Category: Tolerance

In spite of the constant existence of religious fanaticism and prejudice experienced in most parts of the word, there has been a notable growth in religious tolerance.

The view that diverse religions as well as spiritual customs have a suitable approach has recently become more prevalent. In the contemporary world, religion is continually being characterized by the adherence of one true religion. In the past, some religions were viewed with a lot of contempt and were usually seen as forms of myths or superstitions.

This notwithstanding, the concept of religious harmony is progressively being embraced by many nations which adhere to many religions. This essay presents an outlook of some of the major religions practiced throughout the world and the extent to which they have contributed to religious tolerance. These religions include, Hindu-Buddhist, Chinese Religion as well as Abrahamic monotheism.

Hindu-Buddhist

In order to indicate religious tolerance, some aspects of Buddhism have been incorporated in Hinduism. For instance, in Hinduism, Buddha is usually seen as an Avatar of Vishnu. As recorded by the Puranic text Bhagavata Purana, among the twenty-five avatars, Buddha is the twenty-fourth avatar predicting an impending incarnation.

Moreover, the majority of Hindu customs describe Buddha as the latest among the ten principal avatars that are identified as the Daśāvatāra, which means the Ten Incarnations of God (Fernandez, 2010). However, Buddha’s traditions are said to oppose the authority of the Vedas as a result of which Buddhism is regarded as heterodox school. Owing to the variety of teachings within Hinduism, there is no definite perspective or agreement on the Buddha’s precise position with regards to the Vedic tradition.

The position of the Buddha as the avatar who principally endorsed non-violence continues to be an accepted conviction in several contemporary Vaishnava organizations which include ISKCON (Stietencron, 2005). Moreover, other outstanding contemporary proponents of Hinduism, who include Vivekananda as well as Radhakrishnan, regard Buddha as an instructor of an unchanged universal truth that triggers all other religions represented in the world.

According to these proponents, Hinduism is distinctively valuable as it recognizes the fact that all religions are one. The Vaishnava sect of Maharashtra, identified as Varkari, adores Lord Vithoba. Despite the fact that Vithoba is generally viewed as form of little Krishna, for several years, there have been a strong conviction that Vithoba is a form of Buddha.

This has been echoed by several poets of the Maharashtra such as Tukaram and Eknath who have clearly referred to him as Buddha. The representation of Vithoba as an avatar of Vishnu has mostly been associated with Buddha in an effort to incorporate Buddhism within the Hindu customs.

Traditions of Buddha have also been uniquely integrated in Varkari Vaishnavism as well as the conventional Vedic values. In an attempt to explore the contemporary Hindu opinion on Buddhism, it is important to consider the question of whether, or to what extent, Buddhism is a component of Hinduism.

Even though the integrity of Hinduism, cannot be weakened in case all the exclusively Buddhist elements were left out, some Hinduism details would definitely be insufficiently elaborated or less emphasized. In most cases, the Buddhist fundamentals do not differ from the Atmanists, even though they represent a more elaborate statement of the law of causality as the indispensable mark of the world of Becoming (Stietencron, 2005).

The Chinese Religion

China is a country that is usually known for its widespread diversity in religious beliefs. The major religions in China include Taoism, Buddhism, Islam, Protestantism as well as Catholicism. According to the Chinese constitution, the citizens of the country are allowed to choose and express their religious values and affiliations freely.

According to recent research, there are approximately 100 million followers that adhere to a variety of religious faiths, at least 85,000 sites where religious functions can be held, around 300,000 clergy and more than 3,000 religious organizations in China (Fernandez, 2010). Furthermore, China has at least 76 religious schools as well as colleges which are mainly run by religious organizations guiding the clerics.

In China, Buddhism records a history of about 2,000 years. Today, the country holds 13,000 Buddhist temples which contain at least 200,000 Buddhist monks and nuns. In addition, China has about 3,000 Tibetan Buddhism temples and almost 10,000 Bhiksu and senior nuns, and not less than 1,600 temples of Pali Buddhism.

On the other hand, Taoism, is native to China, and records a history of not less than 1,700 years. Currently, the country has about 1,600 Taoist temples and not less than 25,000 Taoist monks as well as clerics. Conversely, Islam and Catholicism came into China during the seventh century.

Currently, China has at least ten national minorities, 18 million of whom come from Hui and Uygur, who mainly conform to the Islamic faith. China has a minimum of 30,000 mosques which are mainly directed by 40,000 Akhunds and Imams. On the other hand, Catholicism did not spread widely until after the Opium War in 1840.

Today, China has a minimum of four million Catholics, led by 4,000 clergy. However, Protestantism was introduced in China at the beginning of the 19th century. The religion only spread widely after the Opium War. At present, China has at least 10 million Protestants, 18,000 clergy and 12,000 protestant churches.

Furthermore, China has several religious organizations which include; Taoist Association of China, Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association, Buddhist Association of China, Islamic Association of China, China Christian Council, Three-Self Patriotic Movement Committee of the Protestant Churches of China and Chinese Catholic Bishops’ College. In China, the religious leaders as well as the leading bodies in most religious organizations are often ordained with regards to their distinctive set of laws.

In China, all the major religious activities are mainly held at designated sites or in believers’ homes in harmony with the normal religious customs such as the worship of Buddha, church going, rehearsing scriptures, praying, observing Mass, baptizing followers, monkhood instigation, fasting, commemorating religious festivals among others. In China, all these activities are protected by the Chinese constitution, the dealings of religious bodies as well as the believers and hence are not liable to be interfered with.

This notwithstanding, the 1976 Cultural Revolution in China had a devastating outcome especially on the aspect of religion. However, in an attempt to correct the mistakes of the Cultural Revolution, the Chinese government made great efforts to revitalize and execute the policy of freedom of worship.

It also rectified the unfair and false cases which had been imposed on religious personages, and revived several sites for religious activities. As a matter of fact, since 1980, above 600 Protestant churches are built annually. Moreover, by 1996 at least 18 million Bibles had been produced. This was achieved through some special tax exception treatment which hastened the publication.

In addition, at least 8.5 million hymn books have already been dispensed. Furthermore, between 1958 and 1995 128 Catholic bishops had been ordained by the Chinese Catholic church. During this period, at least 900 young Catholic priests have been teaches and persuades the religious leaders to unite all religious believers in order to dynamically contribute to the development of the country. The religious believers in China have developed a habit of loving their nation and respecting other religions.

All the different religions in China embark in serving the society and supporting the citizen’s interests. This can be seen in instances where the Buddhists engage in activities that honor the country and assist the citizens, the Catholics and Protestants worship God and support the people, the Taoists undertake compassionate, diplomatic and harmonious activities, saving the people and the Islam’s pray to Allah to reward this world at present and in future. All the Chinese religions have equivalent status and co-exist in harmony.

As a matter of fact, religious disagreements are rare in China. A big percentage of religious followers as well as the non-believers acknowledge and revere each other. For these reasons, the religions in China indicate the influence of Chinese compatibility and religious tolerance, and the implementation of the right of religious belief. China has set up a politico-religious relationship that matches to the country’s national conditions.

Abrahamic Monotheism

The term monotheism originates from the Greek term ‘monos’, which signifies one and ‘theos’, representing god. Therefore, monotheism can be described as a belief in the existence of one god. Since monotheism is based on the notion that only one god exists, those who conform to monotheism also believe that this god formed all that exists in the world and is thus entirely independent. This is what is presented in Abrahamic monotheism which comprises Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and Sikhism (Fernandez, 2010).

With regards to Islam, God is represented as undifferentiated, everlasting, incomparable and not by any means anthropomorphic. However, several of these monotheistic religions are often limited in nature. They not only believe in one god but also rebuff the existence of the gods of any religious denominations. At times, the followers of monotheistic religions view other alleged gods as elements or manifestations of their single utmost god.

However, this is rare and mainly happens when shifting from polytheism to monotheism, when explaining why other gods should be done away with. In view of Christianity, God is represented as being anthropomorphic as he is signified by three persons in one. For this reasons, monotheistic religions worship different types of gods. The main thing that they have in common is the focus on a distinct god. Abrahamic Monotheism has its source from Abraham who was Jewish.

According to the biblical book of Genesis, Abraham, together with his household, obeyed the instructions of their God whom they referred to as Yahweh. Abraham’s people developed into the people of Israel who produced Judaism, the initial monotheistic religion, and only prayed to Yahweh their god.

This was during the second millennium B.C. Later, in the first millennium CE both Christianity and Islam based their teachings upon Judaism and came up with novel religions that worshiped this god. As it expanded, Christianity spread to several parts of the world. It was mainly established around the Mediterranean Sea and then spread to Europe and into other continents in the mid-second millennium CE, during the era of colonization.

