This essay will focus on the article The Saints and the Roughnecks by William Chambliss. It will demonstrate relevant sociological theories, perspectives and other critical concepts captured in the study. The theories addressed are social learning theory, social strain theory, and rational choice theory.
Theories
Sutherlands theory of social learning addresses the problem of white-collar criminality, which is a part of organized crime. The theory states that learned criminal behavior allows individuals to see illegal activities within the context of normative ethics. The Saints, a gang of youths take delinquent activities as normal behavior. They use the school and town environment to engage in delinquent behavior. Their self-image in the community easily allows them to get away with their deviant behaviors (Henslin, 2010).
Akers further points out that differential organization is a factor that can explain individual criminal behavior but can also tell how communities are differentially promoting deviant or no-deviant behavior (Akers, 2009). The societys view of the Saints and the Roughnecks is quite different.
The community sees the Saints as morally upright boys but only out of lark. Their performances in school are excellent, which help to conceal their deviant behavior. On the other hand, society sees the Roughnecks as headed for trouble. Their performance at school is not pleasant. Both gangs engage in criminal activities, but the society treats them differently.
The basis for individual participation in criminal groups and the crime committed is a product of a learning environment. People learn to understand criminal organizations and activities as normative. Individuals experiences and learning environment in different ways promote deviance or non-deviance behavior. The Saints and the Roughnecks obtain their delinquent behavior from their immediate environments.
In social strain theory, Agnew argues that the disjuncture between positively valued goals, opportunities, and ability to achieve those goals results in crime (Agnew, 1992). He identifies some strain, which forces individuals into crime-coping activities such as low social control, and unjust society, which creates some urge or motivation to engage in criminal-coping activities.
The strains created can lead to negative emotions, low social control, and social learning of criminal behavior. Social pressure makes the Roughnecks engage in delinquency. They are not rich boys, not well mannered, readily violent, and not performing well at school. Agnew characterizes criminal groups as appealing to those experiencing social strain. The Roughnecks use delinquency as a way to gain status and success in society.
The central premise of rational choice theory is that criminals make decisions for maximizing gains in criminal engagements. Levels of commitments in criminal activities differ depending on the risk, effort, and rewards. A person will choose the course of action that gives the best or highest returns on time and effort (Cornish and Clarke, 2002).
Factors attributed to the background of the gangs such as a psychological state of the minds, upbringing and demographic profile limit the decisions of the bands to engage in crime. Limited predisposition and information rationally control delinquency among the gangs.
Criminals consider crime as a rational course of action. Returns gained from engaging in delinquent activities extremely influence the behavior and activities of both gangs. Background factors of the bands, to a greater extent, influenced the findings of the study. The community, school and the police reacted differently to these two sets of gangs.
Conclusion
William studied two sets of gangs operating in the same environment and got different results. The townspeople, the community, and the police have different perspectives of the bands. The background, social upbringing, social status, and other factors make the gangs engage in criminal activities at various degrees and for different purposes. Bands use delinquency to achieve a given mission in life.
References
Agnew, R. (1992). Foundation for a general strain theory of crime and delinquency. Criminology, 30, 4787.
Akers, R. L. (2009). Social Learning and Social Structure: A General Theory of Crime and Deviance. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
Cornish, D. B., and Clarke, R. V. (2002). Analyzing Organized Crime. In A. R. Piquero, Rational Choice and Criminal Behavior: Recent Research and Future Challenges. New York, NY: Routledge.
Henslin, J. M. (2010). Essentials of Sociology: A Down-to-Earth Approach (9th Ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Allyn & Bacon.
The years between the early and mid-19th century saw a tremendous growth of the Middle colonies, which comprised New York, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey. A unique feature about these colonies was the population, a mixture of people with diverse ethnic and religious backgrounds. However, the Quakers dominated Pennsylvania and equally had significant influence in New Jersey ( Growth and Crisis in Colonial Society 1720-1765 79). The growth of these middle colonies created a distinctively new American way of life that influenced American political thought. The numerous religious and ethnic groups allowed for the development of an open and pluralistic political system in North American colonies. For a long time, politics in the colonies was influenced by Great Britain, which was less completive given that North American colonies lacked political freedom. Enlightened colonists, such as Benjamin Franklin influenced regional politics due to their compelling political philosophies. Hence, as the colonies adopted religious freedom, new political perspectives emerged, prompting people to challenge the status quo.
Additionally, the Enlightenment and Great Awakening movements, which occurred almost concurrently, strikingly influenced American political thought as well. The Enlightenment stressed the importance of human intellect in affecting change in society. On the other hand, the Great Awakening was a religious revival movement that emphasized embracing new spiritual worldviews. Charismatic evangelists including Jonathan Edwards, Gilbert Tennant, and the most famous George Whitefield spread the good news of the Great Awakening extensively across the North American colonies ( Growth and Crisis in Colonial Society 1720-1765 79). The preachers sermons inspired the congregation to question the authority of the clergy, religious taxes, and morality of competition for resources. The Enlightenment became deeply established in Philadelphia, with Benjamin Franklin being the American epitome of the movement. Although the two notable movements caused controversy for supporting the rebellion of the old lifestyles, many people subscribed to it as the population of the Middle Colonies grew. Gradually, the colonists applied the knowledge from Enlightenment and Great Awakening to challenge political and religious authorities. The newly inspired individuals influenced change in policies, politics, and culture in the colonies; for example, Benjamin Franklin contributed to the change in educational policies Growth and Crisis in Colonial Society 1720-1765 80). Whenever the British authorities changed, revised, or introduced new policies, the colonists could challenge since the two movements had revolutionized the way of thinking. Hence, the Enlightenment and Great Awakening played a central role in shaping the colonists ways of thinking, which significantly changed the way that the residents of North American colonies regarded the authorities.
John Winthrop outlined four distinct points to justify confiscating the ancestral Native Americans land. First, Winthrop argued that the Natives entirely depended on hunting and gathering and had no livestock to rear on the extensive territory (Winthrop). Hence, Winthrop theorized that with no cattle to feed on the vast lands, the Natives had no reason to deny the right of occupancy to the Puritans who had plans of managing and using the land appropriately. Winthrop explained how notable biblical figures such as Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob were not denied the freedom to graze their livestock in foreign lands. Winthrop opined that according to the Bible, the right to utilize land did not require any contracts (Winthrop). Second, Winthrop defended his decision to occupy Native Americans land by stating that God had killed a significant population of the Natives with mysterious illnesses rendering much of the land void of inhabitants. Third, in Winthrops view, there was sufficient land for both the Natives and the Puritans to share harmoniously. Lastly, Winthrop believed that the Natives could eventually allow them to settle in good faith. Thus, Winthrop offered compelling reasons for taking the Native American territory.
Works Cited
Growth and Crisis in Colonial Society 1720-1765 . PDF file.
