Category: Theory

White Collar Crime Theories: Analytical Essay

It is not every day we hear about white-collar crimes but these “non-violent” crimes are on the rise. But throughout the years the federal government has been recording and documenting white collar crimes amounting to a staggering $300 billion every year (Cornell University, 2010. White-collar crime is dated back ​with different forms of bribery and embezzlement or even monopolistic price-fixing surely outdated recorded history, the earliest documented case of white-collar crime law dates back to the early 15th century in England​.

This paper about white-collar crime explores the issues we face with white-collar crimes. The growing issue we face in America the unfairness of someone of color would face if they committed the same act of violence versus someone who is America’s worthie (Caucasian) this paper includes is including government corporation This paper gives a rundown of these issues and opinions and discusses one by one thoroughly. By researching the nature of this paper I aim to bring front the roots and history of this controversial branch of the law and judicial system. That shows its specific cases throughout the years, from its conceptualization, formal introduction, and inclusion in the

unfair laws. Moreover, it looks closely at the specific types of white-collar crimes, taking into account their scope, grounds, sanction for the offenders with details about the current judicial system. Lastly, I will discuss specific cases that give white-collar crime popularity and attention from people of the law, the media, and the public. ​ ​White-collar crime can describe a wide variety of crimes committed in America and across the globe. They typically involve crime committed through deceit and motivated by financial gain. The most common white-collar crimes types are fraud, embezzlement, money laundering, also tax evasion. Many other types of scams and frauds are in white-collar crime including Ponzi schemes and securities fraud such as insider trading and property sell out. More common crimes such as insurance fraud and tax evasion are more common with rich corporate communities. These types of crimes are important because of the enormous financial, physical and social damage on individuals, communities, and society who are less knowledgable and understanding the predicament they face when it is introduced to a scheme. Due to its high priority special characteristics and the techniques by which they are committed, they pose significant problems for law enforcement agencies and regulatory bodies around the world who have an interested in controlling them because of the widespread and keep growing.

A crime is described as an action or failure to act, which results in an injury to a person and is sanctioned by A state. They are also known as offenses. These are happenings that are forbidden by law and punishable if committed. In contrast to civil wrongdoing, A state has an interest in crimes in order to protect the public from its actions. Considered to be highly wrongs to the degree in both personal injuries in which

the offense is committed against an individual as in murderous actons or assault of any kind and corporate injuries like fraud, or money laundering and counterfeiting, which are also known as white-collar crimes. Most frauds such as counterfeiting and money laundering do have some similarities and differences.

Both fraud and counterfeit are alike. While fraud is an act of offense a person willfully and with the intent to deceive another person such as if that person was to take their property or money or make them act in a particular manner, which they would not if the truth was disclosed that property and assets. On the other hand, a counterfeit is an act of producing materials or items which are not original in nature. As such, both crimes have a nature of deceit attached to it. For example, a fraudulent activity of selling a piece of property that does not belong to the seller is a white-collar crime. While the buyer is unaware of the ownership of that property to be sold, he is defrauded of his money while the real owner is taken advantage of his property. An act of producing an item such as a cosmetic product using the name, logo, and design of an existing company without there permission with the intent of copying the brand and passing it on as original one is a crime.Such as buying an item from the store and rebranding it to its natural origin. The buyers of the product are unlikely to know the differences. As a result, they are misled into buying the wrong items.

On the other hand, there a difference between these law breakings. Fraud takes place in the form of exchanging property mostly money. The person who is committing the fraud either makes an untrue statement or representation, which is relied upon by

another to change its position, form a contract or any other party agreement, and give a consideration for the same fraud. In counterfeit, an actual object is made through processing, manufacturing, writing, or in other forms depending on how fast or cheap to make that item which then produces an object. It is these objects that are used to acquire wealth from others. The rates at which financial crimes, computer crimes, property theft, fraud, and counterfeiting occur which is the main crime committed.

