During the Second World War, countries rushed to develop fighter aircraft for war, which greatly improved the structure and engine performance of the aircraft. And at that time, civil aircraft manufacturing technology that could carry a lot of passengers and cargo also made great progress, and civil aircraft pilots appeared.
During this period, the aviation maintenance industry has formed a relatively independent and complete systems engineering. In order to ensure aircraft attendance during the war, various countries adopted organizational management systems to manage aircraft maintenance work.
majority o of military transport aircraft were changed to civilian needs. Many airlines have been established. The huge demand for air transportation has promoted the improvement of aviation technology. At the same time, civil aviation transportation has also put forward higher requirements for the safety and economy of aircraft. Important changes have taken place in the maintenance work.
During World War II, aircraft engines, radios, airspeed meters, and other systems adopted redundant designs, while calculating the failure rate for single failure.
Because the aircraft was not safe enough, it still has problems in flighting control, propellers, engine misfires, and harmful environmental conditions. The aircraft in this period has not yet gained public trust.
Well-known aircraft are transport aircraft before World War II, such as Douglas DC-3, DC-4, and Bizi 18 aircraft.
During this period, people began to count the breakdown and accident rates of assembled aircraft based on long-term actual operations and observations. Although some work does not get the failure rate of the components, considering the aircraft as a system, the obtained failure rate value still has certain guiding significance in how to improve the product and certain goals.
Industry and the US government met together in 1945 and developed the ‘single failure concept’, which assumes that at least one failure occurs during each flight, regardless of its probability. This concept has a significant impact on reducing single-fault accidents. Increased public trust in flight safety has led to a huge increase in air travel. Representative aircraft: Lockheed’s ‘Constellation’ and Douglas’ DC-6.
Although safety improved significantly and public confidence increased during this period, flight accidents still occur, often as a result of more than one failure combination. For example, in 1955, an American Airlines Convair 240 crashed near Fort Leonard Wood. The combination of engine misfire and potential malfunction of the fuel shut-off valve caused the wing to break, causing the aircraft to crash.
For multiple-fault type accidents, government departments replaced the single-fault concept with a ‘fail-safe concept.’
In 1955, the following concepts were introduced for turbine-powered aircraft in the form of certification rules for new transport aircraft: the combination of any single failure plus any predictable failure must be considered. At this time, the basic principle of fail-safe design is: during any flight, a single failure or a predictable combination failure will not prevent the aircraft from continuing to safely fly and land.
On the first commercial jets designed using this concept, the safety design and verification were carried out by means of safety tests. The result is a significant reduction in accident rates and therefore a further increase in public information. However, the accident rate is still much higher than expected.
In the second-generation commercial jet aircraft designed with this concept in mind, the official use of the fault Model and its impact analysis (FMEA) method for security design and verification. These practices have further significantly reduced the rate of accidents, but related hardware still has accidents, such as disproportionate combinations of failures in automated flight systems.
On the third-generation commercial jet aircraft designed by applying this concept, Formal use of functional hazard analysis (FHA), FMEA, and fault tree analysis (FTA). The accident rate of related systems has decreased substantially, and the main cause of these types of accidents lies in other areas, not the failure of airborne systems. For example, operator errors, maintenance errors, unexpected driver responses to expected failure conditions
In essence, Sun-Tzu’s tactics in “the Art of War” are nothing more than a compilation of logical assertions and as such are not only applicable to war time stratagems but can actually be utilized in various situations in a person’s life, such as purchasing a vehicle.
What must be understood is that the tactics created by Sun – Tzu are based off logical assertions related to practicality, cost effectiveness, forethought and wise decision making, all of which are actually equally applicable to the mindset needed when making a decision in purchasing the right kind of motor vehicle.
For example, Sun – Tzu states that “to rely not on the likelihood of the enemy’s not coming, but on our own readiness to receive him; not on the chance of his not attacking, but rather on the fact that we have made our position unassailable”.
This particular statement, in essence, relates to the logical assertion of being prepared for the possibility of certain outcomes occurring. When applied to vehicle purchasing behavior it means to be prepared for numerous possibilities that might occur such as your car breaking down, accidents occurring or any manner of possible problems that would result in a person needing a new car. It must be noted that the worst time to purchase a vehicle is when one is needed urgently.
Hurried decision making will result in not only the possibility of purchasing the wrong kind of vehicle for a person’s needs but could actually result in a situation called “buyer’s regret” wherein a customer is discouraged at making the purchase in the first place.
As such, by applying the earlier given statement into purchasing behavior and buying strategies this would enable a person to be prepared for the likelihood of when their car will break down, put into effect a buying strategy for the kind of car they want and put such a strategy into effect before it becomes too late.
What must be understood is that based on statistical data nearly 60% of all urgent vehicle purchases result in “buyer’s regret” purchases wherein buyers were not able to buy their ideal vehicles. Furthermore, it has been noted that more than 50% of urgent vehicle buyers did not spend enough time in negotiating an appropriate final price resulting in them paying more than they should have on the purchase of the vehicle.
If buyers were to take their time in making their purchase they would realize that there is actually a plethora of vehicles available to them if they take their time to actually look for an ideal one. Based on the facts presented it can be stated that since Sun-Tzu’s tactics are not only suitable for military stratagem but can also apply to vehicle purchasing as well they should be applied in vehicle purchasing strategies in order for people to get the ideal type of car for the best price.
Applying Sun-Tzu when Making a Purchasing Decision
Purchasing a vehicle is considered a very important decision in a buyer’s life and as such should not be taken lightly lest an irrevocable mistake be made. When it comes to decision making, Sun-Tzu states that “considerations of advantages and disadvantages will be blended together”, one interpretation of this when making a purchase is to consider the advantages and disadvantages when buying a particular type of vehicle.
This can take the form fuel efficiency, mileage, size, what the vehicle is to be used for, overall performance, price and additional options that come with the vehicle itself. From this it can be seen that it is not just a matter of buying a car based on what you need at that particular moment but rather taking into consideration what the car has to offer, its advantages compared to other models, its disadvantages when taking into consideration regular use, what you intend the car to be used for and whether you are making the purchase based on appearance instead of purposefulness, longevity and prolonged performance.
It is based on the idea of Sun-Tzu and when taking the factors mentioned into consideration that an effective and informed buying decision can be made that will enable a buyer to purchase exactly what they need.
Using Sun – Tzu when Choosing the Right kind of Vehicle
When purchasing a vehicle the most popular type of car is often not the most suitable for a particular buyer despite supposed “experts” stating the advantages a particular car model has over other brands.
Sun – Tzu states that “there are roads which must not be followed, commands of the sovereign which must not be obeyed”. In this particular case the road that must not be followed and the commands that should not be obeyed are those being spouted by the mass media when they state the advantages of a particular vehicle.
What must be understood is that nearly 40% of all vehicle buyers purchase their cars due to media advertising however more than half of those who purchase their car as a result of advertisements know little about the car itself such as its amenities, true performance usability etc. and merely go along with what they hear or see in various print ads and commercials.
Such decisions often result in people making ill advised purchases and as such shows that not all decisions should be based on popularity or on the statements of various “experts” but rather should be done based on a thorough understanding on the vehicle itself versus other options that are available.
For example, one of the current trends in vehicle purchases at the moment is the sale of hybrid cars which are extolled on their supposed eco-friendly nature and ability to help preserve the natural environment. Unfortunately such vehicles are often far more expensive as compared to cars with the same level of performance and as such buying decisions regarding long term use and affordability should be taken into consideration before making a purchase.
Utilizing Sun-Tzu in Vehicle Purchasing Negotiations
Vehicle purchases all come down to effective negotiations between a buyer and a car dealer yet what must be understood is that car dealers are often going to negotiate towards their own benefit rather than that of the consumer. This can come in the form of adding numerous “extras” to certain car dealers and increasing the base price of the car to increase their commission.
The following statement by Sun-Tzu captures, in essence, the buying process: “recklessness, which leads to destruction; cowardice, which leads to capture”. What must be understood is that overly reckless purchasing behavior can result in a person buying more than what is necessary resulting in a car reaching a price that is more than what they can afford.
Not only that cowardice, in the form of agreeing to everything that the dealer says without exerting your right as a customer can also result in a bad purchasing decision later on. Customers must realize that no matter what is offered or what the dealer says they have the option of just leaving when the deal goes sour and such saves one’s self from falling into the pitfalls of overly reckless or cowardly purchasing decisions.
Traffic congestion is one primary problem facing most of the world’s biggest towns, a case that is common in most United States cities for example, Washington D.C. This is because, with increased populations and changing world’s economic status, most individuals opt for private transport it being more convenient.
Although this may be the case, most individuals forget that, the ever-increasing number of private cars is the primary problem not only to the transport sector, but also to most urban planners, because of the congestion caused by such numerous numbers of cars. Washington D.C. is one of the world’s busiest cities faced by the traffic congestion problem, because of the numerous numbers of workers moving in and out f the city daily, in addition to the numerous global summits and meetings held in the city year in year out.
