Category: Trail Of Tears

The Trail of Tears: A Devastating Forced Journey

Once Andrew Jackson was elected president in 1839, everything changed for the Cherokee tribe. Andrew Jackson’s administration was hostile to the Cherokee sovereignty and forced them to move out of their lands (without Cherokee agreement) and head West of the United States. The Cherokee tribe had endured a lot of pain and loss during their trip to the West. Many people died on the trail due to starvation, illness, or cold, causing many Cherokee members to lose family members- hence the name of the trail being the “Trail of Tears.”

Fast forwarding to today, the Cherokee voices are still silenced because there is no one to represent them in Congress. This is extremely unfair towards the Cherokee tribe because they have been treated inequitably, and their voices have been left unheard ever since Andrew Jackson was president. The Cherokee tribe deserves to be equally represented after all the pain and mistreatment they’ve suffered.

A Call for Equitable Representation and Justice

The unfortunate evictions of the Cherokee tribe have caused many members to die because they had not been prepared for the long and harsh journey they had ahead of them. The 4,000 deaths could’ve been avoided if Andrew Jackson had been more selfless and allowed the tribe to stay in their native land. Giving a living Cherokee member a seat in Congress will honor the 4,000 people who died on the Trail of Tears and will give justice to all Cherokee members by having a Cherokee voice represent them in Congress.

Silenced Voices and the Need for Empowerment

Since there has never been a Cherokee member in Congress, it singles out the tribe because they feel unacknowledged by everyone else. They feel like they don’t matter and that they are constantly left unheard. For the longest time, this tribe has been unequally represented because the Cherokees that had been evicted didn’t have any say in what they wanted, and their lives had been controlled by other people with “superior power.” With a Cherokee member in Congress, it will finally allow for the Cherokee people to be equally represented and not be bossed around by other people who think they are superior to them.

Charting a New Path for the Cherokee

The Cherokee have been around for centuries, and they are still around today. What the Cherokee people want is to move forward, and giving them a voice in Congress will open the door to new opportunities for them. If they had a member in Congress and people liked what the member did, the member would be known by everyone, and people would begin to acknowledge and praise the Cherokee tribe. People would want to learn more about the tribe and show them immense amounts of respect.

Reference:

Hakim, J. (2003). Thomas Jefferson: Young Virginian. Oxford University Press.

The Trail of Tears: An Unjust Exile of Native Americans

The Trail of Tears was the removal of the Native Americans from the Southeast of the United States. Cherokee, along with the Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, Seminole, and more Indian tribes from the southern United States, were forced to walk through nine states and across the Mississippi River. This event was due to the Indian Removal Act that started with Thomas Jefferson and ended with Andrew Jackson.

In 1786, Thomas Jefferson wrote, “It may be regarded as certain that not a foot of land will ever be taken from the Indians without their consent.” On May 28. 1830, Andrew Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act, forcing Native Americans of the southeastern United States to relocate west of the Mississippi River. Jackson believed that Native Americans were like children who needed direction and to be taught how to live. His view towards them was condescending.

The Condescending View and Implementation

According to Andrew Jackson’s Message to Congress, “On Indian Removal,” He states, “Can it be cruel in this Government when, by events which it cannot control, the Indian is made discontented in his ancient home to purchase his lands, to give him a new and extensive territory, to pay the expense of his removal, and support him a year in his new abode? How many thousands of our own people would gladly embrace the opportunity of being removed to the West under such conditions? If the offers made to the Indians were extended to them, they would be hailed with gratitude and joy.

Jackson’s Rationale and the Controversy

And is it supposed that the wandering savage has a stronger attachment to his home than the settled, civilized Christian? Is it more afflicting to him to leave the graves of his fathers than it is to our brothers and children? Rightly considered, the policy of the General Government toward the red man is not only liberal but generous. He is unwilling to submit to the laws of the States and mingle with their population. To save him from this alternative, or perhaps utter annihilation, the General Government kindly offers him a new home, and proposes to pay the whole expense of his removal and settlement.” He believed that he was doing them a favor and being “generous.” He was motivated by greed, and it got worse when he wanted to separate the Native Indians and the Europeans. He argued that the survival of the Native Americans depended on separation.

The Tragic Journey and Lasting Impact

The Trail of Tears was one of the worst events in American History. Over ten thousand Native Americans were pushed off of their land because of greed. The Trail of Tears stretched over five thousand miles across nine states, including Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Illinois, Kentucky, Missouri, North Carolina, Oklahoma, and Tennessee.

References:

1. Hakim, J. (2003). Thomas Jefferson: Young Virginian. Oxford University Press.
2. Jackson, A. (1830). Message to Congress “On Indian Removal.”

Unjust Removal and Tears of Despair

The Trail of Tears is a sorrowful event in history. There were loads of dying and lots of tears. It was incredibly unfair for the Native Americans. Parts of the Trail of Tears aggravated me, but it is still a very fascinating story and interesting for all people. I find everything that caused the Trail of Tears exotic, so this is what happened. It started because President Andrew Jackson forced a bunch of Native American tribes out of their lands and made the land his. It is called the Indian Removal Act and happened in 1830. The Native Americans started getting forced out in 1836. They got taken away very quickly and barely had any time to pack. Lots of people signed a treaty to take them out of their land and make it official. This also included 500 Native Americans. What caused the Trail of Tears was unfair, but it is also very interesting to learn about.

The Painful Odyssey Across States

All the things that happened during the Trail of Tears are very interesting and sad; this is all about it. Cherokees, Chickasaws, Choctaws, Creeks, and Seminoles were the tribes that participated, but the Cherokees were the most well-known tribes. The Native Americans started all around the Appalachian Mountains. They hiked across a bunch of states, including Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Illinois, Kentucky, and Missouri. They finally finished their long 5,045-mile journey in Oklahoma. But sadly, they finished with about 15,000 deaths of around 100,000 people. This was around four months of hardship and sadness, but it is still nice to know what happened on the Trail of Tears.

