In this paper, I will discuss three readings which underpin Catholic social thought on a variety of subject themes outlined below. The readings selected for this purpose are Dr. John F. Johnsons Can War be Just? Caritas in Veritae by Pope Benedict and Forming Consciences for Faithful Citizenship by the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. Each reflective essay aims to give meaningful insight into various aspects of Catholic doctrine, including pacifism, non-violence, social justice, and ethical values.
Johnson, John F. Can Wars be Just? Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace, and Conflict 12.1 (1997): 11-21. Print.
The above essay highlights a rare and seldom explored theme in the Catholic canon war. While most Mass-attending devout Catholic worshippers would flinch at the mere hint of violence, the purpose of this essay is to give an understanding of what conditions can a war be imposed upon aggressors. It has to be kept in mind that the justification for war has been deeply ingrained in mainstream Catholicism, For example, during Crusader history of the 11th-13th centuries, Christian soldiers were shielded by the Popes plenary indulgence to carry out unspeakable acts of violence against perceived enemies, in order to reclaim the Holy lands.
However, it must be added that turning the other cheek and loving ones neighbor is a religious aspect that cannot be divorced from Catholic doctrine. It is very much a part of it. The objective of any just war is to reclaim lost ground and protect people from aggressors. Keeping this in mind, Johnson has suggested that wars are justified under Catholic doctrine as long as they can be categorized under an ethical framework or seen as a last resort (Johnson 15).
So, what may constitute these ethical parameters? For one, Johnson states that the only objective of war should be to reinstitute the previous conditions of peace (Johnson 16). Moreover, under no circumstances, civilians and non-combatants should have to suffer (Johnson 16). Clearly, it would seem that having an enlightened perspective like this would make any decision to go to war much easier than it appears. This is where a few people would stand to disagree.
Johnson suggests a few moral dilemmas which cannot be addressed entirely based on conventional Catholic teaching alone. One of these dilemmas is concerning the availability of various weapons of mass destruction, such as nuclear missiles. Can the usage of such dangerous weapons be justified under any grounds? Since the havoc and destruction caused by nuclear weapons are much greater than conventional weapons, can the Catholic church justify its usage under the pretext of self-defense? In a similar manner, what should be the Catholic stance on Christians serving under the ranks of enemy combatants? Clearly, one of the guiding principles of the Catholic rule-book is to obey the earthly authority represented by a Government. What if the government itself is at war with the Catholic church?
Vatican Summary of Encyclical Caritas in Veritate. Catholic Online. 2009. Web.
The Caritas in Veritate represents the pinnacle of Catholic beliefs on the current world order, a collection of thoughts based on a holy sermon delivered by Pope Benedict. The paper touches on a lot of hot button issues affecting Christians and non-Christians alike globally. These include issues like the elimination of poverty, racism, unequal distribution of resources, current issues related to economic development, the spread of HIV/AIDS, and ending genocide and persecution of human beings in different parts of the world.
In giving out these new sets of instructions, Pope Benedict invokes the Holy Fathers most inspirational message, which constitutes love for all human beings, regardless of their status, class, gender, or other earthly attributes. The Pope preaches that all creatures on Earth is a gift to mankind, and it, consequently, becomes important for proponents of the Catholic faith to spread the message of love and harmony everywhere around (Vatican Summary of Encyclical Caritas in Veritate).
A new issue touched by the Pope is that of technological progress and how new tools such as the Internet can be used to spread education around the world (Vatican Summary of Encyclical Caritas in Veritate). Being sensitive to the needs of the environment is another relevant issue; the Pope draws upon Biblical teachings to announce that Christians are duty-bound to be sensitive to the needs of the environment, making the world a better place through their actions and Communion with the Holy Spirit (Vatican Summary of Encyclical Caritas in Veritate).
It might be a coincidence, but many of Pope Benedicts instructions are in agreement with the current hot topics popular with world leaders, including globalization, environmental justice, the current financial crisis, and more. The fact that several important political leaders worldwide are in regular consultation with the Pope on matters of international importance gives a degree of Biblical credence to his new set of instructions.
United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. Forming Consciences for Faithful Citizenship. 2007. USCCB. Web.
The last essay touches on the significant issue of faith and scruples in guiding the political life of Catholics. The issues that have been touched include illegal immigration into the United States, the economic crisis and steepening fiscal deficits, wars and violent conflicts, and the importance of church leaders in joining the ranks of political leaders to bring a positive transformation in their local environments (United States Conference of Catholic Bishops).
According to this essay, the fundamental methods that a Christian may use in guiding his discourse for political free will include free conscience, Biblical teachings, prudence, and common sense reasoning United States Conference of Catholic Bishops). The onus is on the Christian to always be in the knowledge of doing good, while hesitating from doing evil deeds. At all times, the life and dignity of the human being must be turned into a pivotal consideration in making any moral decisions. As the political year draws to a close, Christians must make a conscious call to take a faith-based stand on abortion issues.
In all, the essay touches on 62 points that reflect a modern Christians dilemmas in the political realm. By pursuing Catholic teaching to its best letter and spirit, true Christians may be in a position to build a virtuous life for themselves, and their surroundings.
Conclusion
In conclusion, it may be gathered that Christian doctrine encompasses a wide variety of issues that affect every walk of human life. The onus is on the Christian to identify Biblical teachings relevant to his situation so that he may be able to resolve the dilemmas affecting his moral choices, in a Biblical and dignified way. As the three articles suggest, the use of common-sense reasoning is highly encouraged in Catholic doctrine. It may help the Christian build the identity around the universal Christian guidelines.
Works Cited
Johnson, John F. Can Wars be Just? Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict 12.1 (1997): 11-21. Print.
United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. Forming Consciences for Faithful Citizenship. 2007. USCCB. Web.
Vatican Summary of Encyclical Caritas in Veritate. Catholic Online. 2009. Web.
Frantz Fanon has become an influential figure in existentialism, critical thought, and post-colonial studies, as he primarily addressed the issues of anti-black racism and social perception of race. Discussing the role of race in social and historical interactions and the position of people of African descent in the Western world, Fanon developed a comprehensive theoretical model that largely relied on French existentialism.
He made a major contribution to Africana critical thought and philosophy, also referred to by some researchers as black existentialism, and became an inspiration for many participants of social rights and liberation movements in various parts of the world (Gordon, 2015). Fanon particularly examined the experience of black people from the existentialist perspective to establish how they handle discrimination and oppression and how they can achieve political and personal liberationor rather, how social change should be promoted where such liberation will be achieved by common efforts. To examine Fanons philosophy, three major themes of Africana critical thought can be explored in his works: existentialism, decolonization, and empowerment.