Winthrop, John. But What Warrant Have We to Take That Land? 1629. PDF file.
The link between past experiences, student interest, and present learning
Students prior experience, interest, and process of thinking can influence learning due to the fact that learning is the dynamic process of shaping and reshaping thoughts based on new knowledge. These experiences influence the understanding of content area with intent consideration of information about the physical and social world. Furthermore, students prior experience uses the process of inquiry to define educational context and this can be achieved by retrieving prior knowledge available in the memory by cueing.
In establishing the link between past experiences, interest, and present learning, it will be noted that students with increased prior knowledge are faster in understanding taught courses since prior knowledge is easily retrievable and thus the present learning of the new contents are quickly linked.
This can be connected to the ongoing questioning of students understandings about the world around them. These components of inquiry relate to the very heart of naturalistic knowledge.
Additionally, from students prior experience of the environment (by asking theoretical and operational questions, making observations, developing hypotheses, engaging in experimentation and investigation, collecting and analyzing data, drawing conclusions, making inferences, and formulating new questions), the link between past experiences, student interest, and present learning will be established.
According to the research, students learn from their experience with both past and current event, knowledge, and behavior linked to gathered information (Caine & Caine, 1994). This link bridges the dualistic dimensions.
Key principles of brain-based learning
Importance of meaningful learning: Teaching by use of brain-based learning is the importance of meaningful learning. However, meaningful learning includes all necessary information required by students. This information is best understood and remembered by the students (Slavin, 2006).
Knowledge background: Knowledge based background attempts to bridge the gap between knowledge of the brain, its functioning and educational practice. The gained knowledge and practice help attain positive results.
Levels of processing: Brain-based learning emphasizes that there are levels of processing connected with how accurately knowledge is attained (Slavin, 2007). The brain processes information differently from standard information, which is less expected to be memorized (Craik & Lockhart, 1972). An example of this can be the breeding and examination of eggs with a concurrent understanding of the stages of their life cycle as they develop into chicks.
Development of neural connections: Neural connections are the concrete representation of learning. When students are taught different subjects, neural connections are formed in the brain and developed through learning, however, the more this approach is employed, the deeper the learning experience is implanted (Hardiman, 2001).
Relevance: Relevant learning consists of meaningful knowledge in order to achieve a goal (H/ardiman, 2001). Examples of this take account of practical learning actions that involve advanced thinking in solving real problems in the world.
Activating prior knowledge (schema theory): Prior knowledge is important in understanding new information. The function of prior knowledge is an element of the Schema theory, which states that content that constitutes already formulated knowledge, is less complicated to memorized (Slavin, 2007). On the other hand, current learning that does not connect to prior knowledge is harder to memorize and remember.
Why past experiences, learning, and student interests matter in lesson planning
Past experiences, learning, and student interests should be an important part of lesson planning for the teacher because it can be used as a teaching approach of addressing memorized information and thinking skills. The nature of this process is rooted in the practice of using process skills and thinking strategies.
When planning lessons, teachers should consider students prior experiences and interests because certain course contents that correspond with the actual plan of accessing information in memory helps students in their reconstructive process, by recalling some course content that is not part of the lesson plan, but consistent with the syllabus.
Reference List
Caine, G. and Caine, R.N. (1994). Making Connections: Teaching and the Human Brain. Boston, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
Craik, F.I.M., & Lockhart, R.S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11, 671-684.
Hardiman, M.M. (2001). Connecting brain research with dimensions of learning. Educational Leadership, 59(3): 52-5.
Slavin, R.E. (2006). Educational psychology: theory and practice (8th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.
The jury typically comprises citizens without a background in law. Consequently, people may apply emotions and countertransference in making their verdict. The memory and the level of intelligence also influence how the case will be decided. For instance, when listening to the defendants and the plaintiff, the information that they get is stored in the sensory, short-term, or long-term memory (Lefrancois, 2011). The jury may have lower levels of concentration on matters relevant to the law, such as the presumption of innocence. The consecutive paragraphs provide a summary of the thought process during the deliberation process.
Main body
During the court proceedings, the jury may not be attentive to all the facts. For instance, simple details such as what the defendant was wearing and the yes or no responses may not be remembered. The information remains at the sensory level; thus, it is not registered by the brain for future reference. Unless the jury is instructed to take notes on such simple aspects, this information will be forgotten immediately. Some data will be stored in short-term memory which can keep it for a while before being dismissed or transferred to the long-term memory. If the accused has been charged with murder, those following the proceedings will selectively pick some content. As stated by Lefrancois (2011), this store has a limited capacity. There must exist some controlling process and visual-spatial pattern to integrate new content. It is only in the long-term memory that stable information is kept. The implication is that the jury is more likely to remember the case from their pre-existing news than the proceedings.
Conclusion
Many thought processes happen in the jurys mind before, during, and after the court process. The thoughts before the official listening of two parties may presume the respondent as guilty. During the sessions, people will be listening and integrating information to what already existed in their minds. Some details might be considered irrelevant by the jury and only stored temporarily on senses. The thought process is different for each person based on their initial mental constructs.
Reference
Lefrancois, G. R. (2011). Psychology: The human puzzles. Bridgepoint Education.
A constructive thought-focused strategy is a fundamental tool that promotes self-transformation. In the past years, I have doubted myself and every decision I make. The process has become a pattern and currently formed a significant barrier hindering my growth and progress in areas I believe effort and dedication are necessary to obtain the maximum outcome. I have developed several beliefs and personal assumptions as well that to some extent have contributed to my inability to overcome difficult moments (Neck, Manz, & Houghton, 2017). In most cases, when am cornered with a challenging situation, I revisit the beliefs and assumptions I have about the situation. After the condition has proven an issue and it is necessary I have to manage it, I do talk loud to myself in my head. I have been good at having such personal conversations and in the end, I find a reason to concentrate and complete the task.
In addition, I tend to visualize how perfectly I will perform a task before I begin. The approach is common especially when I have a scheduled task that has a couple of hours to be done. This thought strategy gives me a road map of what I should deliver upon completing the work. Whenever I disagree with a colleague, I find it challenging to articulate and evaluate the assumptions I had during the conversation that led to misunderstanding. This aspect requires adjustment to enable accommodate the perception of other people irrespective of their beliefs. Regarding the limitation stated above, I will engage in examining the assumptions I hold about the topic of discussion. This will enhance understanding and accepting other peoples opinions thus preventing differences. Once I adjust myself, colleagues will realize that I no longer refute their point of view as I used to do before.