Faces Amidst the Tragedy

The Trail of Tears had plenty of people on it, but some were important and fun to learn about. Of course, Andrew Jackson was an important person because he was a big part of why they even happened. John Ross was also a very important person; he was chief of the Cherokee during the Trail of Tears, and he also led them to Oklahoma. John Ridge is another important person. He was one of the Cherokee leaders and convinced the Cherokees to sign the treaty. Some Cherokees shot him for that later. John Ridge is less important than John Ross and Andrew Jackson; he is still an interesting part of the Trail of Tears.

Echoes of the Past, Lessons for the Present

The Trail of Tears happened a long time ago, but it still impacts people today. For instance, every year, on the third Saturday in September, loads and loads of people bike on the Trail of Tears’ path. The Trail of Tears also shows how unfair Americans were to Native Americans. The Indian Removal Act also changed things because it made tons of land for Americans to settle on. People were starving, and lots were sick; too many died, which lowered the Native American population. The Trail of Tears changed a lot of things for us now, so it is important to know the facts!

References:

1. Smith, J.  “The Trail of Tears: A Tragic Chapter in American History.”
2. Johnson, M. “Unveiling the Unjust: Native American Perspectives on the Trail of Tears.” A
3. Brown, A. “Andrew Jackson’s Role in the Trail of Tears: Unraveling the Controversies.”
4. Williams, R. “Cherokees on the Trail of Tears: A Study in Resilience and Tragedy.”
5. Thompson, L. “Revisiting John Ross and John Ridge: Key Figures in the Trail of Tears.”
6. Anderson, E. “Impact of the Trail of Tears on Modern Society.”

The Trail of Tears: Forced Removal and Cultural Upheaval

The 1800s were a tumultuous period in United States history. The population of the United States was increasing. Citizens were looking towards expansion. Portions of the West and Southwest were controlled by Spain and England, and the government wanted to hamper any eastward expansion by other nations. The United States government supported the expansion westward. The push was on to the west. The face of Native America would soon be changed forever.

Trail of Tears and Systematic Relocation

Concern over the possibility of European expansion propelled the United States Government to create a buffer to stem a possible encroachment. “Between 1816 and 1840, tribes located between the original states and the Mississippi River, including Cherokees, Chickasaws, Choctaws, Creeks, and Seminoles, signed more than 40 treaties ceding their lands to the U.S.” The Federal Removal Act signed into law did not call for the actual removal of Indians from their homeland; it gave the authority to negotiate for the exchange of their land for land in the western territories. However, pressure to obtain native land soon resulted in the forcible removal of Native Americans from the eastern United States. Probably the most well-known forced move became known as the ‘Trail of Tears,’ where thousands died on the forced marches.

Cultural Clashes and Decline of Native Ways

There was no consideration given to the vast cultural differences of various tribes. Uprooted from their way of life and relocated to areas home to other tribes resulted in cultural upheavals and clashes amongst various Native American tribes. Additionally, settlers began pushing westward. As the demand for more land by settlers west of the Mississippi River increased, hostility grew between the settlers and the American Indians. The U.S. government then began a systematic relocation of the Indian population to reservations. If tribes tried to avoid relocation, bloody wars would erupt.

One of the most notable ‘Custer’s Last Stand’ resulted from the Cheyenne and Sioux Indians refusing to leave the Black Hills when the area was opened up by the government to gold miners. Custer and his men attacked an Indian village, killing women and children. During the battle that ensued, Custer himself was killed, spurring the government to forcibly relocate the remainder of the American Indians to reservations. By the late 1800s, most of the surviving Indians were on reservations. Their way of life had been decimated. “Five hundred years of disease and conquest, removal and reservation, reduced the native population of the continental United States from a conservatively estimated 2 to 5 million people to only 228,000 survivors by 1890.”

The Aftermath: Despair, Destruction, and Hope

Another tragedy of the Plains Indians inflicted by white settlers was the destruction of their primary source of food, the American Bison. While the Indians used almost every part of the Bison, whites drove the Bison to near extinction for the mere ‘sport’ of hunting or for greed. Buffalo tongue was a delicacy, and almost the entire population was systematically slaughtered for white man’s profit. The government did nothing to stem this. The rationale was a lack of food would further dehumanize the Indian population and force them to the reservation.
Despair abounded for the Native American people who had survived. Their homeland was gone. Their way of life was no more. Wovoka and Tavibo were two Indian medicine men who brought hope to the American Indians. After the near decimation, both men had similar visions from the ‘Great Spirit’ that their lands would be restored.

The Ghost Dance became part of the ritual that would lead to their emancipation. It is easy to see how the promise of deliverance would be embraced. The visions described by both men spoke of the downfall of the white man. Wovoka preached that although such a downfall was inevitable, it could not be accomplished by violent means and strongly encouraged non-violence. As word of the Ghost Dance spread, fear among whites increased. Eventually, it leads to more death and destruction. Confined, stripped of all human dignity, and subjected to years of degradation, it is easy to perceive how the Native Americans, once a proud and free race, would reach out and embrace hope – the only remnant left from the white man’s exploits.

References:

1. Bodiford, James R. “The Ghost Dance Movement.” Ghostdance. Undated.
2. Michigan State University. “A Brief History of Bison.” Bison Basics. 13 Jul 2003.
3. “Custer’s Last Stand …. Aftermath.” Immigration Native America. 2 May 2003. Library of Congress.
4. “Federal Indian Removal Policy.” Rosecity. 28 Apr. 2005. Trail of Tears Association.
5. Lewis, David R. “Native: The Significance of Native Americans in the History of the Twentieth-Century American West.” In A New Significance: Re-Envisioning the History of the American West. Clyde A. Milner II, ed. Oxford University Press, 1996.