In addition, to the numerous number of individuals and diplomats driving in and out of the city daily, accidents are also great contributors to escalating traffic problem hence, the need for formulation of practical solutions to the problem; solutions that will have an immediate and lasting impact to the problem.
It is important to note that, in addition to thousands of dollars wasted every year in terms of time wastage, fuel used in traffic, and delays in consignment deliveries, traffic is one primary causer of stress and deaths of most highway police officers, making hence, the need for a quick intervention.
Although the government has introduced the mass transit transport system to ferry people in and out of the city using trains; a system that allows individuals to park their cars out of the city and use a common train system to access Washington D.C., there is little the intervention has achieved.
This is because, most individuals prefer using their private cars, a fact attributed to the train system’s inability to access some specific working zones with Washington D.C. Failure by these and more measures to ease the traffic problem makes it necessary for introduction of better ways of dealing with this problem; measures that are practical with immediate results.
Most government’s initiatives to alleviate the problem have failed, because most of them need long implementation periods. One of such initiatives is the construction of the inter-country connector (ICC).
Although a good idea, it is crucial to note that, it is not only an expensive endeavor, but also it is a project needs a lot of time for its completion. In addition to such long periods required to achieve this initiative, the entire concept faces a lot of antagonism from most environmental support groups; hence, making it necessary for formulation of more convenient and practical solutions.
To alleviate the congestion problem, there is need for development of a transport system that will be able to accommodate the ever-increasing density of populations moving in and out of the city. On practical solution to the problem is the extension of all subways in the city to reach most populated residential areas and working zones; for such extensions will provide a convenient transport method comfortable to all individuals.
It is important t note that, although within the town there exist a number of buses that transport people around the city, most individuals do not prefer them, because they take more time to reach required destinations; hence, extension of subways to all remote areas is the only way of alleviating such problems.
Although most individuals detest using buses in travelling within the city, it is important to note that, largely the bus transport system has contributed greatly in solving the problem, it being an alternative means of transport. Therefore, considering the role played by these buses as far reduction of traffic is concerned, there is need for individuals to use them in addition to other transport options for example, rail transport.
The use of such alternative transport systems not only reduces the congestion problem, but they help in reducing other problems associated with private transport, for example, pollution and fuel wastage. In addition to alternative transport, there is need for the government to build more alternative routes, routes that will help in diverting traffic major highways, for example, the Baltimore Road, which is a primary traffic-diverting road from interstate 270, and route 202.
Another practical solution to this problem is sharing of private vehicles with friends or people hailing from same zones. This is the only solution to individuals who must drive, for it provides not only a mechanism of reducing fuel expenses, but also it gives one an added advantage of using roads reserved for cars with more than one commuter, for example, the Dulles Toad road, and most HOV tracks.
In addition to extension of subways, use of alternative routes and sharing of private cars, adoption of working schedules such as telecommuting by organizations can help to solve traffic problems. Telecommuting can help to ease the traffic problem, for it will grant individuals flexible working schedules from their homes hence, limit movements.
It is important to not that, very few organizations have adopted this form of work schedule hence, the need for the federal government to adopt policies that will ensure organizations implement this working system, as a remedy to time wasted in traffic.
In conclusion, it is important to note that, to completely eliminate the traffic congestion problem, there is need for all individuals to combine efforts in alleviating the problem. This is because; the success of the government’s initiatives to solve the problem depends on individuals’ readiness to adhere to the set road usage rules and regulations.
The collision of two trains in the metro system of the District of Columbia raised concerns on the increasing neglect of the transport system that serves a large number of commuters. Preliminary analysis indicated the flaws in the trains’ control system as the cause of the accident.
Further investigations revealed that the train that caused the accident was an old model that operated on outdated technology. Reports from the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) indicated that fitting the train with an automated control system could have averted the collision. The lack of proper maintenance policies is only one aspect of the underfunding of the D.C metro system, which has led to the underutilization of the second largest metro system in America.
By 2006, the D.C metro system required about 15 billion dollars to address the backlog of repairs and about 3 billion dollars annually to sustain the update of systems and technology used in the metro system (Post 136). Despite the fact that the metro system plays a central role in the economic progress of the District of Columbia, state and local authorities have increasingly overlooked the need for a revamped metro system to meet the criteria of a reliable transport system.
An analysis of the federal budget indicates that the allocation of funds for the metro is one of the most overlooked issues. The stimulus bill has so far dedicated about 8 billion dollars to the improvement of the D.C train system with the requested 57 billion dollars designated for the replacement of the old fleets still unavailable (Perez 51). In comparison to other systems of transport, the D.C metro system receives the lowest percentage of federal funding.
The demand by the Washington Metropolitan Transit Authority for increased funding of the D.C metro system have attracted criticism regarding the need for a balanced overall transit funding. In this regard, stakeholders in the highway system have expressed support for the proposed cutting of budgetary allocations for the D.C metro system by about 15 million.
The fact that the current funding of the D.C metro system does not guarantee satisfactory levels of security and reliability illustrates that cutting the D.C metro budget will put the transit system in jeopardy. The D.C metro system constitutes of more than 25 percent of the total metro system in America (Cervero 229).
Due to the depilated condition of the D.C metro system, the number of trains that operate in an hour is considerably below the maximum capacity. Furthermore, the use of outdated systems has increasingly reduced commuters’ confidence in the metro system (Weiss 136).
However, evidence shows that a revamped metro system offers greater reliability in comparison to the bus system. At full capacity, the D.C metro system can ferry about 20, 000 passenger within an hour and thus considerably reduced traffic jams in the District of Columbia (Toole 71).
The discrepancy between the funding of highways and metro systems undermines the benefits of the metro system in terms of performance and safety. In this regard, there is need for increased funding of the D.C metro system in response to the anticipated increase in the use of public transport.
When operating at full capacity, the D.C metro system will significantly reduce the amount of time that people spend travelling to and from work. Considering that federal budget for the repair backlogs of the national metro system was about 5 billion dollars in 2006, the D.C metro system will remain unreliable and thus underutilized.
Works Cited
Cervero, Robert. Transit-oriented development in the United States: experiences, challenges, and prospects. Washington, D.C.: Transportation Research Board, 2004. Print.
Perez, Benjamin G. Financing surface transportation in the United States: forging a sustainable future–now! : summary of the fourth international conference. Washington, D.C.: Transportation Research Board, 2012. Print.
Post, Robert C. Urban mass transit: the life story of a technology. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2007. Print.
Toole, Randal. Gridlock: why we’re stuck in traffic and what to do about it. Washington, D.C.: CATO Institute, 2009. Print.
Weiss, Joseph . Protecting Industrial Control Systems from Electronic Threats. Princeton (New Jersey): Momentum Press, 2010. Print.
California is at least 30 years behind the rest of the world in the development of high-speed railways (Thanawala & Dreier, 2012). The need for high-speed trains in California is obvious. California residents are tired of spending long hours in traffic jams.
The new high-speed railways promise to bring Los Angeles residents to San Francisco in just about 2.5 hours, while those who travel from Los Angeles to Irvine will be able to arrive at the point of destination in no more than 30 minutes (Chavira, 2009). The argument in favor of building high-speed railways in California is very persuasive, although the project has many critics.
The benefits of high-speed railways in California can be roughly divided into the following categories: economic, environmental, and community. The economic benefits of the project are numerous. First, the creation of a high-speed rail will provide hundreds of local families with well-paid jobs (California High-Speed Rail Authority, 2012). The project will accomplish about 800 miles of track and have about 24 railway stations, and new jobs will be created to operate and maintain them (California High-Speed Rail Authority, 2012).
An estimated 100,000 construction jobs will be created each year that the rail is being constructed (California High-Speed Rail Authority, 2012). The project will create 450,000 permanent jobs and facilitate the movement of people and capital; it will finally result in a severe congestion relief that will bring economic, environmental, and community benefits.
The environmental benefits of the new project should not be overestimated. The system will reduce the scope of air pollution statewide because it will be powered by electricity that will be generated by renewable energy sources (California High-Speed Rail Authority, 2012).
The quality of air will improve. The project will enhance the state’s energy efficiency and reduce its dependency on foreign oil (California High-Speed Rail Authority, 2012). Greenhouse emissions are expected to decrease by 12 billion pounds annually (California High-Speed Rail Authority, 2012).
Finally, the local community will significantly benefit from the increased availability of cheaper and faster transportation options. The new project will improve the community infrastructure revitalize communities through more rapid “economic development around new transportation terminals” (California High-Speed Rail Authority, 2012).
At present, many communities in California lag behind the smart growth priorities, but with the implementation of the project and stronger reliance on the railway transport instead of vehicles, community residents will finally see more beautiful street scenes and improved walkability in ecologically sustainable areas (Chavira, 2009).
