Trait leadership theory states that human beings have some inborn leadership traits; what makes the difference among leaders is the particular strength in an individual as well as how well someone uses his leadership skills and power; however, the theory supports improvements of the skills (Stephen 46).
Leader and manager
A leader is a person who creates an environment that enables him guides others toward a common goal by example; he/she offers his team members a chance to give their views and participate in decision-making (Crother-Laurin 4).
A manager is a person who issues instructions and controls the procedure to follow a certain way already predetermined, participation of subordinates in decision-making is minimal (Hannay 1-12).
What is the difference under the trait theory approach between manager and leader in terms of attitudes towards work?
The difference between leaders and managers is minimal however, it appears in how they handle situations and the attitude they hold for their works; managers manage tasks, thus he offers instructions, and requires them handled whereas leaders manage people, this means that he involves people in business decisions (DeRue, Scott and Susan 647-653). Managers attitude is that tasks must be accomplished irrespective of the way; but leaders have the attitude that the goals should be attained after the people are well managed and guided (Muller, MacLean and Biggs 23).
Richard Branson is a leader, has a positive attitude towards work, and respects the fact that the attainment of his corporate goals and objectives can be attained through proper people management; he involves his subordinates in decision-making. Other than involving staff, the leader has a program called Virgin Unite staff, where he meets with staff from different parts of the world to discuss issues of the company and get their views on the best strategies to remain competitive.
According to the companys philosophy, the company is referred to as the virgin family; it is a hub of consultation and a favorable environment for employees growth and talent development. The above illustrations are different from the roles that a manager would play which would have involved less staff involvement (Virgin Company Official Website).
Works Cited
Crother-Laurin, Cyndi. Effective Teams: A Symptom of Healthy Leadership. The Journal for Quality and Participation 29.3. (2006): 4.
DeRue, D. Scott, and Susan J. Ashford. Who Will Lead and Who Will Follow? a Social Process of Leadership Identity Construction in Organizations. Academy of Management Review 35.4 (2010): 627-647.
Hannay, Maureen. The Cross-Cultural Leader: The Application of Servant Leadership Theory in the International Context. Journal of International Business & Cultural Studies 1.(2009): 1-12.
Muller, Juanita, MacLean Rowena, and Biggs Herbert. The impact of a supportive leadership program in a policing organization from the participants perspective. Work 32.1(2009): 69-79.
Stephen, Humphrey, Et Al. Trait and Behavioral Theories of Leadership: An Integration and Meta-Analytic Test of Their Relative Validity. Personnel Psychology 64.1 (2011): 7-52. Print.
Virgin Company Official Website. Virgin Company, 2011. Web.
To start off the topic, I would like to distinguish between the two theories to make their meanings clear.
Self Concept Theory
As the name suggests, the self concept theory refers to the person himself. It is an assessment of the person in his own eyes. We all know ourselves better than anyone else. This is because we have spent the most time with ourselves than with anyone else. This makes us develop an assessment of ourselves according to our exposure to the environment (Craig & Baucum, 2002). This is why our self assessment keeps on changing over time with regard to the intensity of our experiences. We know which things we can and cannot do. Self concept theory therefore focuses on the inside judgments about the person himself, by which he can predict his own behavior. This, in a nutshell, is the self concept theory.
Trait Theory
The trait theory is more commonly focused on personality of the person. Our personality is made up of the thousands of traits which we possess, traits which form our behavior (Miller, 1993). This suggests that the traits which we form according to our experiences and habits, lead toward making our personality. Trait theory therefore focuses on the outside portrayal of the person, the behavior others see and can predict in the person. It can be explained as how others see us; in what light others see us at a given point in time. This was a very concise explanation of trait theory.
Now I will look at how we can apply these two theories in our life to benefit our career decisions.
Theories with Regard to Occupational Choice
In order to make a career decision, we need to have an accurate judgment of ourselves. This makes it vital that we have complete understanding of who we are (self concept) and how others see us (trait theory). To be successful, we need to keep as small a gap between who we are and how we portray ourselves because it reduces complications in our life. It is also vital in the success of our career. This is because to be satisfied with a job we need to be internally satisfied (self concept) but in order to perform the job well we need to have the personality to match the job’ requirements (trait theory) (Miller, 1993). Blending of these two theories is the easiest thing to do when faced with the choice of career decision making. Apart from this, we need to keep assessing ourselves after small intervals of time or we will suddenly find ourselves in an identity crisis which will lead us to mistrust in our own judgment.
A perfect example can be of a salesman. An introvert can never be a sales man. This is because inside he believes he has poor social and interpersonal skills and his traits match his self assessment, that he doesn’t go out with friends very much. But the job requires people with strong interpersonal skills. This means that being a salesman is a bad career choice for this person.
Works Cited
Craig G. J. & Baucum, D. Human Development. Prentice Hall, 2002.
Miller, P. H. Theories of developmental psychology. W.H. Freeman, 1993.