First of all, the existential component of Fanons philosophy was expressed in the attempt to analyze the essential aspects of existence from the perspective of human beings as not only thinking subjects but also subjects of feelings and will with the opportunity for making decisions and taking action (Wyrick, 2014). Famous existentialists, although quite different in terms of their worldviews, shared the emphasis on human experience in their explorations.
Fanon focused on the experiences of black people and stated that they are widely refused the right to have their own lifestyles and even dreams because they continue to be seen as inferior to white people (Fanon 2004). In a study of Fanons philosophy, Gordon (2015) reveals the concept of subordinated theoretical identity (p. 5) which is observed in limited opportunities of researchers and intellectuals of African descent for forming their own judgment that would be seen as independent and potentially influential.
In addressing these issues, Fanon not only stresses the importance of social change toward extensive acknowledgment of the rights and identities of black people but also argues that black people themselves should engage in existential practices of self-cognition with the purpose to move toward political liberation. One of the most famous figures in the history of existentialism, Jean-Paul Sartre, was a major influence on Fanon and supported many Fanons ideas.
One of such ideas was related to decolonization, which was one of the focuses of Fanons works, too. As a psychiatrist, Fanon argued that being colonized, i.e. being conquered by foreign people, oppressed, and potentially enslaved, is a pathological state for a human, which is why the philosopher justified the use of violence by colonized people against colonizers with the purpose to achieve not only liberation but also appropriate mental health (Fanon, 2004).
Also, as a Marxist, Fanon applies class-relations terms to the process of decolonization and the parts of society that participate in it and explores how the identities of a colonizer and a colonized person transform into the identities of a master and a slave respectively. Fanon was criticized for approving of violence in the cases where it had been employed by colonized people against colonizers, but his argument was that colonized people who are dehumanized, i.e. not treated as human beings and even deprived of human identities, being seen as animals or property, should not be expected to behave according to humanistic values.
This idea of colonization as dehumanization played a significant role in establishing the purpose of decolonization as returning human dignity and the value of life to formerly colonized nations and to individuals who suffer from the effects of being previously under the cruel rule of foreign conquerors.
Finally, it is noteworthy that the philosophy of Fanon was largely promoting the empowerment of black people and has become an inspiration for many who struggled for equal rights. As Gordon (2015) put it, Fanon developed a profound social existential analysis of antiblack racism (p. 2). By articulating this problem and exploring its roots, Fanon demonstrated how political thought is capable of igniting social movements, such as the struggle for independence in Algeria.
A major aspect of empowerment is finding and promoting black identities (Wyrick, 2014) that will be seen as equally important to other ones and shaped in an independent context, i.e. not as continuations of white identities, reflections of them, or imitations.
In his works, Fanon addresses a wide range of issues associated with race and the position of black people from the perspective of Africana critical thought. He built his argument on the basis of existentialism, i.e. emphasizing the importance of human experiences, called upon his proponents to promote the empowerment of black people, and supported decolonization and even the violent aspect of it. From the philosophical perspective, one of the most outstanding achievements of Fanon was generating a profound understanding of how black people are oppressed by being deprived of identities and how they should struggle for their identities in order to achieve an equal treatment and an equal position in social perception.
References
Fanon, F. (2004). The wretched of the earth. (R. Philcox, Trans.). New York, NY: Grove Press. (Original work published 1961).
Gordon, L. R. (2015). What Fanon said: A philosophical introduction to his life and thought. New York, NY: Fordham University Press.
Wyrick, D. B. (2014). Fanon for beginners. Newburyport, MA, Red Wheel/Weiser.
The after seventeenth century modernity spectaculum
The global development in the sense of modernization as per seventeenth century has given the world no more than decaying senses which has been accompanied by perverted human roles, with concentration of hatred and aversion between human kind and between them and the environment.
The known good deeds were integrated into intensive definitions incorporated in evil, human contempt, vile as well as inconsiderable. Despite this, the irony is that what used to be good became shunned while the scramble of the vices introduce, became significantly rampant. Long-living practices began to be viewed as being mundane and the short-lived practices accompanied by threats and fears completely replaced the good-old world.
As the sense of independent and development sunk in peoples mind, the aspect of communism disintegrated and in its place individualism and the sense of I was adopted that is embraced world-wide. As a result, mans life was affected, as the bond between people gradually melted and in its place a trench evolved.
This has put mans life in a solitary situation, bringing with it massive poverty, nasty living style, brutish undertakings whose combination has shortened the life of human being. This has made the man race to indulge into daily conflicting activities, pertaining competition, diffidence and glory as state of nature. This has created one of mans rule which entails that Thomas Hobbes (215) states that every man has to endeavor peace, as far as he has hopes for obtaining it. If he cannot obtain it, he can use all helps and advantage of war.
In addition, human beings have been assumed as having right of everything even to one anothers body. What does this bring to the race of human being? It only gives a room to the stronger in having their ways right which means that the life of the majority-minorities depend on the mercy of the few powerful. In other words, it became the survival for the fittest. This has contributed to excessive injustice between individuals as well as in the governmental law bodies (Hobbes, 113)
Moreover, the introduced civil society had brought separation of power that initially was not there. This has been met by rejection from individual and parties affected by this power division. Consequently, civil war has been a major occurrence in many nations as they tend to fight against the abuse of power by the acting government or other nations that creates an effect or pressure to them.
This has expanded gaps existing between parties and every party is seeking its own way of dealing with any threat that can be imposed to it by the other parties. However, instead of this being a channel of peace and comfort within the societies involved, fear concerning the massive destructing weapons manufactured by the name of defense, such as atomic weapons, has taken over the climate and the element of peace has scrambled off (Hobbes p.131).
In addition, peoples perspectives have been readjusted and believe that people cant function without a powerful body over them, which creates fear and suppression had settled in people minds, and as a result oppression and dictatorship has based peoples ways of living (Machiavelli, 57).
Religious perspective has also been altered. For instance, the scripture has been reinterpreted in a materialistic assumption. For example, Hobbes has tried to bring out the contradiction concerning incorporeal entities, claiming that both Heaven and Hell were in this world, as well as opposing some of sync which are incorporated in church teachings. Thus, morality has acquired a definition as an acceptable cruel action , which involves decisiveness and swiftness in dealing with material matters.
For instance, according to Niccolo Machiavelli, it is ironically that good result comes out of evil actions. In addition, the philosophy in the middle age was primarily based on Christian philosophy. However, different lines of philosophical argument came up, with one bringing a sense of nationalism threatening the position of church-men, by introducing a powerful secular based perspective.
