Forced organ harvesting is a kind of contemporary slavery in which a persons organs are forcibly removed for black market sale; transplantation of organs is becoming more prevalent. This is attributable to a number of advancements, including stronger seatbelts, which result in fewer young people dying in traffic accidents, safer transplant operations, and generally indicate treatment. However, this rising demand is not being met by an equal increase in supply. As a result, many sick people resort to the underground market for organs out of desperation, fostering a hotbed of criminal activity. Organ trafficking under duress is a risky and unlawful procedure. This work is written to raise attention to the topic of organ trafficking in China.
It is argued that Chinas organ transplant market has a dark, secret, and frequently criminal aspect. The Chinese authorities kill some prisoners in re-education camps in order to consume their organs and offer them for transplants to local and international consumers at exorbitant prices (Robertson & Lavee, 2022). In the case of organ transplants, China has breached two basic medical ethical norms. The Dead Donor Rule, which forbids harvesting a vital organ from a human organism and causes the death of donors in order to harvest their organ, has been frequently broken by Chinese officials.
China has acknowledged transplanting the organs of executed inmates. The accessibility of organs for transplant is significantly more limited in China due to the religious traditions of many Chinese people who appreciate keeping the body complete after death. Almost most of the organs donated by humans were from people on death row (Alnour et al., 2021). China has been repeatedly revealed as having a robust illegal kidney transplantation industry, including the ongoing use of organs from sentenced convicts without their consent and the organ trafficking of junior enlisted conscripts.
China has a severe organ shortage, and it has been harvesting the organs of executed inmates for years to help fulfill demand. Following worldwide outrage, Beijing claims to have stopped the procedure at the beginning of this year, though officials recognize that ensuring compliance would be difficult. He established a national organ bank dedicated to donating organs to those who need them most. The governments most formidable challenge may be getting the people to give in the first place. Many Chinese people think that the corpse is holy and that it should be buried whole in order to honor their ancestors.
The China Tribunal is the first complete and unbiased examination of the facts about crimes involving organ sourcing in China to date. The China Tribunals judgment that coerced organ trafficking from political prisoners occurs in China is significant since it was reached via a thorough and open procedure by the Tribunals highly trained expert volunteer members. The Tribunal brought a degree of precision and insight to this heinous human rights violation that had never been seen before, thereby helping to draw international attention to Chinas continued atrocities. The publics reaction to these instances is overwhelmingly negative, as they go against many of the Chinese peoples core values. By establishing standards governing the worldwide transportation of organs, international collaboration might aid in the fight against international organ traffic. So far, indicators of such circumstances have persisted; nevertheless, the local and worldwide communities are keeping an eye on the decrease in such incidents.
Organ transplantation is a very unique type of operation;
Involves the transplantation of organs of living or deceased donors;
Patients outnumber donors;
Over 120,000 patients in the US alone need organ transplants (Pillay et al., 2014).
Organ transplantation is an operation that involves transplanting a vital or essential organ from a living or a recently-deceased person to a patient in need. It is a very difficult operation that involves significant risks for both donors and patients, as there are chances of the body rejecting the organ. Because of the costs and extreme scarcity of organ transplants, the operation is suggested as a last resort only. The demand for organs outpaces the supply by a large margin, and there are 120,000 patients in the US alone waiting for an organ transplant (Pillay et al., 2014). The purpose of this presentation is to provide an overview of organ transplantation.
Objectives of the Presentation
What organs are typically replaced?
Conditions that lead to organ transplantation.
Signs and symptoms of organ failure.
Treatments before and after transplantation.
Nursing interventions.
By the end of this presentations, the students would be provided with information about organ transplantation. The review will outline the organs that are commonly being transplanted, cite the various conditions that lead to organ transplantation as well as the common signs and symptoms of organ failure, and elaborate on how the patients are treated before and after the operation. Next, several nursing interventions aimed at improving success rates of the transplantation would be discussed.
Organs Typically Replaced
Heart life-support organ;
Intestine essential organ;
Kidney essential organ;
Liver life-support organ;
Lung life-support organ;
Pancreas essential organ (UNOS, 2018).
The main organs typically involved in transplantation can be divided into two groups (UNOS, 2018):
Essential organs;
Life support organs.
The difference between them lies in the urgency of replacement. A person with a failing kidney can survive on one kidney alone for a period of time. A person experiencing a heart failure could die within 10 minutes after the cardiac arrest. Heart, lungs, and liver belong to life support organs, whereas the intestine, pancreas, and kidneys are considered essential organs for proper body functioning. Other organs may not be eligible to transplantation due to various complications associated with the operation. The brain, for obvious reasons, cannot be transplanted. Tissue transplantation, on the other hand, is much cheaper and safer, but does not offer a definitive solution.
Conditions that Lead to Organ Transplantation
Cardiomyopathy;
Cirrhosis;
COPD;
Diabetes;
Polycystic kidneys;
Cystic fibrosis;
Cancer (of all kinds) (UNOS, n.d.).
The most common diseases that lead to organ transplantation are those that have the potential to damage and leave the organs unusable. These diseases include cardiomyopathy (affects the hearts muscles and its ability to pump blood), cirrhosis (scarring of the liver due to various comorbidities), COPD (affects the airways and air sacks within lungs), diabetes (affects pancreas and organs that require insulin), polycystic kidneys (cysts interfere with kidney functions), and cystic fibrosis (affects respiratory systems, stomach, kidneys, and pancreas) (UNOS, n.d.). Cancer can affect any organ in the body, and at later stages may require removal to prevent the disease from spreading.
Signs and Symptoms of Organ Failure
Shortness of breath (lungs);
Decreased urinal output (kidneys);
Fluid retention (kidneys, liver);
Irregular heartbeat, murmurs, tremors (heart);
Fever and upper abdominal pain (pancreas);
Lower abdominal pain (liver);
Bloating and malabsorbtion (intestine) (Hanson et al., 2015).
There are numerous symptoms that may indicate potential organ failure. Typically, the symptoms are directly associated with the function the organ plays in the body (Hanson et al., 2015). If lungs are malfunctioning to the point of suffering a failure, the person will experience chest pains and a shortness of breath. Irregular heartbeat rate, low blood pressure, and associated symptoms can indicate that the heart is about to give up. However, these symptoms are also common in many other diseases, making it difficult to predict a potential organ failure. For example, bloating and malabsorbtion, which are among the first symptoms of intestinal failure, are also associated with diarrhea (Hanson et al., 2015).
Treatments Before and After Transplantation
Before transplantation (UNOS, 2018):
Evaluation;
Matching and the waitlist;
Psychological and medical preparation.
After transplantation ( Managing your health, n.d.):
Anti-rejection medications;
Dieting and exercise;
Restrictions, medical checks, medication checks.