Today, Christianity has become widespread especially in North America and southern America, Australia and in some parts of Africa. On the other hand, Islam rapidly spread into the Middle East and the northern half of Africa, from where it headed eastwards, colonizing the Indian sub-continent and spread into Indonesia and Malaysia which currently composes the most crowded Muslim nation.

Currently, Christianity contains approximately one third of the world’s population, which is about 2.3 billion people. On the other hand, Islam follows with approximately one quarter of the world’s population, which comprises around1.8 billion followers. The third largest religion is Hinduism which emanated from India. The nation has approximately one billion followers which is about 14 percent of the world’s population.

The majority of Buddhists reside in Asia, and their population ranges from 300 to 350 million followers. As a result of the exclusivity that characterize monotheistic religions, they have been seen to display less religious tolerance as compared to polytheistic religions such as Hindu-Buddhist which has managed to integrate the gods and values of other denominations with relative ease. Abrahamic monotheism can only achieve this without admitting it and while refuting any authenticity or legitimacy to others’ faiths.

In conclusion, it is clear that Abrahamic monotheism comprise the largest religions in the world. Religious tolerance in these religions is limited as they are characterized by little unity as both Islam and Christianity are highly wary of each other.

Most religious groups under Abrahamic monotheism scarcely, acknowledge that they are members of the same religious body. For these reasons, Abrahamic monotheism contains several, wrangling members. On the other hand, the Chinese religions indicate more compatibility and religious tolerance which is seen through the mutual religious relationship that exists in the country.

Moreover, Hinduism and Buddhism represent immense religious tolerance as they are seen to incorporate aspects of each other’s beliefs. However, governments and religious leaders should endeavor to revitalize and execute the policies of freedom of worship and thus promote religious tolerance.

Reference List

Fernandez, F. (2011). World: Brief history. New York: Prentice Hall, Inc.

Stietencron, H. (2005). Hindu myth: Hindu history. New York: Prentice Hall.

While there is no particular unequivocal commandment in the holy books that states ‘thou shall not permit intolerance’, it is without doubt that religious tolerance on values, truth and beliefs is yet to be realized since it is the nature of religions to compete. Studies indicate that the capacity religions have been massively affected by competition, religious condemnations and conflicts.

Carlos argues that religious tolerance is an important component that encompasses a moral reason by a particular religion to practice restraint from making counterproductive utterances or interfering with the affairs of other religions (777).

Different religions have diverse sets of beliefs and practices. This has bred lack of tolerance. It is from this consideration that this paper provides an in-depth analysis of Abrahamic, East Asian and South Asian religions with regards to the concept of religious tolerance.

A brief analysis of the concept of religious tolerance

Perhaps, Costa was correct when he indicated that a society will never be successful until it addresses fully the problem of religious tolerance among different religions (322). Religious differences in terms of practices and beliefs have been major causes of conflicts and religious disagreements in countries like Bosnia, Beirut and Belfast for many years.

Of critical importance is the distressing issue of terrorism by Al Qaeda that has projected wars on a global scale. It is indeed true that religious tolerance and the problem of religious diversity present a major danger to individuals, societies and the world at large.

This springs from certain religions which view themselves as better and more advanced than others (323). Owing to this peculiar alignment, these religions develop specific standards that are mostly used to define them from others and use it as the main platform for judging others. At this point, analysts tend to wonder why a religious group would disregard others and holistically undermine the need for diversity.

Theologians and philosophers almost unanimously agree that religious diversity and tolerance present a challenging problem that poses epistemological challenges. The major world religions such as Islam, Christianity, Judaism, Buddhism and Hinduism have different belief systems which make them unique. This presents major challenges as addressed below.

Abrahamitic religions

Abrahanmic religions as Neal posits is a group of monotheistic faith whose beginning can be traced from Abraham and which emphasizes spiritual practices of Abraham (497). Some of the Abrahamic religions include Islam, Christianity and Judaism. The latter believe that religious practices and beliefs sprang from Abraham’s grandson named Jacob. It views God in a strictly unitary manner and prefers the Hebrew Bible.

On the other hand, Christianity evolved into a religion from Judaism with its own set of practices and beliefs. Christianity as a religion is considered to be a belief system based on the life and teachings of Jesus. These teachings found in the Bible show God’s saving plan for humanity through Jesus Christ.

In this belief system, Christians are also made to believe that demons and angels exist and that they (Christians) are partners with God in accomplishing God’s purposes. Finally, Islam is a religion which as formed in the 7^th century BC in Arabia (Carlos 777). Its adherents who are the Muslims, believe in the ultimate authority, teachings and practices of the Quran ad Muhammad.

While Abrahamic religions share certain similarities like monotheistic believes and a regard of God as the supreme source of moral law, it is without uncertainty that they exhibit different fundamental doctrines, beliefs and practices through which they can mobilize philosophical arguments.

For instance, Christian practices and beliefs such as mystical virtuosi and mundane experiences differ with that of Islam which does not believe in the Holy Spirit, a consideration which each religion justifies from its source of moral law.

Besides, Christian practices of forced conversion such as those practiced by the Roman Catholic Church goes against the practices of other religions and do not only offend human dignity, but also pollute the religion (Schmidt-Leukel 379). Muslims believe in proselytizing their religion and forcefully spread it to an extent of killing those who reject their faith through holy wars (Husin, Malek and Gapor 113).

Judaism unlike Christianity rejects explicit missionaries and believes that righteousness comes from adhering to Noahide laws (Husin, Malek and Gapor 113).These differences among others present vexing challenges to tolerance and pitch one religion as an unvanquished rival to the rest.

East Asian and South Asian religions

East Asian religions are a group of religions considered to be distinct religions families forming the subset of Eastern religions. Some of the religions in this group as indicated by Schmidt-Leukel include Chinese, Mahayana Buddhism, Confucianism, Chongdogyo, Chen Tao, Shinto, Caodaism and Taoism (379). It is imperative to point out that their philosophies, practices and concepts are based on Tao.

Studies reveal that while the East Asian Religious practices differ with those of major religious groups, they bear some semblance with those of the Indian religions and Abrahamic religions. Even so, Costa argues that this does not mean that members of the Abrahamic religion tolerate East Asian religions as they exhibit major peculiarities (323).

One of them is their non-theistic or polytheistic nature with other varieties like agnostic, panestheistic and henostheistic in Asia and abroad. While most of the East Asian religions find their tolerance of each other on Tao, other religions find it difficult to embrace and tolerate their practice such as emptiness, relativism and spontaneity in Taoism and belief in animistic spirits in Confucianism.

On the other hand, South Asian religions such as Hinduism and Buddhism have been considered by many analysts as dynamic and vibrant religious faith in the world today due to the fusion of non-Verdict Shramana traditions of native south Asia with the verdict religion of Indo-Aryan.

An analysis of religious tolerance

The ability of religions or adherents of different religions to display tolerance despite their diversity in practices and beliefs is one of the key platforms towards greater cooperation, adherence, holistic contribution by all and eventual growth and development of a society.

Minimizing religious conflicts has been considered by Quinn as a main principle that could facilitate a new outline towards a highly united society at the local and national level (136).

In agreement, Quinn’s indication that addressing problems affecting religious tolerance requires a holistic involvement at all levels in world religions appears to cohere with that of Schmidt-Leukel who indicates that it is the dark cloud of religious wars that has over the years suppressed the ability of the individuals and the society to progress (379).

One such difference as already indicated in the paper is the practice by Christians of forceful conversion and the Jihad of Muslims or their forceful spread of Islamic beliefs. However, analysts appear divided over the actual methods that could be employed in addressing the problem.

Up to date, most religions that do not share beliefs and practices have failed to tolerate each other and instead referred to others as alien and their practices as ridiculous. Take for instance the perspective held by Christian that they are the religion that is closer to the truth than others (Husin, Malek and Gapor 113).

This not only creates the notion of competition and pride, but sets other religions as inferior. The Muslims on the other hand, are persuaded by their belief to slay unbelievers through acts of war, a consideration that makes other religions to recoil with horror. This has led to religious discrimination mostly witnesses between Christians and Muslims.

As if that is not enough, Quinn pillories that the trial to infer balance and tolerance between one religion and another has remained a hard nut to crack (137).

However, it is the resilience of wars between religious facts that has remained a thorn in the fresh for long. In the Middle East, Husin, Malek and Gapor indicate that both Muslims and Christian consider themselves be superior and therefore invoke major conflicts in the region (112).

Further on religion, Quinn accuses the followers advocating water while they take wine by failing to adhere to doctrines of brotherliness and care for others as advocated for by Christ, Gautama and Mohammed in Islam (139).