The other one widely secularized the knowledge reducing the control of ecclesiastical elite and in its place introducing, what Descartes (102) describes as philosophical classics of Greece and Rome. As time goes by, the power of a single religious authority was gradually effaced giving power of vernacular tongues by the influence of protestant ethics which resulted to philosophers becoming less recognized in their ecclesiastical hierarchy but instead their recognition was shifted to their national origin (Descartes, 77-8).
In studying the way people live, Machiavelli (312) agrees that the way people lived traditionally was a true way of living. Everyone was required to live virtuously and this was clearly observed. However, living virtuously didnt mean that people could live happily. The adaptation to the modernized ways pushed the leader to try making people to both fear them as well as love them.
But since these two factors couldnt go hand in hand, they saw that significant security would be obtained in making people to fear them. This was associated with suspicious from other opposing parties concerning any acts of insecurities that can be thrown toward the leader in question. As a result, any action to suppress the other party or individual was seen as a gateway to remain feared and recognized (Rousseau, 37).
According to Rousseau (87), civil society has introduced inequalities in human kind which mostly concerning moral inequality, whose relation is in power and wealth. This has been attributed to mans act of straying out of the natural state and stepping in his own cocoon of individual need and desire. As a result, those who first took the advantage of peoples naivety and grabbed shares of the available properties moved up the ladder where they perpetrate the weak so that they can maintain their wealth and power.
This was the beginning of evil, where unlike the early man who was strong, fast and in prime condition and who only killed for his self prevention, the civil man started using all means, including killing his fellow to maintain what he has obtained. (Rousseau, 62).
In conclusion, modernization has accompanied its countable good aspect with uncountable vices which has greatly eroded natural state of human beings moral in relation to other and environment and in place redefined these moral in a self centered perspective, attributed with a lot of evils.
Works Cited
Descartes, Rene. The principal of philosophy. Kessinger Publishing, 2004. Print.
In general words, Associationism is a theory explaining how different items combine in the human mind to produce thoughts, feelings, and emotions. The key tenets of Associationism are rather simple: all items are associated in the human mind through sets of experiences. The items are derived from diverse experiences and are further combined to form a thought or a feeling. For example, a child learns not to touch fire because the kid associates it with pain, the pain that was memorized from the experience with fire. Furthermore, items can combine to form a complex idea based on several experiences.
Associationist psychology is based on two fundamental doctrines. The first doctrine is that the more recondite phenomena of the mind are formed out of simple parts. The second one is that the mental law is the law of association. Overall, associationistic theorists try to explain the mental phenomena by trying to show the final product of the small experiences connected through complex networks of associations. In other words, associationism is an attempt to explain mental phenomena through looking at small experiences and mental laws of association. John Stuart Mill and George Berkeley are two of the most prominent representatives of the Associationistic theory (Wilson 1990).
John Mill linked associationist psychology to the issues of moral education and social reform. Interestingly enough, Mill argued that the contents of human minds (namely beliefs and moral feelings) are the ultimate products of diverse experiences people go through. These small experiences are connected by associationistic laws. The different combinations of these experiences may lead to different shapes of human nature. For example, when new experiences are gained, the mind of the person is changing because another connection network of experiences is created. Associationism, as Mill suggested, is based on the assumption that problems of people can be explained by their situations (or associations promoted by these situations) rather than by intrinsic factors (Wilson 1990).
Special attention should be paid to the impact made by Mill on equality between a woman and a man. Mill argued that to ensure equality among men and women, the experiences of females should be changed. Consequently, the change in experiences will result in the change in associations, and ultimately it will change their minds. Mill rejected the idea that subordination of women is a natural order. He tried to show that the social superiority of men was also the result of specific experiences that formed the particular associations in minds of both genders (Skorupski 1989).
George Berkeley, on the other side, explored the theory of associationism through the senses in general and touch in particular. Berkeley believed that touching provides people with full access to the world. Moreover, Berkeley put forward the idea that the vision of an object does not give true information about the items. For example, the tower has a determinate shape and size but depending on the distance between the tower and an observer, the person gets continually changing visual image (Berman 1994).
From the psychological perspective of Berkeley, it happens because there is no associationistic connection between vision and tactic ideas. Nevertheless, some of Berkeleys assumptions are very similar to Mills. In particular, both believed that associations are the results of experiences. From one side, Mill focused on social experiences such as upbringing and the role played by women in society. Berkeley, on the other side, focused on personal experiences, the ones that are not obligatory related to the social factors. Berkley formed his theory of associations on the sensory experiences or the processes of world exploration through touch. Of course, the concept of touch has a broad meaning in this context (Winker 1989).
Associationism is highly relevant to modern-day psychology. Theories of Associationism marked the beginning of the development of cognitive psychology explaining the conscious and unconscious response of humans to diverse experiences. Associationism sets the clear connection between experience and thoughts. For example, learning is analyzed as the process of the formation of associations between unrelated information. Most people use association techniques without even being aware of them. Associations are often used to remember the birthday of the friend or answers to the test questions. Thus, Mill and Berkeley set a solid foundation for the development of modern cognitive psychology.
Questions
What is associationism? Associationism is the theory of psychology explaining the connection between thoughts and past experiences. It explains how people learn and how they react to different situations.
What was the key argument of Mill on associations? Mill focused his attention on the importance of social factors information of experiences. Mill tried to analyze social phenomena by looking closely at the social factors shaping the experiences of different groups of people.
What was the key argument of Berkeley on associations? Berkley explored association through the theory of touch and self-exploration. Unlike other associationistic theorists, Berkley ignored the external factors shaping the nature and essence of experiences.
What is the similarity between Mills and Berkeleys views on associations? Both theorists focused their attention on the importance of past experiences for exploration of the world and learning new information. Mill and Berkeley would agree with each other that experiences are the small elements of the association.
What is the modern application of associationism in psychology? Cognitive psychology is the direct manifestation of the associationistic theories of Mill, Berkley, and other theorists.
References
Berman, D. (1994) George Berkeley: Idealism and the Man. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Skorupski, J. (1989) John Stuart Mill. London: Routledge.
Wilson, F. (1990) Psychological Analysis and the Philosophy of John Stuart Mill. Toronto: Toronto Univ. Press.