Medical preparations before the transplantation include evaluation and compatibility with potential donors as well as psychological and medical procedures to prepare the customer for the procedure. Some transplants, especially heart transplant, are very taxing on the body, meaning that some patients might not even survive the operation (UNOS, 2018). Realizing the risks and maintaining a healthy way of life prior to the procedure are important parts of the preparation. After the operation is successful, the patient is required to take anti-rejection medications, maintain a healthy way of life to prevent any complications, and report frequently to the doctors office, in order to spot any possible signs of organ rejection ( Managing your health, n.d.). Patient agency is an important factor in healthcare, as the doctors cannot supervise the patient at all times once he or she had left the facility.
Nursing Interventions
Educational: Teach the patients about medication management (Hanson et al., 2015).
Psychological: Help cope with the aftermath of the operation (Pillay et al., 2014).
Surgical: Help reduce the negative consequences of transplantation (Frost et al., 2016).
Typically, patients are taught about the consequences of living with a transplant before and after the operation, before they are discharged from the hospital. Hanson et al. (2015) state that patient education and periodical reminders are crucial in decreasing organ rejection rates because of poor medication intake. Pillay et al. (2014) have found that transplant patients are in need of psychological interventions to reduce the chances of depression, stress, and anxiety associated with the treatment. Lastly, the use of chlorhexidine pre-wash has been proven to reduce operational infection rates (Frost et al., 2016). Promoting these measures would help improve the quality of care in transplant patients and increase the quality of life in the long-term perspective.
Conclusions
Organ transplantation is an expensive and dangerous operation.
Many diseases can cause partial or complete organ failure.
Nursing interventions can improve coping and success rates.
Advocacy and information campaigns are important.
Until humanity masters the technology of organ regrowth, organ donation will remain to be the primary source for transplantation. The possibility for rejection and the shrinking number of available organs remain the primary causes for why this operation is a rarely-available option. By helping to prepare the patients to the consequences of the procedure as well as perfecting and refining the surgical standards in any particular hospital, nurses can improve patient outcomes in the long run. Informing the medical specialists and the general population about the importance of the procedure and the thousands of lives that could be saved can improve donor numbers and contribute to growing the organ bank.
References
Frost, S. A., Alogso, M.-C., Metcalfe, L., Lynch, J. M., Hunt, L., Sanghavi, R., & Hillman, K. M. (2016). Chlorhexidine bathing and health care-associated infections among adult intensive care patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Critical Care, 20(1), 1-6.
Hanson, C. S., Chadban, S. J., Chapman, J. R., Craig, J. C., Wong, G., Ralph, A. F., & Tong, A. (2015). The expectations and attitudes of patients with chronic kidney disease toward living kidney donor transplantation: A thematic synthesis of qualitative studies. Transplantation, 99(3), 540-554.
Pillay, B., Lee, S. J., Katona, L., De Bono, S., Burney, S., & Avery, S. (2014). A prospective study of the relationship between sense of coherence, depression, anxiety, and quality of life of haematopoietic stem cell transplant patients over time. Psycho-Oncology, 24(2), 220-227.
Solid organ transplantation is an extremely difficult and severe process that requires proper preparation and consideration of an extended number of factors. Among other important steps, ABO typing plays an important role in solid organ transplantation matching and success for a solid organ transplant. As noticed by Chung et al. (2022), to avoid donor organ rejection or hemolytic transfusion reactions, it is important to select the appropriate ABO group for blood components (p. 105). Blood typing aims to ensure that the recipients and the potential donors blood are compatible (Rydberg, 2001). Since 1989, ABO-incompatible liver transplantations have been performed mainly in emergency cases and the results have generally been inferior to ABO-compatible grafts (Rydberg, 2001, p. 325). Nowadays, the number of successful ABO-incompatible solid organ transplantations is increasing, and it is possible to suggest that blood typing will not be necessary for transplantations in the nearest future (Chung et al., 2022). ABO typing is still required to increase the chances of success in solid organ matching and transplantation.
Komal, A., Noreen, M., Akhtar, J., Imran, M., Jamal, M., Atif, M., Khan, J., Roman, M., Haq, F. U., Aftab, U., Ghaffar, A., & Waheed, Y. (2021). Analyses of ABO blood groups with susceptibility and symptomatic variations of COVID19 infection, a questionnairebased survey. Apmis, 129(10), 579-586.
Since the coronavirus outbreak, researchers have tried to determine the various factors that may either increase or lower peoples susceptibility to COVID-19 infection. Apparently, one such factor is ABO blood groups it is noted that they are associated with the severity of the course of the virus and the level of mortality from it (Komal et al., 2021). The article provides non-medical and non-scientific audiences with some valuable information. The authors state that individuals with O and B blood groups have lower chances of getting infected, while the AB and A blood group persons are most likely to get COVID-19 infection (Komal et al., 2021, p. 586). Consequently, it is recommended that people with blood groups A and AB always use their personal protection and strengthen their immunity.
References
Chung, Y., Ko, D. H., Lim, J., Kim, K. H., & Kim, H. (2022). Choice of ABO group for blood component transfusion in ABO-incompatible solid organ transplantation: A questionnaire survey in Korea and guideline proposal. Annals of Laboratory Medicine, 42(1), 105-109.
Komal, A., Noreen, M., Akhtar, J., Imran, M., Jamal, M., Atif, M., Khan, J., Roman, M., Haq, F. U., Aftab, U., Ghaffar, A., & Waheed, Y. (2021). Analyses of ABO blood groups with susceptibility and symptomatic variations of COVID19 infection, a questionnairebased survey. Apmis, 129(10), 579-586.
Rydberg, L. (2001). ABOincompatibility in solid organ transplantation. Transfusion Medicine, 11(4), 325-342.
Forced organ harvesting is a kind of contemporary slavery in which a person’s organs are forcibly removed for black market sale; transplantation of organs is becoming more prevalent. This is attributable to a number of advancements, including stronger seatbelts, which result in fewer young people dying in traffic accidents, safer transplant operations, and generally indicate treatment. However, this rising demand is not being met by an equal increase in supply. As a result, many sick people resort to the underground market for organs out of desperation, fostering a hotbed of criminal activity. Organ trafficking under duress is a risky and unlawful procedure. This work is written to raise attention to the topic of organ trafficking in China.
It is argued that China’s organ transplant market has a dark, secret, and frequently criminal aspect. The Chinese authorities kill some prisoners in re-education camps in order to consume their organs and offer them for transplants to local and international consumers at exorbitant prices (Robertson & Lavee, 2022). In the case of organ transplants, China has breached two basic medical ethical norms. The Dead Donor Rule, which forbids harvesting a vital organ from a human organism and causes the death of donors in order to harvest their organ, has been frequently broken by Chinese officials.