Conclusions

From the discussion, it is clear that different religions have various practices and beliefs that govern them. These differences have largely contributed towards the challenge of religious tolerance since each religion seems to idealize its practice and regard others as inferior.

There is need for religions to desist from condemning and criticizing practices and belief systems held by others. Instead, there is need to cultivate respect, understanding and tolerance.

Works Cited

Carlos, Valderrama Adrians. “Tolerance and religious freedom: the struggle in Peru to tolerate multiple cultures in light of principles of religious freedom.” Brigham Young University Law Review 2007.3 (2007): 775-790. Print.

Costa, Gustavo. “John Locke, Toleration and early enlightenment culture: religious intolerance and arguments for religious tolerance in early modern and ‘early enlightenment’ Europe.” Renaissance Quarterly 60.1 (2007): 322-3223. Print.

Husin Azrina, Nor Malina Malek and Salfarina, Abdul Gapor. “Cultural and religious tolerance and acceptance in urban housing: a study of multi-ethnic Malaysia.” Asian Social Science 8.2 (2012): 112-118. Print.

Neal, Lynn. “The first prejudice: religious tolerance and intolerance in early America.” Journal of Church and State 53.3 (2011): 497-499. Print.

Quinn, Philip L. “On religious diversity & tolerance.” Daedalus 134.1 (2005): 136-139. Print.

Schmidt-Leukel, Perry. “Beyond tolerance: towards a new step in inter-religious relationships.” Scottish Journal of Theology 55.4 (2002): 379-391. Print.

Introduction

Religion is a diverse subject and sensitive in the world today. The awareness of the roles religion play in the lives of humans is not a new thing but has been exemplified even by American founding fathers. Academic approach to religions is an important and completely different from the instructional classes one receives from theological institutions and from ones’ religious classes.

Our world view is shaped by our cultural and religious perceptions and as a result, it becomes difficult for us to see how our inherent religiousness, which seems to find a comfortable fit when we look into our own respective faiths, may have evolved into something completely different and strange in someone else’s religion.

Studying other people’s religions therefore is not a simple task and requires a lot of tolerance for these religions meaning that one has to see the possibility of the other person’s religion to be as true as his/ her religion. This is an important factor if we are to live in this world of diverse religions peaceably. The purpose of this paper is to explore the subject of religious tolerance and its usefulness in the academic approach to the religious phenomenon.

Hinduism

The cultural practices of the Hindus sate back to 1500 BCE but the use of the word Hindu came into use much later. The history of Hinduism dates back to 3000 BCE following a cultural encounter of two groups of people who were among the first to settle in the Indus River Valley. The religious practices synthesized by this group became what today is known as Hinduism.

In addition, the contemporary Hinduism though it has its roots in Vedas has evolved into a completely different system. This system does not only incorporate Hinduism but also other religions such as Islam and Christianity, which have found their way into the Indian society. According to Huston, India has turned into a home of many exiles whereby most of them are Tibetan Buddhists (1991, p. 150). Dalai Lama is the exiles’ leader.

The history of Buddhism date back millennia ago. Buddhist teaching give little or no explanation for the creation. It starts with the a priori position that everything in this world is transient and without permanence, which goes against the Moksha goal of the Upanishads, which places its faith in the reality of permanent self or Atman that transcends death, and its ultimate identity with the supreme Self Brahman.

Buddhist approach therefore pays more attention on the process of how to attain spiritual freedom, or Nirvana through voluntary human effort. In explaining how one can attain Nirvana Buddhism provides Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path (Huston,1991, p. 158). The four noble truths include: 1) all life is suffering, 2) All suffering, according to the Buddha arises from Tanha (desire or craving in Pali): Humans, prompted by their insatiable desire, long for ever-newer experiences to satiate their senses. Unaware of the ever-changing nature of the world, people inevitably suffer disappointment when their wishes fail, 3) that suffering should cease if desiring ends and lastly that It is possible to stop desiring by following the eightfold path prescribed by Buddha.

It gives a path intended to end human suffering. This path entails right livelihood, view, speech, concentration and conduct among other key aspects for ending suffering. This path seems like a behavioral model designed to transform oneself into a better person intellectually, morally, and emotionally.

Chinese Religious Traditions

It is important to note that geography seem to have nurtured the development of human cultures through ages and across the globe. In Chinese history, there are two rivers that have played significant roles are the Yellow (Huang Ho) River in the North, and the Yangtze River in the south. Archeological evidence suggests that the Yellow River was the lifeline nurturing the ancient human settlements in East Asia (Huston, 1991, p.89).

Traditional Chinese history tells us that another ruling family called the Xia preceded the Shang rulers. Furthermore, the two prominent political cultures of ancient China that succeeded the Shang, namely the Zhou, and the Han, may have looked back at the Shang, to model their own political systems. Historians locate the emergence of Confucianism and Taoism as organized systems of thought in the later part of the Zhou rule. It is important to note that these two systems pay considerable attention to improving human behavior.

The Chinese Concept of Kingship has a paramount relationship with religious authority. The concept combines three factors, ancestral worship, and long periods of rule by a particular dynasty, and the recognition of the family as the primary social unit that can teach us how to behave (Huston, 1991, p.120).

This explains why the reigning monarch would be considered the rightful worshipper not only for his family, but also for society. In this case, government would be an extension of a large family, where the king as the head of the household, as well as the head of the kingdom would be the undisputed authority over his subjects.

In many ways, the Taoist worldview complements the Confucian perspective. Whereas Confucianism mainly focuses on promoting ethical order and harmony within human society, Taoism sets its views on the way of Cosmos, and Nature, and therefore emphasizes individual spirituality (Huston, 1991,p.126).

Taoist philosophy emphasizes several points, which include achievement of intuitive harmony with the primal nature of the universe is the final goal, that Tao is the name for the overarching cosmic order: It is a fundamental metaphysical category, beyond characterization through language (note difference in meaning from Confucianism) and that Tao is the traditional Chinese expression of mystical thought. It is an intuitive and direct experience of the total and unitary reality, which can never be sufficiently analyzed or described.

Abrahamic Monotheism

History, for Judaism, is neither an illusion, nor a circular process of nature, nor is it coequal to God. Instead, it is the arena of God’s purposeful activity, and is under his absolute command. The Hebrew Bible, unlike the Vedas, Upanishads, the Tripitakas, or the Confucian and Taoist texts, is organized according to a specific chronological order (Goldberg & John,1989,p.327).

The era of the Babylonian exile, and the subsequent return of the exiled population to Jerusalem during 6th through 5th century B.C.E., is an important age in the history of Judaism as it marks the transformation of the tradition from a temple-centered worship of God to a congregational worship under the guidance of a Rabbi in a synagogue.

Christianity developed its separate identity by the end of the first century C.E., and became the imperial religion by the fourth century. The ancient Christian Church, often referred to as the Catholic Church, broke into the Latin and the Greek factions by the eleventh century. Since then it is the Latin Church (called the Roman Catholic Church), centered in Rome, which has played a central role in developing Medieval Europe’s religious and social institutions.

In the sixteenth century, the Roman Catholic Church again faced a crisis, which led to the rise of Protestantism. Christianity, from very early on, had emphasized a commitment of faith in the figure of Jesus as the Savior. Prior to Emperor Constantine’s recognition of the tradition, creedal statements were often used to proclaim one’s commitment to this faith and one’s membership in the believing community.

Christianity used creedal statements, which includes the apostles and the Nicene Creeds. While named the Apostle’s Creed, there exists no evidence, that apostles ever used this particular version. The Nicene Creed, a second version of the creedal statement presented here is from a later era, first formulated at the Council in Nicea in 325 C.E., but ratified in its present form in 381 C.E.

Another aspect of Christian tradition that came to its own during the first few centuries of the Common Era is the tradition of Asceticism. The ascetic tradition preference may be because it focused on spiritual seeking (a life of hardship, and strict discipline) may have appealed to certain members of the Christian community and that some of the early ascetics may have had an apocalyptic aim, trying to prepare them for the impending Kingdom of God (Esposito et al., 2002, p. 417). Other reasons are that during the second and third century of Christian persecution, solitary life in the desert may have become an alternative to martyrdom and that renouncing luxury and wealth may have been a statement of one’s voluntary acceptance of the Christian ideal.

Another important era in Christianity history is the rise of Protestantism. Many history books focus on the theological position of the German monk Martin Luther and his differences with the Catholic Church on the corrupt practice of the sale of indulgences as one of the major reasons behind the rise of Protestantism (Esposito et al, 2002, p. 417).

Some of the causes may include the increased political and economic power of many rulers of northern Europe as their maritime expeditions led to the founding of new colonies outside Europe. Their newly acquired powers prompted them to challenge the political and religious authority of the Pope based in Rome and the immense wealth of the Church and the corrupt behavior of many Church officials may have fueled the public indignation against the institution.