Winkler, K. (1989) Berkeley: An Interpretation. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
The ship begins a voyage around the world and in the course of this voyage some of the parts of the ship inevitably break. One by one, the broken parts of the ship are replaced with new parts that are similar to the original parts. By the time the ship returns home at the port, all parts have been replaced after breaking down one by one. From the framing to the deck to the last bolt and nut, everything has been replaced. Even the painting is new. The question that begs is whether this ship is the same or it is a different ship. This is a tricky question bearing in mind that meaning all the parts of the ship have been replaced at the end of the long voyage meaning that the original outlook has been changed. The original structure has also been changed with parts that are identical to the original parts. Is this ship a different one or the same old ship that left the port for the voyage? To start with, it is important to note that if one looks at the ship when it lands back at the port, it is almost impossible to note that the ship has undergone replacements because the parts that have been used to replace the original parts are identical to the replaced part. The name of the ship and the registration has not changed and what have changed are the parts that initially made up the ship. The whole ship has changed, from the largest part to the smallest nut in the ship. The problem is that people cannot notice the difference because the parts used are quite identical and this brings this discussion to a new realm where we ask ourselves some pertinent questions.
One of the most important questions is: just because people cannot notice the difference because identical new parts have been used, does this mean that the ship is still the same one? Surely, this is not the ship that left the port. The parts that made the initial ship are absent in the ship that arrives at the port. The entire structure and composition have changed and changing the entire structure of the ship by putting new parts are the same as buying a new ship and putting the registration number of the old ship. The cost of replacing every part is almost the same as buying an entirely new ship. Though people may not see the difference, it is evident that the ship that returns to the port is not the ship that left the port. The entire framework of the ship that left the port has been replaced with a new one. The ship that left the port is no more since all its parts including the casing lay somewhere as scrap materials meaning that at the port we get an entirely new ship. From a mechanical perspective, we can argue that the ship has been renovated but from a psychological perspective, the most plausible argument would be that the ship that left the port is not the ship that docks the port at the end of its voyage.
There is a strong distinction between modern philosophy and ancient philosophy. The difference mainly comes in the way issues are handled about the prevailing situation and circumstances. Ancient philosophy was based more on Greek teachings which were mythological, an example of such mythologies are those of Aristotle. No truth could be found in the myths and were drawn mainly to give leaders a basis on which they can establish their leadership. The authors of ancient philosophy did not have any genuine experience in matters of leadership and mainly based their theories on some mystical happenings that nobody knows about their existence (Morgan, p. 28). In as much as there were strong points and lessons presented in them; they can no longer be applicable in modern political thought. Machiavelli is a modern philosopher that has derived reasonable arguments for modern leaders from his observations of the past. Greek philosophers emphasize the importance of understanding the needs of the people and hence sacrificing all to ensure that they are met. There is some reality in his work that can be adopted by the current leaders who want to experience a change in leadership. As we focus on the challenges that modern leaders especially in America face, we will be looking at the views of Machiavelli in comparison to what the ancient philosophers had to say.
Greek philosophy played a major role in instilling wisdom and character among its leaders (Morgan, 2005). It was mainly based on certain spiritual mythologies that were believed to have occurred some time back. They are mainly narratives of certain Heroes who either lost or won because of engaging in certain activities (Morgan, 2005). The stories signified that for a leader to achieve a certain goal then they had to go through a certain epic experience or journey which would, in turn, define their character. This philosophical thought became a major basis of leadership until when it was discovered how unpractical they were. With the changing societal needs, it becomes obvious that some principles can not be applied. They emphasize much on the importance of being divinely connected even when such spirituality does not make sense. Furthermore, modern society embraces more secular values than ancient spiritual values. Thus, it became challenging for modern leaders who can not identify with such philosophies. In trying to connect how events were unfolding in ancient times and how they are currently unfolding, there is a need for a different interpretation of the philosophies that were previously presented. It is for this reason that modern philosophy took a keen interest in the views presented by Machiavelli in defining leadership in the current society.
Machiavelli is a philosopher that insists on following the correct leadership values for politicians. His concept of effectual truth vs. the imagination of it was a significant departure from the values of his day, this implies that leaders should be more realistic about the policies that they set forth rather than simply doing it to lure voters. Correct values to him do not necessarily mean what is generally acceptable. They are based on the political situation of the country as well as the ability of a leader. As much as Machiavelli does not believe in dictatorial leadership, he believes in an independent leader who does not need to be swayed by peoples ideologies. When in leadership, a person already has his obligations that they need to see fulfilled by the time their term is over. As they looked forward to being in a leadership position, they should have already seen a desire which they want to be fulfilled (Machiavelli, 1938). The moment they get into leadership and forget what took them there, they may start being pushed to do what other people want rather than fulfill the desires they had for that particular society. The reason why most leaders change once they enter into leadership is simply that they bow to the pressures of other people who dont understand their vision.
In his literature titled the prince, Machiavelli points out some of the things that a prospective leader needs to do for them to occupy the bigger seat. He also has a word for those that are in leadership and what they can do to maintain their leadership position. His ideas are not based on any faulty methodologies but rather having the interest of a state at heart, the title is a reflection of how a prospective leader can do much more than what the former did (Machiavelli, 1938). People have become more knowledgeable and will look out for leaders that can handle their social and political needs. People have had a test of many leaders, how they carried out their campaigns and what they were able to deliver to them once in leadership positions. This has made them more intelligent when it comes to exercising their voting rights. It is not usually about the party that the leader chooses to campaign on but their morals. At a point when people are hungry for change, they can scrutinize their leaders and identify who is likely to deliver what they are saying. There are several issues in the country that every leader endeavors to fight. Machiavelli has not only identified the areas but also came up with procedures that may be used by such leaders to fight them.
One of the issues that have been pointed out is terrorism which has become a major issue, especially in the United States. The country has become a major target for terrorists which is making leaders look out for leaders that will promise an end to it. Potential leaders are those that understand the history of the land and are determined to bring change. On the contrary, those that are out for fame may not care much about past mistakes and will out trying out new things that may not necessarily be practical. They have heard leaders who have not done much in fighting it. Citizens are always looking up to their leaders to come up with policies that will instill security. Security has become a fundamental issue in economic growth without which people live in fear. After several bombings in the US and other officers in other countries that are affiliated with them, people are expressing doubt on the ability of their leaders to maintain security. Some of the strategies that have been employed have only sucked into the government coffer and given the country a bad name rather than fulfilling its objectives. Most of the funds that were set aside were channeled into fighting terrorism, a battle that seems to have no end. In his reference to defending the nation, Machiavelli suggests that sound policies and a strong military force are the basic requirements.