China has acknowledged transplanting the organs of executed inmates. The accessibility of organs for transplant is significantly more limited in China due to the religious traditions of many Chinese people who appreciate keeping the body complete after death. Almost most of the organs donated by humans were from people on death row (Alnour et al., 2021). China has been repeatedly revealed as having a robust illegal kidney transplantation industry, including the ongoing use of organs from sentenced convicts without their consent and the organ trafficking of junior enlisted conscripts.
China has a severe organ shortage, and it has been harvesting the organs of executed inmates for years to help fulfill demand. Following worldwide outrage, Beijing claims to have stopped the procedure at the beginning of this year, though officials recognize that ensuring compliance would be difficult. He established a national organ bank dedicated to donating organs to those who need them most. The government’s most formidable challenge may be getting the people to give in the first place. Many Chinese people think that the corpse is holy and that it should be buried whole in order to honor their ancestors.
The China Tribunal is the first complete and unbiased examination of the facts about crimes involving organ sourcing in China to date. The China Tribunal’s judgment that coerced organ trafficking from political prisoners occurs in China is significant since it was reached via a thorough and open procedure by the Tribunal’s highly trained expert volunteer members. The Tribunal brought a degree of precision and insight to this heinous human rights violation that had never been seen before, thereby helping to draw international attention to China’s continued atrocities. The public’s reaction to these instances is overwhelmingly negative, as they go against many of the Chinese people’s core values. By establishing standards governing the worldwide transportation of organs, international collaboration might aid in the fight against international organ traffic. So far, indicators of such circumstances have persisted; nevertheless, the local and worldwide communities are keeping an eye on the decrease in such incidents.
Human dead bodies or cadavers have been used in medical education and research since ancient times. However, in recent times, with more focus on human rights and the growth of biomedical ethics, the use of cadavers for educational, research, and transplantation purposes have come under debate. While some people feel that using cadavers is ethically wrong, there are others who feel that it is perfectly acceptable to use human remains for productive issues such as education, research, and organ transplants. Thesis Statement: When we consider both sides of the argument in a balanced manner, the use of a cadaver is quite acceptable on the basis of the rationality that it is not abused but rather used for the welfare of other human beings.
Subjects such as anatomy and physiology have been taught from ancient times through the dissection of a dead human body (Parker, 1). However, with the advancement of digital technology, alternate methods of teaching anatomy and physiology, such as the use of computer graphics and simulation programs, have emerged. There are atlas reference guides that allow the medical students to remove structures from the body layer by layer and build it up again. The layering effects of these computer models allow the student to understand the structure and features of the skeleton. These programs also provide insights into the relationship that exists between different body structures. A study by Rajendran et al. has confirmed that computers do function as a learning tool in the context of medical education (Berube et al. page 1 ).
However, survey-based research by Berube et al. (1999) reveals that medical students often feel that the computer is inadequate in helping students understand complex relationships between the anatomical structures using a two-dimensional computer screen. In this survey, most of the respondents supported the use of cadavers to obtain “the sensations of human tissue and to gain a respect for the human body” (Berube et al., page 2). According to these respondents, the computer cannot facilitate the students to experience “the pathology and differences among humans” (Berube et al., page 2). Only through cadaver dissection, students found it possible to see the actual structures of the human body, cut through various layers of the body, and understand the interrelationship of various body systems. Thus, from the viewpoint of students, lessons in anatomy and physiology are best understood only through cadaver dissection.
Protesters of the use of cadavers for removal, storage, and use of human tissue or organs and the storage and use of whole bodies for education purposes argue the dead human body cannot be totally commoditized, and hence any activity based on ownership and commercialization of the human body should not be allowed. Another argument from the side of the protesters is that during transplantation, organs are taken from bodies that are brain dead and sustained by medical technology – and not from totally dead bodies. Renée Fox has named this a “desolate, profanely ‘high tech’ death” and one that cannot be considered as a natural death. Thus, two of the arguments of protestors of cadaver use are: the cadaver should not be commoditized as it is partly representative of the person; brain death cannot be equivalent to natural death.
In the context of these arguments, it may be pointed out that in recent times many parts of the human body are already being sold like commodities. For example, human cells and genes for research and educational purposes are openly sold by catalog or through the internet: 250ƒÊg of RNA of the human adrenal gland from one company in the U.S. is 255 U.S. dollars. Blood, hair, and spermatozoa are also traded as regular commodities (Awaya, 3.1). Organs are on the way to becoming total commodities, and the cornea is the first organ that has been almost totally commoditized – which means a price is attached to a freely donated cornea. At present, the price is just 100,000 Japanese Yen (about 770 U.S. dollars). It is a fixed price (Awaya, 3.1). As transplant medicine continues to advance, more organs, tissues, etc., are becoming “medical resources,” and their commercial value as commodities is increased (Awaya, Page 1). This is a new reality that should be accepted. Next, the second argument implies that organs are being harvested even before the donor is really dead. This is not the fact. According to Wesley J. Smith, the organ procurement protocol, known as “nonheart beating cadaver donor,” removes organs from people who died from irreversible cardio/pulmonary arrest and not from people who are just clinically brain dead (Smith, Para, p. 1).
To conclude, it must be said that the use of cadavers in the study and research of medicine is essential to help the students understand the human body and its functions in a structured realistic manner. Transplants help thousands of people with faulty organs to get a new lease on life, and in this process, it is important to note that this does not come at the cost of another life, but only through the use of a cadaver kept functionally alive through technology. Hence, with respect to changing times, changing values, changing perspectives on life, and quality of life, one must learn to accept the use of cadavers in inevitable circumstances.
Organ donation is the removal of organs or tissues of the human body from a recently died person or from a living person for the sole purpose of transplanting. The people from whom the organs are removed are called donors. Numerically, dead donors are more than the living ones. Through a surgery, the organs and tissues are removed and then the incisions are closed.
Different countries have different laws which allow either the potential organ donor or his relatives to consent or dissent to the donation.
Organs and Tissues Which Can Be Donated
Organs that can be donated include the heart, intestines, kidneys, lungs, liver and pancreas. These are got from a brain-dead donor or a donor where the family has consent for donation after cardiac death, known as non-heart-beating donation. Tissues that can be donated include bones, Tendons, corneas; heart valves femoral veins, great saphenous veins, small saphenous veins, pericardium, skin grafts and the sclera. These tissues are only got from dead people. Part of the liver or pancreas and the kidney can be donated from living donors.
Recipient Protection
Though organ-related infections are rare, safety tests are conducted to ensure that the organ is not infected with a disease that could harm the recipient.
Organs from a person who has an active or recent case of cancer (except a brain tumor which has not spread or certain mild kinds of skin cancer) who has ever had a blood cancer or who has certain infections diseases including HIV and severe bacterial or fungal infections at the time of death are not accepted. Bodies and tissues of people with such conditions may be donated for lab research or education. It is only about 1% of people who die in hospitals who can donate organs. This is because most of these people die from infections cancer or organ failure. Donation of organs by HIV+ people to other HIV+ people under some circumstances has been proposed in some countries and in fact it has been passed into law in Illinois.