Certainly, the project is not without limitations, one of the main ones being its cost. The draft plan created by the Californian authorities suggests that the high-speed railways will cost California $98 billion (Thanawala & Dreier, 2012). However, this problem is not as severe as it seems, at least because the project will be covered cooperatively by the federal and state governments, as well as through private investments (Chavira, 2009). Public-private partnerships will also support the project (Chavira, 2009).
Another problem is with communities: the question is whether the benefits of community development will overweigh the issues in the community members, who will have to watch high-speed trains running next to their homes daily (Chavira, 2009). Finally, it does not seem that high-speed rail will be finished any time soon. Chavira (2009) predicts that the project will be implemented by 2018. Vartabedian (2013) suggests that the state has not even acquired a single acre of land along the route.
Nothing good comes easy. The high-speed rail project will become an economic and environmental breakthrough for all Californians. The project will bring enormous economic benefits and reduce environmental pollution. It will give millions of people strong economic and community hopes.
California needs this project, and the project requires public and governmental support. It is high time for California to revitalize its economy and social life, while also improving the state’s infrastructure and raising the quality of transportation and related services. The state has been waiting for this remarkable opportunity for years, and it is imperative that the chance to improve the lives of Californians is not lost.
References
California High-Speed Rail Authority. (2012). Project vision and scope. California High-Speed Rail Authority. Web.
Chavira, T. (2009). California’s high-speed railway: The pros and cons. Four Story. Web.
Thanawala, S. & Dreier, H. (2012). California high-speed rail authority approves bullet train plan. Huffington Post. Web.
The Idea of the Expansion: Where Does This Road Take?
However fast pace the development may take, there are always people who slacken its speed with non-stopping arguments and the doubts about the success of the campaign. In spite of the fact that all the necessary calculations have been carried out and that the most important measures are about to be applied, there still will be a bunch of people who will start arguing about the expedience of the enterprise. What is going on about expansion of the road in Phoenix belongs to the same category of arguments.
Since the road extension has caused a great stir in the society and has resulted in continuous debates, the problem needs investigating. This paper aims at considering the problem from the two existing positions and to suggest the most reasonable decision on the subject of the road extension. In the given research, the method of the principled negotiation is used to figure out the most appropriate decision. The method that is used in the essay is the one of the principal negotiation. As Fisher denotes it,
The method of principled negotiation developed at the Harvard Negotiation Project is to decide issues on their merits rather than through a haggling process focused on what each side says it will and won’t do. It suggests that you look for mutual gains wherever possible, and that where your interests conflict, you should insist that the result be based on some fair standards independent of the will of either side. The method of principled negotiation is hard on the merits, soft on the people (6).
What has been suggested could be explained in the following way.
The very idea is that the road called Loop 202, or, to be more official, State Route 202, circles rather small area of the cities of Tempe, Mesa, Chandler and Gilbert. Beginning at the Mini Stack and ending its way at Interstate 10, which is near Ahwatukee, it makes the small cities connected with the rest of the US, creating the vitally important interchange between the cities. Since Arizona covers quite big area, it is desirable that these cities were as close to the “mainland” as possible, making the whole body of the state an entire organism.
However, at present it is considered that the road needs reconstruction and that the South Mountain Freeway, the part of the route in question, is supposed to be changed in favor of the country and its profit. However, the issue has raised multiple protests among the population and has become the battlefield for the citizen of the state and its regulation.
According to the ideas of the principled negotiations, the people must be separated from the problem (Fisher 19), so it is better to listen to the opinions, not taking into account personal likes and dislikes. Not all of the people in the video by Dorkatron call for positive emotions, yet it is necessary to take their opinions into consideration.
It is also necessary to “focus on interests, not positions” (Fisher 10). Thus, it seems most appropriate to list the preferences of both sides rather than indulge into unnecessary debates. Understanding what pushes people to assume this or that position is of much more importance than conducting debates which lead to nowhere.
Fisher emphasizes that this approach can make the opponents unite on order to produce the solution for the problem as quickly as possible: “Figuratively if not literally, the participants should come to see themselves as working side by side, attacking the problem, not each other.” (Fisher 11)
Whenever there is the issue of politics that collides with the ones of the population, there is practically no way to be politically correct, but to assume the positions of both parties and consider the ideas that they are trying to put into practice.
Presenting the arguments of the both parties, it is important to mention both the positive and the negative effects of the changes applied.
Opinions and Ideas: Pros and Cons
Those Who Support the Idea
Those who speak in favor of the new road construction claim that the new highway route is bound to encourage a better interrelationship between the cities and the capital of the state, as well as between the city and the other states.
The supporters of the idea also mention that the new construction might increase the incomes of the state. According to Eric Anderson, the transportation director, the new highway construction will be more than simply beneficial for the state, but will encourage its further development and will support the economic stability of Arizona:
Without the South Mountain Loop, traffic congestion of 1-10 link from the Southeast Valley to the Southwest Valley, will continue to be a major bottleneck to both regional travelers and those traveling through the region. (Hear Me Out Should Arizona Consider Extension of Loop 202)
Those speaking in favor of the new route have the point about the traffic problems that the loop extension can help to solve. Indeed, it gradually becomes impossible to control the heavy traffic that arises due to the lack of space and the lack of freeways. The Corridor 4 and the Route 202 extension might solve this problem once and for all, the drivers breathing more freely in the new space and the wares and goods delivered faster. In the lights of the abovementioned, it is absolutely obvious that the roads need extension badly.
The government has already invested sufficient sum of money to support the project:
The Arizona Department of Transportation is charged with implementing the highway component of the Regional Transportation Plan which includes $13.2 million in new freeways, freeway improvements and maintenance. (Project Funding)
It stands beyond any reasonable doubt that the changes that the extension of the Loop 202 will bring to the people living in the vicinity of the Loop are going to be impressive.
The DCR (Design Concept Report) develops approximately 15% of the preliminary roadway design and evaluates environmental issues, noise mitigation, and lighting to accommodate the new lanes. It is anticipated that the project will be constructed within the existing roadway right-of-way. Construction is scheduled to be completed in five segments from 2013 through 2025. (Loop 202 (Santan Freeway))
One of the main points that can add to the attractiveness of the idea is the fact that it will connect the chain of smaller cities to the main ones in the entire state. Tracing along the whole state, it will not leave a single patch of land detached from the “mainland”. As Samson explained, “If you’re headed to Scottsdale, Temple, or Mesa, head east out of the airport and follow signs for Ariz. 202 Loop.” (77)
The arguments are well-grounded and profound. It does create a big advantage for the towns close to the Loop 202 in particular and Arizona in general.
The Opponents’ View.
Pursuing the idea of keeping the environment not polluted by the transport that will stream the way which the new route is going to lay on the map, people are worrying about the state of affairs in their own place of living. Will it be just as safe with the new amendments? Will the cars and the other transport means harm the nature and pollute it? Will the people be able to live the life they used to as the new route is established? All these questions raise the issues that trouble people so hard that they cannot help getting it to long and heated debates.
Indeed, assuming the position of those who are straight against the new expansion of the route, it will be absolutely just to emphasize the harm that the extension of Loop 202 will trigger.
One should also take into account the danger that the present loop exposes the people to. t is well understood that the traffic might cause accidents. Th3 government has suggested a way to avoid the mishaps: “It must be also kept in mind that the curves of the Loop 202 are rather dangerous for the drivers and the desirable speed must not exceed 25 mph.” (Modern Roundabouts). Since the situation that has been described above is far too dangerous, the mew route for the Loop is preferable (Extending the Loop from the Roundabouts).
As in many cases connected with both politics and ecology, mainly people express a deep concern about the probable negative consequences of the new venture rather than the government. The local dwellers oppose their ideas to the ones in charge, trying to make the political bodies understand their reasons for being straight against the new policy and the changes that are going to happen to the route.
What Mere Mortals Think.
The opinion poll shows that this is the question of the city pollution. The reasons that trouble most of the citizen of Arizona are understood and well-based. Indeed, the pollution that the new highways laid close to the people’s houses will cause certain harm to the ones living nearby. As it has been said, “It is going to interrupt… bring a lot of pollution, bring a lot of garbage that we do not need…” (Dorkatron).
Whenever the problem of the environmental threat is being talked over, the governmental bodies react sharply, but in this case the whole problem does not seem to be taken anywhere. In spite of the fact that many people are worried about the highway extension, there are the steps that are going to be undertaken in spite of the reasons provided.
It is also necessary to “focus on interests, not positions” (Fisher 10). Thus, it seems most appropriate to list the preferences of both sides rather than indulge into unnecessary debates. Understanding what pushes people to assume this or that position is of much more importance than conducting debates which lead to nowhere.