Conclusion

Religion is a basis of human life in a way and can be distinguished to have a universal aspect. This universal aspect of religion is not unique to the Eastern traditions, it can be found in the hymns and writings of all religions, including Christian saints and Jewish mystics as well. This universal aspect of the religious impulse forces us to explore the possibility for a biological basis of religious sentiment. For this reason, it is important for people, who study the academic approach to this phenomenon, to step out of their forms of belief so that they can understand the other people’s beliefs better. This does not necessarily mean the abandoning of one’s faith but giving an opportunity to view religion from another side, an aspect that will give a deeper understanding and thus creating a more peaceable community.

References

Esposito, J., Darrell F., & Todd L. (2002). World Religions Today. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Goldberg, D. J., & John D. R.(1989). The Jewish People: Their History and their Religion. London: Penguin Books.

Huston, S. (1991). The World’s Religions: Our Great Wisdom Traditions, Rev. Edition. UK: Harper.

Introduction

Religious tolerance is imperative in modern societies because it allows people with separate faiths, beliefs or values to coexist with one another. Acknowledgment of the validity of other people’s religions requires placing these different religions in their traditional contexts in order to understand them.

Furthermore, understanding the history of other cultures allows one to appreciate how similar experiences led to different conceptual systems. One must realize that people created their belief systems in order to make sense of their worlds or the chaos around them. Therefore, every religion is reflective of the culture and history of its followers.

Hindu-Buddhism

In order to become religiously tolerant, one must familiarize oneself with the history of this religion. The Hindu pattern is again evidence of the fact that all religions are depictions of the experiences of the people involved and the conceptual systems that they deduced from them.

The Hindu religion has more than one holy text, more than one religious authority, several deities, theological systems and understandings of morality. Adherents of this religion are highly tolerant because of its henotheistic nature. Nonetheless, most followers still believe in one Supreme Being who manifests his powers through different divinities.

Central aspects of Hinduism include Vishnu (the preserver), Brahma (the creator) and Shiva (the destroyer). Belief in the cycle of life i.e. the Samsara is central to the teaching of these adherents. However, it is possible for one to achieve enlightenment and thus escape this cycle. Many assert that one’s present life stems from the consequences of one’s past life.

This religion has four major doctrines that include dharma (righteousness in religion), artha (economic success) and kama (sense gratification) and nivritti (renunciation of the world). The latter is achieved through renunciation of the world in a process called moksha. Mankind’s supreme goal is to reach moksha.

Therefore, moksha is a solution of samsara. It is derived from the Buddhist faith. Doctrines from the latter religion were crucial in resolving complications in this religion. All these concepts can be traced back to the history of the Hindu religion. By dissecting the experiences of the Hindu people, one can understand why they came to follow their present practices and this should foster religious tolerance among non Hindus (Esposito et al., 2002).

The Hindu religion began as far back as 4000 BCE in the Indus Valley. It began with the Indus valley culture, which was held by native Indians. Thereafter, some Aryan tribes from Central Asia and Europe entered India and introduced Vedism. Since their immigration was done slowly or in waves (according to recent scholarly discoveries), most natives easily took up the Aryan religious with ease. This explains how the latter religion started amalgamating different belief systems. The Vedic belief system underwent various changes between 900 and 500 BCE. At first, the religion began with an emphasis on sacrificial rites. Emphasis was on perfecting people’s performance of the rites. However with time, some intellectuals decided that focusing too much on the rites instead of the wisdom associated with them was wrong.

They were called the Upanishads, and they introduced the focus on total dissociation from society in order to reach ultimate spirituality. They challenged the original structures of the Vedic religion because the latter was highly organized around sacrifices and priestly rituals. The priests who performed these rites were called Brahmans. They represented the capacity of the human to possess divine power.

When the Upanishads introduced their concept of total detachment from society or moksha, the Brahmans felt that this would threaten the organization of their society. As a result, they proposed a middle way in which one could strive towards moksha but still maintain the social hierarchies in society. It should be noted that the priestly class of the Brahmans arose earlier on in the Vedic faith because of some fire rituals that the Vedic believers carried out.

These rituals yielded successful results and led to the belief that their priests had a superior status. The Upanishads wanted to internalize the ritualistic process, hence their shift to the individual. This belief in developing the spiritual self led to the acceptance of moksha as a solution towards the problem of cyclical life (Fallows, 1998).

Thus far, one can appreciate why Hinduism has a hierarchical system that places the priestly class above all others. This was a way of preserving order in their society. One can also appreciate why the religion appears to be polytheistic. The god of fire and other gods were manifestations of a supreme being. One can also comprehend why these adherents believe in moksha; it provides them with a mechanism for solving the problems of this life.

It also gives them something to aspire to or work towards. This small history, therefore, heightens religious tolerance because it places these belief systems in context and establishes the experiences that led to their development. Some of them were social (entry of the Aryans into the Hindu culture), others were intellectual (internalizing rituals) while others were economic (preservation of social order for material prosperity).

Chinese religions

In China, some people practice Taoism, others Confucianism and others believe in Buddhism. Certain followers combine elements of all three faiths. The experiences of members of these cultures also provide important insights concerning the influence of people’s experiences in the development of their belief system. By placing those occurrences in context, one can then gain religious tolerance of adherents of these faiths even though one does not ascribe to any of them.

In Confucianism, most adherents believe that social harmony is the most important goal (Hopfe & Woodward, 2004). This school of thought was started by Confucius. He lived at a time when his society was struggling with the reinforcement of laws. Confucius thought about the ineffectiveness of coercive laws.

People simply followed them without really understanding them. This meant that the method was reactive rather than proactive. The intellectual proposed that if people internalized behaviors before acting, then they would act in an appropriate manner. In this regard, they would abide by their mutual obligations, and thus prevent the occurrence of disorder in that society.

Confucius, therefore, created the concept of mutual relationships and the need to respect one another. From this small history, one can understand why loyalty, etiquette and humanness are so important in the Confucian faith today. It was an attempt at creating social harmony by ensuring that everyone understood his place. Through education and personal effort, it was possible for people to become better.

In the Taoist school of thought, it is held that the ideal way of life is to accept things as they are. When one resists nature, then one actually causes things to get worse. It is in line with this thinking that Taoists believe in the Ying and Yang.

One represents the strong and hard force and the other represents the soft and feminine force. Therefore, by finding a balance between these forces in the universe, then calmness will prevail. The Taoist faith came after the Confucian school of thought. Confucianism taught about personal involvement and striving to become better.

However, subsequent intellectuals realized that they needed a new way of thinking that promoted greater peace and harmony. They lived at a time when there was too much active striving as seen in the warring era. Therefore, it was imperative to introduce the concept of yielding to nature. In this school of thought, it was argued that there was a force of life called Tao that flows everywhere.

One’s major goal was to be in harmony with the Tao. Through the use compassion, moderation and humiliation, one can develop important virtues. Most problems arise when one tries to fight or interfere with the Tao by acting in opposition to nature. One must strive to find answers within through meditation. The story of the emergence of Taoism demonstrates that experiences are crucial to the formation of one’s belief systems.

It was a response to the challenges of Confucianism and the social upheavals it had created. Too much active strive led to war in that community; this prompted an alternative way of thinking. Once again, one can become tolerant to this religion by realizing that it was a natural creation of the political and social problems of that time. Taoism complemented Confucianism in this society. In fact, many individuals abide by the principles of both these faiths.

They epitomize religious tolerance because they understand that belief systems carry a certain purpose in one’s society or one’s history. The same reasoning allows one to understand why Buddhism plays an important role in the Chinese society as well as many others in Asia. It is philosophical in nature and has generated minimal conflict with other faiths hence its acceptance (Keown, 1996).

Abraham monotheism

Judaism, Islam, and Christianity are the three main religions that have come to be associated with Abraham monotheism. A large part of Christian scriptures have been adopted from the Jewish faith. Similarly, many parts of the Islamic faith have stories or portions from the Jewish scriptures. In order to enhance religious tolerance, it is imperative to look at the history of the formation of these faiths in order to understand why their adherents hold the beliefs that they do.

Judaism is a religion in which people believe that they have a special relationship with God. This stems from the fact that they are a chosen people, having descended from Abraham. God gave them a gift of laws called the Torah to assist in maintaining their relationship with him and with one another.

The Jews have been misunderstood by many as a ritualistic and legalistic religion as seen through their scriptures, which are called Torah (interpreted as laws). In order to negate these misunderstandings, one must understand why the Jews called their scriptures the Torah.

The Jews think of themselves as God’s special people. It is believed that in order to promote harmony with God, they needed some guidance. Also, God needed to give them a commentary on how they could act towards one another; this was the reason why he gave them the guidance of the Torah.