Money laundering is another form of financial crime, which accounts for an average of 3.5% of the global gross domestic products (Price Water Coopers, 2016). Computer hacking through fishing emails is a computer crime experienced at a rate of 97.25% in the last third quarter of the year 2016 (Gammons, 2017). Property theft, fraud, and counterfeit account for more than fifty percent of crimes in both America and the globe (Tcherni, Davies, Lopez, & Lizotte, 2016). Property theft such as stealing of company documents rather its corporate or governmental or products by employees or unauthorized persons deprives the business entities their rightful ownership. Still, fraud and counterfeiting lead to both loss of property and profits.

White-collar crimes are committed by individuals’ decisions​ ​in the corporate world. The individuals who perpetrate them have a common end result they want to achieve duping people and corporates to acquire money in illegal ways. This is the case with fraud and counterfeit offenses. Money is lost through vicious intent means. Nonetheless, states put down laws governing these malpractices to punish the offenders and protect the general public from the harm that often occurs​ whether its

influence, whether in democracies such as what we’re facing now with our government or under any form of government form is more or less subjective. Decisions are based on personal interpretation of a set of factors such as inferences from admissible evidence, meaning, and intent of laws and regulations, or probable influence on professional career opportunities.

In conclusion, ​This paper has highlighted how white-collar crime is real and happening every day and as we speak.. Evidence from the research, from media entertainment, newspaper, etc it indicates that as compared to other crimes, white-collar crimes are the most significant in our financial losses which highly contributes to America’s debt. White-collar crimes are known as injury, disease, and death caused to the public. Numerous types of white-collar crimes exist, and they are increasing in number. In contrast to other types of crimes that are declining in incidence. The crimes occur in a wide range from institutions, organizations including business, the medical field, government, religious organizations. Of all the types of white-collar crimes, consumer fraud is the most prevalent which happens in stock markets and even our workplace. With extremely higher profits made on substandard or dangerous products. Corporate irresponsibility resulting in environmental offenses impacts on health and safety are other major areas of white-collar crime. Various laws are enforced by federal administrative departments and agencies to check for the white-collar crime committed. The economic, environmental and human consequences of the crime are inestimable.

Essay on White Collar Crime Theories

The type of white-collar crime exposed by the Banking Royal Commission is difficult to explain using criminological theory.

White-collar crime consists of law-breaking actions that business and government-appointed officials in workplace environments have committed. The crimes are usually nonviolent, and primarily focused on financial gain. (Loy, n.d.) The Banking Royal Commission investigated the improper behavior of businesses in the banking, superannuation, and financial services sectors. It was initiated by the Australian government on 14 December 2017, in accordance with the Royal Commissions Act 1902. (Ferguson, 2014) Various white-collar crimes discovered included money laundering, improper loan funding, and bribery. These white-collar crimes exposed by the Banking Royal Commission can be explained by criminological theories; namely differential association by Edwin Sutherland; the general theory of crime by Michael R. Gottfredson and Travis Hirschi; Robert K. Merton and Robert Agnew’s interpretations of strain theory and lastly, opportunity theory.

Differential association describes criminality as the result of learned behavior from cultural influences and social interactions. Criminal behavior can be learned through content, how the crime is committed and justified, and through the process, the social interaction where the crime is learned. Peer groups are especially important in establishing these behaviors. A key factor in explaining white-collar crime is status and acceptance in this peer group. (Clare, n.d)

Similarly, a survey in 2006 of city managers in six medium to small-sized cities in the Netherlands and 74 medium to small-sized cities in the United States was conducted. There were a total of 105 participants in the Netherlands and 85 participants in the United States. The results found both countries had similar rates of frequency and acceptability of integrity violations. The results concluded the more acceptable the violation of integrity, the less likely it is observed. (Kolthoff, 2016)

Sutherland explained white-collar crime with this theory in his book ‘White Collar Crime’ where he studied 70 businesses and found that white-collar crime is common and prevalent. The consequences of criminality usually do not manifest in anything too severe for violators. The study also uncovered a group effort in companies; their crimes are similar to each offense despite looking down their nose at street criminals and lastly, this was a learned behavior from co-workers. Sutherland concluded that crime needs instruction. (Clare, n.d.)