Moreover, I will analyze and determine various kinds of tasks I feel free and enjoy performing. This is achievable by being aware of what is contained in every activity am supposed to undertake. To remain focused, I pay attention to work enjoyment which gives me the ability to do my best, instead of focusing on the rewards associated with performing the task. Furthermore, to keep myself motivated, I concentrate my thoughts on what I prefer about the duty than issues I do not value. This approach enables me to eliminate possible distractors that are more likely to prevent my attentiveness. The criteria are useful in enhancing participation and improving the outcome. From the assessment in figure 1 below, I have a score of 27 points on constructive thought strategies.
Figure 1: Self-Leadership Questionnaire
My Current Thinking Pattern as It Relates to Self-Leadership
A real opportunity is built into every problem
I believe in every opportunity there is a problem and vice versa. Personally, it is necessary to assess issues that might be present that have the likelihood of hindering progress. Upon identifying the obstacle, a proper solution is determined that will turn the challenge into another opportunity for growth. By applying the aspect of creativity, it becomes easier to formulate an effective approach that harnesses the existing situation into a valuable resource (Batool, 2013). Based on my perspective, an individual should not ignore pending problems but instead explore them to develop the desired solution.
Real opportunities are worth sticking your neck out for
Fear of taking risks is a disgrace to the success of an individual. It is essential for each person to do what is necessary as long as it is promising in the end. I believe seeking opportunities is far much better than trying to hold on to the little a person has gathered. Despite the prominent obstacle associated with the visible chances, taking one step at a time presents a high possibility of succeeding. Even though sometimes there is no guarantee, the trial gives a useful lesson that can be applied next phase when searching for opportunities.
Each person is unique and resourceful
I believe any person has his or her unique talent that once identified can be exploited to the fullest. When given a task, I prefer engaging other personnel to contribute their ideas. Having varied viewpoints, it is easier to identify an opportunity. Therefore, I assume when many people are able and willing to participate and corporate effectively, the overall output must be improved. This implies that each person is a resource and it is upon the leader to identify areas that should be improved to make them better and more reliable.
Based on my current thinking pattern, I have been able to have a different perception of reality. It is an improvement in how I used to view situations. To have a wider viewpoint, I should change undermining some critical aspects that require proper examination, especially in decision-making. Concerning the research, effective leaders embrace opportunity thinking and give no attention to thoughts that are an obstacle to progress. By applying the opportunity thinking approach, I perceive failure as an essential learning ground where I perfect my abilities to tackle the same situation in the future. From the assessment, I scored 10 on opportunity thinking and 0 on the obstacle as shown in figure 2 below.
Figure 2: Self-Assessment Opportunity versus Obstacle Thinking
The process of mental practice is an essential aspect that complements the thinking strategy. However, several dysfunctional thinking plans affect the effectiveness of peoples thoughts. The key focus that requires improvement is the facet of jumping to a conclusion. This approach narrows the scope of thinking thus preventing the mind from exploring possibilities that are worth exploration. In addition, I can improve my thinking further by working on emotional reasoning. When feelings are involved, the likelihood of becoming irrational is high leading to serious obstacles.
Situational Leadership
Situational leadership is a type of management that is flexible and able to transform according to the current needs of the team. The administration style easily adapts and aligns with organizational goals (Elder, 2022). Situational headship does not require managers to have some specific skills and competencies to manage people effectively. To be an impactful leader, it is essential to master and practice situational leadership because it enables managers to change the overall thinking of followers based on the current status. Furthermore, the front runner can easily lead in any circumstance because the approach allows them to adapt to any condition.
Applying situation leadership enables leaders to detect opportunities and implement relevant approaches to gain from them. On the other hand, the style makes it easier to detect possible obstacles such as laxity in the workplace that prevent workers from giving their best ( The 15 genuine benefits of Situational Leadership in 2022 , 2022). When leading such individuals, it is easier to formulate other techniques to change their behavior. In addition, to be a leader, one should be able to perceive the potential in each person. Opportunity thinking allows the manager to examine areas that can be improved to make the group effective.
Building My Brand as a Self-Leader
To become an effective self-leader, I will utilize the concept of constructive though-focused approaches to align my thinking to the desired level. In addition, I will rely on opportunity thinking to increase my ability to perceive the best of any situation. By combing the two techniques, I will advance my competencies which are useful traits for managing oneself. Furthermore, I will focus on emotional intelligence to enhance my understanding of how feelings impact rationality (Batool, 2013). By comprehending the aspect of reactions, I will be able to remain calm and analytic to explore possible facets am dealing with.
References
Batool, B. F. (2013). Emotional intelligence and effective leadership. Journal of business studies quarterly, 4(3), 84.
“It seems to be condemned to dispersion, dependency and pure heteronomy” (Foucault, p.42). It is therefore a reaction to an external force.
But it has to be pointed out that this force must be significant and powerful enough to create discomfort and by creating this high-level of unease people learns to be critical This supports the original assertion of Foucault that there will be no critical attitude unless there exists an external stimulus that forces an individual or a group to rise up in favor or against it.
Foucault thus clarified that the rise of critical thought was not coincidental to the occurrence of the Reformation and the Renaissance. It is at this period in human history when people began to understand that their religion and their government is all about the art of governing lives.
Religion is a system created so that at a fundamental level a believer and the community of believers may learn the best way to govern their lives so that they can attain salvation. The same way can be said about local government whether it is ruled by a King or ruled by a feudal lord it does not matter.
Foucault did not offer his own understanding of critique and instead he used what was available to him which is centuries of discussions and documentation regarding the tension that exists between the ruler and the governed. He constantly referred to the movement popularly known as the Aufklarung a period in history wherein people began to question the status quo.
Foucault took closer look at Aufklarung specifically the work of Kant and he said that philosophers in this era developed a framework for the application of critique as a tool to build society and he said that it must be:
“both partner and adversary to the arts of governing, as an act of defiance, as challenge, as a way of limiting these arts of governing and sizing them up, transforming them, of finding a way of escape from them or, in any case, a way to displace them, with a basic distrust, but also by the same token as a line of development of the arts of governing” (Foucault, p.45).
He then went on to clarify it even further and he said that critique is “the art of not being governed as much” (Foucault, p.45). There are two sides to critiquing a system of government.
Foucault acknowledged that his definition was strongly influenced by Kant’s ideas about authority, submission and the governance of men. According to Foucault, Kant’s contribution to the study of how to critique the government and religious establishments is made evident in his assertion that
humanity is maintained in an authoritative way;
humanity has this incapacity to use its own understanding;
there is a pronounced lack of courage (Foucault, p.48).
Foucault pinpointed the main purpose of the critique but what he was really interested in is on how to create one.
Foucault said that philosophers like Kant used the historical-philosophical approach. This means that it is not enough to study history and to understand the chronology of events. People must know how to interpret the body of knowledge given to them and not rely on the interpretation given to them.
This is why it is not enough to be a historian to develop a system of critique one must also learn to become a philosopher. Foucault said that this is the only way to prevent the creation of an oppressive government and tyrants will not be given the chance to develop a “procedure of coercion” (Foucalult, p. 59). This looks good on paper but even Foucault himself struggled when it comes to applying this principle in the real world.