Compared to other philosophies that have been used for leadership, Machiavellis have been considered to be the best for application in the modern world. This is basically due to the changing needs in leadership. During the ancient years, people were more concerned about reforms and looked for leaders that could implement them. However, as it now stands, people are looking for leaders that can unite them and protect their interests from attacks. The greatest threat in America is security; security can only be facilitated if there are sound policies for the same as well as maintaining a strong military. Those are the principles that have been emphasized by Machiavelli which are also applicable to America today (Machiavelli, 45). The reality of the same may have been experienced in the world and America at large during the first and second world wars (Machiavelli, 1938). Many nations were proved to be lacking in military supremacy as they faced the consequences of war. It has taken quite some time before such nations recovered from the economic crunch that was experienced after the two wars. It was realized that they need to prepare their military ready for any battle and also set some funds aside for such emergencies.
America is one of the countries that have had a lot of experiences in leadership. Each leader has had an impact on the country, some that are cherished as positive while others as negative. It was basically because of the desire for justice and change that has motivated the country to vote for new leaders over and again. Some mistakes were made by the leaders that were previously there that are costing the nation a lot. They failed to meet the targets that they had set during their campaign rallies and hence leaving the other generation of leaders with a lot more to do. Before a new regime comes in, they have to first ensure that the blunders that were made by the previous regime are cleared before setting out afresh. This has affected the economic and political standing of the nation as every leader aims at making a remarkable change. People are still looking out with a lot of optimism that the leaders they choose will facilitate the much-needed change.
Works cited
Machiavelli, N. (1938). The prince. New York: Plain Label Books.
Morgan, M., (2005). Classics of moral and political theory. New York: Hackett Publishing
Hobbes wields a great following in the philosophical world as the founding father of the modern philosophy. In his works, he sets out the vigorous terms of debate about the basic and determinants of the political life with influence in every individual in the world. In his works, he relates the socio-political problems of a society to the inadequacy in political loyalty of such societies (Warrender 346).
Hobbes school of thought believes that the political authority is sovereign to the populations, thus should remain obedient and fearful to the authority in order to enjoy the services of the ruling class.
In the current world, the human authorities continuously require checks and balances with relevant justifications due to the social-political inequalities and religious disputes. Warrender argues that such inequalities require an institution that draws adequate power to ensure equality in the society (347).
In order to function without resistant from the citizens, Hobbes believes that the political authority should exercise a ruling that ensure the citizens do not only respect the institutions and authorities of the rule, but also develop adequate fear for the repercussions that come with disobedience.
Drivers of Hobbes Thinking
Hobbes lived in a time when the entire globe encountered several political, social, and religious conflicts. In England, for example, the uprisings cut across the entire society with differences in loyalties to the ruling class. The filthy rich elites of the society were in conflict with the loyalty to the king due to the taxation policies. The parliament too was in great conflicts with the kingdom over the control of executive power.
Such differences lead to a disintegrated society with people divided along regions, wealth, and religion (Little and Smith 436). Political, social, and religious differences created the best recipe for civil war leading to even more disintegrated state. When King Charles I, developed policies for a uniform religious system, the revolt against his rule increased in magnitude; the loyalty of every individual state became questionable.
In order to avoid these differences, Hobbes believes that the ruling authority should develop laws and rules that instill fear for disobedience while at the same time ensure that the basic services that often cause revolutions are available. In his thoughts, an authority with absolute power but with the interests of the ruling class at heart forms the basis for a successful and peaceful society (Little and Smith 441).
Even though the political developments during the times of Hobbes drove the direction of his thinking, the revolts against the religious direction given by King Charles I, and his deep love for developing scientific thinking in relation to the older schools of thought played a great role in influencing Hobbes direction of thinking. These two factors significantly influenced Hobbes believes in moral and political ideas.
State of Nature
Hobbes develops a consideration on the state of nature in order to establish the direction of his thinking. In this thinking, he considers the probabilities of the state of society in a free world without the restrictions developed by the ruling authority.
He argues that in this kind of setting, Hobbes creates an imagination that the society would be in its fairest state in such a setting since every individual has the liberty to decide his/her actions, and act as the judges of their own actions in situations where disputes arise.
In such a setting Hobbes argues, creates a state of individual judgment due to lack of agencies and institutions recognized to arbitrate the disputes and enforce the judgments arising from such conflicts (Warrender 349).
Hobbes goes further to develop this believe from the basic assumption that the society is composed of people harboring similar mental and physical attributes, thus no single individual has the power to develop a dominating trend on others. Hobbes argues in his assumptions that the state of natural liberty offers an avenue for individual citizens to preserve themselves in terms of naturally right things.
However, since the definition of right things purely revolves around individual definition of what is right and what is wrong, Hobbes believes that an array of disparities often arise, thus the need for an institution to define the rights and the wrongs of a society. Hobbes argues that developing a system of education is necessary in order to develop uniformity in the definition of what is right and what is wrong.
In order to achieve this, the ruling authority must develop the laws and regulations that come with the choices made by the populations on whether or not to attend the education system (Warrender 350).
Development of Sovereignty
Hobbes argues that it either comes handy through the covenants in elections or through subscription to absolute obedience to the conquering ruler to develop sovereignty. Either ways, obedience come in handy due to the fear of the punishments that arise in cases of questionable loyalties. In cases where members of a given society mutually agree to obey a common authority, sovereignty by institution arises.
However, in cases where a conqueror threats and coerces a population to pledge obedience, sovereignty by acquisition arises. Whichever way the authorities use to develop sovereignty, Hobbes argues that the underlying factor is the fear for the consequences that may arise in the populations in cases of disobediences. Hobbes, therefore, considers both ways of establishing sovereignty as legitimate and humane (Warrender 387).
Despite the fact that Hobbes acknowledges that political legitimacy of a ruling authority depends on how the government institutions developed came into force, he argues that the ability of the ruling authority to protect the rights and freedoms of those members subscribing to the style of leadership is the paramount benchmark for good governance. He further adds that political obligation should end simultaneously with an end to the protection.
Importance of Obeying the Sovereign
Hobbes in his works argues that if the entire population in a society develops a mutual contract of promises with the ruling authority, then it follows that they have the obligation to be obedient. However, the fact that all the persons in the society are either conquered or born in the presence of an already existing ruling class, the ability to obey is questionable.
Even though the sovereign rulers force citizens into obedience through force and threats, they put in place adequate checks to ensure that the freedom of motion among the citizen remains uncompromised. In Hobbes argument, he believes that the freedom of movement allows individuals in a society to move to a direction of their choice.