The ABC TV show “Four Corners” revealed an aggressive sales-obsessed mentality within the Commonwealth Bank’s financial planning sector. (Ferguson, 2014) The Royal Commission investigated the fraud scandal, stealing millions of dollars from the bank’s customers. (Grath & Janda, 2014) Commonwealth Bank was later discovered to be involved in money laundering and wilful ignorance of terrorism funding. (Verrender, 2017) Hence, the work environment of the Commonwealth Bank encouraged and rewarded peer groups for their greed-driven mentality over the interest of the public, cementing Sutherland’s theory that status and acceptance in a peer group are essential in the development of learned criminal behavior.

The general theory of crime is a control theory based on self-control, i.e. the act of resisting temptation keeping in mind the results of one’s behavior. Self-control includes impulsiveness, risk-taking, selfish and irascible behavior. These crimes are often spur of the moment, with little planning, correlated to poor education and complex skills. Gottredson and Hirschi propose the relationship between low self-control and offending to be a result of poor parenting. Failing to teach self-control as a skill can lead to children who may partake in risk-inducing behavior. (Clare, n.d.)

Furthermore, Westpac was accused of tampering with Australia’s key interest rate, the bank bill swap rate. (Danckert, 2017) The bank was sued for its use of a computer program in deciding if home loan applications were fit for lending. (Long, 2017) A Westpac banker was incarcerated for illegally lending millions of dollars to elderly citizens. (Jackson, n.d.) The bank was discovered to have leaked confidential details of clients to foreign exchange traders. (Uribe & Thomson, 2017) Later, after failing to meet benefits promised from package deals such as home loans, credit cards, and transaction accounts, the bank refunded $65 million to 220,000 customers (Yeates, 2017).

The three types of criminals proposed in Gottfredson and Hirschi’s self-control theory impulsive, insensitive, and less intelligent are relevant in explaining white-collar crimes exposed by the Royal Banking Commission; only two of which are relevant. Low self-control leads to immediate satisfaction, although the means are risky they provide rewards that are tangible. Impulsive criminals rarely put much thought into the consequences of their actions. Insensitive criminals are apathetic to the consequences of their actions. (Eato & Korach, 2016) (Clare, n.d.) The lower the self-control a person has, the higher the chances they have of committing a white-collar crime due to an accumulation of mounting pressure in a workplace and the opportunity to allow crimes to be committed. (Eato & Korach, 2016)

As seen in the example of Westpac’s repeat failure to put the interest of their customers first but rather the company’s. The satisfaction of a short-term reward, illegally lending money or revealing confidential information, over long-term consequences such as imprisonment or harm to others. Low self-control has links to victimization, and hasty decision-making in consumer interactions increasing the risk of consumer fraud; often targeting large groups of individuals in order to take advantage of vulnerable consumers. (Simpson, 2013) Low self-control is an important factor to consider in the explanation of white-collar crimes such as those uncovered by the Royal Banking Commission.

