is necessary. In addition, any newly formed Labor laws should be able to merge well with the labor management relations.

References

Baird, C. (1987). Cooperation: two incompatible views. Cato Journal, Vol. 6, No. 3. Cato Institute publishers. Web.

Getman, J. (2003). The national labor relations act. What went wrong; can we fix it? Web.

Hogler, R. (2006). The historical misconception of right to work laws in the united states; senator Robert Wagner, legal policy and the decline of American unions. Web.

Oestreich, H. and Whaley, G. (2001). Transit labor relations guide. MTI publishers. Web.

Shills, E. (1971). Union fragmentation: a major cause of transportation labor crises. 25 Indus. & Lab. Rel. Rev. 32 (1971-1972). Web.

Wachter, M (2007). Labor unions: a corporatist institution in a competitive world. Web.

Like other cities, Abu Dhabi has heavy traffic jam. Commuters spend several hours stuck in slow-moving jam. Traffic congestion in Abu Dhabi has a number of causes and effects. In the recent past, Abu Dhabi has experienced a population explosion.

Consequently, there are increasing numbers of vehicles on roads as commuters seek to get to their destinations. The rapid rise of middle class and changing lifestyles are also responsible for increasing traffic snarl-up as majorities can now afford their own means of transport (private cars). The report presents ways of resolving traffic congestion in Abu Dhabi using data collected from 30 respondents.

Road congestion occurs as a result of increased use of the road network that results into increased time of travelling. This is the state of Abu Dhabi roads despite the existence of modern roads. Abu Dhabi also requires expansion of its road networks including construction of new ones, and creating ring lanes in the city centre. This shall improve traffic congestion in the city.

Abu Dhabi undertook this approach (DoT, 2012). However, such lanes are insufficient for elimination of the increasing rate of road usages. Abu Dhabi must develop its public transport system as the basic step to eliminating road congestion.

It should ensure enhanced commuter access to public vehicles by opening new roads, and investing in efficient and safe vehicles such as subway lines, speedy trains, and modern public buses (Chaudhry, 2012).

Rapid population growth is also an issue that has led to traffic jam in Abu Dhabi. Road networks should support increasing populations. However, road networks also have their limits to points where they cannot support further expansion or increased number of commuters.

Most of these commuters also live in the city suburbs where they must commute to various destinations. There are also never ending activities within the port that attract all manner of vehicles that cause heavy congestions on the port road.

Abu Dhabi road congestion also results from parking habits of both heavy and light vehicles in traffic areas, entry and exit of commercial vehicles during rush hours (Abudhabi-Expat-Life, 2011).

Levels of household earning have increased tremendously. As a result, majorities can afford commuting using different modes. Thus, a number of such travellers prefer their personal cars. Such people do not use public means of transportation, but their private cars.

This increases the demand for road networks as many cars need same routes. Most people also blame traffic congestions on poor urban planning. There are sprouting city settlements away from the central city to cater for the increasing populations.

Commuters spend most of their time in traffic jams. This results into frustration among road users and lost opportunities and productive hours. Time spent waiting in road congestions affects income levels of people and economy as a whole.

Economists view lost time in terms of monetary value and amount of fuel consumed in traffic jams. Traffic congestions also affect economic productivity of Abu Dhabi. Commuters experience hiked prices due to long hours in traffic jams.

Further, people, firms, and business enterprises experience losses due to delays as majorities spend productivities hours on the road. As a result, there are persistent loss of opportunities, increasing costs of running business, pollution and rates of accident.

Governments have squarely based such arguments on traffic jam alone. Thus, traffic jam has prompted authorities to take immediate action in order to avoid unwanted consequences of road congestion on the economy. In some case, using private vehicles as modes of transport is no longer viable due charges and taxes that governments levy on them.

People have resorted to public transport. Such severe economic consequences have forced most authorities to upgrade their urban transport systems to the international standards, expand train systems, construct freeways, introduce transport management systems, and promote the use of public transportation systems.

Traffic jam is also a major cause of road carnage and incidents. This argument emanate from the fact that an increase in the number of vehicles will enhance rates of road carnage. Most data indicate that cases of road accidents and incidents are numerous during peak hours (Downs, 2004).

Still, some drivers experience fatigue or lack of concentration due to long hours in jams and working hours. Such factors have enhanced cases of road accidents and incidents.

We may attribute the main cause of growing rates of road accidents to increasing numbers of vehicles on the roads. We must acknowledge that road accidents and incidents are also responsible for road congestion. This is an issue of cause and effect relations in road usages.

Traffic jam results into decreased lifetime of the road surface. This is because roads lose their layers and elasticity that can support the weight of different types of vehicles using them. Vehicles cause high deflection of the road surfaces when they are not moving, moving slowly, or when they are many.

As time goes, the road surface losses its elasticity as top layers become lesser effective. This results into several maintenance practices than planned. In addition, areas with heavy traffic experience early drops in quality of the road than expected.

There are high costs of vehicles maintenance in places of heavy traffic. Road congestion is not good for high speed modern vehicles. For instance, sudden acceleration and brakes have negative effects on the vehicle engines. Vehicle engines function even in traffic despite the fact that no movements take place.

This results into frequency of servicing beyond manufacturers’ recommendations. Maintenance costs also account for wear and tear of spare parts, such as brakes and clutch as their functions increase with increased usages.

Psychologists believe that among the main causes of road rage occur due to frustrations caused through road congestions. People of outbursts personalities and tendencies take such rage to other road users so as to vent their anger. They have peculiar habits such as changing lanes, close following, or sudden brakes.

In addition to air pollution, there is also noise pollution that causes concerns among environmentalists. There are exhaust emissions that are responsible for the rising quantity of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

The issue of global warming has shifted focus from main industries to transportation system as significant contributors in emissions of greenhouse gases through combustion of fuels. Consequently, vehicles manufacturers improve technology in modern, hybrid vehicles to reduce emission of carbon dioxide and enhance fuel efficiency.

The main sources of noise pollution mainly come from hooting, roaring vehicles engines, and radio and music systems in vehicles. However, slow movements of vehicles increase the level of noise as road congestion tends to concentrate such noise pollution in busy roads.

Description of Idea

Causes

There are many factors responsible for traffic jam in Abu Dhabi. Time of road use is the same among most commuters. Most road users share the same time of travelling. These schedules result into high demands of road usages at certain times.