Legislations Regarding Organ Donation
The least restrictive legislation approach to donation if the donor has not explicitly dissented is the dissent solution. According to this solution, the donor has to explicitly dissent to donation during his lifetime. In another solution referred to as extended dissent solution, relatives may dissent in the event the potential donor has not consented. Most countries with consent solutions experience substantial organ shortages while most of the countries with dissent solutions have no waiting list or shortlist for donations. Although the Uniform Anatomical Gift Act standardizes rules among various states in the United States, the donor is required to make an affirmative statement during her or his life that she or he is willing to be an organ donor.
In the United Kingdom organ donation is voluntary and no consent is presumed.
People who wish to donate their organs after death can register in a national database called the Organ Donation Register. This database is available to all NHS hospitals. This helps them to determine whether someone was a donor or not when he or she dies. In case of a patient’s death, hospital staff may ask relatives if they would be willing to donate the organs or not.
Bioethical Issues in Organ Donation
Deontological issues
Some modern bioethicists disagree on the moral status of organ donation.
Groups like the Roma oppose it on religious grounds. However, most of the religions in the world support organ donation. They view it as a charitable act of great benefit to the community. Involuntary organ donation is made impossible by issues surrounding patient autonomy, living wills and guardianship. Philosophically, semantical issues surround the morality of organ donation. There is an ongoing debate on the meaning of life, death, human and body.
Jewish medical ethics regard organ donation as a charitable act but on condition that the donor must be dead before the removal of the organ and that the organ will be treated respectfully. Cloning which is used to produce organs with an identical genotype to the recipient is controversial. This happens especially when an entire person is brought into being with the sole purpose of being destroyed for organ procurement. The ethical issues involved with creating and killing a clone may outweigh its benefit.
Teleological issues
On utilitarian grounds, the organ donors are often impoverished and those that can afford black market organs are typically well-off. This makes those in need of organs be put on waiting lists for legal organs for indeterminate lengths of time. Since the demand for organs outweighs the supply it has given rise to a black market often referred to as transplant tourism. Some people say that those who can afford to buy the organs exploit those who are desperate enough to sell their organs. Others argue that the desperate should be allowed to sell their organs to improve their social status.
Political Issues
Adequate funding, strong political will, the existence of specialized training, care and facilities increase donation rates. Expensive legal definition of death would also go a long way in increasing the pool of eligible donors. Some political decisions such as the motorcycle helmet laws and drunk driving laws have unintentionally lowered the organ donation rates.
Work cited
Antonia, C. Noello, “Increasing Organ Donation” Journal of the American MedicalAssociation. 1992.
Ian, Ayers “Unequal Racial Access to Kidney Transplantation.” 46 Vand. L Rev 805 (1993).
Vernellia, Randall “Slavery, Segregation and Racism: Trusting the Health Care system Ain’t Always Easy! An African American Perspective on Bioethics” 15 St Louis V. Pub L. Rev. 191 (1996).
This is an immunological process of moving a section of a body part, tissue, or the whole organ from the donor to the recipient to save a life or enhance normal living and functioning of the body. Various types of transplantation exist such as Xenograft that involves the translation of tissue or organs between different animals that are not of the same species. The other kind of transplantation is the grafting of tissues and organs between members of the same species. In transplantation, one has to know the genetic makeup and similarity for effective grafting to occur, therefore isograft is carried out among the inbred species or identical twins.
Major histocompatibility complex
MHC is an immunological locus that controls the process of rejecting or accepting foreign particles, pathogens, or tissues in the body of the recipient. Major histocompatibility complex involves a complicated process of merging various tissues, organs, cells in the body for better functions of the body immune system. Therefore, MHC antigens can lead to a very strong and effective immune response and this is a vital procedure in determining the acceptance or the rejection of the grafted tissue, cells, or organs. This process is enhanced by two types of MHC i.e. MHC class1 and MHC class2 complex.
Introduction
In this world of science, some of the current undertakings involve organ transplantation. This process involves stern and great care in moving or transferring a section of an organ or a whole organ from the donor to the recipient. Sometimes a part of an organ may be transplanted from one side of the body to another on the same person; it is not a must that the transplantation may involve another person or donor.
The main purpose of transplantation is to save or replace the damaged part of the body or the organ that has failed to function properly. Mostly organ transplantation is a life-saving mechanism while tissue transplant can be done to enhance the normal existence of life or for aesthetic purposes. The major organs transplanted are sensitive organs that play a major role in human life and which cannot be substituted such as livers, hearts, kidneys, lungs even the skin, etc.
The process of organs transfusion cannot take place without proper understandings of how Major histocompatibility complex functions. This complex contains genes that immunologically control several antigens that determine the success of transplantation. These antigens can be divided into three major classes. This includes MHC class I, MHC class II, and MHC class III (Bochtler and Wahl, 2006). The MHC class I and MHC class II antigens are articulated on cells and tissues while the MHC class III antigens are represented on amino acids in serum and other body fluids such as C4, factor B, TNF. MHC class 1 and class 2 play major roles in transplantation.
Executive Discussion
Doctrines of Transplantation
The basic expectations of transplantation are that if the grafting is not done following the immunological know-how between the recipient and the donor, the graft won’t succeed. To avoid that failure, scientists have developed more competent transplantation by analyzing fully the major roles played by MHC class 1 and MHC class 2. This is because the immunocompetent recipient identifies and recognizes the foreign tissue or organ as antigens on the grafted body part. This provokes the immune system of the recipient to start and mount an immune response to fight the foreign tissue hence leading to a rejection www.jimmunol.org.
Therefore, mechanisms to confuse the immune system of the recipients to accept the foreign tissue as one of its own are some of the current undertakings to enhance successful transplantation. This is where the need to know the functions of MHC classes and how they are compatible with the immune system as a whole helps to solve the problem.
In this essence, immunologists have successfully studied the relationship between the MHC classes, immunoreactive T-cells, and different Immunoglobulins such as IgG, Ig M, Ig A, etc, and the whole lineage to the immune system. This is because if transplantation is done between the immunocompromised recipient and foreign lymphoid cells that are immunocompetent, the immunoreactive T-cells in the graft identifies and recognizes the foreign cells, therefore, treating them as antigens and in the process of immunological defense, the tissue is thoroughly damaged.
To avoid such failures immunologists have tried to study and have a better understanding as to how immunological mechanisms work, and by so doing, procedures to enhance graft survival have been initiated. Furthermore, scientists have tried to define and analyze fully how MHC antigens are bred or identified immunologically. Finally; immunologists have developed more effective and successful agents to immune systems such as immunosuppressive agents.