Merton’s strain theory focused on the dichotomy between the ‘American dream’ such as wealth, and a materialistic lifestyle compared to the means to achieve such goals. This produces a ‘strain to anomie’. Features of this American Dream are the emphasis on success, individualism, materialism, and universalism. There is a cultural aspect pertaining to the nature of crime and a structural aspect pertaining to the uneven distribution of criminality. White-collar crime occurs where there is a significant cultural goal but a lack of institutionalized means, this leads to the use of illegal means to arrive at one’s goal. (Clare, n.d.) The American dream provokes values that put a strict emphasis on an individual’s financial success however the means of which to achieve these goals are few. This leads to different paths to acquire them through illegal means. It is a self-fulfilling desire that anyone can fall victim to in any socioeconomic state. (Schoepfer & Piquero, 2006) The fear of failure spreads across all classes, and the competitive culture around sustaining a capitalist lifestyle is a motivator for success. (Coleman, 1987)

Agnew’s General Strain Theory has two types of strain. Firstly, the absence of something valued such as privileges, opportunities, and relationships (negative reinforcement). Secondly, anticipated presentations of negative stimuli such as abusive relationships (positive reinforcement). The higher the amount of strain, the higher the likelihood that deviancy will result. Strain can create a possibility of crime. Repeated strain decreases a person’s ability to cope with strain and can lead to negative emotions such as anger, depression, fear, and frustration. Crime may stem from this as a coping mechanism. (Clare, n.d.)

White collar criminals are often driven by the fear of failure, the stress of losing what they have already gained – that is the incapability to achieve financial success is an important type of strain. White-collar offenders are more preoccupied by a greed for wealth, if this becomes a core goal this form of strain can result in deviance. These crimes may be committed as a means to achieve stability or to conform to the norms of a working environment. Data taken from Wheeler, Weisburd, and Bode’s (2000) “Nature and Sanctioning of White Collar Crimes” study seems to support this theory. Although lower levels of crime such as embezzlement, credit fraud, and tax fraud were expected to be highly correlated to strain, this was not the case; particularly embezzlement showing a negative relationship. Middle-level white-collar crimes such as bribery, wire fraud, and false claims supported a positive relationship between strain and offending. (Langton & Piquero, 2007) A ‘case study’ done in the 1970s looked at how the structure of markets and industries increased the risk of crime. (Leonard & Weber, 1970) It shows structural power is balanced at the top of the workplace social hierarchy where pressures are pushed downwards. The effects of these pressures are known as a ‘criminogenic tier’. These pressures manifest as crime as a result of motivations and opportunity and can then lead to strain linked to crime (Simpson, 2011).

Further, The National Australia Bank was involved in a number of scandals in 2015, discovering financial planners had paid millions of dollars to clients due to their subpar financial planning advice from 2009. A banker at the company relayed that NAB had a ‘volatile, toxic and Machiavellian culture.’(Ferguson & Williams, 2015) Further cementing the pressure of a greed-driven competitive culture within the work environments of Australian banks that leads to white-collar crimes.

Opportunity plays an important role in explaining white-collar crime. The perceived risks and rewards outweigh the circumstances of a situation. The criminal focuses on the reward and neglects punishments that may result from the crime committed. Decisions are usually made impulsively and aren’t well thought out. Involvement decisions have three stages: initiation, habituation, and resistance. Initiation is the decision to commit a crime, habituation is the decision to continue committing a crime and resistance is the thought of halting criminal activities. Event choices explain variables of committing a crime, it is not inevitable, being dependent on the desires, needs, and wants of the offender and opportunities. Routine activity theory proposes three elements of space and time where crime occurs, an offender, a target, and the absence of a guardian. The problem analysis triangle stemmed from the routine activity theory, it specifies how and why a crime occurs at a time and place. (Clare, n.d)

Likewise, NAB staff were discovered to have accepted bribes up to $2800 in cash to wave loans from fake documents in order to meet targets and acquire bonuses. A group of 11 people, six including branch managers, were accused of making fake pay slips, IDs, and Medicare cards. Despite the fact it was discovered to have been a group effort of 60 individuals were involved in a program named “Introducer Program” that generated $24 billion worth of home loans between 2013 and 2016, paying $100-$150 million in commission, only five were fired from their positions. Their activity includes false loan documents, faking customer’s signatures, and supplying unsuitable loans. (Chung, 2018)