Effects

Traffic jam has severe effects in terms of economic losses, carnage, rage, pollution, and maintenance costs of vehicles.

Audience

Urban planners and developers will find this report useful.

Scholars interested in studying causes, effects and elimination of road congestions.

This report is also relevant to road users.

Survey Information

Participants

The researchers used 30 participants from random selection process.

Data Collection

The researchers designed survey question for data collection.

Area of Study

Abu Dhabi

Results

Abu Dhabi also lacks reliable public transport systems because of poor internal mode of transport. Most commuters rely on taxi cabs.

People believe that there is no need of driving private cars. Abu Dhabi should borrow from the Dubai Metro and public transport system. This also means constructing many bridges to link areas like Meshaireb Island, and Zayed Street.

There should be a coordinated effort among stakeholders such as municipality, planning department, and public works so as to identify possible solutions for intersections responsible for jams.

Installation of traffic control lights in main streets to control traffic. There should be a widespread public education on road usages.

Recommendations

Abu Dhabi should perform a radical change in its entire system of public transport. Abu Dhabi must encourage all commuters to use public transport. However, they should be timely services, reliable means, and safe.

The government should also encourage participation of private sector in the provision of transport services in specified routes and periods (UAE Interact, 2012).

Abu Dhabi road congestion occurs due to poor planning (Santos, Behrendt and Teytelboym, 2010).

Government should construct access and feeder roads (National Consultative Council, 2002).

Commuters who use same routes can have ride sharing initiatives. It is suitable for large institutions such as schools, universities, public institutions, and other organisation.

Police should also provide traffic education among the public.

There should also be a comprehensive and continuous study on the state of Abu Dhabi busiest roads.

There are also calls to introduce E-traffic systems for managing traffic.

The government can also introduce charges and taxes to combat road congestion.

There is also a need among local authorities to increase the number of available parking spaces.

References

Abudhabi-Expat-Life. (2011). Is Abu Dhabi traffic turning into a nightmare? Web.

Chaudhry, A. G. (2012). Evolution of the transportation system in Dubai. Network Industries Quarterly, 14(1), 7-1.

DoT. (2012). Road Projects. Web.

Downs, A. (2004). Still Stuck in Traffic: Coping with Peak-Hour Traffic Congestion. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press.

National Consultative Council. (2002). Developing the traffic movement and treating the traffic jam problem in Abu Dhabi. Abu Dhabi: National Consultative Council.

Santos, G., Behrendt, H. and Teytelboym, A. (2010). Part II: Policy instruments for sustainable road transport. Research in Transportation Economics, 28, 46-91.

UAE Interact. (2012). DPE Weekly Report: Traffic congestion in Abu Dhabi city. Web.

Appendix

Is Abu Dhabi traffic turning into a nightmare?

The various transportation forms or networks which man has created do play a significant role in our lives. Apart from them being very useful in mobility-related purposes, these channels also have a direct impact on our normal lives, based on a number of aspects. For example, some of these aspects are complex issues whose great impact has constantly affected human life socially, economically and ecologically.

Various modes of transportation usually come along with different significant impacts and effects to both humans and the environment. This paper examines ‘the car’ as a common mode of transportation in the contemporary world, whereby the benefits and effects arising from this mode of transport are clearly identified and analyzed.

The car, which is seen by many as the most preferable mode of transportation today, comes with many impacts to the human society and the environment (Litman 54). This mode of transportation, which involves all kind of automobiles, plays a fundamental role to the modern society.

People all over the world have found it more easy and convenient to transport goods, access services, and to conduct business, among other key activities in life, through this common form of transport. The use of automobiles as a mode of transportation provides numerous economic, social and environmental benefits.

One social and economic benefit of this mode of transportation is that, there is a constant increase in equity among people of low income, especially through car sharing networks, which are popular in some countries, such as Canada (Forkenbrock 18).

Transportation is necessary in the contemporary world in ensuring that there is vibrant communication and interaction between people, thus paving way for effective functioning of communities. Among other modern forms of transportation, cars have been in the front line in helping people meet these significant requirements of life.

This mode of transport has been viewed by many as a convenient medium which is not only affordable, but also efficient and reliable in many ways. In that case, community members from different segments of the society have found cars to be a reliable form of transportation, which they could rely upon, in meeting their mobility needs.

However, apart from the freedom and flexibility provided by this sustainable mode of transportation, there are also many health costs and environmental impacts. While cars present immense benefits upon the modern society, they are also known to bring serious effects to the environment, through a number of ways. For one, automobiles are no doubt the biggest causative agent of the issue of air pollution, which has continued to pose serious effects to the current global population.

Emission of carbon and other harmful gases through burning of fuels has exceeded manageable levels presently, as the number of cars continue to rise. (Schikowski 152). Car transportation is arguably the biggest producer of green house gases, which have played a significant part in necessitating the issue of global warming. Excess accumulation of these gases in the earth’s atmosphere has reached hazardous levels, and this has completely changed the world’s weather and climatic conditions.

Car exhausts also do emit small particles and impurities which pollute the air, and this is likely to pose serious threats to human health, thus increasing health costs. Another way by which cars spoil the environment is through runoff of toxic liquids such as oil and gasoline. Obviously, most of these waste products usually end up in natural water ways and reservoirs, thus posing serious risks and threats to humans and aquatic life.

Car transportation mode entails a lot of infrastructure which normally requires expansive spacing. In this regard, there is always a possibility of habitat degradation or destruction, to pave way for these infrastructures, and this presents great harm to the environment. Apart the above ways, which tend to cause physical harm to the environment, cars also do create a lot of noise, and this is another problem that could bear serious impacts to the general environment.

The overall effects and impacts associated with this mode of transportation have raised much concern of late, thus necessitating the implementation of new strategies aimed at reducing the demand of cars and transportation in the world. As it is observable from this analysis, the progressive use of cars as the most preferred mode of transportation has brought complex issues to the general human population.

Automobiles have many outstanding benefits as a sustainable mode of transport, but the costs associated with their operation are immense and almost unbearable to many people in the world. For instance, health costs have increased abundantly over the last few years, as a result of the harmful effects of contaminated air and wasted environment, due to exhaust emissions and other toxic disposals from the automobiles.