Therefore, one can become tolerant of this religion by understanding the origin of their ritualistic practices. Judaism is also a religion that is highly diverse. The diversity stems from some cultural and theological experiences of members of this religion. Some individuals resettled along the Mediterranean or other parts of Europe and thus created their own version of the religion.

Conversely, some individuals understood the rituals and religious practices differently. These theological differences led to the birth of reconstructionists, reform Jews, Liberal Jews, Orthodox and Conservative Jews. Therefore, a cultural dissection of the Jewish religious system allows one to understand it. In this regard, one can accept adherents of the faith based on the premise that their history and their values led them to that place.

Christianity is the most predominant faith in the world today. In the US, most citizens associate themselves with some form of Christianity. It is still necessary to understand the development of Christianity in order to foster tolerance among the various sects if one happens to be a Christian or to build tolerance for non Christians.

The Christian faith began when Jesus of Nazareth was born in Jerusalem; a Jewish community. He was regarded as the incarnation of God as he was his son. This was seen through the fulfillment of prophecy as well as his life on earth – he performed miracles and did other divine things.

After he died and resurrected, the first Christian church officially began. Therefore, for non Christians, it is possible to understand why Christians focus on Jesus; they believe that he was God living amongst men. Furthermore, Christianity is monotheistic because having such a supreme being is the only consistent way to understand what their Holy Scriptures say about nature and the universe.

Conclusion

Religious tolerance can be effectively promoted when one understands the experiences and the history of the people who abide by them. Hindu-Buddhism, Chinese religions and Abraham Monotheism all emanated from a series of events or encounters that shaped those faith systems.

Some issues were political such as the warring states in China and Taoism; others were social such as the need to stick to certain social structures as in Hinduism. In essence different experiences led to different conceptual frameworks hence religions. It is this statement that makes religious tolerance possible.

References

Esposito, J. Fasching, D. and Lewis, T. (2002). World Religions Today. Oxford: OUP

Fallows, W. (1998). Religions East and West. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace Publishers

Hopfe, M. & Woodward, R. (2004). Religions of the World. London: Pearson-Prentice hall

Keown, D. (1996). Buddhism: a very short introduction. Oxford: Oxford University press

Introduction

Problem

According to the critics, the zero-tolerance policing style will be unsuccessful for the reason that its application obliterates a number of significant fundamentals for a thriving community policing such as police responsibility, honesty, and community support (Pickering, 2004). Opponents of this policing style believe that such a strategy ignores inquiry on a case-by-case basis. Therefore, it may lead to unfairly cruel penalties for offenses that may not merit such punishments in real life. Another problem associated with this type of policing is that it offers law enforcers with diminutive judgment in dealing with criminals. Therefore, zero-tolerance policing might forbid the law enforcers from making the penalty appropriate for the misdeed.

Why is this issue so important?

Zero tolerance policing is worth studying because the issue affects all citizens. By studying it, it can be revealed whether the policing style is appropriate in ending the current escalating crimes in our society. Equally, through the study, it will be known whether the policing style infringes on citizens’ rights protected in the US constitution. Based on the above illustrations, it is apparent that all citizens should care about Zero policing. The findings obtained from this study may be used in improving the efficiency of zero tolerance policing or in deciding whether to abolish the policing style.

Independent and dependent variables

During the research process, the independent variables are the punishments set out by zero-tolerance policing. The dependent variables will be the crimes and offenses being affected by the penalties stipulated.

Research questions

1. What is the effectiveness of zero-tolerance policing in comparison to other policing styles?
2. What are the major issues associated with zero tolerance community policing?

Research and null hypotheses

Just like any other research process, this research contains research and null hypotheses. Research hypothesis presumes that a relation between the punishment resulting from implementing community policing and crimes targeted by the punishments exists. The research’s null hypotheses state that there is no relationship between the penalties stipulated through community policing and the rate of crimes targeted by the penalties.

Literature Review

A number of literature reviews have been documented on zero-tolerance policing. Five literature reviews were utilized in the research. Their reliability had to be checked to ensure that they were scholarly. Evaluating the reliability of these sources involved a number of processes, and one of them was to look at whether the article or source is peer-reviewed or not.

One of the researches done on zero-tolerance policing investigates the outstanding decrease in murder rates in New York City from the year 1991 to the year 1997 (Bowling, 1999). The author does not attribute this success to the implementation of the zero-tolerance policing style. In the study, Bowling notes that evidence that transformed the policing model was incidental. Between the years 1990 and 1991, the rate of homicide in New York was very high (Bowling, 1999).

However, the rates began to reduce when thorough policing changes were implemented. Bowling attributes the rise in murder cases in the city between the years 1985 and 1991 to the increase in trade in cocaine. From the 1990s, radical police reforms reduced the illegal cocaine trade within the city (Bowling, 1999).

He believes that the reduction in crime rates and murder rates during the late 20^th century was because of changes in policing styles. He does not state the specific policing style that is attributed to this success (Bowling, 1999). Instead, he refutes claims attributing the success to zero-tolerance policing. He argues that the New York story has been abridged and over-sold. He believes that zero tolerance is unsuitable for the radical police reforms that transformed the town (Bowling, 1999).

Another literature done on zero-tolerance policing refutes Bowling’s concepts (Greene, 1999). Greene argues that zero-tolerance policing in New York City is behind the decrease in its crime rates. He believes that Mayor Rudy Giuliani’s reforms have won the war against crime in most of the American cities (Greene, 1999). Greene noted that the number of complaints launched against the policing style has increased over the years (Greene, 1999).

The citizens and the opponents of zero tolerance policing argue that the style infringes the Law Enforcement Code of Conduct. The International Association of Chiefs of Police signed the law into law in the year 1979 (Greene, 1999). As such, the law asserts that the basic roles of a law enforcer are attending to the community, protecting lives and possessions, safeguarding the blameless, maintain peace, and guaranteeing liberty rights and fairness.

The above code necessitates that law enforcers behave in a polite and just manner. Through this, they should protect and treat public members with admiration by never using unnecessary power (Greene, 1999). According to the citizens, the zero-tolerance policing style will ultimately be unsuccessful for the reason that its application obliterates a number of significant fundamentals for a thriving community policing such as police responsibility, honesty, and community support (Greene, 1999).

An evaluation of felony rates, arrest figures, and citizens’ grievances in New York with those in San Diego indicates that zero-tolerance policing is an effective way of controlling crime. The study does not rule out the few negative impacts of the policing style (Greene, 1999). Notably, in San Diego, a thorough community-policing plan has been put in place.

They are researching the Criminal Justice Series, like the other literature, analyses the effect of zero-tolerance policing in the US (Millings, 2009). The author tries to illustrate the importance of implementing a zero policing style in our societies (Millings, 2009). He notes that the style seems to possess statistically important prevention effects on the figures of documented assassinations, rapes, and thefts. Other than overemphasizing how zero policing was created, the author reveals the basic principles behind the revolution of the policing style that has changed society (Millings, 2009).

The author points out that the revolution was made possible by increasing the number of law enforcers on the streets, addressing the disorders and minor offenses, and increasing surveillance over hot spots. He asserts that within two years of the implementation of the above practices in New York City, the rate of crime decreased (Millings, 2009). Similarly, the changes enhanced the law enforcers’ morale. Despite its benefits, Millings believes that there should be caution when implementing the policing style to reduce their negative effects (Millings, 2009).

In the article Community Policing or Zero Tolerance, Lum examines how countries have democratized their police departments through Zero tolerance policing (Lum, 2009). He asserts that from the 1970s, over 59 countries have undergone key political changes from totalitarianism towards egalitarianism and more tolerant modes of authority. He highlights the many transformations that have taken place in the law enforcement agencies because of the new policing style. Lum notes that this period has offered prospects for scholars to examine how key transformations in the political setting influence a nation’s policing style (Lum, 2009).

Through this, he analyses the connection between democratizing law enforcers’ approaches, choices, and attributes. His findings illustrate the outcomes of a pilot study of 300 law enforcers from 22 transitioning countries inquiring about their likings to two dissimilar approaches of crime deterrence, community-focused law enforcement programs, and zero-tolerance policies (Lum, 2009). The outcomes illustrate that the law enforcers from the more democratic nations have a tendency to have robust relative likings to community-focused policing over zero-tolerance policing (Lum, 2009).

In his article, Grabosky analyses the history of zero-tolerance policing. He analyses how the policing style was developed in the US (Grabosky, 1999). He believes that zero-tolerance policing in New York City is behind the decrease in its crime rates. Similarly, he focuses on the manner in which a zero-tolerance policing system is being done now and how different factors have come into interplay to enhance community unity in America.