Fisher emphasizes that this approach can make the opponents unite on order to produce the solution for the problem as quickly as possible: “Figuratively if not literally, the participants should come to see themselves as working side by side, attacking the problem, not each other.” (Fisher 11)
Whatever new and progressive ideas and changes the project is going to give the people and the country, it is not supposed to bother people and, moreover, change their lives to the worse. Meanwhile, that is what the new extension is partially doing.
One of the issues that have also been touched upon in the discussion of the necessity of the new highway extension was the one of the national heritage that is being threatened.
The mountain that is counted as a treasure of the city and the state is being endangered by the new route of the highway. There is a certain calculation made, which shows precisely that the heavy traffic can damage the site.
This doubles the negative effect. It is not simply that people will be deprived of the beauty of the state and the apple of the local dwellers’ eyes – people will also have another profitable source of income vanished, for the tourists that are drawn here each season, attracted by the original beauty of the mountains and the state peculiar environment might find no longer any attractions here and not take this place as the site to visit anymore.
This is something that must make the government think twice before making any decisions. Indeed, the total percentage of the income that is bought by tourism makes qa figure that makes a huge difference to what might be if the state will be deprived of this source for good.
Being closer rather to the nature than to the financial questions, people have expressed this point in their own convincing words: “I can’t break those ties, though it would be convenient.” (Dorkatron). The reasons that they number as they explain why such idea is not acceptable are numerous.
Starting from something lame like that they do not want “a freeway in my backyard”, up to the speeches far more patriotic and expressing the worries about the state of their homeland, trying to pay the tribute to the ancestors that were the founders of the state as it is now – “because of my heritage”.
They show that their culture is something that has to be appreciated and taken into account as well. The symbolic ties that link the people to the state and its nature are the reason for them to stand up against the new project and protest against it. “Mountian is a place of worship” (Dorkatron), and there is nothing that the authorities could do about.
It is important to understand that the people that have been living in a certain place for so long have been connected with it so firmly that they react painfully to every single intrusion from the outside. It is cruel to make those people start living the way they have never had before and make them adjust to the new situation, which is not that beneficial as the previous one.
In other words, put into a new, hostile environment of the polluted roads and the national treasures forgotten and forsaken, people will feel neglected. This is something that the government cannot do.
The case of the Corridor 4 is quite the same. Speaking of the alleged profits and benefits that the people are going to get, it becomes evident that the project is something that is highly desirable for the economical reasons rather than for the people’s concern.
To the Bottom of It.
Finally, the step that is of the utter importance is to “generate a variety of the possibilities before deciding what to do.” Fisher makes it obvious that
Trying to decide in the presence of an adversary narrows your vision. Having a lot at stake inhibits creativity. So does searching for the one right solution. You can offset these constraints by setting aside a designated time within which to think up a wide range of possible solutions that advance shared interests and creatively reconcile differing interests. Hence the third basic point: Before trying to reach agreement, invent options for mutual gain. (11)
Thus, as all the possible variants of solving the problem have been considered, the necessary resolution must follow the path that seems the most reasonable one.
In the given case, the economical reasons must be the prior goal for the government to strive for. This defines the direction in which the government should act. In the light of the abovementioned, the reconstruction of the Loop 202 is to be continued so that the state could get access to its most distanced parts and the people could move around the state without experiencing difficulties.
When it comes to deciding which path to choose, the decision that is most objective and the least grounded on the interests of the each side, not on the positions that they take, it starts to get clarified that no compromise can be achieved. It is either that the change will take place, or the government will lose the battle and no highway will be extended.
Since the main reason of the government is that there must be the economical and trade link to the big city from the detached towns of Arizona, it is desirable that the economical question could come to the point. In spite of the fact that the cultural heritage might suffer, the connection to the civilization is of the extreme importance to the dwellers of Arizona.
They might not yet understand it, but the impact of the cities connected to each other will be strong and immense. It will necessarily help the people to get closer to the other states and will tie the state together, for its population has been scattered from each other for many years.
The objective criteria say that the progress must go on, despite the difficulties it can trigger. Whenever there are some problems emerging on the way of solving another problem, people should not run away from them, but try to understand the root of those problems and make them vanish.
With such strategy, the results will come immediately and for long. It is mot that people’s interests should not be considered, but there must be some compromising ideas found, while the head concept – in the given case, road extension – should preserve untouched. Only in this case, the situation can be handled in the right way.
Works Cited
Anderson, Erik. Hear Me Out: Should Arizona Consider Extension of Loop 202? Valley Freeways. 28 Jan. 2010 Web. Web. Dorkatron. South Mountain Freeway Proposal – Public Comments pt 1. Web..
Extending the Loop from the Roundabouts. Arizona Department of Transportation. https://www.azdot.gov/
Fisher, Roger, and William Ury. Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement without Giving in. New York, N.Y.: Penguin Books, 1991. Print.
One of state law requirements is that cities should prepare general plans and regularly update them. General plan is a long range and internally constituted statement of the city development and preservation policies. It serves as a constitution for the future physical development (Mell 45). It acts as a statement of community goals, values, objectives, and creates a future vision of the city.
General plan also referred as a development or comprehensive plan guides decision makers when making future decision. It helps them set community priorities and values which are helpful in making future decisions (Thomas 102). The general plan consists of goals, objectives, policies and actions that help to manage change. It also specifies what is essential to communities and portrays where different development should be allocated.
Once a general plan is adopted it should be evaluated regularly to enable the access effectiveness of various programs. These help decision makers to modify various programs in order to continue moving toward the set goals and help to remodify assumptions which may longer be relevant due to changing circumstances. Elements Of a general plan include: utilities, transport, land use, recreation and housing (Mell 234).
City of Chicago is located in the U.S State of Illinois on the Southern western shore of Lake Michigan. It is the third biggest city in USA and covers 590 square kilometers. It is the pioneer of skyscraper building after building of a first ever skyscraper building, the Home Insurance Building. The skyscraper building started in Chicago after the Great Chicago fire which increased the price of land. This made architect adopt the trend of building upwards.
Since then, other developers have followed this pattern making Chicago have a boom in the skyscraper buildings like Trump International Hotel and 55 East Erie (Carl 29). Chicago is one of the world greatest urban places and Lake Michigan and River Chicago define the heart of the city. Its broad lake front system, which is built beyond the original shoreline, distinguishes Chicago from any other city in the USA.
The most valuable asset of Chicago is the lake front, its park system, the collection of cultural institution and entertainment facilities. Chicago is also distinguished from other cities like San Francisco by its flat topography which has allowed numerous building of tall buildings, which makes the city unique. It is also renowned in the world for its unique park system like the museum campus and Millennium Park (Carl 57).
The Chicago transport system moves people masses and billions of dollars annually, and it is the hub of the world most extensive railway system, home of two busiest airports, have a well-established bicycle network and support the nation’s busiest transit system. Transport drives the economy and thus should have well coordinated plan for managing the transport system (Mell 89).
In coming up with an effective transportation plan, it is crucial to study the social, historical and economic characteristics of the city. This helps to detect possible deficiencies in the transport system and also help in coming up with future improvements (Thomas 122).
Furthermore, when planning transport of the city its crucial to put into consideration the city’s density as failure to manage this can harm businesses. The local government should plan for private vehicles parking by constructing large parking garage in areas where there is high population. Also, it is important to place higher densities of jobs or dwellers close to high transportation volume through what is called transit oriented development.
This is a residential and commercial center designed to minimize access by transit and non motorized transportation. It consists of the grid street system, limited surface parking, efficient parking management, pedestrian and bicycle oriented design, mixed housing type, office and retail particularly on main streets. This also aids in boosting the transit system in Chicago (Carl 78).
The railway infrastructure in Chicago is critical for growth of the nation’s commerce. Thus, investment should be continuously done to modernize the railway infrastructure. Plans should be implemented on how to decongest the railway system. This will help to improve future economic growth. It will also increase the efficiency and reliability of much of the nation rail service (Thomas 58).
The state law requires cities to come up with the general plan and regularly update them. Thus, local government should continuously maintain and repair roads, for example, through patching up potholes and reconstruction of bridges (Carl 97). This will help in the infrastructure modernization by using new materials, modern technologies and the best management technologies. Roadways should be consistent in width and materials.
There is a necessity in coming up with procedures on how to ensure safety in the transport infrastructure. In the transport system, pedestrians share the right ways with fast moving vehicles and bicycles intermingle with delivery trucks. Thus, the local government should come up with effective plans of implementing, enforcement and education of safety measures to the masses.
Moreover, ensure that all streets are designed and safe for all users, for example, the pedestrians, cyclist, motorists, children and people with disabilities. Good safety habits will help to decrease transportation risks and increase safety, efficient and enjoyable city (Mell 235).
Great streets are crucial for businesses and can either harm or help businesses. Streets should have careful designs. Streets in residential areas should be free of traffic, and this will help neighbors gather and interact (Carl 300). The street in commercial zones must have a high notch of pedestrian facilities, wide side walkways and sitting areas to serve a multitude of visitors. Those in industrial areas must serve the needs of workers and businesses.