The study of trait theories is a branch of psychology that essentially is the study of human behaviour. The point of focus is the ascertainment or the measurement of human traits. By traits, it is meant the emotional predisposition of a person, the thought processes of the same, and his or her habitual patterns. From this, there has been the emergence of different schools of thought that have tried categorizing and explaining people according to their types of behaviour by the adoption of scientific approaches. One of the most common scientific methodologies is the use of statistics in the field of psychology to classify behaviours. Examples of the schools of thought that have come up include the Three-Factor Model that was put across by Eysenck. Eysenck lists the three main factors in human traits and behaviour as extroversion, neuroticism and psychoticism (Coleman, 1994 pp. 99).
Alongside the Eysenck school of thought is the Five-Factor Model which lists and explains the factors that determine human behaviours as being; openness, agreeableness, extroversion, neuroticism and conscientiousness. However, in the field of the study of human traits and behaviour, all these factors must be used to distinguish and predict human patterns of behaviour.
There is also the Trait theory and other approaches that have been developed and accepted as the conventional ways of analyzing human traits and behavioural patterns. Some of these approaches include phenomenology, personal contract, psychodynamics, person-centred, and behaviourism. This paper will however streamline its scope of analysis to Trait theory and behaviourism approach in order to; assess personality, account for the extent to which these approaches can be said to truly guide the development of the human person from the primordial state of childhood to that of adulthood, in relation to what can be considered as normal or abnormal behaviour.
Trait theory
The trait theory is mainly an approach that is normally common to the professional world than to the psychological analysts. Although this theory was developed earlier, its development and fame actualized in 1947, following the work of Stogdill who took to elaborating and refining the concept, in that same year. The theory posits that people inherit traits or characteristics, this theory having been built on extensive researches on leadership, with the aspect of psychology heavily in view. To this effect, the theory postulates that there are particular traits that are suited for leadership, while others are not. Therefore, individuals who display good leadership do so because they have a combination of the required traits in their repository. Much focus is placed on the assumption that if the traces of these leadership qualities are identifiable in an individual, then this individual could also make a good leader (Hastie and Dawes, 2001 pp. 109).
Some of the traits that are portrayed by the person with leadership qualities are discussed forthwith. First and foremost, the individual displays ability to adapt to situations. This enables the individual to be able to perform under any given circumstances and under varying degrees of pressure. The individual also possesses consciousness to the social surroundings, a high-level ambition and an innate goal-oriented composure. Apart from being assertive and domineering, the individual in mind is also cooperative and able to accommodate other people’s views and opinions. The trait theory also distinguishes the naturally born leader as one with a high propensity to being decisive when it comes to decision making. More to these qualities, the naturally born leader individual is always dependable, and trustworthy. The Trait theory divulges that the natural-born leader is inherently born with huge activity levels and a very strong virtue of resilience (or persistence).
Conversely, the naturally born leader individual displays naturally, the ability to tolerate stress and the willingness to take on the responsibility without being cajoled. A naturally born leader completes this rubric by exhibiting a striking balance between self-confidence and modesty.
As far as the skills are concerned, the naturally born leader must be intelligent, creative and imaginative, conceptually gifted, tactful, knowledgeable, a great team player, persuasive, social, highly cultured, and fluent. Next to these examples of skills, the naturally born leader must have fluency in speech and sound administrative skills which can be evidently spotted by the individual being organized (Pervin, 1990 pp. 76).
Trait theory on childhood development and adulthood
Trait theory posits that these traits are encoded within the DNA structure of the individual, and therefore, children are born with these traits embedded in them, as opposed to being acquired for instance, through learning (Gergen and Gergen, 1992 pp. 120). It is the skills that can be inculcated or enhanced within an individual, and not the traits. It is on this premise that the traits are expected by the trait theorist not to atrophy with age. On the contrary, these traits are expected to be stable, starting from childhood right through into adulthood.
Trait theory continues that because of the above premise, children exhibit leadership traits at an early age, especially in the classroom situation. Children with these traits will often demand that there be silence in a noisy classroom on the teacher being absent. While this is taken by the trait theory proponents as the epitome of the ability to stand alone against the majority, yet the theorists admit that this is the ingredient that catalyzes an attenuation of social life to the naturally born leader. This is further compounded by the fact that the natural-born leader is always goal-oriented (Hilgard and Atkinson, 1997 pp 56).
The proponents of this theory such as Stogdill postulate that naturally born leaders become less reliant on parents or guardians at an early age, compared to their counterparts who do not have these leadership qualities. A high level of participatory ability in the child is easily identifiable in the child at an early age in the classroom setting. Trait theorists maintain that naturally born leaders do not only heavily participate in academic matters, but also interact freely with both the lecturer and the student fraternity.
Strengths of Traits theory
This theory gets its strength from the fact that not all people can be leaders. While on the one hand, this is partly because leadership positions are scarce, the same is chiefly true on the other hand that these leadership qualities are not universal ( not everyone possesses them ). This is why some individuals make it in an interview while others do not (Messerman, 1996 pp.203).