At first Foucault sound convincing but then afterward he was drowned in his own rhetoric for he created a hole too deep for even his genius to escape from. He agreed with Kant that humanity must critique the way rulers and governments try to govern them and that there should be less of governance and more of freedom.
But Foucault just like the other philosophers who came before had to solve one tricky problem – they had to offer an alternative. They say that the Scriptures must not be used to coerce, they said that laws must not be used to oppress. But how then can society be governed using less rules and increasing freedom and yet at the same time the creation of a progressive and peaceful society?
Foucault stood on the foundation built by Kant and other like-minded intellectuals yet at the end Foucault realized he was standing on shaky ground.
The freedom that revolutionaries and thinkers were clamoring for since before the time of the Reformation and the Renaissance was the freedom that can both build and destroy. By rebelling against authority freedom fighters soon find themselves transform into the very person that they hate.
Conclusion
Foucault said that the ability to critique is the ability to resist oppressive rule while at the same time the ability to contribute in the development and positive transformation of society. This is an acceptable premise but the problem is how to do it? What is the framework that philosophers and even leaders must use to arrive at an effective means to issue critique?
It was suggested that humanity should use the historical-philosophical approach. But it did not take long for Foucault to realize that this system is bankrupt.
It promises so much but can only deliver very little. The very method that was supposed to create freedom was also the same system that can create rules and regulations that comes out not from truth but from the capriciousness and personal agenda of the ruler and the revolutionary.
Works Cited
Foucault, Michael. What is Critique?. In The Politics of Truth.
The relation between two massive bocks which denote science and religion has long been the object of research of many philosophers and scientists. Indeed, even nowadays the debates and discussions, which were supposed “to discover the truth”, did not result in the common opinion that could be agreed by everyone. (Kurtz, 48)
However, objective observations prove, that “a vast majority of scientists, physicians and mathematicians like Isaac Newton, René Descartes, the couple Curie, and many others do not divide the essence of science and religion. Carrying out different researches and working on theses, they all have come to the point of realization that this ideal world order, this wholly structured universe has been originally designed by some kind of Intelligence, which is the Creator.
“Having split the atom, having discovered the smallest particles, from which every animate and inanimate object constitutes, I have realized that science does not contradict religion. In fact, they go hand in hand with each other.” (Kurtz, 48)
According to the fact, that human nature demands explanation to each process and phenomena occurring in this world, the science has strong intention to give reasons and ground for the processes, which take place in religious world. However, such phenomena as Holly Light coming down from heaven during the period of Jesus Christ’s Resurrection cannot be fully explained, and science’s characteristic as “almighty” fades away (Harvey, 48).
Dr. Jill Taylor’S Experience
On the contrary, a reasonable example of science’s ability to explain the religious phenomenon “nirvana” performs the experience of Dr. Jill Taylor. Being an intellectual, a prominent scientist, and having survived after a serious stroke, she has managed to give explanations to what we call the “loss of self”, which can be definitely considered as a state of extinguishing, nirvana.
In order not to be misled, I would like to offer to your attention the exact definition of the word “nirvana” in the Webster’s Dictionary, which states: “Nirvana is the final beatitude that transcends suffering, karma, and samsara and is sought especially in Buddhism through the extinction of desire and individual consciousness.” (Merriam-Webster, 978)
“The final beatitude” that was the climax of Dr.Jill Tailor’s speech proves the fact, that the woman’s experience can be called the religious phenomena, even though reached by non-mysterious way of relatively simple brain hemisphere dysfunction. The Doctor I talking about complete freedom of mind, about absence of any prejudicial judgments, which the left hemisphere is responsible for.
As far as solely right hemisphere became in charge of Dr. Jill Tailor, all hints to the past or the future have disappeared, the same did the feeling of being the separate individual. The consciousness acquired freedom, which is also one of the main characteristics of nirvana.
Doctor’s state of being whole, not limited with respect to space and time can be can be undoubtedly defined as religious phenomena. The speaker has felt the absence of any boundaries in connection with universe and at this very moment Dr. Jill Tailor realized the life’s meaning and reason (Harvey, 42). She felt the real love and peace of the world, which were originally meant for this universe.
Nirvana, being “the act of mental consciousness” practically coincides with the description of Doctor’s experience, which is also the state, when the mind is clear, unprejudiced and, comparing it to the white paper sheet, unblemished with the previous experience of being the part of society. (Gombrich, 63)
In my opinion, such scientific findings do not falsify the essence of religious phenomena. On the contrary, this is only a mere instance that science has succeeded in explaining religious process and, indeed, authenticated and proved the reason for particular feeling during this state.
Works Cited
Harvey, Peter Consciousness Mysticism in the discourses of the Buddha in Karel Werner, The Yogi and the Mystic London: Routledge, 1995.
Harvey, Peter “The Selfless Mind.” NY: Curzon Press 1995.
Gombrich, Richard Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul 1988.
Kurtz, Paul Science and Religion: Are They Compatible? NY: Prometheus Books 2003.
The rediscovery of Egypt took place in the eighteenth century, while Mesopotamia was rediscovered in the mid of nineteenth century. This involved the discovery of the ancient languages, various texts that were used in those early times, and many other artifacts. Scholars have engaged in detailed work of translating the discovered languages, and studied these facts in order to relate them to some of the historical information that was available in various forms.
Those who engaged in this study had different intentions. A section of the scholars was just interested in adventure, while others were trying to defend the information in the Bible. They were convinced that by digging into these artifacts, they would be able to gather enough evidence to support the information in the Bible.
Several scholars tried to analyze the content of the Old Testament of the Bible in order to trace its origin and understand its authenticity. Kaiser Wilhelm was one of the scholars who engaged actively in this rediscovery. Another prominent scholar was Friedrich Delitzsch, son of a former prominent commentator.
Views of Friedrich rose many controversies, especially his claim that the content of the Old Testament was based on the cultural practices of people who stayed in Tigris and Euphrates regions. He argued that upon careful analysis of the culture of people of Mesopotamia, there was a close similarity of what was practiced in this region at this time, and what is written in the Old Testament. From this Study, Friedrich concluded that Old Testament was written based on human experience other than divine intervention.
This earned him a lot of criticism from Assyriologists who had believed in the Word. In analyzing the mythologies of ancient Near East, it comes out clearly that there is a close attachment between what is in the Old Testament, and what was practiced in this society. However, his work, and the works of other early scholars, has enabled the current scholars do develop an understanding of this issue on a strong foundation.
Comparative Studies, Scholarship, and Theology
It is a fact that all Europeans have different cultures based on various environmental factors they experience. Similarly, Babylonians, Egyptians, Hittites, Sumerians, and Israelites also have different cultural practices based on their environmental and social contexts. It is important to note that there was a difference between the first millennium Babylonians during the era of Nebuchadnezzar, and Babylonians of the second millennium during the era of Hammurabi.