The citizens remain at liberty to choose to obey and live peacefully or disobey and face punishment. In this context, the threats by the ruling authority yields obedience because the citizens fear the physical consequences associated with disobedience. In this case, the fear of punishment results into fear as a state of nature, thus defining the unconditional obedience to the authority (Warrender 394).
According to Hobbes, promises of unconditional obedience whether developed in duress or on free will by the citizens come handy with huge moral weight. Despite the fact that making the promises takes place under threats, which is a contravention of the citizen in question, Hobbes does not offer adequate explanation to the importance of fulfilling promises.
However, he argues that in a civil society, the sovereign laws, dictates all the wrong and right things, thus wields power that goes beyond the contract. The authority is responsible for setting the terms and engagements for everyone, thus the threats used to coerce citizen to pledge loyalty are only tools used to create obligations.
Absolute power
According to Hobbes and Gaskin, the ability of a ruling authority to govern the subjects successfully remains directly proportional the amount of power that comes with authority (728). It is for this reason that Hobbes develops high levels of unconditional love to the monarchial system of governance in which the rulers wields absolute powers and authorities.
In such a set up, he argues that all the regulations remain within the control of a central power, thus inadequacy in enforcement becomes less evident. In his argument, Hobbes claims that in the monarchial system of governances, the powers of making laws, interpreting the laws, and enforcing them remains solely with the ruling authority since the chances of divergent views as evident in a democratic governance systems are absent.
In case where the enforcement are done with persons not responsible for the development of the laws, the chances of paralyzing a government are high since each enforcement agency may develop regulations contrary to the motives of the law. In such a scenario, extremities such as disintegration and civil strives often occur (Hobbes and Gaskin 730).
In the democratic set ups, the executive arm of the governments often face numerous problems especially in the oversight roles of the judiciary and the legislature. In some cases, courts have ruled against the executive authority with claims that the executive acted outside their mandate in such situations.
In such circumstances, Hobbes argues that a state in which individual chooses to obey or disobey the ruling authority at will, instances of civil disobedience are high, and wars often erupt. Even though the civil disobedience in most cases does not aim at paralyzing the functions of the existing governments in cases where war erupts, the ability of the government to offer service to the citizens is unattainable.
In order to control such eventualities, the ruling authority should, therefore, develop the laws, interpret them, and enforce them. The entire citizenry should adequately understand the ruling authority harbors absolute powers (Hobbes and Gaskin 737).
Boundaries of Absolutism
Hobbes developed the belief in absolute power with one effective limit. Even though he argues that the ability of effective governance solely lies in the hands with absolute power and authority, Hobbes develops the limit within which the subscribing subjects to revolt against the ruling class.
In case the ruling authority compromises the inalienable rights of the subjects, he argues that the subjects have the right to question and disobey such rules in order to get back their rights. The ability of the ruling authority to protect the lives of the subscribing subjects as well as those of their relatives defines the limit of obedience.
In cases where the ruling authority fails to do so, the citizens hold the right to self-defense since the obligation to obey goes handy with the ability to protect (Warrender 399).
Merits of Hobbes Theory of Obligation
The social contract theory, which revolves around the mutual agreement for political protection by the ruling authority and the political obedience by the subjects, increases the chances of social order. This provides the best recipe for morality in a society. The responsibility for respect and obedience built within the citizens from the natural instincts that define the social systems within which the human nature exists.
The natural need to develop a system of governance under which the entire society pledges loyalty, forms a basis for a successful society in the theory of obligation. The societies in this kind of setting base the general rules of living in the moral judgments as defined by the ruling authority (Warrender 401).
In the state of nature, the boundaries of liberty are limitless. Hobbes claims that the resulting state in such a set up encourages dangerous lifestyles in which the strong and the brutish take control of the weak. These characters coupled with the scarcity of the basic needs of food shelter and clothing compromises the existence of the weaker generations.
For these reasons, the development of social contract of obligation provides an ample environment of equitable living. The ruling class wields absolute power over everything but pledges to protect everybody in the society.
The social contract theory argues that the morality of a society is solely the responsibility of mutually consenting individuals. In such a set up, sets of rules that govern how people relate with and treat each other exists. An absolute power is necessary to check the level of obedience and develop punishment for the disrespect.
In cases where such powers are absent, the morality of the society is unchecked and may results in states of anarchy. Therefore, social contract develops terms and conditions of mutual agreement of existence among the ruling authority and within the citizenry, thus increasing the chances of developing a morally upright society (Warrender 415).
The theory of obligation creates a secure society. The actual agreement by the society and the ruling authority forms the best base for moral decisions and sound stances. The agreement to remain obedient to the state simply because many other members of the society subscribe to the state demands creates a sense of security and togetherness. In such a set up, comfort becomes easily achievable compared to situations where the state has limited power on the society.
Demerits of Hobbes Theory
Civil obedience and obligation in this theory arise in a reciprocation manner. People in the society agree to do right things to their counterparts with the expectation that they get the same treatment from their counterparts. Similarly, members of the society desist from doing wrong things to their fellows with the expectation that the fellows will not do bad things to them (Warrender 417).
However, in a society not every person expects the same favors from their counterparts. Some individuals, especially the people with learning difficulties and young children are not easily accountable to their action since they do expect favors even if they do wrong things to others. This creates a great flaw in this theory.
According to Hobbes, laws and government form the basis for morality in a society. However, a philosopher like John Locke argues that societies in the state of nature forms more habitable environment than government-led societies.
Locke believes that the natural laws often inherent from some form of supernatural powers create a better living society the human defined morals. Locke argues that individual with respect to the supernatural laws have the power to punish themselves for the wrongs they do for the fear of the wrath of the gods (Hobbes and Gaskin 741).
In Hobbes theory, the means to ruling class is not relevant neither is it important for the society. The ability of the ruling class to command obedience is paramount to successful governance even if it means coercing and threatening the citizens to consent. These kinds of obligations are different from the morally upright obligations.
For example, the strength of the ruling class determines its ability to command obedience. For this reason, strong individuals might enter into social contracts with the society only for the things he/she considers advantageous. Therefore, this theory compels the weaker members of the society, such as women, children, and the elderly to the likelihood slavery with the stronger counterparts as their masters.
Similarly, the ability of the weaker members of the society may compel them to enter into contracts with the ruling class even if the contract is immoral. For example, contract engagement that allows the use of child labor and execution of the less productive labor force may arise even though it is evidently immoral (Hobbes and Gaskin 745).
Hobbes general argument is that human beings are selfish by nature. However, if this was the case the obligation to abide by the ruling authority remains weak. The chances of the absolute governance running into anarchy are high. Flaws exists in the inability of Hobbes to explain why individual avoid committing crimes that often benefit them even in cases where chance of punishment are absolutely zero.