The worldwide efforts to control and slow down the rate of impact caused by cars to both humans and the environment have brought many consequences on location, provision and demand of this mode of transportation. In response to this call of action against further environmental pollution, some countries have come up with strategies aimed at minimizing the demand and usage of car transportation.

One way through which this has been achieved is by bringing useful resources much closer to the people, to discourage them from using car transportation whenever they need to access them. Some countries have also tried to adopt the concept of walking, by closing routes leading to automobiles and installing sidewalks, to encourage non-motorized mode of transportation (Alvord 24).

From just another perspective, modern environmental regulations and rules in some countries are drafted with the focus of controlling emission of waste products from automobiles. In this respect, automobiles having heavy exhaust emissions are barred from operating in those regions where statutory regulations on environmental aspects have been taken seriously.

Also, as a result of these regulations, ownership of cars is highly limited in some places. All these interventions have seriously affected the location, provision and demand of cars as a sustainable mode of transportation in the contemporary world.

Works Cited

Alvord, Katie. Divorce your Car: Ending the love affair with the automobile, United Kingdom: New Society Publishers, 2000. Print.

Forkenbrock, David. Assessing the social and economic effects of transportation projects, New York: National Academy Press, Print.

Litman, Todd. Issues in Sustainable Transportation, Victoria BC: Victoria Transport Policy Institute, 2005. Print.

Schikowski, Tamara. “Long-term air pollution exposure and living close to busy roads are associated with COPD in women.” Respir Res 6. 1 (2005): 152. Print.

Throughout the past decades, the rapid global economic growth increased the level of the products consumption. Globalization provoked the expansion of the goods distribution streams worldwide, and the manufacturing, storage, and consumption of the goods induced the negative impacts on the natural environment.

Global warming caused by the extensive greenhouse gasses emissions is regarded as one of the most significant issues by the environmentalists and scientists. According to the recent statistics, since the end of the 20^th century, the emissions caused by the cross-national aviation has been increased to over 50%, and the further expansion of the international trade will provoke even more significant increases (Abe, Hattori, & Kawagoshi, 2014, p. 468).

Nowadays, governments and other official agencies recognize the importance of taking measures for the current problems resolving. The research of operations and activities involved in the logistics and transportation management helps to investigate their impacts on the environmental state and, at the same time, improve the organizational performances, refine policies, and reduce costs.

The given paper is devoted to the analysis of the relations between the environmental protection regulations and the transportation standards as well as the integration of the environmental regulations in the logistics and transportation management.

Through evaluation of the previous literature findings and claims related to the subject, the tendencies in the logistics and transportation management will be investigated as well as the environmental policies impacts on the structures of the supply chains transportation, their planning, and control.

Literature Review

According to Abe and his colleagues (2014), the current “total global emissions from international transportation are much larger than the sum of emissions from all sources in the UK and France” (p. 468). The complete liberalization of trade and the lack of the environmental controls will induce the greater negative effects on the environment.

Since transportation is considered as the primary source of the negative environmental impact, many researchers are concerned with the environmental sustainability considerations and the potential benefits of “greening” the organizational logistics and transportation systems (Pazirandeh & Jafari, 2016, p. 890).

The government attempt to undertake measures for the excessive emission control. For example, “policies to induce biofuel production in the US include technology (biofuel) mandates and performance-based standards for transportation fuel” (Chen, Huang, Khanna, & Onal, 2014, p. 242).

The Renewable Fuel Standard, the Low Carbon Fuel Standard, and a carbon price policy were also adopted by the government as the initiative for the environmental sustainability increase and promotion of the alternative fuels usage by the organizations. The initiatives introduced by the officials have both economic and ethical implications.

The Concept of Sustainability n Logistics and Transportation Management

Sustainability is commonly defined as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (Brundtland, Khalid, Agnelli, Al-Athol, & Chidzero, 1987). Therefore, the process of the economic development must include social and environmental aspects to meet the sustainability standards.

The researchers continue to make attempts to apply the concept of sustainability to the context of logistics management (Pazirandeh & Jafari, 2016; Oberhofer & Dieplinger, 2014). Traditionally, logistics management can be regarded as the set of regulations meant to plan, implement, and control the efficiency and effectiveness of the goods storage and the activities that lead to the goods consumption and compliance with the customers’ demands.

And when speaking of “green logistics,” it involves the same regulations and activities and additionally attempts to minimize the negative impacts on the environment (Marchet, Melacini, & Perotti, 2014, p. 776).

“The environmental management practices commonly used in the logistics industry include disposing waste responsibly, purchasing ecological products, reducing energy consumption, reducing solid/water waste and emissions, using cleaner transportation methods, and using recyclable packaging/containers” (Ho & Lin, 2012, p. 231).

The sustainable transportation processes involve both technological advancement and the transformation of the management strategies. According to Marchet and his colleagues (2014), the reduction of pollutant emissions and greenhouse gas is one of the principle goals for the efficient and environment-oriented logistics management (p. 793).

For the development of the organizational capacity to integrate the concept of sustainability into management, it is suggested execute the transportation by cleaner vehicles or use the alternative fuels. According to Lieb and Lieb (2008), the usage of more environment-friendly transportation methods is now widely recognized because of the government environmental regulations, the rise of costs for fuels, fuel scarcity, and the organizational attempts to increase competitiveness and improve company’s image (p. 14).

Along with the shifts towards different modes of transportation and fuel efficiency, the researchers suggest the redesign of the transport and distribution strategies. For example, it is possible to relocate the production and manufacturing sites closer to the consumption areas to reduce distances and decrease traffic (Marchet, Melacini, & Perotti, 2014, p. 777).

The improvements in the vehicle utilization are regarded as the optimal way to integrate environmental performance into the economic growth of the organization. The consideration of transportation modes thus leads to the efficient utilization of resources (Pazirandeh & Jafari, 2016, p. 893). In this way, by improving the environmental performance, a company can attain a higher efficiency regarding the costs and profits.

According to Ho and Lin (2012), the effectiveness of the technical innovations, as well as a successful adoption of newly designed environment management strategies in logistics and transportation, highly depends on the quality of human resources (p. 228). Adopting the new activities and practices is a complicated process that requires the transformation in the personnel operability and functioning, and the human resources’ competence and professional capabilities facilitate the organizational transition to change.