He found out that the impacts of this policing style in different countries differed. For instance, he notes that the way Australians perceive zero tolerance is not the way the Americans perceive the policing style (Grabosky, 1999). To him, Australians expect all their crime issues to be solved with the implementation of the policing style. He points out that zero policing has a few disadvantages that the public must be willing to embrace.

In this respect, he asserts that cautious monitoring and assessment measures should accompany the style (Grabosky, 1999). Through this, he believes that its negative effects do not outshine the policing style’s implementation, time, and place. He also insists that zero-tolerance initiatives should be assessed in terms of their long-standing and temporary effects on individuals arrested for offenses and in society (Grabosky, 1999).

Research Methodology

Explanation of independent and dependent variables

As indicated above, this research’s independent variables are the punishments set out by zero-tolerance policing. The dependent variables are the crimes and offenses being affected by the penalties stipulated. To achieve our objectives, appropriate instrumentation tools will be selected to measure the variables. Punishment is defined as the authoritative obligation of something unwanted upon a person or a crowd in reaction to deeds that the law considers intolerable or an infringement of some custom. The unwanted burden may include a sentence, fine, or imprisonment.

Equally, the burden may include the taking away of something enjoyable or advantageous to the offender. On the other hand, crime is defined as an illegal act punished by a state. In modern criminal justice, the terminology does not have any straightforward and collectively conventional classification. However, legal definitions have been provided for specific uses. The most accepted definition is that crime is a grouping formed by law. For example, some acts are crimes because the law considers them under crime categories.

To measure the effects of punishments or penalties, a questionnaire will be adopted to determine how people react or feel about them. Equally, the effects of penalties can be found by looking at the rate of crime from the time the punishments were stipulated. In the questionnaire, the citizens and the offenders will be asked to detail their penalty perspectives. On the other part of the questionnaire, several questions measured on a five-point Linker scale will be included. Linker scale is a variable measuring tool with strongly agree, agree, undecided, disagree, and strongly disagree with options. The scale is very effective because it will indicate the extent to which the public perceives the penalties put in place.

To measure the rate of crime, the researchers would collect data from the police stations. The data will indicate the current and past crime statistics in the community. The scale of measurement will be an ordinal scale. Reviewing crime records of community-based zero-tolerance policies put in place over the time the policies have been in place is an effective and secure method of evaluating crime rates.

Research design

A research design is a methodical plan to investigate a research problem. In class, five types of research design were analyzed. They are co-relational, field (survey), experimental, qualitative, and meta-analysis. For this type of research, field or survey research design is going to be utilized. As such, field research encompasses compilations of data outside of a lab, stores, or formal set up. The means and processes used in the fieldwork differ across researches.

For research, this information will be obtained through face-to-face interviewing and questionnaires. The questions will be directed at individuals in natural environments. Usually, fieldwork entails a variety of distinct or inconsistent methods. The methods may include casual meetings, direct inspection, and group discussions. Even though the process usually is usually categorized as qualitative research, it should be noted that at times the method might comprise of quantitative dimensions.

Data collection methods

For this study, the data will be collected through field research. The method entails acquiring public data from secure and reliable criminal justice institutions, face-to-face interviews, and questionnaires. Criminal justice institutions will provide the researchers with crucial information such as the present and the past crime reports. The sources are very efficient since they are bias-free. The face-to-face interview will require a participant to question the employees in person to collect their personal views. During the interview, the contributors will be asked to detail their penalty perspectives. The questions used during the interviews are open-ended. Equally, questionnaires will be used to collect private information from the participants.

Sampling methods

The research will entail two units of analysis. The units are the individuals and the justice or correctional facilities. The population targeted by the research comprises of all the US citizens, law enforcers, offenders, and criminal justice institutions. The research will comprise of 100 individuals from New York City. The individuals will comprise members of the public, the offenders, and the law enforcers. On the other hand, the sampling frame will comprise the list of all the individuals sampled. The individuals would be randomly selected. The scale of measurement will be an ordinal scale. The sampling criterion strengthens the study as it enables the researcher to reach the targeted participants.

References

Bowling, B. (1999). The rise and fall of New York murder: Zero tolerance or crack’s decline?. British Journal Of Criminology, 39(4), 531-554.

Grabosky, P. N. (1999). Zero Tolerance Policing. Trends & Issues In Crime & Criminal Justice. Web.

Greene, J. A. (1999). Zero Tolerance: A Case Study of Police Policies and Practices in New York City. Crime & Delinquency Journal, 45(2), 171.

Lum, C. (2009). Community Policing or Zero Tolerance?. British Journal Of Criminology, 49 (6), 788-809.

Millings, M. (2009). Researching Criminal Justice Series: Zero Tolerance Policing. Probation Journal, 56(1), 78-79.

Pickering, S. (2004). Border Terror: Policing, Forced Migration And Terrorism. Global Change, Peace & Security Journal, 16(3), 211-226.

Background

A recent article by Dewaele and Wei (231) regarding the relationship between multilingualism and personality has attracted my attention. In the article, the researchers state that tolerance of ambiguity is the tendency of an individual to see ambiguous situations as desirable or positive.

They used a survey of more than 2,000 individuals in examining the relationship between the two phenomena. In their findings, the researchers argue that monolinguals have a significantly low tolerance of ambiguity compared to the bilingual and multilingual people.

The authors admit that understanding more than three languages does not necessarily mean that an individual has a high tolerance of ambiguity. However, high scores of tolerance for ambiguity are associated with high proficiency. In their conclusion, Dawaele and Wei state that there are several psychological benefits for the people who speak more than one language, especially in language learning, especially in a person’s later life.

I think the article can change our ideas about the acquisition of foreign languages because most of us think that learning a foreign language is a waste of time and resources.

Personal conversation stream

I think the argument here is somewhat logical. Let us consider two main situations: understanding a foreign language due to social and cultural circumstance and understanding a new language due to personal efforts.

Here in Canada, we learn both French and English because of the prevailing social, cultural and geographical circumstances. Our children must learn the two languages because they live in a society where both French and English are national languages. On the other hand, learning a foreign language such as Spanish, Chinese or Arabic is rare in our country.

People with some knowledge of a foreign language are considered to be elites. I think this is true because these elites are able to integrate with foreign communities and adapt more quickly than us, because we only understand one or two languages.

In my opinion, multilingual individuals are able to live within foreign communities or in foreign countries without struggling to communicate. I think they can tolerate the social and cultural aspects of a foreign group of people because they understand what most of the foreign cultural aspects mean. How does the understanding of a foreign language help one fit in a new environment?

We should understand that language is the main social aspect that fosters understanding and the people’s ability to live with each other. While living in Japan in the 1990s, I realized the disadvantages associated with the lack of an understanding of local languages. Without knowledge of the Japanese language, I found it difficult to appreciate the social and cultural aspects of society. In particular, communication in the country was purely in the local language.

For example, I found it difficult to appreciate the local cuisine and entertainment. The cultural norms in Japan looked ambiguous to me. I think this is what Dewaele and Wei (233) were considering when studying a person’s ability to appreciate ambiguous things. I admired my colleagues who had some understanding of the Japanese language because they were able to fit in the new society.

Therefore, I think the article by Dewaele and Wei (234) attempts to describe some of the problems I experienced in Japan. This shows the existence of a strong link between tolerance of ambiguous things and knowledge of a foreign language (Dewaele and Li Wei 237).

Conclusion

In my opinion, a person with some understanding of a local language is likely to find some of the social and cultural things in a foreign country awkward or abnormal. If the person has no understanding of the people’s language, his level of appreciating the culture is likely to be low. On the other hand, if a person understands the foreign language, he is likely to appreciate the meaning of most of the cultural and social aspects of the community. Therefore, I agree with Dewale and Wei’s article.

Works Cited

Dewaele, Jean-Marc and Li Wei. ‘Is multilingualism linked to a higher tolerance of ambiguity?’ Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 16.1 (2013): 231-240. Print

The Mongol Empire was a powerful state that emerged in the 13th century due to the activities of Genghis Khan and its allies. The empire included the largest conquered territory in history, and there are many testimonies of the troops’ brutality. However, there is information about the diplomatic attempts and examples of tolerance of the Mongol people. This essay aims to consider selected examples and analyze the historical activity of the Mongol Empire.

One of the apparent pieces of evidence of the barbarism and cruelty of the Mongol army can be the Mongol conquest of the Khwarazmian Empire. After the conquest of the Kara-Khitai Khanate, the Mongol Empire happened to border the Khorezmids. There is evidence that Genghis Khan signed a peace treaty with them, but after that, Khan started a war (Atwood, 2021). The battle included the assault on critical strategic objects, such as large cities. Moreover, the inhabitants of the cities that had already been conquered witnessed the manifestation of cruelty towards them.