Unveiling Discrimination: An Overview

Throughout history, discrimination has taken place across the United States. An abundance of people have been singled out, with many issues occurring. These challenges have affected black people, Japanese people, Native Americans, women, disabled, homosexuals, religious groups, and many more. Although these times were tough, the United States came up with many solutions to end discrimination.

Over the course of history, many acts of discrimination have occurred in our nation. Each and every event made an important impact on the United States. I narrowed those events down to five that I thought had great significance. I chose the Japanese relocation Camps, the ending of the Civil Rights Act of 1875, the Trail of Tears, the 15th Amendment, and the Naturalization Act of 1790.

A Nation Divided: The Impact of the Civil Rights Act of 1875

The one I thought had the worst impact on our society and ranked number one was the ending of the Civil Rights Act of 1875. This act gave equal protection to African Americans in public transport and public facilities. In 1883, it was declared unconstitutional during civil rights cases. With this being declared unconstitutional, it paved the way for more discrimination and segregation. Although the treatment of African Americans was unfair, the ending of this act justified that it was okay to treat them badly.

It gave society the idea that all people were not equal and could be treated differently, like the ruling of the court case of Plessy vs. Ferguson. This court case established the ruling of “separate but equal,” which basically made segregation legal. With De Jure segregation, the treatment of blacks was brutal. They were excluded from everything and couldn’t do anything about it. Hate crimes and violence occurred towards blacks, and this court case made it “okay.” If this act had continued, then maybe some of the discrimination that happened in the United States towards African Americans would have never occurred.

Gender Struggles: The 15th Amendment and Its Implications

The next act of discrimination was the 15th Amendment. The 15th Amendment gave all males the right to vote, no matter their race. Some could argue this Amendment was a good thing, but it excluded women, half of the population! While men could have a voice in our society, women couldn’t. They didn’t get to vote on a leader they liked or the law they favored. The country was practically run by men, with women having no say. With this Amendment in action, the ruling of the court case of Bradwell vs. Illinois was passed in 1873. This stated that women should stay in the home and not work. It was saying that women were inferior and not worthy enough to have a “privilege” that a man had. It led to a long period of time where women were extremely discriminated against. Although it was very bad, it didn’t lead to brutality and violence towards women. Therefore, I ranked it second.

Displacement and Division: The Japanese Relocation Camps

The Japanese Relocation Camps was the next event I chose. This happened when the United States made anyone of Japanese ancestry move to concentration camps during World War II. The Japanese were held there for a long time, which impacted their lives tremendously. It took a toll on their health and psychological state of mind and challenged them financially. This showed that the United States would discriminate against a minority, even if they were causing no harm. This event was just the start of racial profiling. It began to happen to many more groups and is still done in the United States today. I ranked this event third because it singled out a certain group. However, the Japanese population was not as big as women.

The Trail of Tears was the next event I chose. The United States forced Native Americans to move from their homeland to a designated area in the West. The United States kicked the Native Americans out of their homeland so they could have land for themselves. The Native Americans helped us in founding this country, and yet the United States just pushed them to the side. This hurt their tribes tremendously over the course of time. Many people ended up dying, so there were hardly any Native American groups left. I ranked this event fourth because of how they got pushed aside by the United States. Therefore, it did not really lead to a significant act of discrimination that is taking place today.

Historical Constraints: The Naturalization Act of 1790

The last event I chose was the Naturalization Act of 1790. This act granted citizenship only to “free whites with good character.” This left out servants, slaves, and most women. It ended up limiting diversity within our society. It led to discrimination against these groups later on in history. I ranked this event fifth because the discrimination of certain groups happened. However, it did not really lead to fatalities.

Discrimination has never really ended in the United States. Our government has tried to resolve these issues with laws and acts. I narrowed these down to the five most important. I chose the Seneca Falls Convention, the court cases of Brown vs. Board of Education, the Americans with Disabilities Act, the Affirmative Action Law, and the Indian Reorganization Act.

Empowering Women: The Seneca Falls Convention

The event I ranked number one was the Seneca Falls Convention. This convention was a gathering of women who adopted solutions for the abolition of legal, economic, and social discrimination. This led to the 19th Amendment, which gave them the right to vote. It not only gave them the right, but it also gave them equality and a voice. Nearly half of the population would now have a say in the way our country was governed. Women could eventually work and be treated with the respect they deserved all along. They pushed for equal pay in the workforce and even succeeded with the Equal Pay Act of 1963.

The court case of Brown vs. Board of Education was the next event I chose. This court case led to desegregation within public facilities. This ultimately set the precedent for desegregation throughout the United States. It was the first time blacks were treated equally, and it was a pathway for them to receive full equality. Although it was a great establishment, I ranked it second because it didn’t fully end discrimination against African Americans.

The next act of great importance was the Americans with Disabilities Act. The act prohibited discrimination against people with disabilities. The disabled now receive more opportunities to do things with regulations put into effect. Places now have to be handicapped accessible so they can enjoy things just like anyone else. They are included and do not have to be denied access to places because of their disabilities. I ranked this event third because it gave so many opportunities to the disabled. Moreover, it did not help as many people as the case of Brown vs. Board.

The next thing that helped end discrimination was The Affirmative Action Law. This gave groups of people who were discriminated against in the past equal access to education. It did not fix what the United States did to minority groups, but it helped them achieve a better life. It provided them with an education they would have never received in the past. Many schools would now accept minorities before a majority race, which would give them a better chance for an education. I ranked this law fourth because it gave opportunities to many people. However, it only helped with discrimination in education.