In the process of grafting and use of immunosuppressive agents the roles of MHC have been analyzed. MHC class II plays a major role in sensitive homeostatic proliferation and the increase of regulatory T cells. Liver transplantation can be carried out without the use of immunosuppressive agents. Therefore, the liver can be accepted spontaneously when it is transplanted between two species for example between B10 (KbAbEbDb) to C3H (KkAkEkDk) mouse. When it comes to the liver and heart, the two organs are rejected with time in C3H hosts after being desensitized with B10 skin grafts.
It is in the process of this study that other roles of MHC are realized. This involves MHC class 1 or class 2 that manifest its functions on the cell surfaces.
To ascertain the immunological investigation, further testing on mouse species to confirm the potential outcome was carried out. In the process, a skin graft from transgenic major histocompatibility complex class I (b2mmlUncbcr) gene of a knockout mouse was grafted onto an immature host two to three weeks before the whole organ was transplanted. Later it was discovered that when C3H recipients were allopresensitized with graft skin from class II deficient mice, the immune system mounted a fight against the foreign graft skin after some few days leading to its rejection (Epstein, RB, Bryant Thomas, ED, 2004 pg 209).
By comparing this to a liver graft, there is a contrast in that allopresensitization with skin from beta 2-m mutant; class I deficient mice did not considerably affect or influence the survival of either organ graft after which a. sensitization was conventional two weeks after skin grafting. This to some extent lasted for 11 weeks.
Measures to Enhance Graft Endurance
After knowing the effects of MHC classes and their relationship in the immunological context, it is of paramount importance to enhance graft survival by employing monitored procedures. This is one of the current procedures to enhance transplantation. In this context, immunologists have undertaken certain guidelines that can be relied upon when selecting donors and preparing the recipients before transplantation is done.
The most important guideline in donor selection is to identify the MHC classes between the host and the donor to know whether to apply immunosuppressive agents or a donor is an ideal person. Therefore, the MHC identity between the two must be known. In this case, grafts from human-leucocytes antigens between identical siblings are successful. Therefore, one should be able to match the human-leucocytes antigen D region. In this case, MHC function is essential (Lawrence B. and Susan, 1996).
Host preparation
Through advanced studies, the patient is thoroughly checked to confirm whether there are signs of hypersensitivity. In the process of transfusion, the recipient may get 2 to 5 transfusions of 110 to 200 ml blood from the donor between one to two weeks interval to observe any negative reactions in advance.
Immunosuppressant mechanisms
Immunologists have employed the use of Immunosuppressive therapy to the recipient. This is a vital procedure in allotransplantation. Some of the recent immunosuppressive agents are Atacrolimus, cyclosporine, and rapamycin. In immunological reactions, both FK506 and Cyclosporine A inhibit Interleukin-2 synthesis. This is again followed by Antigen-receptor binding. On the other hand, rapamycin distorts the signal transduction that follows Interleukin 2 – IL2 receptor interaction.
In the process, the three agents stop by blocking T cell proliferation as they try to immunological mount fight to the foreign tissues or organs. In some cases, chemicals are used to prevent the early rejection of a graft. This is achieved especially when immunologists employ the above-mentioned agents and do deep research on how they distort, interfere, or suppress the main functions of the cytokine profile. However, some natural killer cells (NK), interleukin hormones, and other related cytokines may trigger an inflammatory reaction around the grafted organ but this does not mean that the transfusion would not be successful. This is a mere indication of early but minor reactions as the recipient’s immune system gets prepared to accept and accommodate the newly replaced or grafted tissue, organ, etc.
The realized visible reaction is a result of MHC class functions and how this is manifested on the tissue or cell surfaces. However, if this would not be detected it means that the recipient’s immune system is not functioning properly. There might be a failure in the cytokine profile or the MHC classes do not match as expected. But this is a rare occurrence that is rectified. However, the cytokine profile that involves tumor necrosis factor-α is well manifested but is a good early indicator that immunologists have to be prepared to detect any malfunction that can lead to transfusion failure (Laurikka J.; Kuukasjarvi P.; Pehkonen E, 2006). This mostly occurs during blood transfusion whereby the serological typing and matching of the cells should be enhanced (Vriesendorp, Cache, Krumbacher, J., Albert, 1998- Page 209).
Conclusion
The overall mechanism and how the body’s immune system work is a complicated issue that needs to be analyzed critically. One has to understand the basic principles of the immunological reactions and the effects they can cause to the entire body system and the cytokines profile that results together with the antigen titer. The immunological reactions and the antigen titer can be used to determine the time of reaction. All these processes are related to MHC reactions and manifestation in the region of grafting. This is further reinforced by inflammatory reactions.
Due to understanding of the recipient versus graft-reaction, it is easier to detect the time of rejection because the time of reactions highly depends on how antigens of both the donor and the recipient differ. It is known that MHC antigens are the chief determinants in rejecting a graft. This is because there is immunological remembrance and secondary response in graft refusal. However, when the graft is rejected by a host, a second graft from the first donor, or another donor with similar histocompatibility antigens, would not be accepted in a much shorter time limit. This can highly save the consequences of failed graft.
References
Animal genetics and major histo-compatibility complex region of domesticated animal species. Web.
A journal on Pediatrics transfusion developments. Web.
Cristina R. Angel M., Ochoa M.C., Amelia M., Alfredo M.J. Gonzalez M (2008). Role of MHC class 1 and polymorphisms in bodyweight regulation. Volume 3, pg 31-41.
Epstein, RB, Bryant Thomas, ED, (2004 pg 209) Marrow grafts and leukocyte infusions selected and transfused by histo-compatibility typing, Oxford University Press.
Immunology journal by Bochtler and Wahl (2006), functional and adaptive CD4 T Cells in MHC Class II, 177(12): 8307 – 8314.
Immune gene variability (MHC). Web.
Jardet TS, Gorg, Brown, JH LJ, Urban, RG, Strominger, JL, and Wiley, JC, Stern (1998, pg 118) Nature, the three major dimensions and structures of Human class II histo-compatibility antigen (HLA-DR1).
Kuukasjarvi P.; Laurikka J.; Pehkonen E. (2006). Web.
LB Schnook and SJ Lamont, (2004 pp 245-67) Major Histo-compatibility Complex sites in domestic animal Species, CRC Press.
Lawrence B. Schnook, Susan J. Lamont (1996) The Major Histo-compatibility Complex. Web.
Major histo-compatibility and organ transfusion. Web.
MHC class II in severe homeostatic proliferation of regulatory T cells. Web.
MHC class II roles. Web.
Non-MHC transplantation antigens. Web.
Other roles of MHC classes. Web.
Susan J and Lawrence (1996) Major histo-compatibility complex, CRC Press.