Therefore, the elaboration of training programs, development of the necessary skills, and the increase of awareness of the issues related to environmental sustainability play one of the crucial roles in the environmental management (Del Brio & Junquera, 2003). Well-Planned coordination of employees increases their level of involvement and commitment. The qualified, knowledgeable, and competent human resources thus benefit the organization in the effective adoption of the logistics, transportation, and environment strategies change.

The Motivations to the Adoption of Environment-oriented Strategies

There may be various motivations for the elaboration of strategies that include the environmental sustainability initiatives. The motive forces maybe both of internal and external character.

The external factors include the governmental policies, legislation and laws, the change in the customers’ preferences and requirements, social expectations, the desire to meet the business partners’ demands, high level of competition in the market, attempts to create the competitive advantages and increase profitability, and improvement of the business performance (Lieb & Lieb, 2008; Del Brio & Junquera, 2003; Ho & Lin, 2012).

The internal factors creating the urge for the sustainability initiatives adoption are the improvement of the working environment, the increase of company’s efficiency, reduction of costs and expenses, the creation of the image as a corporate citizen and improvement of reputation (Ho & Lin, 2012; Lieb & Lieb, 2008).

The attempt to be a corporate citizen implies the recognition of the necessity for the responsible and ethical business conduction. According to Lieb and Lieb (2010), it is regarded as one of the most significant reasons for integration of the environmental sustainability programs into the corporate culture. In this way, companies can enhance their image and increase customers loyalty and attraction.

Potential Benefits of Organizational Compliance with the Sustainability Standards

Despite the recognized significance of the sustainability principles consideration in logistics and transportation management, there is still an insufficient number of research findings covering the benefits of the environmental sustainability management practices implementation.

The changes in the transportation and fuel modes, as well as the other environmental initiatives, are commonly regarded as the causal factors for the costs and expenses increase (Pazirandeh & Jafari, 2016, p. 890). However, many researchers attempt to find the relations between the competitiveness increase and the effective environmental performance of organizations, and it is shown that the environment-oriented practices may increase economic and financial performance (Ho & Lin, 2012; Marchet, Melacini, & Perotti, 2014).

According to Marchet and his colleagues (2014), the benefits that the company gains after the implementation of the sustainability initiatives can be “tangible,” such as effectiveness and efficiency increase, and “intangible,” such as improvement of the organizational image” (p. 800).

The tangible impacts thus are related to the economic or the environmental indications. From the economic viewpoint, there will be the reduction of material costs and low resources consumption.

According to Lieb and Lieb (2008), the optimization of the distribution centers locations and numbers, appropriate transportation policies, usage of efficient fuels and ecological vehicles may lead to the overall long-term costs decrease. From the perspective of the environmental benefits, there will be the reduction of emissions, industrial waste discharge, water waste, and reduction of toxic materials consumption (Marchet, Melacini, & Perotti, 2014, p. 800).

The intangible positive impacts of the environmental performance improvement involve the enhancement of the organizational image, a better quality of life, and motivation for the environmental problems resolving (Ho & Lin, 2012). According to Oberhofer and Dieplinger (2014), the environment-oriented behavior may increase the customers and suppliers’ attraction. The integration of the environment protection values into the organizational culture may increase the organizational attractiveness to the potential employees as well.

Summary

Despite the fact that the transport is regarded as the principal cause of the excessive air and water pollution, many organizations often underestimate the environmental practices’ impact on the business performance.

The government attempts to control the emissions legally by the adoption of standards and taxes increase, and many researchers contribute to the investigation of the benefits of environment-oriented practices adoption (Chen, Huang, Khanna, & Onal, 2014, p. 242). As the result, nowadays the environmental issues are of increased interest for the practitioners in the logistics and transportation management.

The conducted analysis of the literature helped to establish the reasons and motivations for the environmental initiatives adoption as well as the potential benefits provoked after their implementation and the issues of the environmental sustainability measuring regulated by the official institutions and agencies.

However, the research is exposed to a few limitations. First of all, the clear-cut evidence for the relations between the sustainable transportation strategies (environmental performance) and their relation to the financial performance of organizations is under-represented in the analyzed literature. The balance between environmental solutions and the business concerns in logistics and transportation is of significant importance.

While improvement of the environmental quality in an attempt to meet the external pressures and requirements increases costs, companies need to find ways to sustain the financial activity and avoid economic declines. Therefore, the further investigation of the balance between environmental performance and economic performance will contribute to more effective compliance with the environmental regulations.

References

Abe, K., Hattori, K., & Kawagoshi, Y. (2014). Trade liberalization and environmental regulation on international transportation. The Japanese Economic Review, 65(4), 468-482.

Brundtland, G.H., Khalid, M., Agnelli, S., Al-Athol, S.A. and Chidzero, B. (1987). Report of the world commission on environment and development: our common future. Retrieved from www.un-documents.net/our-common-future.pdf

Chen, X., Huang, H., Khanna, M., & Onal, H. (2014). Alternative transportation fuel standards: Welfare effects and climate benefits. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 67, 241–257.

Del Brio, J. A., & Junquera, B. (2003). A review of the literature on environmental innovation management in SMEs: implications for public policies. Technovation, 23(12), 939-948.

Ho, Y., & Lin, C. (2012). An empirical study on Taiwanese logistics companies’ attitudes toward environmental management practices. Advances in Management & Applied Economics, 2(4), 223-241.

Lieb, K., &Lieb, R. (2010). Environmental sustainability in the third-party logistics (3PL) industry. International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management, 40(7), 524-533.

Lieb, R., & Lieb, K. (2008). The North American third-party logistics industry in 2008: The provider CEO perspective. Transportation Journal, 49(2), 1-25.

Marchet, G., Melacini, M., & Perotti, S. (2014). Environmental sustainability in logistics and freight transportation. Journal of Manufacturing Technology Management, 25(6), 775-811.

Oberhofer, P., & Dieplinger, M. (2014). Sustainability in the transport and logistics sector: lacking environmental measures. Business Strategy and the Environment, 23, 236-253.

Pazirandeh, A., & Jafari, H. (2013). Making sense of green logistics. International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management, 62(8), 889 – 904.

Introduction

We are living in an evolving era where technology plays a key role in everyday life. Today, individual just simply navigate their cell phone with few finger press, and the phone can direct them to anywhere at any time. Moreover, they can inform one the shortest, quickest route to any destination desired by walking, driving, and even taking public transits.