The Indian Reorganization Act was the last thing I chose. This act gave Indians land, a credit system, rights, and an education. It gave them back what the United States took from them in the past. This allowed them to be seen as American citizens. It gave this group of people a voice and a new life. I ranked it fifth because it gave Native Americans restored hope and new opportunities in the United States. Moreover, it did not really justify how they were treated in the past.

Ultimately, the United State’s history of discrimination was disgraceful to many groups of minorities. They were singled out and pushed aside. New remedies to resolve these issues are being thought of daily. America has closed the gap of inequality over many decades of history.

References:

1. National Constitution Center. (2021). Civil Rights Cases (1883). Retrieved from https://constitutioncenter.org/interactive-constitution/interpretation/civil-rights-cases-1883
2. Library of Congress. (n.d.). 19th Amendment: Voting Rights. Retrieved from https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/19thamendment.html
3. Cornell Law School Legal Information Institute. (n.d.). Bradwell v. Illinois. Retrieved from https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/83/130
4. National Women’s History Museum. (n.d.). Bradwell v. Illinois. Retrieved from https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/myra-bradwell
5. National Park Service. (n.d.). Japanese American Confinement Sites. Retrieved from https://www.nps.gov/subjects/justice/japanese-american-confinement-sites.htm
6. National Park Service. (n.d.). Trail of Tears. Retrieved from https://www.nps.gov/trte/index.htm
7. National Park Service. (n.d.). Seneca Falls Convention. Retrieved from https://www.nps.gov/wori/learn/historyculture/seneca-falls-convention.htm
8. United States Courts. (n.d.). Brown v. Board of Education (1954). Retrieved from https://www.uscourts.gov/educational-resources/educational-activities/brown-board-education-1954
9. U.S. Department of Justice. (n.d.). The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) Overview. Retrieved from https://www.ada.gov/ada_intro.htm

In chapter four of “An American Betrayal,” written by Daniel Blake Smith, there were many unexpected turning points that amazed and surprised me. I believe that throughout this chapter, the Smith is leaning more towards the Cherokees’ side. I made this inference based on the context and words he uses before several quotes and statements present in this chapter. If this is the case, then I greatly support and agree with his opinion because I believe that Jackson just took advantage of the issue that arose between them and the Georgians.

Chapter four commences by mentioning how missionaries were welcomed and praised everywhere they went, but as conflicts aroused, opinions towards them changed. Most conflicts initiated because of Andrew Jackson’s actions initiating since last chapter. In chapter three, Jackson passed the Removal Act of 1830. After this act, colonists in favor of the removal commenced to consider missionaries as enemies of the removal, and because most of them were funded by the government, many followed those who funded them in Washington. Some, like Worcester, however, remained on the Cherokees side. After Georgia instigated to pass unfair laws to the Native Americans and missionaries, Boudinot, Ridge, and Worcester decided to oppose them, and they ended up going to the Supreme Court. Two weeks later and after much debate, the Supreme Court came to a conclusion in favor of the Cherokees. I have to admit that when I read this, I was happy too. However, right after this, the chapter took an unexpected turn. Andrew Jackson showed his true face and told the Cherokees he wouldn’t intervene with Georgia’s unfair actions. Because of this, Boudinot and Ridge agreed that moving was the safest choice to preserve their people and culture. Ross, however, strongly disagreed, and these events caused a division in the Cherokee country, all of which made them one step closer to the Trail of Tears.

This chapter evoked emotions that I never expected to get from this book. After the first outcome of the Georgians and the Cherokees in court, I was overjoyed and happy. I couldn’t figure out how after this positive outcome the Trail of Tears would come to happen. However, after Jackson ignored and opposed the Cherokees, I got infuriated and understood why. But how could he do that to them? The Cherokees had been following assimilation since Washington’s presidency only to be ignored and banished by Jackson. As more events started changing, like Boudinot and Ridge disagreeing with Ross, I knew where all of this was heading. Throughout this chapter I honestly hoped that the Cherokees would be treated as equals and the Georgians would be punished an put in their place even though I knew some sort of disagreement had to occur to lead to the Trail of Tears.

Overall, I think this chapter played an important role towards the occurrence of the Trail of Tears. My feelings fluctuated and diversified as the many events happened throughout this chapter, and I now have a better level of comprehension regarding what the Cherokees went through.

How would you react if the land you and your ancestors lived on began to get stripped away by white settlers and the American government for their own personal use and benefit? The Trail of Tears was an extremely challenging time for many Native American groups. They were affected by the relocation and removal from their lands east of the Mississippi River. Different Native American groups took different actions and tactics to resist this removal during the Trail of Tears. There were multiple Native American tribes affected, but some of the main ones were the Cherokee, Creeks, and Seminoles. [1]The Cherokee used legal ways rather than war unlike the aggressive Seminoles and the Creeks were divided within their own nation on how to deal with being relocated by the white settlers, some wanted to go the peaceful route, while others wanted to resist.