However, both share some elements of cultural practices of the ancient New East1. In this regard, the comparative studies focus on examining the literatures and archeology of the ancient Near East with the aim of rebuilding their cultural values, their beliefs, and behavior. Comparative studies involve drawing of data from different sources and segments of a given cultural group in order to enhance understanding of what is under investigation.
Both critics and defenders of the Bible have been using comparative studies to understand the culture presented in the Bible and what was practiced in the regions mentioned in the Bible. Ancient Near East studies have played a pivotal role to these two groups in understanding some truths beyond what is presented in the Bible. Bible students need comparative studies in order to broaden their understanding of what is presented in the Bible.
These students must be able to go beyond the information presented in the Bible. Comparative studies offer them an opportunity to understand biblical information from both sides of the defenders and critics of the Bible. Studying these comparative literatures enables the learners to understand similarities and differences that exist between the ancient Near East and biblical genre. This way, it would be easy to understand some of the historical facts that the two genres share, and any possible differences that could exist.
For instance, the Mesopotamian literature talks of a man named Job who was considered righteous. This closely compares to the biblical story of Job. However, the way the story is presented in the Bible is very different from the way it is presented in the Mesopotamian literature. As Bible students, you would be interested in relating these two stories. It would be important to determine the possibility that the biblical story could have been borrowed from the Mesopotamian literature. It is important to understand the cultural dimension of theology. Finally, it is important for a Bible student to understand the ten guiding principles that should be observed when conducting comparative studies. It is unfortunate that a section of critical scholars have considered the use comparative studies as irrelevant.
Literature of the Ancient Near East
Summary of the Literature of the Ancient Near East
Myths
Different people understand myths in different contexts, but it is a generally accepted fact that myths entails stories that have minimal or no truth in them because there is no way of proving that they really happened the way it is told in the story. Stories from ancient Near East have been considered as mere myths, especially the story of Baal or Marduk. However, the Old Testament has raised a lot of controversy because many people believe in it.
A given story will be considered as a myth if many doubt its originality and just consider it as a mere story meant to entertain. However, it raises concerns when a given story is considered by many as a true account of what took place in the ancient times. The Old Testament has had approval of many people. However, some still consider it a myth due to lack of information that can be used to substantiate what is written in the Bible.
The Babylonians, Sumerians, and the people of Mesopotamia would have different views on the historical counts in the Old Testament. To the current readers, it would be necessary to observe that there would be two different points of view. One section believes that God of the Israelites existed.
However, another section believes that Yahweh was just as other gods found among other societies in the ancient Near East. For those who believe in the Israelites’ God, it would be taken that Old Testament could not be classified as any other myths in the ancient Near East. However, to the non believes, there might be no significant distinction between the Old Testament and the ancient Near East myths because just as gods of Egypt, Syria or Mesopotamia, God of Israel remains imaginary.
Letters and other documents
Letters were very important in these ancient kingdoms because they were used to pass international correspondence or international memos. They reveal a lot about a given kingdom on such facts as the power of that nation, relationship with other nations, and the values cherished within the society. Over 349 letters were retrieved from Tell el-Amarna the city used by one of the Egyptian Pharaohs as the capital of the kingdom.
The letters were from other kingdoms such as Hatti, Babylonia, Mitanni, Arzawa, Alashiya, and Assyria. These letters demonstrates the power that the Egyptian forces had over these other regions. These collections also showed some treaties that were made between kingdoms, as presented in the Old Testament.
Some of the hymns and prayers that were collected from the literatures of the ancient Near East have a very close connection with what is written in the Bible. The wisdom literatures also relates closely to what is found in the Proverbs and other philosophical writings in the Old Testament.
Religion
The Gods
The ancient Near East literatures brings out the image of God from different perspectives. Each kingdom or society had its own gods that were unique based on environmental factors. The Egyptians had their own gods that they would perform rituals to in order to receive specific favors. The Assyrians, Sumerians, and Babylonians also had their different gods. The ancient Near East accounts of these gods share many similarities accept the case of the Israelites.
In these other kingdoms, there were many gods, each with specific role over the universe. There were gods of love, gods of vengeance, or of peace. From Egypt to Babylon, and Syria, this was a common phenomenon. However, the God of Israel was unique. He was the one and only God who was responsible for various issues in the lives of His people. He was a powerful God who could see the activities of His people without being seen.
He would judge actions of His people and decide to issue blessings or curse depending on the morality of these actions. Above all, He comes out as a democratic God, who has all the powers to control activities of human being, yet lets everyone make independent decision on whether to sin or be faithful to Him. The fairness of Yahweh is presented as unique compared to that of the Babylonian or Egyptian gods.
What is also unique was the omnipresent nature of the Israelites’ God. He was always aware of the activities of His people, and He would watch their actions without revealing Himself. This was very different from gods of other ancient Near East kingdoms. These other gods could even fall asleep, and it would take the intervention of people, through rituals and other noisy ceremonies to make them wake up and offer help to people.
Temples and Rituals
The ancient Near East presents the temples as special places of worship. The historical accounts of other kingdoms and the biblical perspectives of the temples present some form of similarity. The temple was a place of worship and people would gather in it to conduct spiritual rituals. While other ancient Near East groups used the temple to offer rituals to their gods, the Israelites used the temple to worship Yahweh and offer sacrifices to Him.
The historical account of the ancient Near East religious practices compares closely to the biblical accounts in the Old Testament. As demonstrated in the Old Testament, the ancient Near East accounts also confirms that there would be some fusion of cultures in those early days.
This means that some of the religious practices of the people Mesopotamia and other neighboring regions affected the Israelites. However, they would draw away from worshiping other gods from time to time whenever they stayed away, to come and worship Yahweh.
State and Family Religion
Religion is brought out in the ancient Near East historical accounts in different ways. The people of Israel are once again coming out as a unique society in their religious practices. In Israel, state and family religion were intertwined. Although the historical accounts show that as the society progressed, the state became separate from spiritual leadership, at one point the spiritual leader and the political head was one person.
Moses was both a symbol of the state and a spiritual leader of the Israelites until he died. However, when they developed kingship, there became a difference between the state leadership and spiritual leaders. The state and family religion though, remained the same. Yahweh remained the only God to be worshiped.
Cosmos
Cosmos Geography
The geographic analysis of the ancient Near East literatures demonstrates that the accounts given in the Bible about the genesis of the earth is different from other stories. According to the biblical account of creation, God worked out of cosmos. That is why it is believed that he existed even before creation of the universe. This account is very different from other accounts of creation in the ancient Near East.