Vaisse C., Lahlou N. Clement K., Pelloux V., Cassuto D., Gourmelen M., Dina C., Chambaz J., Bougneres P., Lebouc Y., Froguel P., Guy-Grand (1998) obesity and pituitary dysfunction after mutation, Oxford University Press.
Organ transplantation is a very unique type of operation;
Involves the transplantation of organs of living or deceased donors;
Patients outnumber donors;
Over 120,000 patients in the US alone need organ transplants (Pillay et al., 2014).
Organ transplantation is an operation that involves transplanting a vital or essential organ from a living or a recently-deceased person to a patient in need. It is a very difficult operation that involves significant risks for both donors and patients, as there are chances of the body rejecting the organ. Because of the costs and extreme scarcity of organ transplants, the operation is suggested as a last resort only. The demand for organs outpaces the supply by a large margin, and there are 120,000 patients in the US alone waiting for an organ transplant (Pillay et al., 2014). The purpose of this presentation is to provide an overview of organ transplantation.
Objectives of the Presentation
What organs are typically replaced?
Conditions that lead to organ transplantation.
Signs and symptoms of organ failure.
Treatments before and after transplantation.
Nursing interventions.
By the end of this presentations, the students would be provided with information about organ transplantation. The review will outline the organs that are commonly being transplanted, cite the various conditions that lead to organ transplantation as well as the common signs and symptoms of organ failure, and elaborate on how the patients are treated before and after the operation. Next, several nursing interventions aimed at improving success rates of the transplantation would be discussed.
Organs Typically Replaced
Heart – life-support organ;
Intestine – essential organ;
Kidney – essential organ;
Liver – life-support organ;
Lung – life-support organ;
Pancreas – essential organ (UNOS, 2018).
The main organs typically involved in transplantation can be divided into two groups (UNOS, 2018):
Essential organs;
Life support organs.
The difference between them lies in the urgency of replacement. A person with a failing kidney can survive on one kidney alone for a period of time. A person experiencing a heart failure could die within 10 minutes after the cardiac arrest. Heart, lungs, and liver belong to life support organs, whereas the intestine, pancreas, and kidneys are considered essential organs for proper body functioning. Other organs may not be eligible to transplantation due to various complications associated with the operation. The brain, for obvious reasons, cannot be transplanted. Tissue transplantation, on the other hand, is much cheaper and safer, but does not offer a definitive solution.
Conditions that Lead to Organ Transplantation
Cardiomyopathy;
Cirrhosis;
COPD;
Diabetes;
Polycystic kidneys;
Cystic fibrosis;
Cancer (of all kinds) (UNOS, n.d.).
The most common diseases that lead to organ transplantation are those that have the potential to damage and leave the organs unusable. These diseases include cardiomyopathy (affects the heart’s muscles and its ability to pump blood), cirrhosis (scarring of the liver due to various comorbidities), COPD (affects the airways and air sacks within lungs), diabetes (affects pancreas and organs that require insulin), polycystic kidneys (cysts interfere with kidney functions), and cystic fibrosis (affects respiratory systems, stomach, kidneys, and pancreas) (UNOS, n.d.). Cancer can affect any organ in the body, and at later stages may require removal to prevent the disease from spreading.
Signs and Symptoms of Organ Failure
Shortness of breath (lungs);
Decreased urinal output (kidneys);
Fluid retention (kidneys, liver);
Irregular heartbeat, murmurs, tremors (heart);
Fever and upper abdominal pain (pancreas);
Lower abdominal pain (liver);
Bloating and malabsorbtion (intestine) (Hanson et al., 2015).
There are numerous symptoms that may indicate potential organ failure. Typically, the symptoms are directly associated with the function the organ plays in the body (Hanson et al., 2015). If lungs are malfunctioning to the point of suffering a failure, the person will experience chest pains and a shortness of breath. Irregular heartbeat rate, low blood pressure, and associated symptoms can indicate that the heart is about to give up. However, these symptoms are also common in many other diseases, making it difficult to predict a potential organ failure. For example, bloating and malabsorbtion, which are among the first symptoms of intestinal failure, are also associated with diarrhea (Hanson et al., 2015).
Treatments Before and After Transplantation
Before transplantation (UNOS, 2018):
Evaluation;
Matching and the waitlist;
Psychological and medical preparation.
After transplantation (“Managing your health,” n.d.):
Anti-rejection medications;
Dieting and exercise;
Restrictions, medical checks, medication checks.
Medical preparations before the transplantation include evaluation and compatibility with potential donors as well as psychological and medical procedures to prepare the customer for the procedure. Some transplants, especially heart transplant, are very taxing on the body, meaning that some patients might not even survive the operation (UNOS, 2018). Realizing the risks and maintaining a healthy way of life prior to the procedure are important parts of the preparation. After the operation is successful, the patient is required to take anti-rejection medications, maintain a healthy way of life to prevent any complications, and report frequently to the doctor’s office, in order to spot any possible signs of organ rejection (“Managing your health,” n.d.). Patient agency is an important factor in healthcare, as the doctors cannot supervise the patient at all times once he or she had left the facility.
Nursing Interventions
Educational: Teach the patients about medication management (Hanson et al., 2015).
Psychological: Help cope with the aftermath of the operation (Pillay et al., 2014).
Surgical: Help reduce the negative consequences of transplantation (Frost et al., 2016).
Typically, patients are taught about the consequences of living with a transplant before and after the operation, before they are discharged from the hospital. Hanson et al. (2015) state that patient education and periodical reminders are crucial in decreasing organ rejection rates because of poor medication intake. Pillay et al. (2014) have found that transplant patients are in need of psychological interventions to reduce the chances of depression, stress, and anxiety associated with the treatment. Lastly, the use of chlorhexidine pre-wash has been proven to reduce operational infection rates (Frost et al., 2016). Promoting these measures would help improve the quality of care in transplant patients and increase the quality of life in the long-term perspective.
Conclusions
Organ transplantation is an expensive and dangerous operation.
Many diseases can cause partial or complete organ failure.
Nursing interventions can improve coping and success rates.
Advocacy and information campaigns are important.
Until humanity masters the technology of organ regrowth, organ donation will remain to be the primary source for transplantation. The possibility for rejection and the shrinking number of available organs remain the primary causes for why this operation is a rarely-available option. By helping to prepare the patients to the consequences of the procedure as well as perfecting and refining the surgical standards in any particular hospital, nurses can improve patient outcomes in the long run. Informing the medical specialists and the general population about the importance of the procedure and the thousands of lives that could be saved can improve donor numbers and contribute to growing the organ bank.
References
Frost, S. A., Alogso, M.-C., Metcalfe, L., Lynch, J. M., Hunt, L., Sanghavi, R., … Hillman, K. M. (2016). Chlorhexidine bathing and health care-associated infections among adult intensive care patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Critical Care, 20(1), 1-6.