There is requisite to come up with approaches on how to manage truck mobility. Most businesses rely on trucks for deliveries. Plans should be set to enable trucks find the best time and place to load and off load their goods. Drivers should be provided with better information to allow them get to their destinations as efficiently as possible (Mell 302).
The local government can come up with a website where citizens can air their requests. For example, request for improvement and repairing of roads, signs and bridges. This will be in line with the local government vision of improving the services of Chicago people who are their customers, funders and neighbors (Thomas 202).
The local government came up with a tree planting program called the Chicago Green Streets Program. They plant trees along and near major streets with an aim of increasing canopy cover (Carl 245). Trees appreciate in value, have economic value, ecological value and have social benefits. Plans should be put in place to introduce new species and carry out education to residents on the benefits of tree planting.
In conclusion, when coming up with a Chicago City transport plan, it is important to consider the city’s vision, mission and objectives. This will ensure that the city continues to be a vibrant internationally and aid in future decision making.
Works Cited
Carl, Smith. The Plan of Chicago. U.S: University of Chicago Press, 2006. Print.
Mell, Scott. American City Planning: Since 1890. U.S: University of California Press, 1971. Print.
Thomas, S Hines. Burnham of Chicago: Architect and Planner. U.S: University of Chicago Press, 2008. Print.
The expansion and extension of State Route 710 (SR-710) freeway is a Los Angeles County transportation network project that was proposed over 40years ago but still remains to be implemented. According to the U. S. Department of Transportation (2000), the 710 freeway project is not a typical highway project due to its magnitude and the immense impact that the project will have on the freeway system once it is completed.
The current 710 freeway suffers from a heavy traffic load that has led to congestion and high inefficiency. Expanding and extending the freeway will help increase the roads capacity therefore making it more efficient. In spite of the positive impact that the proposed freeway project would have on the transport region in Los Angeles metropolitan, the 710 Freeway project has been faced with controversy from its initial proposal leading to a lengthy delay.
Various stakeholders in the project have taken a stand either for or against the project. Due to this, the project has been stalled for over 40years and this highly contentious atmosphere still characterizes the implementation of the project. This paper will provide a detailed research on the 710 freeway project with focus on the merits and demerits of the project. The information presented will assist the community to decide on whether they should take a stand for or against the proposed 710 tunnel.
Background
The 710 freeway is regarded as a “critical north-south link in the LA Country transportation network” (Redmond and Romero, 2011, p.738). As of 1970, state officials observed that the freeway was unable to effectively serve the transport needs of the road users in the region.
An expansion and extension project was therefore proposed to increase the carrying capacity of the freeway. The bad traffic conditions that served as the basis for the project at its inception have continued to exist and actual become more dire as the number of vehicles on the freeway increase.
From its onset, the project faced controversy with a lawsuit being filed against the proposed project by the city of South Pasadena in 1973. This opposition from the city led to an injunction against the project and work could not get underway until the injunction was lifted. Because of this lawsuits and oppositions from the local community and the Los Angeles County officials, the freeway project has been refined numerous times.
In 1976, the original route of the highway expansion was revised to ensure that the freeway did not pass through the Arroyo Seco Park. In reaction to opposition based on the impact that the proposed project would have on historical properties along the corridor, a new Meridian Variation Alternative was identified in 1986. This new alternative would have a reduced impact on historic property therefore easing concerns about the impact of the project on the historical integrity of the region.
The Route 710 Freeway project has undergone various modifications due to the opposition from various groups. One of the most significant modifications is the depression of the freeway in order to reduce its footprint by up to 20%.
At the onset, a surface freeway extension was proposed to help ease the traffic congestion and open up the freeway to enable it to accommodate the growing traffic within the County. However, this surface freeway extension did not receive support from the local communities and this necessitated major amendments to the original proposal.
The tunnel concept for the extension has raised the cost of the project and presents some engineering challenges. It is estimated that the tunnel system will have an excess of 15m in diameter and 7.2 to 17.7Km making it one of the largest and longest highway tunnels in the world. The 710 freeway project continues to face opposition in spite of the many refinements made over the years.
Merits of the 710 Freeway Project
The proposed freeway will contribute to the decongestion of the Californian Route 710, which suffers from pervasive congestion due to the heavy truck traffic along the route. The U. S. Department of Transportation (2000) states that the project will remove over 90,000 vehicles from city streets a day and provide a better route for over 100,000 vehicles from other sections of the regional highway network.
This will free up the congestion on the city streets therefore increasing mobility and access to the city’s residents and increase the safety standards. The freeway will therefore have major impact on the traffic in the city streets in LA.
The commercial and industrial opportunities in Los Angeles will be increased because of the proposed freeway. By providing viable routes into and around Los Angele’s CBD, the city will become an attractive venue for investors. Many investors are currently unwilling to invest in the region due to the poor transportation system.
The U. S. Department of Transportation (2000) asserts that the California Route 710 under consideration for expansion/extension is the most “severely congested freeway system” in the United States. If the project is implemented, this congestion will be mitigated hence making Los Angeles an attractive venue for commercial and industrial investors.
The Route 710 freeway is predicted to have a positive impact on car-pooling initiatives. Car-pooling involves individuals sharing their cars on their way to work or school. This strategy is advantageous since it reduces the number of cars on the road and has a positive effect on the environment by decreasing the greenhouse emissions from automobiles.
The State is therefore keen to encourage ride-sharing initiatives among its residents. The U. S. Department of Transportation (2000) reveals that the freeway will connect corridor cities with a countrywide transit and high occupancy vehicle lanes hence giving greater incentives for ride sharing.
The project will increase the safety levels on the road specifically reducing the number of accidents per year. The current high accident rate on the highway is blamed on congestion and the lack of quality roads. The quality of the roads will be improved once the project is completed. Congestion will also reduce due to the high volume of the road. Studies indicate that on completion, the project will reduce accident rates by up to 40% (The U. S. Department of Transportation, 2000).
The LA metropolitan area suffers from a bad quality of air with a government report classifying it as one of the most “severely deteriorated air quality regions in the US” (U. S. Department of Transportation, 2000, p.10). The project will lead to a relative improvement in air quality for the region.
It will aids in the achievement of national ambient air quality standards for the LA metropolitan area in line with the provisions of the Clean Air Act. SR-710 will reduce the pollution levels in the LA area therefore improving the air quality. The improvement of traffic flow that the project will bring about will help improve air quality. The current poor air quality is blamed on the traffic congestion, which increases emissions of hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide as cars idle along the freeway or move at low speeds for extended periods.
The project has endeavored to incorporate the local community to the greatest possible degree. Concerned public and private organizations have been involved and their views on the project have been incorporated. In addition to this, decision-making has not been left to the Federal agencies even though the project is going to be funded by the Federal government.
Instead, the community has been given the opportunity to take part in the decision making process. The U. S. Department of Transportation (2000) confirms that numerous opportunities have been provided for all interested parties to participate in decisions concerning the 710 freeway project.
Demerits of the 710 Freeway Project
The proposed 710 freeway extension and expansion will have a negative impact on some historical resources within the LA area where the project will take place. Some of the historical properties that lie along the path of the proposed freeway will have to be demolished in order to accommodate the freeway.
In addition to the actual damage, some of the historical resources that will be left impact will suffer due to their proximity to the freeway. The relative worth of the historical property will therefore be degraded because of the SR 710 freeway project. The U. S. Department of Transportation (2000) contends that major variations have been made to ensure that the severity of the impact of the project on historical resources is reduced significantly.
Measures such as narrowing of the width of the freeway have been taken to make the impact on historical resources minimal. While amendments to the original proposal have been made to reduce the impact on historical resources, great damage will still be done on some areas. Opponents of the project state that the historical integrity of historic buildings will e damaged by relocating them or building tunnels underneath them.
The proposed 710 freeway project will have significant negative impacts on the community. To begin with, the project will require additional land space and this will lead to displacement of people and businesses.
Residential and commercial buildings will have to be demolished in order to build the “cut and cover” tunnels. While the displaced people will receive government compensation and suitable relocation venues, the impact on the individuals who have grown attached to their community will be great. Therefore, the project has had a negative impact on the cohesion of the community.
In spite of the fact that the project has not yet been implemented, it has already managed to divide the community into those who support the project and those who do not. The project will also create a barrier between communities in the South Pasadena region leading to community isolation. Even with the best efforts to avoid displacement, the project will still require the displacement of hundreds of families.
The project will reduce the value of property in the area therefore decreasing the investment for people who have real estate in the region. Expanding and extending the freeway will attract more traffic into the region leading to air and noise pollution in areas that were previously not exposed to heavy traffic.