Hobbes and Gaskin hold that if truly humans were selfish in nature, the society would be full of ills and immorality, especially in cases where the chances of punishment are low (749). Individuals would not avoid crime simply by the virtue that the counterparts would not commit crime against them. Instead, they would engage in crime for the sole benefits that arise from such crimes.
Conclusion
Many philosophers conform to the fact that political obligation is the moral duty to obey the laws of the state. However, the acquisition of such obedience remains a subject of debate among many scholars. In Hobbes school of thought, the ability to obey is paramount regardless of whether one consents willingly or is coerced to do so.
Hobbes believes that the success of a society depends upon the ability of the ruling class to wield absolute power over the laws and regulations while at the same time ensuring the protection of the loyal citizens.
In cases where protection ceases, Hobbes goes ahead to state that obligations must end. Despite the fact that Hobbes denies the citizens the liberty to choose what to consent to, he puts necessary mechanisms of revolt in case the ruling authority compromises the inalienable rights of the citizens.
Works Cited
Hobbes, Thomas, and John Charles Addison Gaskin. Leviathan. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998. Print.
Little, Richard, and Michael Smith. Perspectives on World Politics. 3rd ed. London: Routledge, 2006. Print.
Warrender, Howard. The Political Philosophy of Hobbes: His Theory of Obligation. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1957. Print.
During the Axial Age, China experienced difficult times of discord, hunger, and death. In response to suffering, people began looking for a new life purpose, meaning, and way to build a new society. These efforts led to the creation of three influential schools of thought Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism. Despite the significant differences between schools, they became influential in Chinese society and introduced changes.
Legalism
Legalism was based on the views of the School of Law and proposed the idea that people are essentially evil creatures. Based on a nature of people, Legalism offered authoritarian governance through laws, punishments, and a strong leader who could restore order. The direction provided more answers and solutions to the countrys problems than other schools, gaining a significant influence. The impact of Legalism united the country, contributed to the power of the Qin dynasty, and supported the reign of the first emperor. Although the wars ceased, the school had negative consequences totalitarianism, which established robust control over the population and severe penalties for misconduct. Nevertheless, even after the emperors death, China remained united, and Legalism was the basis for the rule of other dynasties, establishing political and social order. Moreover, the rulers, guided by the teachings, were able to expand Chinas influence and establish trade relations with other peoples, changing the countrys economic life.
Confucianism
This school originates from the teachings of Confucius, whose life is shrouded in myths. The school is based on the assumption that people occupying a specific place in the social hierarchy should strive in the best way to fulfill their role. Confucianism also emphasizes the importance of an attentive and respectful attitude towards people if a person expects much the same. Confucianism also established rules regarding the relationships of different types, in which mainly the superior should care about the inferior; for example, the rulers should treat their subjects well. These views changed the political life of China when the Han dynasty came to power and united the features of Legalism and Confucianism. Economically, the direction promoted farming and education but vilified merchants treating them as lower class. Confucianism had the most significant influence on social life, guiding the population until the 20th century, notably establishing a superior-inferior relationship. The negative effect, in this case, was manifested in the establishment of a patriarchal society.
Daoism
This direction emphasizes the existence of Dao force, or The Way in the universe, which is everything. Daoism also calls on people to return to nature and abandon artificial civilization. However, the direction had a disadvantage it did not offer an answer to Chinas adversity, and its application mainly focused on attempts to manage the Dao to improve life. However, guided by Dao, people changed their social life they were inclined to stay in the flow, do their job, and not do foolish things. The economic influence was not so significant in the considered period, but Taoism showed its impact during the Yellow Turban Rebellion in political life.
Conclusion
Thus, Legalism, Confucianism, and Taoism became influential schools of thought in China during the Axial Age. Although they are based on contrasting teachings, each direction was embedded in the countrys political, economic, and social life. Schools arose in response to chaos, destruction, and wars in China. Still, only Legalism gave solutions to the problem, becoming a guide for the ruling dynasties and changing the countrys policy.
The medieval period is characterized by a distinctive attitude to philosophy and theology. This vast phenomenon was significantly influenced by the thinkers of Western Europe, from which it received the conventional name Western Thought. An exceptional contribution to this trend was made by the philosopher and theologian St. Thomas Aquinas. His most outstanding works were Summa Contra Gentiles and the Summa Theologica. Thus, this scientific paper aims to study the contribution that St. Thomas Aquinas made to the Western Thought of the Middle Ages.
About the Philosopher
Before considering the influence of St. Thomas Aquinas, it is necessary to gain knowledge about its background. This is of particular importance since the history and life of the figures primarily affect their work. Therefore, St. Thomas Aquinas was born in Italy in 1225 and died in 1274 (Chenu para. 1). In the future, a famous philosopher and theologian, Aquinas, began his journey at Montecassino and later was redirected to the University of Naples in France. This place had a turning point for the man since it was there that he got acquainted with the newly found mendicant order of Preachers or Dominicans and Aristotles philosophy. After that, the philosopher decided to become a Dominican, although the family did not support this decision.
Interest in the teachings of Aristotle contributed to the unification of many philosophers, which happened in the case of Thomas Aquinas. Hence, in Cologne, he went to Albert the Great, who shared his interest in Aristotle. The main achievement of Thomas is that he is considered the founder of the philosophical and theological school of Thomism. In addition, the philosopher studied and promoted the foundations of natural theology, was an Empiricist, and made a valuable contribution to Christian theology.
Summa Theologica and Summa Contra Gentiles
As already mentioned, one of the outstanding works of Thomas Aquinas is Summa Theologica. After being translated into English, it received distribution and recognition under the name Compendium of Theology (Waqas 5). It was an article that considered the concept of the concept quinquae viae. The second significant work of the philosopher and theologian was Summa Contra Gentiles or On the Truth of the Catholic Faith. This description was a collection of arguments acting as a refutation of non-Christian religions (Cole and Symes 314). The basis of these works is an analysis between the domains and methods of philosophy and theology of the Middle Ages.
The author sees feelings as a source of knowledge about the root cause of all things around people. In addition, the main object of Thomas Aquinas research was God, who was mentioned in the holy scriptures, which did not have as much significance for philosophy as in theology. Sources note that Thomas Aquinas believed that the study of the physical world was a legitimate way of gaining knowledge of the divine because God had created both the world and the many ways of knowing it (Cole and Symes 314). These teachings became one of the main driving forces that affected the changes in Western thought of the thirteenth century and beyond.