Hanson, C. S., Chadban, S. J., Chapman, J. R., Craig, J. C., Wong, G., Ralph, A. F., & Tong, A. (2015). The expectations and attitudes of patients with chronic kidney disease toward living kidney donor transplantation: A thematic synthesis of qualitative studies. Transplantation, 99(3), 540-554.
Pillay, B., Lee, S. J., Katona, L., De Bono, S., Burney, S., & Avery, S. (2014). A prospective study of the relationship between sense of coherence, depression, anxiety, and quality of life of haematopoietic stem cell transplant patients over time. Psycho-Oncology, 24(2), 220-227.
Solid organ transplantation is an extremely difficult and severe process that requires proper preparation and consideration of an extended number of factors. Among other important steps, ABO typing plays an important role in solid organ transplantation matching and success for a solid organ transplant. As noticed by Chung et al. (2022), “to avoid donor organ rejection or hemolytic transfusion reactions, it is important to select the appropriate ABO group for blood components” (p. 105). Blood typing aims to ensure that the recipient’s and the potential donor’s blood are compatible (Rydberg, 2001). Since 1989, “ABO-incompatible liver transplantations have been performed mainly in emergency cases and the results have generally been inferior to ABO-compatible grafts” (Rydberg, 2001, p. 325). Nowadays, the number of successful ABO-incompatible solid organ transplantations is increasing, and it is possible to suggest that blood typing will not be necessary for transplantations in the nearest future (Chung et al., 2022). ABO typing is still required to increase the chances of success in solid organ matching and transplantation.
Komal, A., Noreen, M., Akhtar, J., Imran, M., Jamal, M., Atif, M., Khan, J., Roman, M., Haq, F. U., Aftab, U., Ghaffar, A., & Waheed, Y. (2021). Analyses of ABO blood groups with susceptibility and symptomatic variations of COVID‐19 infection, a questionnaire‐based survey. Apmis, 129(10), 579-586.
Since the coronavirus outbreak, researchers have tried to determine the various factors that may either increase or lower people’s susceptibility to COVID-19 infection. Apparently, one such factor is ABO blood groups – it is noted that they are associated with the severity of the course of the virus and the level of mortality from it (Komal et al., 2021). The article provides non-medical and non-scientific audiences with some valuable information. The authors state that individuals with O and B blood groups have lower chances of getting infected, while the AB and A blood group persons “are most likely to get COVID-19 infection” (Komal et al., 2021, p. 586). Consequently, it is recommended that people with blood groups A and AB always use their personal protection and strengthen their immunity.
References
Chung, Y., Ko, D. H., Lim, J., Kim, K. H., & Kim, H. (2022). Choice of ABO group for blood component transfusion in ABO-incompatible solid organ transplantation: A questionnaire survey in Korea and guideline proposal. Annals of Laboratory Medicine, 42(1), 105-109.
Komal, A., Noreen, M., Akhtar, J., Imran, M., Jamal, M., Atif, M., Khan, J., Roman, M., Haq, F. U., Aftab, U., Ghaffar, A., & Waheed, Y. (2021). Analyses of ABO blood groups with susceptibility and symptomatic variations of COVID‐19 infection, a questionnaire‐based survey. Apmis, 129(10), 579-586.
Rydberg, L. (2001). ABO‐incompatibility in solid organ transplantation. Transfusion Medicine, 11(4), 325-342.
Organ transplantation is a surgical practice in which a functional organ is implanted to substitute a damaged one (W.H.O, 2012). The vital organs that can be transplanted include the heart, livers, kidneys and lungs. The existence of diabetes, lupus and polycystic kidney illness may necessitate the need for kidney transplantation. Cirrhosis may necessitate the need for liver transplantation. Heart transplantation may be done due to coronary vein illnesses or heart malfunction. Finally, cystic fibrosis may make doctors recommend lung transplantation surgery. Health professionals can also transplant bones, the skin and other tissues and tendons. The practice developed in the early 20th century and has undergone significant transformations. Notably, organ transplantation has saved many lives over the years.
Patients may undergo organ transplantation due to a number of reasons. The main causes for the need for organ transplantation are birth defects, trauma and disease. Transplants are done after other procedures of medical intervention have proved to be inefficient. Usually, medical practitioners recommend organ transplantation only when it is essential (W.H.O, 2012). It involves complicated procedures, lengthy recovery periods and lifestyle changes. Many countries store data of all individuals in the country who have to undergo organ transplantation procedures. This is done to ease the identification of matches. Patients are normally ranked. Nevertheless, the time that one has spent waiting for a match is not given priority since another person may need an organ urgently.
Health professionals obtain organs for transplantation purposes from two sources namely living donors and corpses. However, corpses are the prime sources of transplant organs. People can offer their liver, kidney, bone marrow and so on to other individuals, mainly their family members, to save their lives. Recipients of organs must take certain drugs to contain their immune system before organ transplantation procedures. This is vital since the risk of rejection of organs must be avoided or reduced. In addition, doctors conduct various medical tests to examine the chances of success. Certain infections, alcohol abuse, heart diseases and certain health problems can adversely affect the outcome of organ transplantation surgeries (Ben-David, 2005). Tissue and blood tests must also be performed before organ transplantation. This reduces the possibility of rejection of implanted organs.
The recovery period after an organ-transplantation procedure varies from one person to another. A patient can stay for a few weeks in a hospital after a transplantation procedure while another patient may take months to recover. Furthermore, doctors may retain a patient in a hospital for a long time to monitor the possibility of rejection. Patients have to adjust their lifestyle behaviours after they undergo organ transplantation surgery. Moreover, they may have to adjust their dietary patterns to contain fresh organs. Adjustment in lifestyle and dietary patterns are necessary to enable gradual and balanced recovery (Shelton, 2001). Finally, patients should seek the services of psychiatrists or psychologists before and after an organ transplantation surgery (Siegel, Alvaro & Claremont Symposium on Applied Social Psychology, 2010).
Advantages of Organ Transplantation
The human body is vulnerable to many illnesses that lead to damage of vital organs. Drugs, certain chemical compounds and heavy metals can also damage organs. However, some of the organs in the body perform critical roles that when they are damaged, they have to be replaced. The failure of such vital organs can lead to the death of a patient. This brings the first advantage of organ transplantation. Organ transplantation saves the lives of many individuals worldwide. The practice offers patients with certain organ failures a second chance to live high-quality life (Francis, 2011). This is the most prominent advantage of organ transplantation. It is the common reason why many people often opt to donate their organs to other people. A healthy person can donate a non-vital organ to another individual who needs it to live. An organ like a kidney plays an essential role in a person’s life. Additionally, an individual can survive with only one kidney. However, survival without a kidney is impossible. Hence, transplantation of a kidney into a person who has had total kidney failure saves the life of the patient who has had kidney malfunction. Moreover, people who have received organs from donors live a longer life. This was not possible before the development of organ transplantation as a medical procedure.