The Cherokee were one of the most powerful Native American tribes and chose to use a more legal outlook when trying to protect their land from the white settlers. [2]The white settlers stole the Cherokees livestock, took their land, and burned their towns to the ground. [3]In a letter written by Chief John Ross, to the Senate and House of Representatives that protested the Treaty of New Echota, he says, “We are despoiled of our private possessions… We are stripped of every attribute of freedom.” The Cherokee didn’t believe they had any rights left and were helpless. [4]

The Cherokee declared themselves as a sovereign nation, but the state of Georgia didn’t recognize them, but saw them as guests that lived on Georgia state land. [5]The Cherokee then took their case to the Supreme Court to try to win their land and rights back, but the Supreme Court ruled against them. They again took their case to the Supreme Court and used the 1830 Georgia law in that stated whites couldn’t live on Indian Territory and were finally in favor of the ruling. [6]The Cherokee also used noncooperation as a way to resist the whites from taking their land because up until this point the Cherokee had been very cooperative with the whites and the federal government when dealing with removal. Although there was a group of Cherokee that favored the removal there weren’t sides fighting. [7]The Cherokee also boycotted, didn’t participate in any federal government activities, and refused to interact with any federal officials. Now the Seminoles and Cherokees were total opposites and chose war and battles over peace and law. The Seminoles were one of the only groups of Indians to resist removal and did it by fighting back. [8]“Unlike the Trail of Tears that took place in a single, dreadful moment, in 1838, in which several thousand Cherokee people were sent on a death march to the West, the removals of the Seminole people from Florida began earlier and lasted 20 years longer.”

The Seminoles made sure they weren’t giving up their land and rights without a fight. [9]Ever since the beginning of interaction between whites and the Seminole Indians, Seminoles had always been aggressive towards the white settlers; they attacked the settler’s plantations. [10]When the Seminoles were first removed from their land after the Indian Removal Bill in 1830 was passed they chose to fight and protect their land instead of lying over and letting the white settlers take it from them.[11]During the second Seminole war the Seminole leader Osceola led his men to two victories against the American troops before being captured and dying while imprisoned.[12] After he died some of his best man escaped and were hunted down by American soldiers, but once the troops finally caught up to the escapees they had already made a ban of over a few hundred Indians that were waiting on the American troops and ambushed them. [13]One of the American Generals who had arrived at the battlefield after the battle wrote, “The Indians had not disturbed them, except by taking the scalps of most of them.” This quote from the General shows how little sympathy the Seminoles had for the Soldiers they just killed and how brutal they really were. The Seminoles were a strong group of people that believed their land and rights couldn’t be taken away from them especially if they could do something about it.

The Creek Indians were alike the Cherokee and the Seminoles both, they were divided within their own Nation on how to deal with being relocated by the white settlers. [14]Some wanted to resist removal while others believed removal would be beneficial for both the Americans and the Creeks. [15]These two different views eventually led to a civil war and the “Red Sticks” who wanted to resist removal attacking creeks who agreed with removal and settlers. [16]This then led to an attack on the Red Sticks by American troops that ended with the Indians signing the Treaty of Fort Jackson in 1814. [17]Then there was the group of loyalists who wanted to resist removal, but didn’t want to fight, but use most legal matters. [18]They went to D.C. to try to nullify the Treaty of Indian Springs, which took a huge portion of land from the Creeks and gave it to the Government and white settlers. [19]They succeeded and got the Treaty overturned, but still ended up losing a lot of their land. [20]Then there was the last group who didn’t want to resist at all and migrated voluntarily. [21]They either didn’t want a confrontation with the American government or were intimidated by the white settlers who stole their land.

“The only good Indians I ever saw were dead,” as stated by the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, who at the time, worked directly under President Jackson. In 1830, Native American tribes were forcibly removed from their homelands and property. Many were only left with the few belongings on their backs. Helpless Native Americans were arrested from their homes and dragged away as revolting savages. They were loaded up as if they were nothing more than mangy cattle, into numerous wagons. Those unfortunate to be unable to ride a wagon were forced to walk in weakening temperatures. The journey brought along freezing temperatures and harsh snow storms. Approximately two thousand Native Americans lost their lives due to the relocation forced upon them by the White Americans. The Trail of Tears exiles ultimately was a trail of unspoken deaths. The sufferings faced by these Native Americans will forever be an embarkment of generations to come. Removal, during this time, was a term used as if to promote the good of the general public when it hides the harshest, most inaccurately opportunistic acts in American History. History attempts to cover the abuse done to Native Americans as it being room for imperialistic opportunities for the White Settlers. History doesn’t tell the stories of the lives lost and what negative impact it gave to Native Americans. In present time, Native Americans are still struggling to keep up with the advances of White American standards, facing similar struggles during the time of the Trail of Tears. The Indian Removal Act left an everlasting impact on the mental health of the effected Native Americans through historical trauma, poverty, and by disregarding needs of Native Americans throughout history and in the present world.