The white-collar crimes committed by Australian top banks such as the Commonwealth Bank, Westpac, and National Australia Bank that were uncovered in the Royal Banking Commission can be explained by a variety of criminological theories. Namely differential association theory, general theory of crime, Merton’s and Agnew’s strain theory, and opportunity theory. Differential association theory proposes that crime is a learned behavior through social interactions where peer acceptance is an important factor in explaining how pressures from acceptance in a peer group may lead to white-collar crime. The general theory of crime suggests individuals with low self-control can lead to committing crimes due to a lack of foresight in the consequences of their actions. Merton’s and Agnew’s strain theory relay strain from different factors, The desire for financial gain in Merton’s while in Agnew’s positive and negative reinforcement, can lead to crime as a coping mechanism. Opportunity gives criminals the ability to commit a crime at a particular time and place. These theories give an explanation of the fraudulent behavior of Australia’s top banks that was uncovered by the Royal Banking Commission.

References

1. Chung, F. (2018, April 20). Five worst revelations from Banking Royal Commission. Retrieved from The Morning Bulletin: https://www.themorningbulletin.com.au/news/banking-royal-commission-worst-revelations/3392624/
2. Clare, J. LAWS110 Lecture 15: Topic 6 – Opportunity-based explanations for crime (Part 1) joe. Presentation, The University of Western Australia.
3. Clare, J. LAWS1110 Lecture 11: Topic 5 – Social explanations for crime (Part 1). Presentation, The University of Western Australia.
4. Clare, J. LAWS1110 Lecture 12: Topic 5 – Social explanations for crime (Part 2). Presentation, The University Western Australia.
5. Clare, J. LAWS1110 Lecture 14: Topic 5 – Social explanations for crime (Part 4). Presentation, The University of Western Australia.
6. Coleman, J. W. (1987). Toward an Integrated Theory of White-Collar Crime. American Journal of Sociology, 406-439.
7. Danckert, S. (2017, October 30). Westpac to fight ASIC allegations after ANZ, NAB settle rate-rigging case. Retrieved from The Sydney Morning Herald: https://www.smh.com.au/business/banking-and-finance/westpac-to-fight-asic-allegations-after-anz-nab-settle-raterigging-case-20171030-gzapyp.html
8. Eato, T. V., & Korach, S. (2016). A Criminological Profile Of White-Collar Crime. The Journal of Applied Business Research, 129-142.
9. Ferguson, A. (2014, May 5). Banking Bad. Retrieved from ABC: https://www.abc.net.au/4corners/banking-bad/5433156
10. Ferguson, A., & Williams, R. (2015, February 21). Forgery, sackings and millions in compensation: NAB under fire over financial planners. Retrieved from The Sydney Morning Herald: https://www.smh.com.au/business/banking-and-finance/forgery-sackings-and-millions-in-compensation-nab-under-fire-over-financial-planners-20150220-13kdjk.html
11. Grath, P. M., & Janda, M. (2014, June 27). Senate inquiry demands royal commission into Commonwealth Bank, ASIC. Retrieved from ABC News: https://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-06-26/senate-inquiry-demands-royal-commission-into-asic-cba/5553102
12. Jackson, E. (n.d., n.d. n.d.). Former Westpac banker David St Pierre jailed over $4 million fraud. Retrieved from News.com.au: https://www.news.com.au/finance/business/banking/former-westpac-banker-david-st-pierre-jailed-over-4-million-fraud/news-story/dc30d78447481c36a9d389c09ccbb26b
13. Kolthoff, E. (2016). Integrity Violations, White-Collar Crime, and Violations of Human Rights: Revealing the Connection. Public Integrity, 396-418.
14. Langton, L., & Piquero, N. L. (2007). Can general strain theory explain white-collar crime? A preliminary investigation of the relationship between strain and select white-collar offenses. Journal of Criminal Justice, 1-15.
15. Leonard, W. N., & Weber, M. G. (1970). Automakers and Dealers: A Study of Criminogenic Market Forces. Law & Society, 408-410.
16. Long, S. (2017, March 1). Westpac: Landmark Federal Court case over lending practices sends a message to other banks. Retrieved from ABC News: https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-03-01/westpac-landmark-federal-court-case-over-lending-practices/8316138
17. Loy, B. (n.d., n.d. n.d.). Theoretical Approaches to Explain White Collar Crime. Retrieved from Study.com: https://study.com/academy/lesson/theoretical-approaches-to-explain-white-collar-crime.html
18. Schoepfer, A., & Piquero, N. L. (2006). Exploring white-collar crime and the American dream: A partial test of institutional anomie theory. Journal of Criminal Justice, 227-235.
19. Simpson, S. S. (2011). Making Sense of White-Collar Crime: Theory and Research. Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law, 481-502.
20. Simpson, S. S. (2013). White-Collar Crime: A Review of Recent Developments and Promising Directions for Future Research. Annual Review of Sociology, 309-331.
21. Uribe, A., & Thomson, J. (2017, March 15). Westpac, ANZ to pay $6 million over FX system ‘inadequacy’. Retrieved from Financial Review: https://www.afr.com/business/banking-and-finance/westpac-anz-to-pay-6m-over-fx-system-inadequacy-20170315-guyglw#ixzz58gQrOWee
22. Verrender, I. (2017, August 7). How the Commonwealth Bank laid the groundwork for a royal commission. Retrieved from ABC News: https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-08-07/commonwealth-bank-laid-the-groundwork-for-royal-commission/8779598
23. Yeates, C. (2017, October 19). Westpac refunds $65m to 200,000 customers over discount errors. Retrieved from The Sydney Morning Herald: https://www.smh.com.au/business/banking-and-finance/westpac-refunds-65m-to-200000-customers-over-discount-errors-20171019-gz436d.html