Ironically, the end user seldom ponders how this technology came into form. This is especially true when it comes to mapping services; the use of technology in Geography and mapping for giving directions and location has become a common phenomenon amongst most of the people.

Indeed with the ease of access to the World Wide Web and the internet it is so much easy to determine the particular location of a given place as well as the other characteristics of a given region such as infrastructure and demography (Miller and Wu 157). In the US, the use of this technology has been adapted by the US Central Bureau of Statistics for planning purposes and this will be outlined in the following sections.

What are TIGER files?

Since 1990, the United States Census Bureau officially adopted a format that is used to describe land attributes and census tracts: Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding and Referencing (TIGER). This powerful format is able to contain specifications of the land such as roads, rivers, lakes, and buildings into one single file. TIGER is purely used on topographical data instead of demographic data that one might assume.

The use of TIGER technology is based on the integration of a combination of points which are enjoined to form lines and ultimately polygons (Klosterman 5).

These are combined with geographic coordinates to be able to give a clear display of the locations of different places and features.

It is important to understand that with the use of TIGER it is relatively easy to comprehend the relations of the transportation infrastructure in relation to the spatial distribution; other features that are considered using TIGER include landmarks, census data, social and demographic characteristics of a given region.

TIGER is constantly interfaced with the Geographic Information Systems (GIS) so as to give more accurate results (Klosterman and Lew 379).

Limitations of TIGER

There are a number of limitations that can be associated with the application of the use of TIGER files in a particular region or for a particular application.

Most of these applications are linked to the accuracy of TIGER and the geographic offsets that are applicable in TIGER; the other limitations are related to the difficulties that are applicable in the use of TIGER especially if it is to be used in more than one country and the lack of trained personnel in the use of and interpretation of the TIGER systems.

In relation to the spatial configurations it is important to note that the spatial models that are applicable in most of the circumstances may not be able to meet the current technological advancements to give an accurate representation of the required information (Sutton 242). There are other advanced applications which can be used in the application of the spatial models to ensure that the data that is obtained is accurate and reliable.

These applications include but are not limited to the Network analysis models such as FEDEX and ISD; the problem of using the TIGER data in more than one country can be adequately addressed through the use of a model that allows for spatial optimization.

This allows a clear representation of the data that is available for a variety of locations; however it is very crucial to note that the greatest impediment in the adoption of these complex applications for the spatial configurations in these nations can be attributed to the lack of personnel who are trained and experienced in the use of these applications.

Usefulness in Transportation Planning

The TIGER technology and the data that is obtained find a wide range of applications in multiple fields. However the importance of the use of the TIGER systems in combination with the GIS systems for planning purposes in the transportation system cannot be overlooked.

TIGER was first developed and utilized in the 1990 census in the US by the Census Bureau and its main purpose was to help in the production of maps for use by the local census takers (Liu and Zhu 117).

One of the issues that have made the use of these maps very viable is the fact that the TIGER files that have been developed incorporate very important geographic information. This information gives details on the geographic information for the roads, railroads, streams as well as the political boundaries in the US.

The application of TIGER data in GIS applications for the purpose of transportation planning incorporates the use of thematic mapping, geo-coding of the associated date, a network analysis and finally carrying out a spatial analysis.

In the process of planning for the transit routes for the public transportation system, there is some very important information that needs to be considered such as the distribution of the income of the households in the regions to be accessed by the transport network.

Other information includes the households that own a car, and the general distribution of the public in relation to the youth, senior citizens and any disabled persons in the society (Miller and Wu 151). By use of TIGER data, a combination of thematic maps and the spatial analysis can help in the provision of this information and ultimately provide useful insights into the best routes for a public transportation system.

The use of the application related to the use of geo-coding and network analysis in a TIGER system can make it easy to easily determine the accessibility of a road transport system and the destinations that are to be accessed along the developed system.

A combination of TIGER and the GIS system makes it possible to determine the level of connectivity that can be achieved using a given transport system; this is most especially so applicable when dealing with the road transportation system.

In determining the accessibility of a given region, it is very crucial to understand the land use patterns, the kind of transport system that can fit the area and the transportation preferences that can be associated with the travelers. This is more so in relation to their preferred mode of transport.

The use of ArcMap GIS and ArcView GIS enables a user to determine the best options for accessibility in planning for a transportation system; they help to give a visual representation of the transport network that is best suited for a given region (Trainor 217).

Through the use of the TIGER data, it is possible to determine information in relation to the shortest route as well as the fastest route for any given transportation network; this can be easily determined using the Network Time Matrix in the TIGER Program data set (Liu and Zhu 112).

Apart from determining accessibility of a region TIGER data can also be used to plan for a mass transit system; this data is applicable in the service planning, the design and production of the maps and finally the publishing of these maps and determining the rate of compliance with the associated authorities.

In this system the GIS can be used for counting the passengers, carrying out a market analysis as well as doing scheduling for the transit routes that are to be used especially in the case of a rail road.

Finally the use of Tiger and GIS has made planning even easier by incorporating data to form programs and tools such as Google maps and MapQuest which have proved to be very popular search Engines to find data and information regarding the access routes and topographical information for any given region (Sutton 242).

Summary and Conclusion

It is very clear to note that the role of TIGER data in the process of planning a transportation network cannot be overlooked.

Although there are a number of limitations in relation to the level of complexity of the TIGER technology and a lack of experienced workers, ultimately the data that is obtained through this technology can be used to determine very important aspects that ultimately help to chart the best route for a transportation network (Miller and Wu, 142).

The accessibility of a given region through the chosen transportation mode is made possible and using data that gives the course of rivers; it is possible to determine the ideal location for a bridge or a railway crossing along the river. Thus the use of TIGER and GIS has made the planning for the laying out of a transportation network even more effective.

Works Cited

Klosterman, Richard. TIGER: A Primer for Planners. Planning Advisory Service (PAS) Report Number 436. Chicago, IL: American Planning Association, 1992. Print.

Klosterman, Richard and Alan Lew. “TIGER products for planning.” Journal of the American Planning Association 58.3 (1992): 379. Print.

Liu, Suxia and Xuan Zhu. “Accessibility Analyst: An Integrated GIS Tool for Accessibility Analysis in Urban Transportation Planning.” Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design. 31(2004):105-124. Print.