A close analysis of leadership and leadership studies also reveal the fact that almost all leaders possess some form of uniqueness in the sense that they, exhibit some personality traits, unlike their counterparts who do not have these qualities. This further vindicates this theory. Another strength of this theory is shown in the fact that there are individuals who have made good leaders without having gone to school. This bolsters the claim by this body of theorists that leadership traits are genetically inherited and not acquired through artificial impartation.
Weaknesses of the Traits theory
This theory negated from the beginning, the interaction factor. The interaction factor refers to the relation between an individual’s personality and the context of the situation within which the individual is being examined for the traits. For instance, an orphaned child who is seldom late for school cannot be dismissed as not having leadership qualities in comparison to a child with all the privileges at his or her disposal. In a nutshell, people, irrespective of the essence of their personality behave differently under specific circumstances. It is only in the second half of the 20th century that upon noticing this pitfall, that the trait theorists integrated this theory with the Interactionist model.
The trait theory also negates the fact that different communities have different leadership protocols and expectations. For instance, the pre-colonial African societies entertained authoritarian ( in a domineering sense ) types of leadership and not the consultative type. Additionally, anthropologists say that it is highly debatable if an individual can be in possession of all these traits.
Behaviourism
As a theory, behaviourism which was also known as classical conditioning was put across by John Watson and B. F. Skinner. The theory is mainly concerned with the analysis of reflexes and stimulus-response associations. Skinner and John Watson postulated that an individual’s mental state could be analyzed by looking at his or her behaviour, or by analyzing a predictable way in which a person acts(McConnell, 1996 pp. 100).
Behaviourism as a theory continues that specific types of stimuli will elicit responses that are specific, and that a greater number of responses are triggered by the degree of the preponderance of the stimuli. If the stimuli are less preponderant, then, likewise, the number of responses that will be produced will be less. However, to be able to accrue more specific predictions on an individual’s behaviour or traits, then the stimuli must be those that have a specific association attached to them. For instance, if there is a situation whereby, two people are presented in the streets as having been stranded and therefore, needing help from a group of people who have already attained old age, varying responses will be realized depending on the perceptions about the two. One person is presented as wearing priestly vestments whereas his counterparts are presented as spotting dreadlocks. The former is likely to elicit public sympathy compared to his counterpart in dreadlocks.
Should the degree or number of stimuli be enhanced so that the supposed priest is presented in the priestly garments as before, only that this time, he is bare feet, with his clothes tattered and smeared with blood stains, the same is likely to obtain far much sympathy in comparison to his counterpart spotting dreadlocks.
Behaviourists explain the above phenomenon by stating that this type of observation is realized due to the fact that the general public, especially the old aged, highly associate the priest with the office of the priesthood and the punctilious code of ethics that go with the priesthood. For instance, the priest will normally have been taken as being honest, holy, spiritually pious, and therefore telling the truth. On the other hand, his counterpart spotting dreadlocks will have his requests being deemed as not being lucid. The above situation will be due to association. The public can associate the stimuli with holiness, ( as touching on the priest), or hooliganism (as touching on the dreadlocked man).
This type of situation is further propelled by the fact that this type of group is old age. Elderly people generally are more reserved and apprehensive towards new trends such as the spotting of dreadlocks. In addition to this, this type of group is also religious and therefore can easily associate the supposed priest with spirituality. Again, the addition in the number of stimuli ( for instance, by further presenting the priest as barefooted and bloodstained ) elicited more predictable responses.
All the above situations exist to underscore the proposition of the behaviourists that stimuli with highly supporting facts elicit responses that have increased agreements. The overall standpoint of behaviourism theory is that all forms of behaviours are predictable, based on the triggering of specific stimuli, due to the concise logic of a given situation (Rodgers and McIntyre, 1993 pp. 105).
Behaviourism, childhood development and adulthood
Many changes in an individual’s life occur during childhood and adolescence- of which the latter remains as the most dramatic. All the same, behaviourists posit that all the developments that take place in a child’s life ( for instance, when the child begins to sit, crawl, stand, walk and talk) are induced by the stimuli around them. The stimuli could be the environmental developments around them, which they seek to the ape. The aping of these codes of human behaviours are taken by behaviourists as a response. It is on this premise that behaviourists maintain that all childhood developments like all human behaviour are predictable. The same case is taken to be true by this school of thought concerning the developments in adolescence.
To bolster their claim, behaviourists divulge that the prospects of an individual such as intelligence, strength or weakness, shyness, among others are factors that have been induced (and therefore considered as stimuli) since no one can predict them at birth, and also because they can also be rectified through the application of other forms of stimuli (Scheffler, 1989 pp. 75). To this effect, any action to reverse an undesired situation, for instance through extra learning, exercising and self-development are all forms of response. Therefore, behaviourists see adulthood as a summation of the stimuli-response processes throughout one’s life.
Strengths of behaviourism
Behaviourism as a theory finds strength in the fact that all areas of life are characterized by change (responses) as the dominant theme. All changes on the other hand are also triggered by antecedent factors (stimuli). All people can decide to change for the better (or even worse ) depending on the type of stimuli. It is on this backdrop that motivational talks are found to be effective and lucid.