In other accounts, their gods existed in some specific parts on the universe, especially on the mountaintops or other secluded areas. The geographic existence of the Israelites’ God is unique, especially as presented in the creation account.
The geographic locations of the kingdoms in the ancient Near East explains why there was a marked similarity in some of their cultural practices and accounts of their origin. It is strange, therefore, that Israelites who were in the midst of these other kingdoms, came out as a unique lot with practices that were not similar to others in this region.
Cosmology and Cosmogony
Creation can generally be considered as a cosmogony to cosmology2. The account of creation in the Old Testament has some marked difference from that of the entire region of Mesopotamia. The geography of Mesopotamian is very different from what is described in the biblical account. Some scholars would argue on the real cosmological location of God before and after creation. This is because in the biblical account, it is stated that God created Heaven and Earth.
This means that He was neither in heaven nor on earth during the time of creation. Then there is a biblical account that God resides in Heaven, and that Heaven is high above the Earth. This is closely related to cosmological locations of the Egyptian and Babylonian gods. They also resided in high places like the sky or mountaintops. However, in the other ancient Near East accounts, there is no direct mention of heaven other than the Israelites’ account.
It is necessary to understand that ontology in the ancient Near East is not about matter as is the case in the modern scientific understanding. It was more of the ability to believe that a given incident took place as presented in the accounts. In the cosmos, humanity remains the central focus, and everything seems to revolve around him. Some occurrences that happen in one’s life are beyond human understanding, especially the divine power of God.
The biblical creation account lacks theomachy, and for this reason, it has been considered an Akkadian phenomenon. When trying to understand genesis of the world therefore, it would be of great help if one makes a clear decision based on his or her analysis. When believing in the divine powers of God, it would be relevant if one considers the Akkadian phenomenon as mere myths, just like any other Egyptian or Babylonian accounts. This would help eliminate the conflicts that may be present in both accounts.
People
Underpinning the Past: Human Origins and Role
Several accounts have been given in an effort to explain the origin of human being. The two major accounts of creation are the scientific account and the biblical account of creation. The scientific account of creation has generally been considered to contradict the biblical account. However, it would be important to note that this contradiction comes out because of the failure of the scientists to understand that the world presented in the biblical creation accounts is different from the world we live in today.
Some of these scientists would try to ignore the ancient cosmology and only focus on what they believe is scientifically relevant in the current world. Genesis provides a simple but divine explanation of the origin of people. As presented in the Genesis, human being was created by God and placed in the Garden of Eden.
The book of Genesis gives a clear chronology of the accounts of creation, and the manner in which God gave human being power over other creations. The scientific perspective of creation differs from this by claiming that the true origin of human being was through evolution.
The scientists have ignored a number of cosmological facts, by taking a biased approach in their analysis. In Genesis, the audience is very different from what we have in the modern day society. The book of Genesis states that man was created by God, and put in charge of all other creations in the Garden of Eden.
Underpinning the Past: Historiography
The Bible provides a rich historic account of the people of Israel and the way they related with the other people of the ancient Near East. The biblical account provides life history of the people of Israel, their movement in other regions, especially to Egypt, Mesopotamia, Syria, and many other regions.
The historic discussion of the people of Israel starts from the book of Genesis when they moved to Egypt. There is a close connection between the biblical account of the life in Egypt and the ancient Near East account of the Egyptian empire. Although some cosmological differences exist, the two accounts closely relate, especially the cultural practices of the people of ancient Egypt. In the book of Exodus, the Old Testament presents the journey taken by the Israelites from the land of Egypt to the Promised Land.
The historical accounts of the ancient Egypt differ a little with what is found in the Bible, especially on the issue of the divine intervention in the release of the Israelites. However, the recordings about the journey in the wilderness and their final settlement in the land of Canaan are closely related to the historical facts of the ancient Near East.
The relationship between the Israelites and its neighbors and the cultural practices as presented in the Old Testament has a close resemblance with the ancient Near East historical recording. In fact, this resemblance has made some scholars believe that Old Testament was written out of human experiences other than divine intervention.
Encountering the Present: Guidance for Life-Divination and Omens
It is a fact that the lifestyle of the Israelites was very different from that of other ancient Near East communities. Analysis of the historical accounts of the life of the people of the ancient Near East points at a strong belief in life divination. Both the Israelites and the people of other communities in the ancient Near East such as the Egyptians, Sumerians, Assyrians, and Babylonians believed in the supreme beings that had power beyond human capacity. Just like the Israelites.
They believed that human life had to be guided by divine intervention. The people of Israel would sway quite often from the worship of Yahweh, especially when they faced challenges. This would earn them bad omen because of ignoring the supreme God they believed in all their lifetime. The traditional accounts of the practices of people of Egypt also has a close account of omens sent by the gods to constantly remind people of the need to keep focus in worshiping.
One difference that comes out in life-divination between the biblical accounts as stated in the Old Testament, and that of the ancient Egyptians is once again the number of gods the ancient Egyptians had. While the people of Egypt had a special god of vengeance that would pronounce curse or bad omen to people whenever he was annoyed, the Israelites Yahweh was responsible for all types of omens.
He would bless His people whenever He felt that they were doing what was right, and would issue punishment in various forms whenever he felt that they had gone astray and were no longer worshiping him.
Encountering the Present: Context of Life-Cities and Kingship
The biblical accounts in the Old Testament have close connections with the historical accounts of the ancient Near East. The Bible talks about life in the context of cities. The city of Jerusalem is the focal point of the life history of the people of Israel. Accounts of the ancient Near East shows that people lived in the context of cities. Most of the kingdoms were in the cities.
These accounts show that the Egyptian empire, the Babylonian empire, and other strong empires during the ancient times were in the context of cities. Although strong empires such as the Egyptian and Babylonian empires controlled other regions beyond their borders, most of the people of that empire, especially the residence of the king, would be in a setting of a city. This account closely compares with the biblical accounts in the Old Testament.
The biblical account of kingdoms would depict various large cities with well-established administrations and all the amenities that would be found in many cities. In the Old Testament, life within the cities would revolve around kingship. The king, being the supreme authority in the kingdom, would determine actions that would be taken to ensure that these cities are protected. One city that is reflected in both the biblical accounts in the Old Testament and in the ancient Near East historical artifacts is the City of Jericho.
Although the accounts would differ- especially concerning divinity- it would be easy to draw some similarities in these accounts. The leadership structure and the succession of kingship that is presented in the Bible closely compare to that given in the ancient Near East accounts. For instance, the Old Testament shows that kingship was hereditary. This account is shared by the versions of the ancient Near East, especially in the Egyptian, Babylonian, and Assyrian kingdoms where kingship would be handed down from father to son.
Encountering the Present: Guidelines for Life-Law and Wisdom
The Old Testament has been considered a book full of life-law and wisdom. The book of Proverbs if full of wise teachings from the wisest man in the Bible who is King Solomon. The Old Testament gives accounts of the law that was given to the leaders of the Israelites to guide their relationship with one another, and other practices they engaged in within the society.