However, not only cruelty and killings are the infamous features of Genghis Khan. There are pieces of evidence of Khan’s justice and honesty in the division of the occupied territories and gains (Atwood, 2021). Moreover, the Mongol Empire treated its allies honestly, providing them with protection and military-technical assistance. However, it should be noted that this happened only in the case of the voluntary surrender of territories.

To conclude, the Mongol Empire is famous for its cruelty and barbaric policy. Its troops killed their enemies with remarkable brutality. However, there is data showing the diplomacy of Genghis Khan regarding its allies. It is worth mentioning that a positive attitude could be observed only in the case of surrender states.

Reference

Atwood, C. P. (2021). The rise of the Mongols: Five Chinese sources. Hackett Publishing.

Introduction

Show Boat refers to the 1927 musical with basically two acts. There is music with Jerome Kern, book as well as lyrics by Oscar Hammerstein.¹ Indeed, Oscar Hammerstein’s satirical applications within the musical play Show Boat remains a historical landmark in the entertainment industry. It equally depicts and promotes the aspects of tolerance. Drawn from Edna Ferber’s legend novel with a similar name, this musical piece follows the lives of performers as well as stagehands.

Moreover, it also follows the lives of the dock workers of the Cotton Blossom. Cotton Blossom refers to the Mississippi River show boat that existed for approximately a period of five decades. This was roughly from 1880 to 1927. A critical analysis of the musical play reveals very important prevailing themes such as racial discrimination as well as tragic, enduring love.

It is generally evident that the arrival of this musical play stirred the American musical community and has since remained remarkably recognized for its theatrical and satirical meanings with respect to tolerance.

Even presently, there still remains a great interest in the analysis of this Oscar’s great master piece and its general relation to the normal life situation. This essay thus discusses how Oscar Hammerstein idealized and encouraged tolerance through the application of satire theatrically with his musical play, Show Boat.

The Oscar Hammerstein’s Musical Play Show Boat

From the analysis of the major themes of the musical play, it can be noted that Oscar Hammerstein satirically conveyed critical information regarding racial discrimination and tragic enduring love.² Throughout the musical play, one realizes that Oscar tries to convey a message of survivorship and toil throughout one’s life. This, despite the racial prejudice issues amongst the population, is working aboard the Show Boat.

Indeed, the arrival of this musical play shed more light and became a watershed moment for most artistes within the same industry. Relative to other seemingly trivial and impracticable artistic works and presentations at that time, the Show Boat remained a drastic departure within musical story-telling, combining spectacle with seriousness. Perhaps, its satirical presentation provided the chance for analysts to note its uniqueness from other previously existing musical plays during that moment.

The full integration of song, humor as well production numbers to a solitary and inextricable artistic piece provided a hidden message of tolerance and motivation to the normal man. Particularly to the dock workers, this musical play provided a source of inspiration and encouragement making them strives to accomplish their tasks despite the hardships they were undergoing. Some notable discrimination included those based on racial prejudice.

The ability of the musical play to motivate persons heartbroken and enhance their tolerance in daily life situations was also critical. Ideally, there is an observation that Hammerstein crafted this musical piece following a long time of observation and experience with the Show Boat. The quality of this musical play remained clear and outstanding even to the eyes of the potential critics. This vibrantly communicated the un ending message of striving to success and tolerance to success for the larlgey deprived and undermined within the society.

The quality of the musical play vibrantly relayed a strong message of inspiration to the listeners. Unlike most musical plays, Show Boat seemed sentimental as well as tragic. Through this, the musical play managed to manipulate and touch people’s hearts with a sense of passion for tolerance even amidst hard times or moments.

Its most unique feature as the first real American musical play was the ability to satirically convey messages against racial prejudice. This is a striking characteristic of the musical play that reached several hearts, particularly those who were racially discriminated during those periods. The general message here was to tolerate one another despite people’s differences.

There is perhaps a lot to learn from the analysis of the plot synopsis of the musical play itself. It is seen that this story starts 47 years earlier, starting aboard a show boat, Cotton Blossom as it purposes to arrive as the river dock of the Mississippi.³ The period indicated here itself depicts a long time that can only be achieved by tolerant and patient people. It is clear how the boat is set to take a long period with people aboard.

Indeed, through presented satirically, it is notable that the 47 years on board requires a potentially tolerable person. Oscar Hammerstein’s selection of the Show Boat and the Mississippi river satirically represents the hard working environment that the dockers usually underwent during their voyages. It represents the tough environment that must be overtaken and empowered by all the workers aboard.

The musical notes themselves provide a sentimental and soothing feeling to the listeners or audience. They become encouraged by the prevailing mood and are gradually overtaken by a sensation and desire of attaining success even in hard times. Basically, this imparted tolerance and a sense of survivorship.

The introduction of the play to the highly excited crowd is a clear indication of the love that the earlier audience had for the musical play. In the beginning of the musical play, the fight between the characters and the disagreements that seize by the end illustrates a sense of acceptance as well as tolerance amongst the different groups by all the partakers. Although it doesn’t emerge automatically, one keenly notices a sense of tolerance as well as the ability to reconcile amongst the key characters of the play.

Apparently, another element of tolerance is demonstrated by the varied racial composition of the actors who frequently engage in fierce exchange and at times even fight over their differences.⁴ This is despite the fact that they are a singular community with an aim to achieve a definite goal t hat in the end is attained. The background songs remain critical in the inspiration of the audiences as w ell as characters during different hard situations as they interact with their mates.

The musical play then begins, presenting a love tight and socially sensitive demonstration of a community unified by only one goal. Characters love and get loved with others heartbroken but still are adamant to create a difference within the boat society and ensure they become more appreciated and valued by others.⁵

This aspect presents a literal message to the audience to try fitting into the society’s mainstream even in times of neglect and lost love. The presentation of the fight between the actors and branding of each with names based on shear discrimination such as “mulatto” satirically depicts the normal society and the intrigues involved in the daily lives.

The segregation of a female actor, Julie at based on her race the beginning of the play during the fight represents the pain that one was likely to face during this time in America. However, the playwright comically presents another character, Steve, who has to swallow Julie’s blood.

This act is a satirical move that shows tolerance of different groups since Steve comically admits that he is also a mulatto since he took at least “one drop of black blood” in him. The events that follow this comic presentation depict a critical theme upon a comprehensive analysis. To begin with, it is important to note the mood that prevails within the entire troupe just when Steve acknowledges the presence of black blood in him.

It is observable that the whole troupe remains sympathetic and echoes his sentiments. This is a satirical presentation of tolerance with one another despite their inadequacies or circumstances. Every action purely drives home a pure presentation of critical message of tolerance and motivation to the audience. Seemingly, it is notable that there exist few literary sources elucidating the manner in which the audience received and articulated the satirical messages presented within the musical play.

It is also observable that as the play continues, the formerly rather outrageous sheriff is forced to drop his arrest interests on Julie and Steve. This act presents a sense of tolerance with “deviants” as would be termed in that society then.

The sheriff’s ability to sympathize with Steve’s situation along with other troupe members compromises his ability to enforce law by arresting the two..the tolerance and acceptance of Steve to Julie is further demonstrated when he agrees to leave the town with Julie. Perhaps, this is with the realization that their further stay within the town or with the troupe is bound to cause more harm.⁶

The consequent hiring of Gaylord Ravenal who unfortunately loses his ticket worth in gambling demonstrates a great deal of empathy as well as tolerance. Andy, upon firing Pete, seems amused and sympathizes with Gaylord Ravenal and therefore offers him a job as the new leading man for the troupe. It is amazing how the demonstration of tolerance remains depicted in this noble action from Andy.

That despite Gaylord Ravenal’s weird gambling behavior; he is still accommodated and given a new job in the troupe as the leading man. As if this is not enough, this follows after Steve and Julie are exempted of arrest by the sheriff. The following events enable Gaylord Ravenal and Magnolia to fall deeply in love as they finally tolerate one another and propose for marriage.

Parthy’s objections towards this union can no longer work as the two seriously fall in love and proceed to marriage in Parthy’s absence. It is notable that Parthy became tolerable with their situation and could never do anything to stop the marriage. It is stated that she could not do anything despite her disapproval of Gaylord Ravenal.

The musical play continues to demonstrate various instances of tolerance as the time passes over the years even in Gaylord Ravenal and Magnolia’s marriage. Magnolia is depicted as a persistent wife of Gaylord Ravenal. This is despite the fact that Gaylord Ravenal suffers financial crisis and is no longer capable of maintaining their daughter Kim as well as the wife.