These mostly residential areas will experience depreciation in value due to their proximity to the freeway. The aesthetic value of the area will also be decreased since the project will involve cutting down of trees and destroying the landscape.
The tunnels present a major environmental issue due to the ventilation systems proposed. One proposal is for tall ventilation buildings to be built along the tunnel path for the emission of exhaust gases from the tunnel. Such a set up will lead to a concentration of exhaust fumes at certain location. The other proposal is for exhaust to be vented at specific ends of the tunnel into the communities of Pasadena and El Sereno. The air quality at these points will be greatly deteriorated if the proposals are implemented.
Route 710 project violates the rule of Environmental Justice by placing a disproportionate burden on minority communities. Opponents of the project claim that the Route 710 project corridor mostly affects minority communities in LA County.
This claim is not baseless since the proposed extension mostly affects the El Sereno community of Los Angeles. The affected portion also has individuals with lower than average income levels and a higher share of elderly residents. The government has acknowledged the environmental justice concerns and taken up steps to mitigate them.
For example, the decision to depress the freeway, and provide cut and cover tunnels was made with the main objective of reducing the impact that the project will have to minority communities. The “cut and cover” tunnels entail digging of a trench along the path that the road will pass, constructing the roadway, and then covering the roadway such that the area above can be used in the same manner that it was before the roadway was build.
There are significant concerns on the fiscal viability of the SR-710 freeway extension. The sheer magnitude and scale of the project means that it will require billions of dollars to complete. In addition to this, the wide opposition to the project will result in much litigation, which will delay the project leading to increases in cost. Presently, government agencies have failed to come up with a uniform cost estimate for the project. While some agencies estimate that the project will cost $4.5 billion, others estimate that it will require $14 billion.
This high variability suggests that the project presents a significant fiscal risk for the federal and state government. The cost of constructing the tunnels contributes to the inflated construction cost. Local and State authorities reveal that most of the funding for the tunnel will be done through Private, Public Partnerships. Private investors will therefore cover most of the costs for the project. While this will reduce the financial burden on the taxpayers, it will lead to very high tolls to use the roadway.
Recent Epidemiological Studies
The proposed tunnel will have a negative impact on individuals with respiratory problems. Pollution levels in road tunnels are generally higher compared to those of surface roads. A study by Svartengren et al. (2000) on the impact of short-term exposure to air pollution in road tunnels showed that road tunnels significantly enhanced asthmatic reactions.
The long tunnel that will be part of the 710 freeway extension will therefore have adverse health effects since travelers will spend considerable amount of time in the tunnel. Svartengren et al. (2000) assert that the length of the tunnel contribute to the adverse health effect to individuals who are exposed to motor vehicle exhaust.
The construction of the long underground tunnels poses significant engineering challenges. Extensive studies on the area through which the 710 extension will occur reveal that the tunnels will be prone to strong ground shaking since Southern California is seismically active and crossed by a number of faults (Redmond & Romero, 2011).
Some of the zones around which the 710 extension will pass contain groundwater basins. This groundwater basins act as a primary source of water for the region. While the groundwater levels vary considerably, there is a potential for inflows into tunnel excavations.
The National Health and Medical Research Council (2008) documents that when considering air quality outside a tunnel, the area surrounding the ventilation stacks or tunnel portals experiences significant concentration of pollutants. These pollutants are released at a high concentration hence worsening local air quality to a great degree.
The negative impact of tunnel ventilation systems on the local air quality can be mitigated by installing the stacks in nonresidential locations (The National Health and Medical Research Council, 2008). Such an approach will improve the local air quality to levels better than open roads since the road transport emissions will be deliberately removed from residential areas.
Stakeholders
A major stakeholder in the 710 freeway project is the Southern California Association of Governments (SCAG). This association has earmarked this project as an integral component in the transportation plans for the region. The SCAG is keen to ensure that the project is implemented since the project will open up the area for investments and increase the tax base for the local governments.
This stakeholder also contends that completion of the Route 710 freeway will be critical to transforming the Los Angeles transportation system. This freeway will play a key role in addressing the current transportation needs of the area as well as future need even as the transportation requirements of the city grow.
The local community in the Northeast Los Angeles and the San Fernando Valley are major stakeholders in the project since the proposed 710 freeway extension will have an impact on the region. These stakeholders are mostly opposed to the expansion project since they perceive that they will not be the major beneficiaries of the project. The proposed extension will not significantly reduce the vehicle hours travelled for the regional community and the tunnel will only increase congestion as more vehicles move to the route.
Discussion and Conclusion
The 710 Freeway expansion and extension project is a huge undertaking that will have major repercussions for the community. A project of this magnitude will have positive as well as negative impacts on the community and the city within which it is taking place. Over the years, the project planners have taken steps to reduce the negative impacts of the project.
The 710 freeway will attempt to use alternatives that do not damage historical resources and in cases where no feasible alternatives are available, plans will be put in place to minimize harm on historic sites. The chosen freeway corridor will cause the least amount of displacement.
If the project is not implemented, the desirable goals of enhancing connectivity and mobility within the Los Angeles Metropolitan region will not be achieved. The conditions will in fact worsen over the years as the population increases leading to more congestion and delay. The community affected by the proposed 710 tunnel need to consider the benefits as well as the costs that the project will bring to them.
References
National Health and Medical Research Council (2008). Air Quality in and around Traffic Tunnels. Auckland: National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research Ltd.
Redmond, S., & Romero, V. (2011). Rapid Excavation and Tunneling Conference Proceedings. NY: SME.
Svartengren, M., Strand, V., Bylin, G., Jarup, L., & Pershagen, G. (2000). Short-term exposure to air pollution in a road tunnel enhances the asthmatic response to allergen. Eur Respir J, 15(1), 716-724.
U. S. Department of Transportation (2000). Record of Decision: State Route 710 Freeway. Web.
“Green Travelling” is a popular term nowadays, it is associated with such notions as “sustainable environment”, “ecotourism” and “responsible travelling”. A green traveler is the one who tries to save the natural environment and to minimize personal impact on the cultural treasures of the region where he/she is travelling. In this report, I am going to explore the question of the green travelling and research how green traveler I am comparing to other people who also consider themselves “green travelers”.
The purpose of this report is to establish a way in which travelers should practice environmental friendly trends, and come up with patterns of traveling. In patterns of traveling, walking over 18k distance takes about 30minutes, in which only six trips can be undertaken. If a bicycle is used, one covers a longer distance of 120kms in only 15 minutes for coverage of 12 trips.
If one decides to use a public service vehicle, individual owned cars and trains or by air, there is a tremendous difference in time taken and distance covered. Travelling by air proves to be the fastest method of traveling as 1600kms distance can be covered in only 45minutes, for two trips. The second fastest mode of traveling is by use of train followed by individual owned cars.
Nonetheless, the most environmental friendly mode of travel that is fast is a bicycle. (James & Bethany 34) Air emissions such as Carbon Dioxide only contribute lowly to high levels of air pollution. According to this data, a green traveler should prefer transport that is environmentally friendly, such as bicycle, or just walking. As a person who wants to be a green traveler, I prefer walking (for short-distance travelling) and bicycle for travelling around the town.
Method of data collection
Collection of data got done via the use of government statistics reports, such as National Travel Survey, and photos of the traffic situation in Paris, the U.K, among other large cities in the world. Data got collected in order to identify ways in which one may travel by use of transportation modes that are environmental friendly. The data got used in identification of trends that are sustainable in the cities, in reduction of air emissions which tend to be harmful in the environment (David, Michael and Caroline 68).
Data was collected from different travelers through use of survey method and comparing them to the personal results. Different questionnaires were used in order to come up with results of the mode of transportation. The number of people interviewed was five. All of them were from different localities.
These are; Paris, London, San Francisco, Tokyo and New York. The survey was carried out among persons aged between 21yrs to 30yrs. Information collected got through use of interviews where different questions were asked. For valid and instantaneous responses, a face to face interview had to be used.
The results had to be used in carrying out the survey on the mode of transportation that was friendly to the environment. The results concluded that if a friendly mode of transportation were used, such as the bicycle, time taken would be more than that of other faster modes of transportation.
Results
PERSONS
DISTANCE(KM)
TIME(MIN)
TRIPS
A
400
180
2
B
400
80
4
C
1600
45
2
D
450
30
18
E
3
15
2
Discussion
The results retrieved from the interview differed when presented in comparison with results from data that was retrieved from the National Travel Survey in the year 2010. In rural areas, distance covered was relatively long over a short period.
Whereas, distance covered in London boroughs proved shorter, but, the time taken was too much, for only 84 trips could be made. Conclusively, the distance and time covered by the individual from London was similar to one where coverage was done in London boroughs of the National Travel Survey.
Reasons for individual pattern of travel depend on individual preference and time one has at hand. As indicated from the results conducted among five individuals, each chose their most suitable preference of transportation mode.