Miller, Harvey and Yi-Hwa Wu. “GIS Software for Measuring Time- Space Accessibility in Transportation Planning and Analysis.” GeoInformatica. 4.2 (2000): 141-159. Print.

Sutton, John. “GIS Applications in Transit Planning and Operations: A Review of Current Practice, Effective Applications, and Challenges in the USA.” Transportation Planning and Technology. 28.4 (2005): 237-250. Print.

Trainor, Timothy. “U.S. Census Bureau Geographic Support: a response to changing technology and improved data.” Cartography and Geographic Information Science. 30.2 (2003): 217. Print.

The U.S. Maritime Security is made up of a variety of laws, regulations, different agencies that bear the responsibility for ensuring that the ports are safe and that the cargo goes in and out securely. Since the 11th September, the National Congress has created and passed an array of laws that relate to the maritime security, including the 2002 Maritime Transportation Security Act (Bondareff & O’Neill, 2013, para. 3).

From the start of the Nation, the security of maritime ports has been of great concern. Since the early beginnings of the country development, the US Coast Guard alongside with the US Custom service shared efforts to protect the ports, waterways, and maritime borders from a variety of attacks and other criminal acts (Maritime Transportation System Security Recommendations for the National Strategy for Maritime Security, 2005, p. 6).

They still contribute to the Nation’s security by preventing and suppressing human and contraband smuggling, illegal migration, piracy and other crimes that occur within port facilities.

According to the testimony of Christopher Koch (2002), the President & CEO of the World Shipping Council, before the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation, “Designing and implementing an effective maritime security program will require cooperation, information sharing, and coordination between government and industry.

At the outset, the Council recommends that the federal government’s strategy and actions should be consistent with certain principles” (p. 3). Thus, the implementation of the Maritime Transportation Security Act is a unified strategy for addressing the primary issues linked with maritime safety.

Improving security aboard and in ports required clearly stated responsibilities as well as an integrated approach. Second, the regimen of security should allow the free and efficient trade flow. Secure and efficient transportation should work side-by-side.

Maritime Transportation Security Act Significance

The authority of law administration is assigned to the Department of Homeland Security and is distributed among various entities within the Department. These entities include the Domestic Nuclear Detection Office, the Transportation Security Administration, Customs and Borders Protection, and the United States Coast Guard (Bondareff & O’Neill, 2013, para. 6).

The 2002 Maritime Transportation Security Act is considered a significant piece of legislation that has set up a framework for developing and improving the security of the national ports as well as their protection from possible terrorist attacks. Moreover, ports are the significant pathways that ensure a safe transportation of cargo along the waterways. Twenty-five percent of the US GDP moves via the waterways.

An attack targeted at ports can cause a disruption of the supply chain that has been managed and tuned for decades. On the other hand, understanding how the port industry operates is the first step in improving the security on land and aboard. When the Maritime Transportation Security Act introduces the new mandates on safety in the maritime industry, it was done without the disruption of the free trading flow or the maritime sector economic viability (MarEx, 2012, para. 3).

However, there are many areas of concern regarding port safety despite the Maritime Transportation Security Act being a story of success. As seen from various hearings of the Committees and Subcommittees, there were no regulations regarding the deployment of the TWIC (Transportation Worker Identification Credential) readers.

There are also concerns linked to the new rules fulfilling the requirements targeted at improving maritime security as well as the installment of new tracking technologies aboard, as well as the exchange of information between the government, local authorities, and the agencies.

The sources of frustration are the inability of the Service to connect the MDA systems in the ‘operating’ picture as well as the vague approaches to vessel tracking. In addition, because of the physical decrease in the Interagency Operation Centers, the efforts of sharing Maritime Domain Awareness information between stakeholders (MarEx, 2012, para. 6).

Port Security Concerns

Security experts along with government leaders have great concerns about the ports being a gateway for the terrorists to smuggle weapons, personnel, and other dangerous items into the country. Moreover, there are worries that the ships in the country’s ports, especially large commercial cargo, cruise ships, and other ships could be targets for the terrorist attacks.

Experts warn that such attacks can easily paralyze he functioning of ports and the maritime trading system that directly affects the global US Commerce (Frittelli, Lee, Medalia, O’Rourke & Perl, 2003, p. 2).

Some Congress Members expressed concerns that the Maritime Transportation Security Act does not go far enough in its requirements for increasing security in ports. Additionally to the proposals about port security enhancement, the Congress should have debated on the problem raised by the last Congress, the problem of paying for ensuring maximum security in ports. Moreover, the Congress can also think about implementing the issues linked to different maritime security provisions set by the Maritime Transportation Security Act.

The debate about whether the country is spending enough on security in ports and whether the funding is directed at the vulnerable sectors that can become targets for terrorist attacks. On the other hand, the skeptics put forward an idea that no matter how much funds is spent on the port security, achieving success in preventing terrorist attacks in ports (Frittelli et al., 2003, p. 6).

Moreover, there is an issue concerning whether a general taxpayer should be a contributor to ensuring security in port through user fees. Port authorities argue that the port security should be a public good, and thus, the whole nation should share in the cost on security. Others argue that security at ports is only beneficial for the maritime industry because it reduces the cost of cargo theft. Thus, they argue that the industry should be the one to pay for port security.

A Decade After Maritime Transportation Security Act

November 2012 was a mark of the Maritime Transportation Security Act tenth anniversary. Thus, the anniversary requires a number of improvements targeted at protection of country’s ports and waterways from terrorist attacks. The Department of Homeland Security is the main federal agency that is responsible for the implementation of the Maritime Transportation Security Act. The federal government progressed in the port security planning by developing an array of strategies and plans as well as testing them (Caldwell, 2012, p. 5).

When it comes to the port safety strategies development, the federal government has made progress. For instance, the approvement of the National Strategy for Maritime Security in 2005 was one of the first steps. The strategy is linked to eight supporting plans that are targeted at addressing various threats to the maritime port environment.

In June 2008, it was reported that the plans were developed accordingly, as well as they included the following crucial components: methodology, scope, risk assessment, coordination of responsibilities, integration and implementation. With the help of such characteristics, the federal government is able to enhance security in ports. For instance, better risk assessment and the definition of the problem provide further information required for the needs of specific maritime sectors, including ports (Caldwell, 2012, p. 6).