Obviously, one critically notices the tolerant nature of Magnolia through her persistence in the marriage. It is obvious that Oscar Hammerstein throughout the musical play and within critical incidences satirically brings out the theme of tolerance with each other. This is evidently indicated in every conflict and union within the play.

Magnolia herself is given a singing job in a New York club by her very friends so she can help herself financially after the husband shamefully abandons her and the daughter. In this move, the ability to accept one another and tolerate one’s situation is evidently illustrated again in the musical play. It is in this club where when Magnolia does her audition with the childhood song “Can’t Help Lovin Dat Man” that Julie’s memories are aroused.⁷

Julie, upon leaning the presence of Magnolia in the club and her situation, tactfully resigns from her position so that her childhood friend Magnolia can acquire the new position or job. It is however shocking that Magnolia though never realizes the sacrificial action and tolerance done to her by her childhood friend Julie. This obviously demonstrates a great sense of sacrifice as well as tolerance with one another.

Conclusion

Every character is able to sympathize with their friends and old acquaintances in difficult moments (Magee, 311). Later on during a new year’s eve, Andy rallies the crowd to Julie’s defense when she is overwhelmed by emotions and cannot effectively perform on stage. It is evident that such sacrifices make Magnolia a great musical star for two decades. Andy’s sacrificial nature and initiative for the reunion of broken marriages depicts a real sense of tolerance and devotion to the welfare of friends.⁸

Magnolia accepts Ravenal back despite his misdeed and individual guilt of disowning her with the child. Generally, the musical play ends in a joyous mood with unity and peace. Everyone is happy and sings to the same song and tune as they return to the show boat. Conclusively, Oscar Hammerstein’s musical play remains one of the most socially educative and sensitive ancient American plays, with a great satirical encouragement of tolerance to the audience.

Bibliography

Bradley, Edwin. The first Hollywood musicals: a critical filmography of 171 features, 1927 through 1932. New York: McFarland & Co., 2004.

Magee, Jeffrey. Irving Berlin’s American musical theater. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012.

Stempel, Larry. Showtime: a history of the Broadway musical theater. New York Norton, 2010.

Wolf, Stacy. Changed for good: a feminist history of the Broadway musical. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011.

Footnotes

¹ Jeffrey Magee, Irving Berlin’s American musical theater (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 11.

² Stacy Wolf, Changed for good: a feminist history of the Broadway musical, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 12.

³ Larry Stempel, Showtime: a history of the Broadway musical theater (New York: Norton, 2010), 56.

⁴ Jeffrey Magee, Irving Berlin’s American musical theater (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 111.

⁵ Edwin Bradley, The first Hollywood musicals: a critical filmography of 171 features, 1927 through 1932 (New York: McFarland & Co., 2004), 56.

⁶ Edwin Bradley, The first Hollywood musicals: a critical filmography of 171 features, 1927 through 1932 (New York: McFarland & Co., 2004), 303.

⁷ Larry Stempel, Showtime: a history of the Broadway musical theater (New York: Norton, 2010), 314.

⁸ Edwin Bradley, The first Hollywood musicals: a critical filmography of 171 features, 1927 through 1932 (New York: McFarland & Co., 2004), 307.

The class field trip was organized to visit the Museum of Tolerance. The Museum of tolerance (MOT) was established in 1993 by Simon Wiesenthal. Since its establishment, it has been acting as an educational center promoting and encouraging mutual understanding and respect among people of different ethnic groups. The Museum of Tolerance is located on Simon Wiesenthal plaza 9786 west Pico (southeast corner of Pico Boulevard and Roxbury drive), Los Angeles. The location is an ideal place for those interested in learning about the traditional culture and history of ancient people, giving a wide view of what happened in the past and the effect and the consequences of such acts. The main aim of choosing this museum is due to its location, easy accessibility, its conducive environment that facilitate education and different number of exhibitions offered by the museum allowing it to give a clear picture of the past, present and the future expectations. This museum has a well-organized program which aims at educating students and adults on various issues that have varying impact onto our lives.

The Museum of Tolerance educates visitors on how to overcome, avoid and prevent genocide and hatred from ever occurring at any time and to any group. According to philosophy of religion, hate is the major cause of enmity and war that has been witnessed in many countries. The Holocaust exhibition gives a general idea of how racial antagonism caused deaths too many Jews under the Nazi rule. The Museum has a-well elaborated episode of how the Holocaust took place. Within an approximation of about seventeen minutes, one is taken back to the year 1920 up to 1945 during the Nazi regime. Through a well-organized procedure one is being led through what happened during the world war two and become a witnesses of all the torched and hardship that Jews went through.

Religion teaches us to love one another and treat others as our brothers and sisters. It tries to bring out the need of promoting peace and unity among various tribes and the need to value other races diverse culture and traditional believes (Moore, and Kenneth 136). When one has visited the museum and is moved through the Holocaust episode he or she gets a clear picture of how hatred and selfishness can become a weapon of mass destruction. It is believed that the Nazi regime hated and feared Jews as they saw them as the only threat to their desire to conger and colonize the world. For the Nazi to achieve their goals they had to find ways of eliminating the Jews thus resulting into war which led to millions of deaths.

Religious culture upholds and values the life of other human beings and tries all possible means to avoid recurrence of acts of the past, such as the Holocaust. Through the teaching and experience one receives from the museum it become clear that it is our duty and also the duty of our leaders including our political and religious leaders to educate the whole world about the importance of upholding and maintain peace in the neighborhoods. The way the various countries deal with the issues of terrorism should be approached in a different point of view where diplomacy can be given the first priority instead of declaring war against the enemies. The leaders of the two nations having a controversy should seek a diplomatic way of solving the problem before engaging in military actions. The life of each and every human being no matter which race he or she originates from must be respected and preserved.

Works cited

Moore, Brooke Noel, and Kenneth Bruder, PHILOSOPHY: The Power of Ideas. 8th Ed., McGraw Hill, 2010.print.

The report is about my visit to the Museum of Tolerance in LA. I visited the museum as a part of my class project and was enthralled by the totalitarian atrocities that the history of humanity has in store. The museum is a storehouse of the relics of racism to the xenophobia that has led man to commit heinous crimes in the name of faith and belief. This essay will describe what I have seen in the museum and what I have felt and learned from my visit.

The museum’s exhibits are divided into four sections – the Holocaust section, the tolerance center, a section dedicated to Anne Frank, and the fourth that helps us trace back our familial roots (“Museum of Tolerance” par. 1 ). The section dedicated to the Holocaust especially moved me. The recreation of the café in Berlin where mannequins are shown in the café, discussing their concerns regarding the impending Nazi regime.

As we move forward in the section, we come across the fate of these people once the Nazis took over Germany. The Hall of Testimony is a burning example of the atrocities that these people faced during the Nazi regime and how they stood up against such a totalitarian regime. I was awestruck when I saw the four-page letter written by Adolf Hitler dated September 16, 1919. The letter showed how hatred had engulfed all of Hitler’s senses and he was driven by sheer abhorrence. The office of Wiesenthal shows the artifacts and original documents of Wiesenthal.

The section on Anne transported me to a different age, a different life, a different time. It seemed as if I was peeping into the life of another girl, young and innocent, yet trapped by circumstances. The dramatized recreation of Anne’s room transported me to a different space where I was Anne. I felt as if I was the girl, hiding from the Nazis, in the secret Annex. This was an exhilarating experience to be a part of Anne’s life, and in my case, be Anne.

The touchscreen gallery that provided an interactive experience for the visitors was interesting and the replica of Anne’s life provided an exhilarating experience. The infinity wall and the reproduction of the famous bookcase and the diary provided a clear window to the life of Anne Frank.

The section dedicated to Tolerance was informative and exciting. The replica of the 1950s restaurant with the kind of atmosphere and ambiance prevalent during the time enriched my knowledge and perception of the intolerance that America suffered from during the time. The issues that are highlighted in this section are drunken driving, racism, bullying, hate speeches, etc. The intolerance that Americans have shown towards their people is documented pictorially in this section. Further, the Millennium Machine provides insightful information about the abuses the children and women face even today.

The threats of terrorism that we face from religious and non-religious fundamentalist groups have been described perfectly well in the exhibits. The wall dedicated to the Civil Rights movement helped me understand many aspects of the movement that remained so far a black and white tutorial. With the aid of the pictorial exhibits, I formed a clear picture of the movement that remained entrenched in my mind. The film about Bosnia, Rwanda, and other contemporary fundamentalist countries and groups helped me gain comprehensive knowledge about the prevalent and rising intolerance.

The visit to the museum helped me understand the meaning and degree of intolerance. I realized why it is important to be tolerant of other people and why we should try to avoid a totalitarian regime and armed fundamentalism.

Work Cited

Museum of Tolerance. 2014. Web.