Weaknesses of behaviourism as a theory
Behaviourism as a theory fails to take into account the fact that not all forms of responses can be predicted due to the fact that they can be suppressed, to suit certain occasions. For instance, an adolescent subject to intense pain may not necessarily cry out to ward off embarrassment. Seasoned criminals also know how to modify their behaviour to escape police detection.
As far as the development of a person is concerned, especially during childhood, not all changes (responses) can be realized due to the fact that some stimuli are gene enabled. Therefore, gene enabled factors of stimuli cannot be extirpated by the application of corrective measures (response). For instance, there is no way dwarfism or haemophilia can be reversed if one has been born with either of these.
Conclusion
The study of psychology to predict human behaviour has given out a lot of benefits to humankind. For instance, psychology is now being used to carry out criminology, and speech therapy. In addition to this, psychology has enabled teachers and parents to deal with children of different types (for instance, the exceptionally gifted, the normal, the slow learners, and the retarded). This means that psychology is helping brighten the world’s future prospects since disabled children can now be assisted, while those that are exceptionally gifted can have their talents nurtured.
References
Coleman, C. J. (1994). Modern life and abnormal psychology. Michigan: Scott, Foresman.
Gergen, J. K. and Gergen, M. M. (1992). A look into social psychology. Michigan: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Hastie, R. and Dawes, M. R. (2001). Psychology and judgment: rational choices. New York: SAGE.
Hilgard, R. E. and Atkinson, C. R. (1997). An introduction to psychology. Michigan: Harcourt, Brace and World.
Messerman, J. H. (1996). The principles of dynamic psychiatry: an integrative approach. Michigan: WB Sanders.
McConnell, J.V. (1996). A guide to understanding human behavior. Nevada: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Pervin, L. (1990). Assessment and research of personality theory. Michigan: Wiley Press.
Rodgers, E. R. and Mcintire, H. R. (1993). Traits: organization and management theory. Michigan: Wiley Press.
Scheffler, I. (1989). Teaching and reason. New York: Hockett Publishing.
Allport describes personality as a human being’s dynamic organization, and what is determined by the psychophysical system determines. In this case it means their thoughts and behavior. This results from the environment and heredity, and it is finally separated from the person’s experiences during childhood (Schultz & Schultz, 2009).
Introduction
In his theory, Allport insists that on of the major things that motivate human beings is the propensity of having the need to satisfy their biological needs for survival (Maddi & Costa, 2008). This was termed as opportunistic functioning. It can be further characterized into past oriented, reactive, and biological (Maddi & Costa, 2008). However, it was not of importance in comprehending the behavior of humans. He believed that the human attributes was triggered off by an aspect, which differed from its functioning, in an expressive way. He referred to this as the propriate functioning (Carducci, 2006). This means that most of the behaviors or activities we do in life, determines who we are. Propriate functioning can be described as future oriented, psychological and proactive.
Dynamic organization
Allport describes a trait as being organized dynamically. This means that they can be easily recognized or determined. Some traits in an individual can take up some form to describe them according to their behavior. This is because of influences from the environment or within, which are dynamically organized (Schultz & Schultz 2009).
Psychophysical systems
Psycho means aspects of the mental, whereas physical means aspects that can be touched or seen. Therefore, psychophysical system is the interaction between the physical and the internal stimuli, which results into a mental state. The internal stimuli are the reaction of an individual, towards the environment (Carducci, 2006).
Characteristic behavior and thought
On characteristic behavior and thought, Allport’s trait theory focused on the uniqueness of an individual. Therefore, from his definition, this refers to an individual having the ability to separate his thoughts from his behavior, thus becoming an independent thinker. This kind of thought is what makes the individual unique (Carducci, 2006). Behavior could also be related to thought in that actions are because of the seed of thought in an individual’s mind.
Concept of Propriate Functioning
Allport’s description of the concept of propriate functioning is derived from the important concept of self. He described this concept from a functional view and a phenomological view. First, the phenomological view describes the self as experienced, things that humans see as essential, central and warm (Cloninger, 2004). The functional view grew into a theory of development itself and has seven functions that normally occur at certain periods in human lives. They include self-identity, sense of body, self-esteem, self-image, self-extension, propriate striving and rational coping (Cloninger, 2004). It is clear that the way Allport describes these developments, they are the same as stages of development as described by Sigmund Freud.
Traits
As the self develops, an individual also develops traits at the same time. However, Allport’s description of trait was quite different from the rest of the trait theorists. He went on further to explain that the existence of a trait is more ostensible, it is generalized more than a habit, it is determinative or has a dynamic behavior, and finally, its existence can be ascertained empirically.
Furthermore, a trait does not go hand in hand with social or moral justice (Maddi & Costa, 2008). This refers to behaviors like loyalty, jealousy or even truthfulness. These are subject to the social judgment, and yet they still represent the traits of personality (Cloninger, 2004). Traits in an individual can be discovered, and described later. Additionally, a trait can be seen in the light of the general distribution in the population or the personality that has it (Cloninger, 2004). This means that, just like autoeroticism, a trait has both the common and unique factors. Allport explains that habits or behaviors that are not consistent with a certain trait, is not a proof that a trait does not exist.