Essay on Theory of Time Management

The purpose of time management tools and techniques is that they enable individuals to organize, plan, and divide their time between specific tasks and activities. When these tools are effectively utilized individuals work smarter and not harder enabling them to get more done in less time. Applying time management tools within the workplace means individuals can effectively manage the hours of the day. They positively impact the process of work planning as you can effectively utilize them to plan and organize how much time you will require to carry out certain duties and activities. Furthermore, such tools also enable individuals to carry out duties within set deadlines.

Eisenhower Grid

One tool that can be used to help prioritize tasks is the Eisenhower Grid. This simple tool was originally developed by President Eisenhower. The tool consists of a 4-box matrix that is based on 3 axes; for example, it allows you to place in one of the boxes tasks that are both important and urgent, (Box 1). You also have a Box 2 for tasks that are not urgent but important and tasks that are not important but urgent (Box 3). The final box is for tasks that are both not urgent and unimportant (Box 4). This is a useful tool for managers as it allows them to stand back and review and analyze the tasks accordingly and either delegate or dismiss unnecessary tasks or requests. For instance, the tasks that are both important and urgent can be immediately worked on, (do now box), tasks that are important but not urgent can be planned and scheduled accordingly (plan to do), tasks in Box 3, can be either delegated or rejected and explained. Finally, the items in Box 4 can be either resisted or ceased as they are time wasters, for example, things such as internet browsing or general chatting and gossiping.

The above tool is useful for managers and team leaders who are often faced with a huge task list each day. It enables managers to prioritize on a daily basis, the important and urgent tasks (ILM 2017).

Lakein ABC Priority System

Another time management technique theory is the Lakein ABC Priority System developed by the American Author Alan Lakein. This tool compares to the Eisenhower Grid as it is simple and utilizes an effective way to manage time and tasks. Like the Eisenhower Grid, you write down everything that you need to do. Once this has been done you break down your daily tasks and prioritize them based on importance and urgency, this compares to the Eisenhower Grid. Each task is then allocated a value: A (high value) for example, high priority and urgent tasks, B (Medium Value), C (low value), and least important tasks which may be distracting. Once again when compared to the Eisenhower Grid it enables managers and team members to manage their time effectively by prioritizing daily tasks. It enables individuals to focus on urgent tasks by not being distracted by the tasks and items in the C section (low-value tasks) (ILM 2017).