Progress and Challenges

The Department of Homeland Security has made a significant progress in implementing various programs linked to maritime security, including port security. In addition, DHS has developed an array of security programs and strategies, as well as exercised the security plans.

For instance, the Coast Guard has implemented the Area Maritime Security Plan throughout the whole country in order to coordinate the Coast Guard procedures that are linked to the protection and prevention of attacks targeted at the US ports (United States Government Accountability Office, 2012, para. 1). Moreover, the Coast Guard has conducted a number of programs for conducting inspections in federal ports.

Despite the fact that the Department of Homeland Security and its components have progressed substantially, there were some major challenges linked to the program and initiative implementation. Since passing the Maritime Transportation Security Act, the challenges faced by the DHS included the following aspects: implementation and program management, collaboration with other agencies, funding and resources for port security implementation, and the measures of performance.

One of the major challenges of ensuring port security is connected with funding. For instance, the data acquired from the Coast Guard states that because of the lack of funding, some port security units are unable to meet the set standards in various security activities – including escorting and boarding vessels (United States Government Accountability Office, 2012, para. 2).

Conclusion

There is no doubt that since the 11th September the ports become much more secure. However, the government has stopped paying attention to the important part ports play in the transportation system as well as the economy. The funding of the maritime infrastructure and port security has declined significantly.

Port security has become only a small step in the transportation security programs. Thus, the Congress should work side-by-side with the Administration in order to enhance and improve the funding for port infrastructure and port security as well as ensure a tighter cooperation between the agencies responsible for port security (Bondareff & O’Neill, 2013, para. 18).

On the other hand, the Maritime Transportation Security Act has set up regulations for various transportation modes that are linked to reducing the security risks at ports. The regulations can affect the risks connected with on-shore and off-shore facilities, at the intermodal connections that exist within the port infrastructure.

For the future, the Department of Homeland Security should consider some guidelines for implementing security in ports. The guidelines are the following: working with national, international, and industry entities that can develop port security regulation for considering whether the regulations are to be revised for managing the risks linked to the terrorist attacks (Maritime Transportation System Security Recommendations for the National Strategy for Maritime Security, 2005, p. 12).

For a comprehensive port security network, promotion of technology is essential. The federal government should encourage the use of new technologies for improving port security as well as be a central entity in the relevant technology development.

References

Bondareff, J., & O’Neill, P. (2013). Are Our Ports Safe? Web.

Caldwell, S. (2012). Maritime Security. Progress and Challenges 10 Years after the Maritime Transportation Security Act. Web.

Frittelli, J., Lee, M., Medalia, J., O’Rourke, R., & Perl, R. (2003). Port and Maritime Security: Background and Issues. New York, NY: Novinka Books.

Koch, C. (2002). Testimony Before the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation. Web.

MarEx. (2012). Tenth Anniversary of the Maritime Transportation Security Act: Are We Safer?Web.

Maritime Transportation System Security Recommendations for the National Strategy for Maritime Security. (2005). Web.

United States Government Accountability Office. (2012). Progress and Challenges 10 Years after the Maritime Transportation Security Act. Web.

The regulations concerning transportation standards developed by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in collaboration with National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) have one main objective – the minimization of greenhouse gas emissions by light-, medium-, and heavy-duty vehicles.

The purpose of the transportation regulations of EPA is the reduction of carbon dioxide emissions that are just as harmful as non-GHG pollutants but have an additional capacity to destroy the atmosphere contributing to the global warming.

The reason and the goal behind the regulations are ethical as they attempt to enforce an environmental solution to improve the quality of life of the whole planet and protect the humanity from natural disasters that could occur due to the global warming. However, the regulations have already demonstrated some unethical outcomes.

The most significant ethical issue concerns the manufacturing and retail of automobiles. The problem is that the engines that use diesel fuel tend to release carbon dioxide (CO2), whereas the ones powered by gasoline produce nitrogen oxide emissions (Ethics Alarms, 2015).

That way, based on the regulations of EPA, the vehicles with diesel-powered engines quickly lost their popularity in the United States. Attempting to preserve their income, the car manufacturer Volkswagen has developed a cheating device that would fabricate false results each time the vehicles are tested for carbon emissions (Ethics Alarms, 2015).

This issue is most likely to surface in the paper. Another ethical problem of EPA’s regulations concerns the fact that the reduction of GHG-pollutants in the air would not make it cleaner to breathe since the carbon emissions would be simply replaced by non-GHG ones. In turn, the category of non-GHG emissions is broad and includes such substances as sulfur and nitrogen oxides, ozone, air toxics, and carbon monoxide (EPA & NHTSA, 2011).

All of these pollutants produce adverse effects on people’s health. That way, the regulations developed and enforced by EPA and NHTSA do not carry strictly beneficial character. Consequently, making a statement that these regulations are going to bring nothing but advantages for the society is unethical and insensitive.

It is necessary to remember about the dual nature of these regulations as it indicates the complexity of the environmental issues and how tightly they are intertwined with many other spheres of life such as economics and business, public health, equality, and human rights, to name a few.

Basically, the main reason why our society and the political leaders namely have not addressed the environmental problems and have not enforced any radical measures is because of the unbreakable and complex connections between a multitude of aspects of our life, comfort, and prosperity.

In other words, the main ethical challenge is based on the fact that eliminating one serious problem would inevitably result in serious damage for many other spheres. Naturally, even less drastic solutions (such as EPA’s regulations) have made a negative impact on the transportation industry.

In order to avoid making unethical statements in the paper, I would be wise to approach the discussed problem objectively and avoid siding with any of the participants. The best tools to accomplish an impartial analysis of the issue are critical thinking and emotional maturity. That way, making judgments, it is vital to use facts and carefully cite the sources from which they are taken.

Reference List

EPA & NHTSA. (2011). Final Rulemaking to Establish Greenhouse Gas Emissions Standards and Fuel Efficiency Standards for Medium- and Heavy-Duty Engines and Vehicles. Web.

Ethics Alarms. (2015). The VW Scandal: Huge Consequences, Simple Ethics Lessons, Ominous Implications. Web.

The invention of the shipping container was a revolutionary idea. The container was good for the global economy. The shipping container also improved the rate of industrialization. The development resulted in the production of many products for every global consumer. Most of the targeted consumers were thousands of miles away. Most of the port operations included loading and offloading cargoes.