The study of the ancient Near East societal structure points at some of the laws that were developed by those in power to help guide the normal life of people within the kingdom. In Egypt, there was an elaborate law that would define how members of the society were expected to behave in order to create harmony.
Those who contravened the set code of conduct would be subjected to some form of punishment based on the magnitude of their deviation from the law. The biblical account also demonstrates the role of law in guiding life of humanity, and the importance of wisdom in guiding an individual’s way of life.
Pondering the Future on Earth and after Death
The historical counts of the ancient Near East shows that even at those ancient days, people were concerned of life after death. One such kingdom that believed in afterlife was the Egyptian empire. The Pharaohs were buried with all their slaves and some pleasantries that a living human being would need.
The slaves would be buried alive with the dead king. This is a strong indication that these people believed in life after death. In the Old Testament, the prophetic books show some prophesies of life after death. These prophesies tell of great leaders such as Moses coming back to life at some point in time.
Postscript
It is important to understand that generalization can be misleading, especially when one intends to comprehend a given social issue in the society. However, generalization has been helpful when trying to figure out an issue that lacks clear independent facts. It is understandable that some scholars who will use this book may find it misleading or premature, but the intention of writing the book was not to mislead, but to provide an insight into the studies of ancient Near East.
It is true that some differences may emerge due to physical differences of the geographic locations of the area under investigation. Egypt, Israel, and Mesopotamia have different geographic and socio-political environment that may bring different understandings of the issues under investigation. It is also important to appreciate the fact that the current societies have been influenced by other cultures to the level where it is difficult to trace some of the original cultural practices.
For instance, the current Japan has almost lost the traditional cultural practices having been influenced by the Western cultures. From the analysis, it was realized that the Israelites’ ontology was a little different from the other ancient Near East ontology. The main difference came out from the fact that while the rest of the ancient Near East had many gods, the Israelites only worshiped Yahweh.
This was a little unique because in other societies, there were several gods that would serve different purposes. Epistemological analysis of the Israelites shows that these people had close communication with God, and this was demonstrated in the covenants God made through leaders such as Abraham, Moses, and David. The Israelites also believed in divinity. Their practices clearly demonstrate that they believed that human dignity could only be held when people respected God the Almighty.
It is also clear from their practices, that although God had power to control human activities, he was democratic enough to let the Israelites make their own decisions, even in cases where the decisions displeased him. Unlike the historiography of other regions in the ancient Near East, covenant was the main driving force among the Israelites, not kingship.
The theological analysis of Israelites demonstrates that God worked from outside the cosmos, and that He had no personal needs that a normal human being would. However, most of their other activities were similar to what other societies in these ancient times practiced. Understanding these facts as a scholar helps in developing a basis of analyzing the ancient world’s literature.
Bibliography
Walton, John. Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament: Introducing the Conceptual World of the Hebrew Bible. Grand Rapids: Baker Publishers Group, 2006.
Footnotes
1 Walton, John. Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament: Introducing the Conceptual World of the Hebrew Bible. Grand Rapids: Baker Publishers Group, 2006, p. 69
2 Walton, John. Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament: Introducing the Conceptual World of the Hebrew Bible. Grand Rapids: Baker Publishers Group, 2006, p. 71
There is no need to elaborate the fact that critical thinking is a very important skill that can be the difference between success and failure or just the ability to receive and act upon information provided by authors, commentators and leaders of society. However, the ability to think critically is not a skill that can easily be picked up and master like taking up a particular sport or hobby.
Critical thinking requires practice and mental discipline. But this does not mean that only a few can learn the ability to think critically. The first step is to find a system or a method that can help in developing this particular skill, especially when it comes to analyzing a book, article or website.
One method can be seen in the book entitled Asking the right questions: A Guide to Critical Thinking and the second one is quite similar and called Elements of Thought Questions, these two are actually two sets of questions, a guide that can help a person to develop critical thinking skills
Compare and Contrast
There are a lot of similarities and differences as well. For example from Asking the Right Questions the first two questions: 1) What are the issues and conclusions? and 2) What are the reasons?; are similar to Elements of Thought’s first two questions: 1) What is the author’s purpose and 2) What is the author’s point of view? The similarity lies in the objective of the questions and the type of answer that these can generate.
This type of questions will reveal the purpose of writing an article or book and at the same time clarifies the main idea that the author wanted to communicate to the readers. These questions also seek to find out the author’s mindset and why he made those statements. These two methods provide a good way to begin the analysis of a written document.
The two methods also are similar in how both tried to uncover the assumptions made by the author and this is a good way to find out where the article is heading and how the author tried to develop his ideas based on an assumption that has to be accepted as true in order to proceed. There is also a similarity when it comes to identifying the evidence presented by the author.
There are also differences when comparing the two methods. The first one can generate more detailed answers but the second method can produce generalizations and subjective answers.
For example the second method simply asks the question: “What evidence is provided?” On the other hand the first method does not only ask about the evidence but even provides a follow-up question: “How good is the evidence?” as well as “Are the statistics deceptive?” (Bronwne & Keeley, 2010).
Another major difference is the way the second method ends the critical thinking process. It asks a simple question: “What are the conclusions?” This question is not the most crucial when it comes to the end part of the analysis process. In fact, the first method places this question in the very beginning of the whole thinking exercise because the main goal of critical thinking is not to repeat what the author has stated but to figure out the truth.
Which one is better?
There is no question that the second method helps the reader think because it provides a guide in the form of questions. However, it can only lead the reader up to a certain point and the best thing that it can hope to achieve it is to solicit opinions from them and not help them think through the problem.
The first method is more effective because it does not solicit opinion from the readers but help them develop a critical thinking mindset such as not to believe everything that they read but to figure out if the assertions of the author was based on fallacy, hearsay, unproven assumptions or truth.
The first method is the better guide and one can see this from the very beginning of the process when it comes to the question regarding issues and conclusions. It immediately sets the tone and does not beat around the bush going straight to the point to determine what the author is attempting to communicate and how he uses information to persuade or inform.
There is urgency in the questions that demands clear answer and this will help separate assumptions, lies, propaganda, ulterior motive etc.
The second method on the other hand regresses by asking questions that can be answered in different ways therefore the process does not actually teach readers how to think critically but to express how they perceive the article and what they believe is the impact on the person who will read the article or book.
This can be seen in the question: “What are the implications?” This puts pressure on the readers the wrong way because it does not help them analyze the information found in the article but forces them to judge what the author was saying based on their own knowledge and expertise regarding the topic.
The first method steers clear from this trap by guiding readers step by step until they are able to identify fallacies in reasoning; if deceptive statistics were used; and if important information were omitted. Thus, the reader is alerted if the author is trying to manipulate evidence to simply persuade people to rally to his cause or side with an issue.