For example, an individual could appear very neat in terms of physical appearance, and everyone would assume that he or she has a trait of neatness. However, this is just an assumption based on the physical, but the individual could also possess a contradicting trait, whereby, their belongings are cluttered all over or are sloppy. This brings the question of why there exists contradicting traits on individuals.
Types of Traits
This brings us to the types of traits that Allport described, which the pervasiveness is found inside a personality. These traits include cardinal traits, central traits and secondary traits. First, cardinal traits are those traits that individuals possess and define their lives. These are individuals who constantly look for fortune, sex or fame (Schultz & Schultz, 2009). Examples of these individuals include Mother Teresa, who sought religious services, Machiavelli who portrayed political ruthlessness, Joan of Arcadia who depicted self-sacrifice and was heroic, and Don Scrooge who was very greedy, among others. Not everyone in the human population has this trait.
Central traits are less pervasive but still have general characteristics; these are the so-called building blocks of personality (Cloninger, 2004). These traits describe an individual. Verbs like sociable, smart, dumb, vivacious or sentimental are normally used to describe people possessing this trait. This trait is the tendency, which, an individual portrays, and those around him can easily detect
Secondary traits are traits or dispositions that are less noticeable, inconsistent and less generalized. This therefore means that these traits are irrelevant in defining the personality of an individual (Schultz & Schultz, 2009). For instance, things like attitudes, preferences and other attributes that are determined in a situational aspect fall under the secondary traits. An example of a secondary trait is whereby an individual is assertive and dominant in his interpersonal encounters, but the same person could also display a trait of being submissive, incase he is on the wrong side of the law. This therefore answers the question as to why people possess contradicting traits. It is because of the secondary traits that can be found within individuals.
Allport also further made a distinction between individual and common traits. Common traits, also known as dimensional traits, are any generalized trait that most individuals possess within a given culture (Carducci, 2006). This can be explained by having people from the same environment going through the same changes and influences, therefore; their traits can be roughly the same. Functional autonomy and the mature healthy personality
Functional Autonomy is basic to Allport’s original idea of trait theory, where he stated that personality is a system that is growing dynamically or by motivation (Cloninger, 2004). Allport did not concentrate on an individual’s past, to comprehend their present status. He stated that the past is the past, and today’s motives are autonomous from the past. This means that an efficient theory of an individual’s motivation needs to meet four requirements; contemporanity of motives, pluralistic theory, whichever allows for several types of motives, cognitive process need to be assigned to the dynamic force of an individual and lastly it needs to allow for uniqueness of motives (Maddi & Costa, 2008).
Functional autonomy can be further divided into propriate and perserverative functional autonomy (Carducci, 2006). Propriate is directed towards self, where personal values are of essence. For instance, being punished for selfishness in the past, does not overshadow from the generosity of today. conversely, perserverative autonomy gears towards habits. For example, the habit of drinking in the past as a sign of rebellion, but still goes on even into adulthood.
It is clear that functional autonomy arose from the inconsistencies of behavioral theory by Sigmund Freud. As a result, test values and categorization values came about. A mature and healthy personality can be explained if an individual has a developed proprium and a set of traits that can adapt to any situation (Cloninger, 2004). Allport came up with seven attributes that could be used to check if a person has attained personality maturity. They include extension of self, emotional security, being warm to others, problem centeredness, realistic perception, philosophy of life and self-objection.
Conclusion
Gordon Allport’s theory was right in almost every way, and his ideas have been used by other theorists to support their studies. However, his original use of the term trait, did not go well with behaviorists whose theories were based on situational orientation, and this has always proved to be a weakness in describing psychology and personality.
References
Carducci, B. J. (2006). The psychology of personality. Oxford: Blackwell.
Cloninger, J. (2004). Theories of personality: Understanding persons. New York: Prentice Hall Publishers.
Maddi, S.R., & Costa, P.T. (2008). Humanism in personology: Allport, Maslow and Murray. New Brunswick, N.J: Aldine Transaction.
Serial killers have always been of the main interest for different social scientists and theorists. The reasons for serial murders have been discussed many times and from different points of view. Considering the murders of people by Theodore Bundy, the problem may be discussed from biological and psychological perspectives as all murders may be characterized by the “trait theory”, which is going to be characterized by Bundy’s crimes.
Trait theory is the characterization of the crime provided from the law-violating or conventional behavior issues. Trait theory in crimes describes personal behavior through thoughts and emotions. Each criminal is considered an individual, who is “unique, physically and mentally; consequently, there must be different explanations of each person’s behavior” (Siegel 123).
Trait theory may be divided into two main subdivisions, psychological functioning, and biological makeup, which differ by the traits, which influence people’s intentions for crimes. The biological theory considers the crime reasons as causes of some biological processes in people’s organisms (Siegel 123). The other theory is a psychological issue, where “associations among intelligence, personality, learning, and criminal behavior” are taken into account (Siegel 136).