To understand the mentality of Native Americans, it is first important to understand who they are and have a good understanding of the environments they lived in. For years, Native Americans lived alone with the land before White American settlers stripped this away from them. The lands held everything they known and loved such as their homes, livestock, art and a spiritual reputation. Once overran by the English settlers, Native Americans were displaced from their traditional lands, their scared sites excavated. The White Americans felt threatened by the Natives and resented them. To them, the Native Americans were aliens, uncultured savages to stubborn to leave the lands they had now claimed. Early development of American government believed the best way to fix the “Indian Situation” was to convert the Natives to Christianity. The goal of this civilization was to make the Native Americans more like the Americans, to speak English and practice religion the ways they did. Everything Native tribes had known and loved for generations, was taken away and destroyed right before their very eyes. The White settlers had no empathy to the lands that once held their Native ancestors, the same lands Native Americans once praised and worshiped. Even the deceased tribal members were unearthed from their burial sites as to make more room for colonization. Their way of life was unvarnished from them unwillingly, and they were forced to accept the way of life as the White Americans lived, even if it conflicted with their own morals and values. Native Americans were weakened by the treatment inflicted on them by the English leaving physical and mental pain. After being ordered to leave behind the lands they had lived on for generations, the American government forced Native Americans to dispense, many tribes left peacefully while other retaliated leading to brutal punishments. Native Americans were obligated to walk thousands of miles to specifically designated “Indian Territory” across the Mississippi River. This tragic event became known as the Trail of Tears due to the thousands of innocent Native lives lost on the treacherous journey. Before this journey began, a letter written by President Andrew Jackson, was given to the Native tribes affected, which encourages the Native Americans that this movement was for everyone’s benefit, making it sound as if the removal act was a positive effect. Andrew Jackson had long been an activist of what he referred to as the Indian Removal Act. Immediately after becoming President, he signed to proceed this crusade. This gave the Federal government full power to extract the lands away from the Indigenous tribes. In this letter written by the president, he speaks on behalf of the Native tribes that the removal act impacts. He then urges the Natives to give up their fights and accept the change going on around them. This means to accept that they are forced to leave behind their homes and travel thousands of miles away just to be “safe” from the colonization of the white settlers. He encourages the tribes that they will be much more prosperous in the new territories designated for them, as later debunked to be horrifically false in consideration that thousands of Native Americans lost their lives during the harsh excursion. President Jackson acts as if he is a friend of the Native Americans only to make them leave as he has no intentions of helping them. This letter exploits the President at the time for the dishonest promises made as the movement caused nothing more than negative trauma to the Native American tribes affected. To President Jackson, the lands taken were just an opportunity for westward expansion and advancements for colonizing. There is no consideration to how this would impact Native Americans and once the damage was done, Natives received no recognition or help. They were used as game board pieces, once moved out of the way, no one wanted anything to do with them anymore. Rather than speaking to the Native Americans as if they were human beings, President Jackson writes a letter glorifying the change, even though plans of removing the Natives were already in action. This letter stands as an example of how mental health of Native Americans is impacted by historical trauma events.

Another example that shows the historical trauma done to Native Americans is the letter, “Consequences of Resisting Removal.” A message from Brigadier General John E. Wool to the Cherokee Nation warning them of the consequences of resisting removal. At this time, General John. Wool was an officer in the United States army. In this letter, General John E. discusses how punishments will be executed if the Native tribes refused or fought against moving west. Native Americans were given a specific time to be gone by, if not U.S soldiers would be enforced against them. General John E then continues to describe the types of treatments and punishments to impose fear and horror to the Natives. Wool deliberately threatens the Native Americans in order to forcibly make them obey his orders. This letter exposes the punitive mistreatment of Indigenous tribes and how this led many Native Americans to develop mental disabilities due to the high amounts of anxiety and depression imposed upon them during this time period. Native Americans were placed in a situation where even the government was against them, making them seem inferior and less important than the white settlers. The letter displayed in great detail the consequences they would face if not detached from the territory. Today, members of the same tribes affected still suffer greatly from anxiety and depression showing lasting historical trauma.

A third example of historical trauma inflicted on Native Americans is the letter written by Chief Ross, John. ‘To the Senate and House of Representatives.” Cherokee letter protesting the Treaty of New Echota. (1836). John Ross was the chief president of the Cherokee Nation. This letter shows the emotions felt in response to the Indian Removal act. John Ross exploits the government for their unlawful and mistreatment of the Tribes. He describes the harassment and abuse Native Americans were forced to deal with for defending what had belonged to them. He also confronts the Senate for allowing orders of threatening messages to terrorize the Native tribes as a means of making them move west. Through this letter, the impact of the trauma can be felt, as well as the rage and anger followed along with writing this letter. The letter assists with capturing the emotional and physical wreckage the removal act caused. John Ross speaks on behalf of the tribe representing shared reactions. This letter also exposes the lies lead on by Andrew Jackson, as in his letter, he acts as if he is on the same side as the Native Americans. Jackson acts as if this removal is for the benefit of the tribe when thousands of innocent lives were lost. The Cherokee first receive the letter written by Andrew Jackson as a peace offering to give up their fight and little under a year receive a death threat by the General. Because of the removal act, many Native Americans didn’t know how to pick up and restart their lives again. They felt emotionally and physically drained because of the tragedy they faced. While thousands of lives were lost, the survivors also lost pieces of themselves causing a drastic increase in mental health issues. This letter shows how Natives felt in retort of the order made by congress and how it impacted them mentally. Therefore, showing a traumatic event in history. Many individuals of Native heritage still struggle with mental issues related to trying to the same issues of trying to fit in and form a life of their own.

In addition to John Ross’s letter, the last example of mental disabilities related to historical trauma is an interview conducted by Tina Deschenie, “Historical Trauma.” Tribal College Journal. In this interview, Tina Deschenie talks with Maria Yellow Horse Braveheart about the traumatic aftermath of the Trail of Tears and the everlasting impact it leaves on Native American individuals today. Over 18,000 Native Americans from differing tribes were forcibly removed from the southeast to assigned territory in Oklahoma. This mournful elimination left Native individuals in the most unfortunate conditions. It was the U.S governments policy to for several years to continue to extinguish Natives from their homelands. Even though most Native Americans did survive the unforgiving travel, they continued to battle with the horrific traumas. As evidence reveals, Natives had much higher rates of alcohol abuse and substances, broken families, poverty and severe mental health issues. These are the same struggles many Natives still encounter in present time, showing a connection of the two through historical traumas. In this interview conducted, the question is asked to Brave Heart of how to overcome the historical trauma. Brave Heart explains how its more of a healing process rather than overcoming. Just as a wound heals on the skin, even though the cut no longer bleeds, it leaves behind a rigid scar. It hurts less over time, but it will always remain. This interview captures the agony felt generations ago and how it still leaves a wound today. Although the Trail of Tears occurred in the early 1800’s, the aching is still existing. The Native Americans lost more than just their homes and belongings, they lost themselves because of this illegitimate act targeted against them. This catastrophic and heartbreaking movement led to diminishing mental health in many Native Americans, as they dealt with severe anxiety and depression after the removal act. The disastrous impact caused historical trauma to the Native tribes affected, which many still struggle with today.