The person from San Francisco chose Air as the mode of transport since planes tend to be faster and in his belief, the carbon emissions are not inherently too much as opposed to using of other fast modes of transport (Buchanan and Horwitz 45). The person from Paris chose to use the train as the first preference. The forth individual from Tokyo preferred to use his car.
Nonetheless, out of this five people, only two are green travelers. I from London and the other individual from New York, who preferred to use a bicycle as their mode of transport. The result from this analysis shows that, despite the different individuals opting for modes of travel that were only emitting little amounts of carbon into the atmosphere, these were still contributing to air pollution and noise pollution.
According to the results provided by National Travel Survey 2010, the number of people using car and other private transport was much bigger than people who travel by bicycle or take walking tours. In addition, this number also outnumbers people who use public transport.
According to my personal results, these numbers has changed and nowadays, the number of green travelers has grown. As for my personal results, I also use car and public transport to travel long distances oftener than travelling on foot, or by bicycle. Thus, I cannot be considered as real green traveler. I addition, I often travel by plane, and according to the authors presented their results as cited in T172 Working with our environment, Theme 2, pp. 26–7:
“The growth in, and the environmental impacts of, air travel are emerging as a major environmental concern. In the last 20 years, air travel has grown at a remarkable pace, and this growth looks set to continue for some time to come”.
And thus, the results of the survey show that the number of people who join “green travelling” has grown since 2010.
Conclusion
As mentioned before, results retrieved from the interview differ when presented in comparison with results from data retrieved from the National Travel Survey in the year 2010. The key reasons for individual pattern of travel depend on individual preference and available time.
As indicated from the results conducted among five individuals, each chose their most suitable preference of transportation mode. Conclusively, out of this five people, only two are green travelers. As for mentioned, use of faster means of transport proves to be a source of pollution.
Recommendations
– For people to be more environmental friendly, persons from Paris, San Francisco and Tokyo should use modes of transport that do not emit carbon.
– The crisis to be solved in this case is, hence, to identify the mode of transport that is fast and at the same time environmental friendly.
– In order for the persons in Paris, Tokyo and San Francisco to practice environmental trends that are friendly, they have to accept other modes of transport that have no carbon emissions.
– They might use bicycle to travel for around the town or for long distances oftener than they usually do.
-This mode of transport may be used during vacations or day offs, for example.
– Air transport which contributes greatly to air pollution could be changed for trains.
Raising people’s consciousness and attracting their attention to the issues of air pollution, and contributing to the development of green travelling as a popular attraction may be very beneficial for reducing carbon footprints left by every individual.
Works Cited
Buchanan, Marisa, and Carl Horwitz “Pollution and Society”. The New York Times, 26 Aug. 2007: 45-78. Web.
FAA – Minimum 1500 –Flight Hours –for Commercial airline Pilots – Whether CASA of Australia attempt to increase the flight hours as that of FAAs is justiable.
Higher flight hours -to be prescribed in Australia – as done by FAA in USA- there will negative impact among regional and small airline operators in Australia Is it justiable to increase flight hours for pilots in Australia?
Introduction
If a candidate wants to become a commercial airline pilot in USA, he should be at least twenty-three years of age and should possess a flying experience of a minimum of 1,500 hours as per ANPRM (Advance Notice of Proposed Rulemaking) by FAA.
This 1,500 hours of flying experience would include instrument, cross county and night flying.They should also pass the both the flight and written examinations conducted by FAA ( Federal Aviation Authority).
Depending upon the needs of a specific job, they should also have one or more advanced ratings. In USA, the commercial airline pilots should have an additional qualification. An air transport pilot’s license should be possessed by Captains. (U.S Bureau of Labour Statistics2010: 789).
It is to be noted that new provision of minimum 1500 hours was notified in the aftermath of a grave air crash that occurred on 12 Feb 2009 , an accident involving a Colgan Air Bombardier Q400 while it approached to Buffalo Niagara international Airport at New York.
Due to the accident, not only the airplane was destroyed, but also all forty-nine air passengers were killed. (Werfelman 2011:2).
As per FAA, the first officer of Colgan aircraft which met with an accident had less than 1500 flight hours’ experience.
However, at the time of the accident, the first officer had acquired 2233 hours of flight hours and Colgan crash at New York made a spotlight on whether a commercially ranked co-pilot in Part 121 operations receive enough training or not. (Werfelman 2011:2).
Majority of airline companies in USA turns down candidates who fail the needed aptitude and psychological tests as these pilots have to make accurate judgments and quick decisions under pressure.
New airline pilots must commence their career as first engineers and as first officers depending upon the type of aircraft, which being used. For instance, pilots who have about 4000 hours of flight experience are being employed as the pilots by major airlines. (U.S Bureau of Labour Statistics 2010: 789).
This research essay will make an earnest attempt about “the USA’s Federal Aviation Administration Extension Act of 2010, which demands a minimum of one thousand five hundred flight hours before a pilot is able to operate on regular public transport services. With a similar mandatory requirement applied in Australia, what will be the impact on the Australian aviation industry?”
Analysis
One of the research studies made by NTSB on the deadly air crashes that happened from 1997 to 2008 by employing Flight Risk Assessment Tool of FAA’s and acknowledged 3 or more risk elements in sixty-three of the air cargo accidents and 4 or more risk elements, in forty-one air accidents.
According to data released by FAA’s, there are about thirty-eight risk elements especially in the province of pilot’s experience and qualifications, equipment and operating atmosphere. These risk elements were given an allocated value starting from two to five with five demonstrating the greatest risk.
This research had analysed an air fatal accident that occurred in 1997 which according to NTSB , the main reason for the accident was due to disregard by pilot about the briefing of preflight for harsh weather condition, which was given six risk factors.
In this air accident, it was found out that during the previous ninety days, “some minimum number of hours that the pilot had not flown” and had also not having a minimum quantum of experience and also found that he was flying alone. (Dillingham 2009:14)
Table-1
It is to be observed from the above table, pilot’s low flight experience had caused about 23 air accidents and earned higher ranking of 5.
In some research, the researchers were able to evaluate the pilot’s flight experience who was indulged in accidents with the percentage of pilots in the aggregate pilot’s population at each stage of flight experience.
It was found that about twenty-one percent of all airline accidents associated with the pilots who had just 100 to 300 hours of flight experience. However, the percentage of pilots in the populace with this rank of experience was about twenty-six percentage.
Thus, the researchers’ findings again rebuff the finding that there is a phase of special susceptibility for pilots at this experience stage and this corroborates that those pilots with lesser experience were possibly less prone to be associated in an air accident as compared to pilots with higher experience or flight hours. (Salas & Maurino 2010:599).
These research studies barely reveal that experience is of no use but rather than the impacts of experience are nuanced. In their research study, Li et al (2001) correlated the association between the specific type of airline accidents and the total flight time.
It was found that general airline pilots with greater experience levels were not involved in major air accidents under VMC (visual metrological conditions) but likely to be involved in air mishaps under IMC (instrument meteorological conditions).
In their research study, Stokes et al (1992) unearthed that pilot with more flight hours experience employed more sources of data and information and engendered more substitute courses of action. (Salas & Maurino 2010:599).
As per Goh and Wiegmann (2002b) findings, pilots with higher flight hours are usually better at understanding issues and finding out remedies but not at ease to identify underlying reasons. As per Stokes et al (1990) finding that higher flight hours make a pilot to manage against negative impacts of stress, especially during in-flight scheduling and planning. (Salas & Maurino 2010:599).
However, Casner, Heraldez and Jones (2006) were of the opinion that there had been no impact on aggregate flight experience on long-run preservation of aeronautical knowledge. (Salas & Maurino 2010:599).
As the number of aircraft expands in an airline company, there is a heavy demand for experienced pilots and as a result ¸ these airline companies have to engage lesser experienced or those pilots who have less flight hour experience.
For instance, in China, recruitment of airline pilots from general aviation is not available as the general aviation sector is at puberty stage and airline pilots are being recruited with lesser experience or deputed from military. (Salas & Maurino 2010:308).
It was found by some researchers that pilot with lesser flight experience have the greatest peril of spatial disorientation (SD).
For instance, in his research study, Mortimer by analyzing various aviation accidents found that “pilots in SD accidents did not have adequate flight experience, which was essential to cope or recognize with the stimuli that provoke SD, which was aggravated by alcohol, fatigue, drugs or pressure and other physical and psychological injuries. (Previc & Ercoline 2004: 171).
Australian Regulations on minimum Flight Hours for Commercial Airline Pilots
Presently, in Australia, if an individual wants to acquire a commercial pilot license (CPL), the Civil Aviation Safety Authority of Australia (CASA) specifies that he should have a minimum of flying experience of 200 hours with precise time spent as a pilot in command both in instrument flight time and cross country.
Further, CASA of Australia also specifies if an individual wants to acquire a commercial pilot license through a commercial training course, it is adequate that individual should be flown as a pilot with flight hours of 150 hours.