To analyze the trait theory of the definite case, Ted Bundy’s crimes were chosen. Starting the discussion, a summary of Bundy’s life should be provided. Being born in 1946 in Burlington, Vermont, at the Elizabeth Lund Home for Unwed Mothers, he had never seen his father, moreover, there is no trusted evidence of his location. Being pressured by the fact that he was illegitimate may have deformed his understanding of the surrounding world and may have made him inveterate.
Till the very death, he did not want to confirm his relation to the crimes committed, but in the night before his capital punishment, he named one more state, where he had killed a woman, which was not considered before. In general, he was convicted for killing about 36 people of the female sex in about ten states. The last words of the killer were “I would like you to give my love to my family and friends” (Holmes and Holmes 154).
The provided description above, the last words of the serial killer, and his behavior make it possible to make up the whole picture of the criminal portrait. The limitations, which he suffered in his childhood, the lack of parental love, the absence of a father, and the understanding of himself as illegitimate or waning were the main backgrounds for future crimes.
The ways how women, the eldest of which was 26 years old, (sometimes even children, the youngest of which was 8 years old) (Holmes 156) were killed (bludgeoning or strangulation in most cases) tells about his desire to watch people’s suffering, that is the result of the psychological trauma. In addition, most of the killed women were not found and only the witnesses and indirect evidence allowed convincing Theodore Bundy. The main peculiarity of his murders, which any serial killers have, was that he killed women before leaving the state.
Discussing the reasons for the crimes, committed by Theodore Bundy, the two subdivisions are going to be used, biological theory and psychological one. Starting with biological theory, it may be concluded that the analysis of this issue shows that there are several types of it. The neurological type mostly fits the discussed case. Ted Bundy was ill mentally because of the absence of the necessary upbringing, the consideration of his deprivation, and constant reminding about it.
These were the reasons for his brain impairment, which overgrew in chronic brain disease. A great many of evidence show that Bundy was ill mentally. First of all the reasons for crimes were absent, second, the crimes were committed not because of some emotional condition or the body desire, but because leaving the state, he lust wanted to kill woman, any woman. The refusal to concede his crime, when all evidence was against him is the other sign of his mental disorder.
Considering the psychological trait theory, the psychodynamic type was chosen as the characterization of ted Bundy’s crime. He was brought up in a one-parent family with a mother, and the attitude to such families was not so liberal as now. The fact is that Bundy’s ego was weak and he was damaged as a personality. His alien attitude to people may be characterized by the injuries in his childhood, which rose all the time when he was reminded about his father and his illegitimate birth. The reasons for killing young women may be also characterized by his ideas about their ability to give birth to children and their upbringing without fathers. He may have thought that he protected unborn children from destiny as he had.
In conclusion, serial killers are the data for investigations in different fields of scientific knowledge. Furthermore, the reasons for murders may be discussed from different points of view and theories, which are already identified. Ted Bundy’s history of crimes makes it possible to investigate him from trait theories position, such as biological and psychological, and identify the real reasons for crimes. Serial killers like Bundy are usually mentally disordered people, whose attitude to life was spoiled and deformed in childhood.
Works Cited
Holmes, Ronald M., and Holmes, Stephen T. Serial Murder. New York: SAGE, 2009.
Siegel, Larry J. Criminology. London: Cengage Learning, 2008.
The trait model of leadership is used to predict leadership effectiveness and is based on the traits of numerous successful and failed leaders. The resulting lists of characteristics are then compared to those of potential leaders to determine whether they are likely to succeed or fail. Using the trait method, researchers tried to link physiological, demographic, psychological, intellectual, task-related, and social factors to leader emergence and effectiveness (Benmira & Agboola, 2021). Successful leaders have interests, talents, and personality characteristics that are distinct from those of ineffective leaders. A collection of essential qualities of influential leaders has been established via several studies done in the final three decades of the twentieth century. These characteristics are not exclusively responsible for determining whether or not a person will be a great leader, but they are viewed as prerequisites that imbue people with leadership potential.
Trait Theory of Leadership
Strength and Limitations of Trait Theory
Extraversion, for example, is a personality characteristic that typically correlates with leader emergence and effectiveness, according to the trait approach. Because excellent leadership does not simply emerge from inherited genetic qualities without elements of motivation and initiative, the trait theory of leadership is rarely applied alone. First of all, the following fact can be attributed to the positive sides. The trait theory provides proper leadership knowledge. People at all levels and in all sorts of organizations can use it. Nurses may use the knowledge from the theory to analyze their role in the organization and determine how they might strengthen their position.
There are also two main positive aspects of this theory. It acts as a criterion against which an individual’s leadership abilities may be measured. It provides a thorough understanding of the leader’s role in the leadership process. Therefore, this theory allows evaluating the qualities of people to assume whether they can be leaders. Concerning nursing, it will enable us to assess the possibilities of creating the necessary atmosphere that will allow providing the best treatment of patients due to the competent organization of work.