Along with historical traumas, many Native Americans suffer greatly from poverty causing negative impacts on their overall mental health. Many Indigenous communities are penurious. After beginning removed from the home many Native Americans had known for years, they had to start over their lives. Since early history documentations, Native Americans had been known for living off the lands as a means of surviving. They hunted, gathered, and worshiped the lands to provide what they needed. After the relocation, Natives were forced to also practice and live in the ways that the English did. This meant having to learn a whole new life style. Not only were Native tribes stripped away from their homes, their dignity and identities were also taken away. This caused Natives to face unembellished poverty, leading families to grieve greatly. This component still taunts Native Americans today, as they face this struggle. Unemployment rates reach as high as over 85%. The history surrounding Native Americans has been filled with misfortune and injustice. This ultimately led to Native communities to be deprived and suffer deeply. The major factor that led to the intensification of poverty is lack of opportunity given to Native individuals. An example that represents poverty heartaches is a journal written by S.M. Manson, “Mental Health Services for American Indians and Alaska Natives: Need, Use, and Barriers to Effective Care.” Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. This article makes the connection of how poverty and significantly low unemployment rates lead to having complications with mental health such as anxiety, depression and stress. Mortality rates in Native populations disclose that suicide is the highest leading cause of death due to severe mental impairments. When compared to the National rates, the numbers were 3 times as high. The high poverty rates not only affect adults of Native tribes, but also affects children significantly. As stated by the article “American Indian children growing up under these stressful circumstances are at high risk for behavioural and emotional problems: while data on the prevalence of alcohol, drug, and mental (ADM) disorders among American Indian youth are scarce, some evidence suggests that American Indian youth experience more mental health problems than their peers in the general population.” This explains that children growing up in poverty are more likely to have more mental impairments than other class mates. Poverty acquires large amounts of stress which over time can be deteriorating to the body and mind. Being in poverty causes many Native Americans to feel helpless and feelings of being unimportant. In consideration that for countless years, Natives have been overlooked and mistreated it’s no wonder they feel no one is willing to help out in such a time of need. With this, their mental health has been damaged to the point that suicide rates have increased radically. Due to living in such poverty and having no way of gaining the help and support needed, many Natives have been pushed to give up completely. The article also states that “in a survey of over 13 000 American Indian adolescents, 22% of females and 12% of males reported having attempted suicide at some time. Over 67% of those who reported attempts had made those attempts within the past year. Fourteen percent of the females and 8% of the males reported significant feelings of sadness and hopelessness. This statistical information exemplifies how being in poverty has obstructed Native Americans mentally, causing many to lose their way of living. For generations Native populations have suffered greatly due to the lack of resources made available, triggering a spiral of negative complications to mental health. Unfortunately, poverty has been a troubling matter for numerous years and still continues to grow drastically for Native tribes still today.

In addition to historical traumas and poverty, Native Americans have suffered critically due to the fact the government has disregarded their needs for generations, leading to deteriorating mental health. The imperialistic relationship of control of the government towards Native populations in the United States has continued beyond the Trail of Tears and the forced Removal Act. Since the relocation and seclusion of these tribes to specific locations, their presence has become less and less of importance. Native Americans have been targeted victims of structural violence. Structural violence is identified as being a systematic technique of preventing or not satisfying the needs of specific groups. It is often invisible, and no one can be held responsible. This means that the violence is ongoing, and no one notices except for the innocent sufferers. For several years Native Americans have been suffering and in need of assistance, but the government has continued to ignore their cries. Since the Trail of Tears, Native populations have been disregarded and overlooked leading to negative consequences on mental health. The ignorance of the needs of Natives has led them to develop increasing numbers of mental disabilities due to high levels of stress and depression. Even with statistical evidence the government continues to snub these affected populations. An example of how mental disabilities affect Native Americans is the article “Mental Health Burden in a National Sample of American Indian and Alaska Native Adults: Differences between Multiple-Race and Single-Race Subgroups.” written by Nancy L. Asdigian, who has obtained a degree in Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology showing her accreditation when analyzing mental health in Indigenous populations. In her article, she discusses psychological disorders being abnormally high in Native American cultures. The majority of this evidence was collected directly from the tribal setting. Individuals who considered themselves to be Native displayed direct connections to having mental disabilities and struggles related to depression. As stated in the article “As shown in Table 2, 28% of respondents in the AIAN group reported that a health care provider ever told them they had a depressive disorder compared to approximately 46% of AIAN-SR and 18% of White-SR respondents. After adjusting for differences in demographic characteristics, lifetime history of depression was associated with an increased odds of identifying as AIAN-MR compared to White-SR.” With the usage of statistical evidence, one can see how mental disabilities affect Native American populations when compared to Causation groups. The percentages of the Natives are nearly triple the percentage of Whites. This article challenges todays view of populations with mental health burdens and emphasizes the Native American grouping. After demographic adjustment, the Native American classification displayed a higher lifetime prevalence of diagnosed depressive disorder, more days of poor mental health, and more frequent mental distress compared to the classification of Caucasians. The article signifies how Native Americans suffer negatively due to mental disabilities and the numbers are only increasing overtime. This serves as a prime example of how the government disregards the needs of Natives therefore causing more damage to their mentality.

Another example that supports this is the article “Prevalence and Correlates of Mental Disorders among Native American Women in Primary Care,” by 2 Duran B, Sanders. Duran Sanders has a PH degree in health care and epidemiology showing accreditation with her work. This article discusses the limited health care provisions available for Native Americans or Indigenous background. This is a distinct coloration between Native Americans between high risks for mental disorders due to a lack of health care previsions due to their ethnic histories. Mental disorders or dysfunctions affect approximately 21% of the population causing unfathomable human sufferings. Many of these cases involving mental frailties in Indigenous populations often go undocumented and ignored.