The Impact on the Western Thought
Another basis of Aquinas teaching was a natural and supernatural revelation. According to the philosopher and theologian, they helped to understand religion better and were complementary concepts (Elders 198). Thus, Thomas Aquinas contribution was that he provided a theological view of the world as rational, organized, and comprehensive to the inquiring human mind (Cole and Symes 335). Valuable in his teaching was also the disclosure of such sacred aspects as the Trinity and Incarnation. Hence, Aquinas believed that many attributes that people attribute to God could be easily explained. However, the mentioned concepts are the object of a more detailed and profound revelation. All this knowledge was revealed in his philosophical works on Christian theology.
In addition to the natural and natural revelations and senses of man, the basis for the teachings of Thomas Aquinas were the scriptures and traditions of the Catholic Church. Moreover, the philosopher believed that the main postulates in the process of acquiring and analyzing new knowledge are faith and reason. It is they who will help to assist in the interpretation of those teachings that were created as a result of Gods revelation. As already mentioned, works on Aristotles theology played an essential role in this process. In them, God reveals himself to people through nature, which can help bring people closer to understanding his covenants.
Thomas Aquinas contributed to Western Thought by suggesting that God has several important qualities. First of all, the Almighty is devoid of matter and form, that is, invisible and not felt by people. Moreover, he is perfect in everything and infinite and boundless. These characteristics are prescribed to him because he is the founder of all things. In the end, he is unchangeable neither concerning his nature nor character and is one. Another particularly critical turning point was the introduction by the philosopher and theologian of the principle of double effect (Buzar 1299). The basis of this approach was that in any act of a person, the ethical side should initially be taken into account. For example, a particular action can be justified if it does not violate moral and ethical postulates, such as not harming ones neighbor.
The philosopher and theologians saw the main final goal of any persons life as to find union and communion with God. Therefore, throughout his work, he tried to show how not believing in the Almighty can turn out for non-religious people. Consequently, Aquinas thought that there is life after death. However, the theologian believed that this opportunity is available to those who have experienced salvation and redemption. Therefore, during their lives, individuals should do everything to do only the right actions and observe the basic tenets of the religion. Among the main concepts that people should follow are peace, holiness, and mercy.
Conclusion
In conclusion, this paper considered the contribution that Thomas Aquinas made to Western thought. Thus, the Italian philosopher and theologian conducted teachings on the Christian faith and was a follower of the views of Aristotle. He tried to spread knowledge about how important faith is for a person and how it can give him spiritual balance. A feature of his works is also the reliance on the natural and supernatural as sources of deeper knowledge of the Almighty and the definition of his main characteristics. Aquinas views the two main works, Summa Theologica and Summa Contra Gentiles, were writings refuting non-Christian teachings. Therefore, Thomas Aquinas became a philosopher and theologian who gave impetus to the formation of the future of modern philosophy.
Works Cited
Buzar, Stipe. The Principle of Double Effect and Just War Theory. Philosophia, vol. 48, no. 4, 2020, pp. 1299-1312.
This essay will focus on the article The Saints and the Roughnecks by William Chambliss. It will demonstrate relevant sociological theories, perspectives and other critical concepts captured in the study. The theories addressed are social learning theory, social strain theory, and rational choice theory.
Theories
Sutherlands theory of social learning addresses the problem of white-collar criminality, which is a part of organized crime. The theory states that learned criminal behavior allows individuals to see illegal activities within the context of normative ethics. The Saints, a gang of youths take delinquent activities as normal behavior. They use the school and town environment to engage in delinquent behavior. Their self-image in the community easily allows them to get away with their deviant behaviors (Henslin, 2010).
Akers further points out that differential organization is a factor that can explain individual criminal behavior but can also tell how communities are differentially promoting deviant or no-deviant behavior (Akers, 2009). The societys view of the Saints and the Roughnecks is quite different.
The community sees the Saints as morally upright boys but only out of lark. Their performances in school are excellent, which help to conceal their deviant behavior. On the other hand, society sees the Roughnecks as headed for trouble. Their performance at school is not pleasant. Both gangs engage in criminal activities, but the society treats them differently.
The basis for individual participation in criminal groups and the crime committed is a product of a learning environment. People learn to understand criminal organizations and activities as normative. Individuals experiences and learning environment in different ways promote deviance or non-deviance behavior. The Saints and the Roughnecks obtain their delinquent behavior from their immediate environments.
In social strain theory, Agnew argues that the disjuncture between positively valued goals, opportunities, and ability to achieve those goals results in crime (Agnew, 1992). He identifies some strain, which forces individuals into crime-coping activities such as low social control, and unjust society, which creates some urge or motivation to engage in criminal-coping activities.
The strains created can lead to negative emotions, low social control, and social learning of criminal behavior. Social pressure makes the Roughnecks engage in delinquency. They are not rich boys, not well mannered, readily violent, and not performing well at school. Agnew characterizes criminal groups as appealing to those experiencing social strain. The Roughnecks use delinquency as a way to gain status and success in society.
The central premise of rational choice theory is that criminals make decisions for maximizing gains in criminal engagements. Levels of commitments in criminal activities differ depending on the risk, effort, and rewards. A person will choose the course of action that gives the best or highest returns on time and effort (Cornish and Clarke, 2002).
Factors attributed to the background of the gangs such as a psychological state of the minds, upbringing and demographic profile limit the decisions of the bands to engage in crime. Limited predisposition and information rationally control delinquency among the gangs.
Criminals consider crime as a rational course of action. Returns gained from engaging in delinquent activities extremely influence the behavior and activities of both gangs. Background factors of the bands, to a greater extent, influenced the findings of the study. The community, school and the police reacted differently to these two sets of gangs.
Conclusion
William studied two sets of gangs operating in the same environment and got different results. The townspeople, the community, and the police have different perspectives of the bands. The background, social upbringing, social status, and other factors make the gangs engage in criminal activities at various degrees and for different purposes. Bands use delinquency to achieve a given mission in life.
References
Agnew, R. (1992). Foundation for a general strain theory of crime and delinquency. Criminology, 30, 4787.
Akers, R. L. (2009). Social Learning and Social Structure: A General Theory of Crime and Deviance. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
Cornish, D. B., and Clarke, R. V. (2002). Analyzing Organized Crime. In A. R. Piquero, Rational Choice and Criminal Behavior: Recent Research and Future Challenges. New York, NY: Routledge.
Henslin, J. M. (2010). Essentials of Sociology: A Down-to-Earth Approach (9th Ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Allyn & Bacon.