The other advantage of organ transplantation is that it improves the quality of life of a patient. Organ transplantation improves the quality of patients’ lives since it reduces or eliminates dependency and hospitalization costs (Thomas, 2011). Organ damage leads to frequent hospitalization of individuals. Furthermore, the treatment of illnesses related to organ failure attracts enormous hospital bills. However, organ transplantation is cheaper compared to management of a medical condition through frequent hospitalization. Management of a condition like a kidney failure is expensive compared to kidney transplantation in the long term. Management of kidney failure requires that a patient goes through dialysis. However, dialysis is expensive and can result in a reduction of quality of life. Organ transplantation also improves patients’ quality of life through the elimination of dependency. People with critical health conditions that arise due to organ failure usually depend on other people. However, through organ transplantation, patients with such critical conditions can go back to normal life without being dependent on others. An individual who cannot see due to damage to some eye tissues has to depend on others for mobility. However, transplantation of the damaged eye tissues enables the individual to eliminate the dependency on others. The transplantation enables the person to see again and move freely without dependency. Hence, organ transplantation improves the quality of life of people.
The other notable advantage of organ transplantation is that it leads to further development of science. Organ transplantation relates to medical research that seeks to improve the medical conditions of individuals. Medical practitioners learn a lot when they undertake organ transplantation procedures.
Disadvantages of Organ Transplantation
Despite the advantages that organ transplantation has, there are certain disadvantages. The most notable disadvantage of organ transplantation is the possible health risks involved. Organ transplantation requires individuals to undergo a medical operation. However, operations or surgeries have medical risks that include disease or infection, surgical mistakes and death (Thomas, 2011). Hence, an individual who has decided to donate an organ to be transplanted into another person exposes himself or herself to these risks. Nevertheless, organ transplantation does not consider future health problems that a person may experience. Living donors can donate a lung, kidney, pancreas, and part of the liver. However, there is no assurance that the organ that remains after donation will remain in a healthy state. Hence, it is possible for an individual to develop a condition that affects the other organ that remained after organ donation. The donor will end up in the situation that the recipient of his organ was in previously.
Rejection of a donated organ is also another disadvantage of organ transplantation. An individual can donate an organ to save the life of a friend or family member. However, the body of the recipient may reject the organ that the donor has provided. This may demoralize the donor of the organ. The donor may feel that he has lost a part of his body for nothing. The donor may feel that he has risked his life and experienced pain without any positive outcome. Furthermore, organ rejection forces the recipient to take medications that counter the effects of rejection. A recipient whose body has rejected a donated organ must take drugs that counter organ rejection for the rest of his life.
The other disadvantage of organ transplantation is that it does not consider the political, social or religious orientation of the donors of organs. This mainly happens when the donor is a corpse. The donor, who is dead, or his family cannot determine or decide who receives the organs that he has donated (Price, 2000). hus, the organs can be donated to patients who have, unlike spiritual or political beliefs. The organs may be donated to patients who the donor or his family considers unworthy. Hence, donors must view all individuals or recipients of donated organs as being equal (Cohen, 2012).
How Islam Views Organ Transplantation
Organ transplantation has been an issue that many religious scholars have debated frequently. More specifically, Muslims view organ transplantation differently. Many Muslims view organ transplantation as impermissible. However, contemporary Muslim scholars view it as permissible due to the advantages that it has.
Some Muslims deem organ transplantation impermissible since the negative effects that it has may surpass the potential benefits. They support their views with various arguments. According to Islam, Allah honours the human body. Hence, the body organs of all humans are sacred. Allah does not expect anybody to interfere with the body organs of another person. Therefore, it is unlawful to gain from an organ of another person (Khaja, 2003). Moreover, Allah allows humans to profit from flora and fauna. However, obtaining benefits from human organs place humans in the same class as plants and animals.
Sharia laws prohibit the deformation and disfigurement of human bodies since human bodies are divinely created (Khaja, 2003). Sharia laws are rules that guide Muslims. However, organ transplantation involves the disfigurement of human bodies. Hence, it contradicts the expectations of Sharia laws. According to Islamic beliefs, individuals do not own their bodies. Instead, human bodies are trusting that Allah has given individuals. Therefore, it is impermissible to offer a body part to another person.
Contemporary Muslim scholars view organ transplantation as permissible subject to definite circumstances. According to these scholars, Islamic education teaches Muslims that unlawful activities may be necessary under extreme circumstances (Mufti, 2012). Under such extreme circumstances, Sharia prohibitions may be ignored. Notably, a medical condition that threatens the life of an individual is considered an extreme condition. Hence, if a person’s life can be saved through organ transplantation, then Sharia laws can be waived.
Additionally, contemporary Muslim scholars argue that modern organ transplantation procedures do not violate human sanctity. Human bodies are valued and respected whether they are alive or lifeless. Islam ordered that the body must be honoured (Mufti, 2012). Nonetheless, it did not prescribe how the body is dishonoured. Hence, it is possible to deem contemporary organ transplantation practices as honouring the human body. Transplantation procedures are done in a respectful manner (Rispler-Ḥayyîm, 1993). Secondly, under certain conditions, Sharia ignores the sanctity of the human body especially in case organ transplantation results in a person’s life being saved.
Furthermore, contemporary Muslim scholars argue that even though the body does not belong to an individual, Allah permits an individual to use his body for a good course. These scholars compare the human body and wealth. Allah allows people to use the wealth that He has given them correctly. Wealth is a gift that Allah gives people. In the same manner, the body is a gift that can be used correctly through organ donation to save another person’s life.
Finally, scholars who argue against organ transplantation do not argue against blood transfusion. Almost all Muslim scholars argue that blood transfusion and donation are permissible in extreme circumstances. Consequently, organ transplantation should also be permissible (Mufti, 2012). Organ transplantation through modern surgical procedures ensures that an individual’s body is not mutilated. Based on this observation, Muslims can donate body organs to save other people’s lives.
Conclusions
Reversal or treatment of organ failure is impossible. Organ failure results in many problems and the best option is to undergo organ transplantation surgery. Organ transplantation has numerous benefits and disadvantages. However, the benefits are greater than the disadvantages. The existence of numerous benefits also makes contemporary Muslim scholars view organ transplantation as a permissible medical procedure.
References
Ben-David, B. (2005). Organ donation and transplantation: Body organs as an exchangeable socio-cultural resource. Connecticut: Praeger Publishers.
Cohen, E. (2012). Organ Transplantation: Defining the Ethical and Policy Issues. Web.
Francis, L. (2011). Benefits of Organ Donation. Web.