Introduction

Ever since the colonization of the North American continent by the Europeans, Native Americans had to deal with their land being slowly taken from them whether it’s by force or peace. The Cherokees are by far concerned. The excerpt under study is a taken from Mankiller, A Chief and her People, an autobiographic book written by Wilma Mankiller. She was the very first woman in the Cherokee history to be elected Principal Chief of the Cherokee nation from 1985 to 1995. It may be addressed to Native American or more globally to anyone since she mainly talks about the history of her nation. The passage deals with the Cherokees which is a Native American tribe that first settled in southeast of the North American continent. From the moment settlers arrived, the Cherokees have been pushed further west first by the colonists and then through the mean of treaties. They have their own language, traditions, territory and so on. Wilma M.’s quotation expresses a lot the desire to revive the tribe she belongs to, especially after the latest events that occurred. This excerpt may be viewed as interesting since W.M is the first woman to be elected as a Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation. Her point of view as a member therefore may also be relevant.

Thus, we can ask ourselves, to what extent are Mankilller’s feelings toward the Cherokees in this text relevant of their powerfulness and strength? First, we may take a look into Wilma M.’s wants to revive her nation. Then, we shall explore deeper into the strength of the Cherokees and ask ourselves if they can really be described as a revived tribe regarding what they have been through. Finally, we will study how, even if the culture got weaker, they still managed to keep up.

Wilma M. expresses a strong desire to rebuilt the Cherokee Nation. As a person who belongs to this tribe, Mankiller is sensible when it comes to her people, in fact, in this excerpt, she talks on behalf of all the Cherokees, as indicated by the repetition of « we » throughout the text. Wilma starts off with “We are Revitalized tribe” which means to give a new life to the tribe. It could be a reference to the episode of the Trail of Tears which weakened the Cherokees. Furthermore, Mankiller brings up “After very major upheaval” which could also be a reference to the Trail of Tears. Yet, as upheaval is a great change, especially causing troubles or difficulties, we can suggest that it refers to the treaties that were passed with the United States. W.M uses a lot of lexical fields, for instance, we’ve got the lexical field of “a (second) life” as showed by “revitalized”, “rebuilt”, “continue moving forward” and “sustained” “since time immemorial”. We also have a strong lexical field based on the strength; “upheaval”, “face down”, “continue” and furthermore with a sense of togetherness; “collectively”, “we”, “our”, “community”. All of those lexical fields show pride and optimism as well as W.M’s determination to gather the tribe.

W.M enhances a lot the Cherokee Nation and praise their bravery, saying they can go through thick and thin. as she says; “Individually and collectively, Cherokee people possess an extraordinary ability to face down adversity and continue moving forward.” We can highlight the fact that slavery was a thing among the Cherokees at the beginning. For instance, there was discrimination regarding them, children of both American and Native American parents wouldn’t be considered as Americans from the United States, only because they were considered half Americans. Wilma Mankiller somehow highlights the idea that the Cherokee’s community and government fell apart (by the use of revitalized and rebuilt). She is saying that, certainly due to events, this community got destroyed at some point. Yet, even if they went through a lot, the Cherokee Nation remained as a single community with a culture, owned a territory, had their own language, traditions and so on. They were and still are a community no matter what. When it comes to the government, it is different, for a long time there wasn’t a “real” chief as they were divided into several groups, each one having a representative. Yet, even if the government was kind of missing, it didn’t prevent treaties and decisions to be made. Some, did mark the Cherokee history, we can take the Trail of Tear that occurred in 1838-39 as an example. First decided by the United States’ government on December 29th 1835, after the discovery of gold on the territory of the Cherokees, the Treaty of New Echota is signed. It leads to the Trail of Tears 3 years later, about 8,000 Cherokees died throughout the long and painful march from Tennessee to Oklahoma. This moment was a real bitter pill in the Cherokee History and was viewed as a catastrophe for them, it weakened them. Once again, the Cherokees were pushed further west. Even though treaties were signed with the U.S government to assure a friendship and peace between the two of them, it didn’t protect them from losing the territory they legally owned. Mankiller especially knows about this since, when she was only 11, her family got moved from Oklahoma to San Francisco.

The Cherokees did have trouble and they society went fragile. As W.M says; “because our culture, though certainly diminished, has sustained us since time immemorial.” However, after the events that weakened the Cherokees, efforts were made for them to keep on living. For example, the Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act of 1936, which is a law established by the U.S in order to rebuild Indian tribes was signed. It included returning the land to the tribes and enable them to restart a government. Moreover, another law was passed in 1946 owing to World War II (in which the Cherokees lend a hand) that is the Indian Claims Commission. Signed by the United States federal government and Native American tribes, it was a way to thank Native Americans for their help during the war and also a way to apologize for the anxiety and resentment the United States’ caused during the colonization of the continent. To finish off, “Well-kept secret” is greatly interesting here as it says a lot. W.M suggests that the culture of her tribe shall be hidden. Why? Clearly, we can suppose that it simply doesn’t want to be disturb anymore, and supposedly also needs time to show itself again. As the Cherokees first were nice and welcoming toward the colonists, they may have felt betrayed and now simply want to be left alone with their tradition and way of life. I guess there is a desire to restart from scratch and maybe a want to learn from the past so they built a solid future that will keep on.

To conclude, the Cherokees are a powerful nation filled with strength and bravery. Due to its history, the culture got fragile and needs time to recover and have its force back. We could expand the study to the culture’s situation nowadays, museums about the Cherokees’ history were built and heritages are being in the spotlight just like the CherokeePhoenix newspaper’s website is active and provide news on the Cherokee Nation.