The process required many causal and permanent workers. The practice was also costly and time-consuming. The introduction of the shipping container was critical towards dealing with this challenge. The metallic container was very simple. The standardized size of the container made every shipping process successful. This approach made transportation effective than ever before.

The invention of the container also improved the nature of operations in every seaport. The world experienced a new development thus promoting economic growth and globalization. The above scenario explains why shipping has become an important aspect of the global economy (“Globalization and the Maritime World in the 20^th Century” 1). Shipping ensures every economy is running smoothly.

The container also revolutionized the global shipping process. The invention of the shipping container led to new developments. Every society changed the shape and structure of its seaports. Many manufacturing companies produced new trucks that could transport these containers. This process improved the nature and speed of transportation. The container also reduced the rate of wastage.

The original culture of seaports changed immediately (“The World The Box Made” 4). The container made it easier to handle different products and equipment. Many companies installed new cranes in every seaport. These cranes would handle and move these shipping containers from point A to B.

This description explains why the shipping container revolutionized the shipping industry. The above development was essential towards the success and growth of every global economy.

Effects on Manufacturing, Labor, and Consumer Costs

The invention and introduction of the shipping container resulted on numerous effects on manufacturing, consumer, and labor costs. The container forced many manufacturing companies to invent new strategies in order to handle their products. The shipping container resulted in the creation of new packaging techniques. This process increased the costs incurred by many manufacturing companies.

The use of these containers reduced the costs associated with shipping operations. Many companies were able to ship their products from one location to another (“The World The Box Made” 5). The handling technique for the containers minimized the risks associated with product loss or damage. The introduction of the container also affected the costs associated with labor.

Many shipping and processing companies incurred increased labor costs before the introduction of the container. Many ports used to handle most of their cargoes manually. This practice delayed the speed of every shipping operation. The container reduced these labor costs significantly. This practice increased the level of profits recorded by every company.

The process also increased unemployment in many countries and societies. The shipping container also affected the nature and level of consumer costs. Most of the consumers paid extra costs for every shipping operation. The introduction of the shipping container improved every practice associated with maritime operations. The consumer was now paying reduced costs for transportation.

The process also reduced the time required for transportation. This fact explains why the introduction of the shipping container reduced most of the costs incurred by manufacturers and consumers. The container also affected the economic positions of many workers. The invention of the container displaced many workers in every shipping company.

Works Cited

“Globalization and the Maritime World in the 20^th Century.” n.p. 30 April 2010. Lecture.

“The World The Box Made.” The Box: How the Shipping Container Made the World Smaller and the World Economy Smaller. Ed. Marc Levinson. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2006. 1-15. Print.

Mere movement of inanimate objects is subject to certain mechanisms and principles. However, the principles of movement of various objects need to be analyzed to define the reasons and initial origins of these movements, including the controlling mechanisms and the various meanings they have for people¹.

In this respect, it is possible to consider an automobile as an object that moves in accordance with certain principles despite the fact that it is controlled by a human. So far, care is considered as a means of transportation where further development of different models has been defined as an individualized representation. The assigned personality makes car movement even more meaningful.

So, it can be admitted that the car is a mask that a human bears to prove its respectable image. The speed, therefore, is the main sign of the quality of the mechanism, as well as the opportunity that a human can enjoy.

An automobile can be compared with marionettes that are controlled by a superior mind, as it represented in Von Kleist’s account on the Puppeter and his puppets². In fact, the person who controls inanimate objects is also able to give life to them and make them move in different directions³.

Similarly, people control cars that can ride slowly or with high speed. Some cars can lose control, which indicates humans’ inability to control their movements. The wheels of the car are enacted by means of pushing the foot-throttle.

The car engine can be identified with the heart of the mechanism that influences the rest of automated functions. Together with overall appearance, it is often compared with a unique ‘attitude’ and ‘behavior’ that an automobile can disclose. In the majority of cases, car can have various meanings, depending on the person controlling this mechanism.

By looking at the car, it is possible to find similarities between the car and its owner. During movement, one can also find out the connection between its ‘psychological’ qualities and the owner’s attitude to the surrounding world.

Similar concepts are discussed in Rudlin’s introductory essay, claiming, “’Mask’ refers to character type and is inclusive of each individual mask”⁴. Therefore, car image can also be inclusive in the image of its owner who has certain tastes and preferences while driving.

The symbolism and aesthetics of car driving is of high importance because it contributes to the owner’s individuality, just like a human face.

This significance is explained in simplistic terms and is confined to the idea that face has features that allow to understand the human soul⁵. Similar to these characteristics, car as a mechanism moves under control of human actions and, therefore, it becomes the part of human’s nature and individuality.

In conclusion, movement of inanimate objects is distinct from those of animate ones because it is not controlled by similar powers. At the same time, the mechanism has its own principles that make people’s actions limited. In this respect, the movement of an automobile can be controlled to the extent of the human knowledge about the principles of mechanics.

In addition, the mechanism can also embrace a kind of ‘individuality’ that serves as a mask for humans, as well as a means of representing their uniqueness. Finally, aesthetics is another function that the automobile can perform while enacting certain processes. This is of particular concern to movement, engine sound, and color.

Bibliography

Craig, Edward Gordon, The Actor and the Uber-marionette. US: The Mask, 1908.

“Pulling Strings”, New Times. 2012. Web.

Rudlin, John, “The Mask”, in Commedia Dell’Arte: An Actor’s Handbook. edited by John Rublin. 34-48. New York: Routledge, 1994.

Simmel, George, “Aesthetic Significant of the Face”, in Contemporary Aesthetics, edited by Matthew Lipman. 336-357. US: Ardent Media, 1973.

Von Kleist, Heinrich, “On the Marionette Theater”, 2012. Web.

Footnotes

1. “Pulling Strings”, New Times, 2012.
2. Heinrich von Kleist, “On the Marionette Theater”, 2012.
3. Craig, Edward Gordon, The Actor and the Uber-marionette. US: The Mask, 1908. 45.
4. Rudlin, John. “The Mask”, in Commedia Dell’Arte: An Actor’s Handbook. ed. John Rublin. (New York: Routledge, 1994), 35.
5. Simmel, George, “Aesthetic Significant of the Face”. in Contemporary Aesthetics, ed. Matthew Lipman. (US: Ardent Media, 1973), 336.