Conclusion
It is crucial for readers to develop the ability to think critically. This is indispensable in order to filter through news articles, books, magazines, and even information that can be accessed through the World-Wide-Web. This skill is important especially if the author is attempting to change the point of view of the readers such as when a commentator talks about government policies or about healthcare.
It is these kinds of articles that require analysis before readers embrace the idea or conclusions made by the writer. The second method is not a great help in this regard because the readers are left with generalizations and their own opinion regarding the article or book that they read.
The first method on the other hand is more effective because it is able to guide the readers to a step-by-step critical thinking process that will reveal of the author can be trusted with his arguments and conclusions because he did not manipulate evidence and use deceptive data to prove a point.
References
Browne, M. N., & Keeley, S.M. (2010). Asking the right questions: A Guide to Critical
Thinking. 8th edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall.
In this paper, I will discuss three readings which underpin Catholic social thought on a variety of subject themes outlined below. The readings selected for this purpose are Dr. John F. Johnson’s Can War be Just? Caritas in Veritae by Pope Benedict and Forming Consciences for Faithful Citizenship by the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. Each reflective essay aims to give meaningful insight into various aspects of Catholic doctrine, including pacifism, non-violence, social justice, and ethical values.
Johnson, John F. “Can Wars be Just?” Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace, and Conflict 12.1 (1997): 11-21. Print.
The above essay highlights a rare and seldom explored theme in the Catholic canon – war. While most Mass-attending devout Catholic worshippers would flinch at the mere hint of violence, the purpose of this essay is to give an understanding of what conditions can a war be imposed upon aggressors. It has to be kept in mind that the justification for war has been deeply ingrained in mainstream Catholicism, For example, during Crusader history of the 11th-13th centuries, Christian soldiers were shielded by the Pope’s plenary indulgence to carry out unspeakable acts of violence against perceived enemies, in order to reclaim the Holy lands.
However, it must be added that turning the other cheek and loving one’s neighbor is a religious aspect that cannot be divorced from Catholic doctrine. It is very much a part of it. The objective of any just war is to reclaim lost ground and protect people from aggressors. Keeping this in mind, Johnson has suggested that wars are justified under Catholic doctrine as long as they can be categorized under an ethical framework or seen as a last resort (Johnson 15).
So, what may constitute these ethical parameters? For one, Johnson states that the only objective of war should be to reinstitute the previous conditions of peace (Johnson 16). Moreover, under no circumstances, civilians and non-combatants should have to suffer (Johnson 16). Clearly, it would seem that having an enlightened perspective like this would make any decision to go to war much easier than it appears. This is where a few people would stand to disagree.
Johnson suggests a few moral dilemmas which cannot be addressed entirely based on conventional Catholic teaching alone. One of these dilemmas is concerning the availability of various weapons of mass destruction, such as nuclear missiles. Can the usage of such dangerous weapons be justified under any grounds? Since the havoc and destruction caused by nuclear weapons are much greater than conventional weapons, can the Catholic church justify its usage under the pretext of self-defense? In a similar manner, what should be the Catholic stance on Christians serving under the ranks of enemy combatants? Clearly, one of the guiding principles of the Catholic rule-book is to obey the earthly authority represented by a Government. What if the government itself is at war with the Catholic church?
“Vatican Summary of Encyclical Caritas in Veritate.” Catholic Online. 2009. Web.
The Caritas in Veritate represents the pinnacle of Catholic beliefs on the current world order, a collection of thoughts based on a holy sermon delivered by Pope Benedict. The paper touches on a lot of hot button issues affecting Christians and non-Christians alike globally. These include issues like the elimination of poverty, racism, unequal distribution of resources, current issues related to economic development, the spread of HIV/AIDS, and ending genocide and persecution of human beings in different parts of the world.
In giving out these new sets of instructions, Pope Benedict invokes the Holy Father’s most inspirational message, which constitutes love for all human beings, regardless of their status, class, gender, or other earthly attributes. The Pope preaches that all creatures on Earth is a gift to mankind, and it, consequently, becomes important for proponents of the Catholic faith to spread the message of love and harmony everywhere around (Vatican Summary of Encyclical Caritas in Veritate).
A new issue touched by the Pope is that of technological progress and how new tools such as the Internet can be used to spread education around the world (Vatican Summary of Encyclical Caritas in Veritate). Being sensitive to the needs of the environment is another relevant issue; the Pope draws upon Biblical teachings to announce that Christians are duty-bound to be sensitive to the needs of the environment, making the world a better place through their actions and Communion with the Holy Spirit (Vatican Summary of Encyclical Caritas in Veritate).
It might be a coincidence, but many of Pope Benedict’s instructions are in agreement with the current hot topics popular with world leaders, including globalization, environmental justice, the current financial crisis, and more. The fact that several important political leaders worldwide are in regular consultation with the Pope on matters of international importance gives a degree of Biblical credence to his new set of instructions.
United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. Forming Consciences for Faithful Citizenship. 2007. USCCB. Web.
The last essay touches on the significant issue of faith and scruples in guiding the political life of Catholics. The issues that have been touched include illegal immigration into the United States, the economic crisis and steepening fiscal deficits, wars and violent conflicts, and the importance of church leaders in joining the ranks of political leaders to bring a positive transformation in their local environments (United States Conference of Catholic Bishops).
According to this essay, the fundamental methods that a Christian may use in guiding his discourse for political free will include free conscience, Biblical teachings, prudence, and common sense reasoning United States Conference of Catholic Bishops). The onus is on the Christian to always be in the knowledge of doing good, while hesitating from doing evil deeds. At all times, the life and dignity of the human being must be turned into a pivotal consideration in making any moral decisions. As the political year draws to a close, Christians must make a conscious call to take a faith-based stand on abortion issues.
In all, the essay touches on 62 points that reflect a modern Christian’s dilemmas in the political realm. By pursuing Catholic teaching to its best letter and spirit, true Christians may be in a position to build a virtuous life for themselves, and their surroundings.
Conclusion
In conclusion, it may be gathered that Christian doctrine encompasses a wide variety of issues that affect every walk of human life. The onus is on the Christian to identify Biblical teachings relevant to his situation so that he may be able to resolve the dilemmas affecting his moral choices, in a Biblical and dignified way. As the three articles suggest, the use of common-sense reasoning is highly encouraged in Catholic doctrine. It may help the Christian build the identity around the universal Christian guidelines.
Works Cited
Johnson, John F. “Can Wars be Just?” Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict 12.1 (1997): 11-21. Print.
United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. Forming Consciences for Faithful Citizenship. 2007. USCCB. Web.
“Vatican Summary of Encyclical Caritas in Veritate.” Catholic Online. 2009. Web.