The disadvantages of this theory include the following points. There will be some subjective assessment when it comes to defining who is considered a ‘good’ or ‘successful’ leader. There is also debate over which characteristics are most necessary for a successful leader. Some have speculated that this is due to situational factors, in which leadership abilities grow only when a leadership opportunity occurs.
Nurse Leaders
Staff job satisfaction, turnover, and retention were all strongly linked to nursing management style. Nurses favored participatory, facilitative, and emotionally intelligent managers and these styles were connected to team cohesiveness, reduced stress, and increased empowerment and self-efficacy. Flexible, collaborative, and power-sharing were also identified to be characteristics of good nurse leaders. Nurse leaders in healthcare are expected to demonstrate their visions through their actions rather than words (Clack, 2017). Employees cannot be expected to adjust to change if their leaders do not. People who work in the healthcare sector, which is a significant industry, are expected to develop their talents and be more sensitive and attentive than leaders in other fields.
Conclusion
Nurses reported high organizational identification and work performance levels due to nurse leaders allowing nurses to participate in decision-making. The ability of nurses to enhance quality is a probable significant component in their success. Thus, resorting to the application of this theory, it is possible at an early stage to identify nurses who have leadership qualities. This skill is necessary to provide better patient care.
References
Benmira S., & Agboola M. (2021). Evolution of leadership theory. BMJ Leader, 5, 3-5.
Clack, L. (2017). Examination of leadership and personality traits on the effectiveness of professional communication in healthcare. Journal of Healthcare Communications, 2(2), 1-4.
Trait leadership theory states that human beings have some inborn leadership traits; what makes the difference among leaders is the particular strength in an individual as well as how well someone uses his leadership skills and power; however, the theory supports improvements of the skills (Stephen 46).
Leader and manager
A leader is a person who creates an environment that enables him guides others toward a common goal by example; he/she offers his team members a chance to give their views and participate in decision-making (Crother-Laurin 4).
A manager is a person who issues instructions and controls the procedure to follow a certain way already predetermined, participation of subordinates in decision-making is minimal (Hannay 1-12).
What is the difference under the trait theory approach between manager and leader in terms of attitudes towards work?
The difference between leaders and managers is minimal however, it appears in how they handle situations and the attitude they hold for their works; managers manage tasks, thus he offers instructions, and requires them handled whereas leaders manage people, this means that he involves people in business decisions (DeRue, Scott and Susan 647-653). Managers’ attitude is that tasks must be accomplished irrespective of the way; but leaders have the attitude that the goals should be attained after the people are well managed and guided (Muller, MacLean and Biggs 23).
Richard Branson is a leader, has a positive attitude towards work, and respects the fact that the attainment of his corporate goals and objectives can be attained through proper people management; he involves his subordinates in decision-making. Other than involving staff, the leader has a program called Virgin Unite staff, where he meets with staff from different parts of the world to discuss issues of the company and get their views on the best strategies to remain competitive.
According to the company’s philosophy, the company is referred to as the virgin family; it is a hub of consultation and a favorable environment for employee’s growth and talent development. The above illustrations are different from the roles that a manager would play which would have involved less staff involvement (Virgin Company Official Website).
Works Cited
Crother-Laurin, Cyndi. Effective Teams: A Symptom of Healthy Leadership. The Journal for Quality and Participation 29.3. (2006): 4.
DeRue, D. Scott, and Susan J. Ashford. “Who Will Lead and Who Will Follow? a Social Process of Leadership Identity Construction in Organizations.” Academy of Management Review 35.4 (2010): 627-647.
Hannay, Maureen. “The Cross-Cultural Leader: The Application of Servant Leadership Theory in the International Context.” Journal of International Business & Cultural Studies 1.(2009): 1-12.
Muller, Juanita, MacLean Rowena, and Biggs Herbert. The impact of a supportive leadership program in a policing organization from the participants’ perspective. Work 32.1(2009): 69-79.
Stephen, Humphrey, Et Al. “Trait and Behavioral Theories of Leadership: An Integration and Meta-Analytic Test of Their Relative Validity.” Personnel Psychology 64.1 (2011): 7-52. Print.
Virgin Company Official Website. Virgin Company, 2011. Web.
A trait is referred to as a characteristic way in which a person acts, feels, perceives, or believes. When an individual is being described, people are likely to use trait terms. Personality traits are of a big interest to psychologists (Kumar, 2009 p 1).
The interest of psychologists is to find traits that do not easily change and are inherited. Personality trait theory studies consumer behavior in terms of individual traits such as influence, innovation, consumer ethnocentrism, and materialism.
The principles of trait theory were originally laid down by Gordon Allport who stated that traits should be described as stable and enduring inclination to act in a consistent given way across a range of different circumstances. He recommended that traits be considered to be bipolar with the opposite end of each characteristic defining opposite traits.
Trait theory defines people in terms of how extrovert or how introvert they are. Consumers make decisions of purchasing each day. A majority of big organizations conduct research on consumer buying decisions in a lot of details to answer questions regarding the behavior of buyers (Nakanisi, 1972, p 1).