Further, the CASA regulation also specifies that the sum of specific kinds of experience will also be reckoned towards the aggregate 150 hours. (Aero News Network 2010).
Following the FAA’s way, there has been a strong recommendation for Australian pilots to have a minimum of 1500 hours flying experience in the Australian Senate inquiry recently. This recommendation is an analogues proposal that has made in the United States.
This move has been resisted by airline operators in Australia. For instance, Regional Express (Rex) is an Australian –based airline, which administers a cadet program which intended to create high- quality pilots.
According to Rex, the suggestion to have a minimum 1500 flying hours could be “knee-jerk response” immediately after a grave air crash. Rex has pointed out that air crash was not able to be averted even though the pilots had more than two thousands hours of flight familiarity each in a two separate aircraft accident. (Aero News Network 2010).
Rex is running a cadet program in Australia like many other major airlines around the globe which is especially devised to create high- quality pilots. In the research study carried over by Rex through aircraft proficiency tests and through comprehensive simulator tests, it was found that pilots in their initial year of flying display analogues talents and skills in all areas tested as that of well experienced pilots.
Further, their research revealed that in the second year of flying, these cadets performances even outshined with that of more skilled direct intake pilots in excess of more than one thousand five hundred hours at any point of entry.
According to Rex, Australia, there exists no scientific evidence that it is unsafe to engage a pilot with less than one thousand five hundred flight hours. Rex is also pointing out that RAFF, Australia, is in the habit of engaging pilots who have less than 1500- hour flight experience for manoeuvring their urbane fighter jets.
Rex has also pointed out that both Australian and European authorities have formally endorsed flight training programs that permit pilots with less than 100- hour direct flight experience to manoeuvre the larger jet aircrafts. (Aero News Network 2010).
According to Rex, if Australian Aviation board fixes a minimum of one thousand five hundreds of hours of flight experience for their commercial pilots, it would have a great impact on the Australian airline industry.
If such things happen in Australia, then all the pilot cadet programs in Australia would come to a standstill, and the real sufferers would be the Australian airline companies as it would be difficult to source adequate pilots to cope with their envisaged expansion in the near future. (Aero News Network 2010).
If higher flight hours are going to be prescribed in Australia as done by FAA in USA, then it would have a negative impact among regional and small airline operators in Australia as their pilot status would get ransacked by the famous and larger airline companies in Australia. (Aero News Network 2010).
During the October 2010, the Australian Senate has initiated an enquiry into the airline safety and pilot training procedure followed in Australia in the midst of worries that flight safety standards are declining.
The main reason for the Australian Senate enquiry is to look into at two separate incidents in specific that have culminated into worries about reporting of incidents in two specific incidents. In one incident, a Jetstar flight abandoned landing in June 2007 at Melbourne airport.
The other one was the Tiger Airways which diverted a flight in May 2009 between Mackay to Melbourne when flight was compelled to alter its course due to renewed issues with the aileron control system. (Kelly 2010)
Unfortunately, both Tiger and Jetstar failed to stick with incident reporting needs and the effect on safety of any cutback in minimum flight hour obligations. (Kelly 2010)
Jetstar, a famous Australian airline company, stresses that the suggestion that co-pilots who are flying high power airplane should have a minimum of 1500 hours’ flight hours experience requires to be vehemently condemned.
If 1500 hours is fixed as a minimum flight hour experience, then it would have a poignant, terrific outcome on the whole Australian aviation industry. If higher flight hours are fixed as the minimum, then it would also devastate the regional aviation industry in Australia as it would make the Australian airlines to recruit those pilots with higher flight experience, which would deteriorate their bottom line.
Over the next few years, the regional aviation industry in Australia may not be capable of safely train the quantum of pilots especially to cater for the requirements of the regional aviation industry.
It will be really an intricate situation to visualize how Australian regional aviation industry is capable to impart adequate training and minimum flight hours for all of the Australia’s future needs and to fine-tune with the level of talent drain and pilot turnover as pilots with well experience and with adequate flight hours may search for their career advancement in jet operators in Australia. (Buchanan 2011).
If higher flight hour experience has been prescribed, then, it would connote cadet pilots would emerge through the customary aviation path instead of a specific and a structured jet training program. If the new standard is introduced in Australia, it would be difficult to recruit pilots with enhanced flight hours and with the jet training programs. (Buchanan 2011).
If higher norms of flight hours are fixed in Australia, according to Jetstar, this may kindle the younger Australians to seek green pastures outside Australia. (Buchanan 2011).
One another handicap of fixing 1500 hours as minimum flight hours for commercial pilots is that Australian airlines may be compelled to ignore pilots who have outstanding flight records but who may lack the minimum flight time stipulations to be codified by the aviation authorities. (Buchanan 2011).
There is no available proof or research study carried out on the subject to advocate that a better safety result for airline pilots is accomplished by adding more flight hours, especially for crop dusters, small General Aviation trainers or charter aircraft.
It is to be noted that in the case of the Colgan air crash in New York, which forced the US government to frame new rules for a minimum 1500 flight hour, for pilots , both Co-pilot and the Captain had experience over one thousand five hundred flight hours.
Thus, the Captain had more than 3380 total flight hours, and the Co-pilot had about 2250 flight hours’ experience. Though Colgan employed higher experienced Pilot and Co-pilot, accident could not be averted. This illustrates that flight hours ‘experience does not avert an accident. (www.rex.com.au 2011: 6).
A reliable evidence is available from airline cadet programmes around the world for the last three decades that reveals the capability of such programmes as it traumatically supplying the globe’s famous airlines with high quality commercial plane pilots.
Singapore Airlines, Cathay Pacific, Qantas and KLM are few illustrations of airline that is well- known for their high safety norms and these companies are having in their pay roll, a majority of low flight hour pilots, especially through cadet schemes. (www.rex.com.au 2011: 6).
It is to be observed that pilots from Royal Australian Air Force enrol into employment as low hour pilots with just two hundred -hour flight hours and are appointed directly to manoeuvre VIP Squadron , transport aircraft or onto a jet aircraft. (www.rex.com.au 2011: 6).
Further, there is ever increasing corroboration and belief that it is the quality of training that counts than that of hours of experience.
Rex is of the opinion that the yardstick of a 200 -hour cadet is analogues to a direct recruit who has more than 1500 hours of GA experience to his credit thereby demonstrating that it is the excellence of the training which is more significant than that of the aggregate number of flying hours. (www.rex.com.au 2011: 6).
Conclusion
Australian airline industry will not be in a position to supply commercial airline pilots who have more than 1500 -hour flight experience due to short supply. As per Boeing forecast, the demand for pilots both internationally and domestically is expected to soar radically in the near future.
As per Boeing Current Market outlook 2010-2029, the demand for new pilots will be around 466,650 globally over the next two decades with poignant demand from Middle East and Asia.
As a result, highly experienced Australian pilots will be naturally fascinated to high -paying employment in these provinces further fuelling to supply pressures in Australian market. It is stressed that without pilot cadet programs, it would be very difficult to cater this ever increasing demand. (www.rex.com.au 2011: 7).
It was found that about twenty-one percent of all airline accidents associated with the pilots who had just 100 to 300 hours of flight experience. , Li et al (2001) correlated the association between the specific type of airline accidents and the total flight time.
Stokes et al (1992) unearthed that pilot with more flight hours experience employed more sources of data and information and engendered more substitute courses of action. As per Goh and Wiegmann (2002b) findings, pilots with higher flight hours are usually better at understanding issues and finding out remedies but not at ease to identify underlying reasons.
As per Stokes et al (1990) finding that higher flight hours make a pilot to manage against negative impacts of stress, especially during in-flight scheduling and planning (Salas & Maurino 2010:599). It was found by some researchers that pilot with lesser flight experience have the greatest peril of spatial disorientation (SD).
Despite the above findings, according to Rex, those pilots in their initial year of flying display analogues talents and skills in all areas tested as that of well experienced pilots.
Further, their research revealed that in the second year of flying, these cadets performances even outshined with that of more skilled direct intake pilots in excess of more than one thousand five hundred hours at any point of entry.
It is to be noted that Australian and European authorities have formally endorsed flight training programs that permit pilots with less than 100 -hour direct flight experience to manoeuvre the larger jet aircraft.
According to Rex, if Australian Aviation board fixes a minimum of one thousand five hundreds of hours of flight experience for their commercial pilots, it would have a great impact on the Australian airline industry.
Though Colgan of USA employed higher experienced Pilot and Co-pilot, accident could not be averted. This illustrates that flight hours’ experience does not avert an accident. (www.rex.com.au 2011: 6).
In view of the above, it is strongly advocated that there is no point in increasing the flight hours for commercial pilots, but more emphasis should be given to accord quality training to pilots who are in commercial airline industry in Australia. (www.rex.com.au 2011: 7).