Wants and behavior of a person originate from culture. The behavior of human beings is to a large extent learned. Cultural factors apply the deepest and broadest influence on buyer behavior. Growing up in a society a person learns wants, perceptions, behaviors, and basic values (Albernese, 1993, p 1).
Success, efficiency, involvement and activity, progress, freedom, youthfulness, material comfort, health and fitness, humanitarianism, and individualism are some of the values that a person learns from a society. Cultures regarding the buying behavior greatly vary from one culture to another.
Background of Journal article
The aim of the journal article is to propose a comprehensive model which indicates that buyers with diverse optimum stimulation level (OSL) have different assessments of goods and services, shopping behaviors, and shopping values.
The OSL of a person shows an individual’s preferred level of environmental inspiration and predisposition to operate in the presence of environments (Wang, 2011, p 6).
Methodology
The methodology of the study is interviewing retail shoppers in Taiwan. Questionnaires were formulated in English and translated to Chinese. According to the findings in the journal, consumers in Taiwan with high OSL indicated better and favorable assessments of design elements, layout, ambient, and density compared to buyers who have low OSL (Wang, 2011, p 11).
The journal hypothesizes that shoppers with higher OSL will have more positive assessments on layout, design, and ambient elements than those with lower OSL.
Data was collected directly from shoppers in Taiwan who visited the stores. Information was collected during the peak hours for ten days. Respondents were obtained randomly at the exits of the stores when the customers were almost leaving the department stores.
Findings of the journal
According to the research, consumers in Taiwan who have high OSL were found to be having more positive assessments of the density, design, and ambient elements of a store compared to shoppers who have low OSL (Wang, 2011, p 7).
In addition, buyers with high OSL indicated higher utilitarian and hedonic values from their buying. Noticeably, the buyers with high OSL took more time and spent more money in shops.
Hedonic value is based on emotions and shows that individuals shop for enjoyment, sensory stimulation, fantasy, and for fun. Shoppers with high OSL are more probable to be motivated by the environment of a retail store and obtain fun and delight from such an environment.
Utilitarian value is based on whether an activity during a buying trip was completed in an effective and opportune way. Aspects of a Shop like layout are formed to enable the buyer to shop efficiently (Wang, 2011, p 10).
Because of their high sensitivity to the environment, buyers who have high OSL are more probable to become aware of such aspects of the store, make appropriate use of them, and move across a shop more effectively.
Link to the main theory
It is obvious that there is a close link between the journal, the personality trait theory and the buyer behavior because according to the journal, the perceptions of consumers about the retail environment have an effect on their value of shopping and buying behaviors.
Almost 70% of buying decisions are made at the shops (Wang, 2011, p 8). OSL is an intrinsic motivation and is able to affect the nature and strength of the relationship between variables of environmental response in retailing.
Consumers are generally more of experience staggers than retailers. Great experiences of the consumer are unforgettable and are able to create emotional bonds between the retailers and consumers.
The research greatly contributes to the growing organization of international retailing research by studying the implications of buyer’s maximum motivation levels on their opinion about the elements of stores, perceived value of buying, and buying behaviors.
Managerial implications
With the research and findings from this journal, retailers will be able to concentrate on the various elements such as layout, ambient, and design of their shops. By so doing, the retailers and marketers will be able to attract many buyers with higher OSL and persuade them to spend more money in their stores (Wang, 2011, p 7).
Spending and the amount of shopping are the main buyer behaviors of interest in the journal. The amount of money spent by a consumer in a store directly adds up to the retail sales and is a significant element for recognizing customers that are loyal.
The duration of a shopping trip is described as the amount of time the buyer spends in a shop. Buyers who have high OSL explore through shopping and enjoy trying new products in the retail store which may result in them spending more time in the shops. Moreover, shoppers with high OSL are risk takers and spend more money on new goods and on impulse buying.
Application to managers
Expertise in customer retail is essential for the success for retailers. It is very difficult for worldwide retailers because it is usually hard to provide a compelling and reliable retail experience over different culture (Schiffman, 2010, p 1).
Buyers with different environmental motivation needs have different behavior of seeking varieties and different sensitivities to shop aspects. Retailers therefore should take into consideration the maximum stimulation levels of consumers because they are more buyers.
Even though managers can’t change the OSL of the consumer because it is a personal trait, they may affect the behavior of the consumer by manipulating their store environments (Wang, 2011, p 15).
For example, male and young shoppers have higher OSL and therefore, the managers will need additional environmental elements to produce more stimulating environments in an effort to convince such buyers to spend more money and time in the store.
Reference List
Albernese, P 1993, ‘Personality and consumer behavior: an operational approach’, Association for consumer research. Web.
Nakanisi, M 1972, ‘Personality and consumer behavior extensions’, Association for consumer research. Web.
Schiffman, K 2010, ‘Personality and consumer behavior’, Consumer behavior, Eighth Edition. Web.
Wang, L 2011, ‘An imperical investigation of the influence of optimum stimulation levels in retailing’, International journal of retail and distribution management, Vol. 40 no. 1, pp. 6 – 17.