4 Ds of Time Management

The final theory to be compared is the 4 Ds of Time Management which when compared to the aforementioned techniques manages time effectively and boosts productivity. With this technique rather than assigning the ABC system to prioritize tasks, you allocate a letter ‘D’ to each task. The D’s can vary slightly but in the main stand for, Do, Delay, Drop or Defer and Delegate. Once again this compares to the above techniques in that urgent tasks are prioritized by doing them immediately and the ‘not so urgent’ tasks, such as replying to non-urgent or non-essential emails can be either dealt with later (deferred) or dropped. However, this technique does differ slightly from the aforementioned Eisenhower Grid and ABC Priority System in that it incorporates a section where you can highlight tasks that can be delegated to less senior members of the team.

All three techniques are effective at managing time and prioritizing tasks and can be utilized by managers, in particular the Eisenhower Grid. The Lakein ABC Priority System and the 4 Ds of Time Management can be used by managers and leaders but are also effective for all employees enabling them to make better use of their time during the working day and highlight areas where time is being wasted. These time management tools can be used to manage daily tasks, arrange formal and informal meetings, prioritize and respond to emails, delegate duties, highlight duties that are not productive, deal with time-wasting activities, and also for managers to lead the team more effectively.

Develop a scholarly paper that addresses the following criteria:
1. Identify an

Develop a scholarly paper that addresses the following criteria:
1. Identify an area of clinical interest.
2. Locate a minimum of one peer-reviewed journal article (no older than 5 years) related to your clinical topic of interest. Do not
use a meta-analysis or systematic review.
3. Critique the journal article, fully answering the questions in the table below.
4. The scholarly paper should be in narrative format, 4 to 5 pages excluding the title and reference page.
5. Include an introductory paragraph, purpose statement, and a conclusion.
6. Include level 1 and 2 headings to organize the paper.
7. Write the paper in third person, not first person (meaning do not use ‘we’ or ‘I’) and in a scholarly manner. To clarify: I, we,
you, me, our may not be used. In addition, describing yourself as the researcher or the author should not be used.
8. Include a minimum of one professional peer-reviewed scholarly journal references to support the paper and a second
benchmark peer reviewed source (may be textbook or other journal article) and be less than five (5) years old.
9. APA format is required (attention to spelling/grammar, a title page, a reference page, and in-text citations).
10. Submit the assignment to Turnitin prior to the final submission, review the originality report, and make any needed changes 11. Submit by the posted due date.
12. Format the critique paper using the IMRaD format with level 1 and level 2 headings as designated in the grid below:

Nursing Theorist -Afaf Meleis
Non-Nursing Theorist – Sandra Harding (Standpoint

Nursing Theorist -Afaf Meleis
Non-Nursing Theorist – Sandra Harding (Standpoint theory)
Guidelines for analysis:       
In this paper you are expected to examine the assigned theories and/or models and discuss their applicability and relevancy to nursing.  For non-nursing theories, for example, you will need to research whether or not these theories have been directly applied to nursing practice, have been adapted by a nursing theorist, or are not directly applicable or current. 
Ask yourself the following questions and include all items in your analysis.  Compare and contrast the two theories/models as to their ability to be used in nursing today. The answers may not be completely obvious and may require research as to what other experts have said in their research (adapted from Fawcett, J. 1989. Analysis and Evaluation of Conceptual Models of Nursing.  Philadelphia: F.A. Davis).
What is the brief history of the theory or model? (This is not to be a biography of the theorist; rather, trace the evolution/theoretical origins of the theory/model.)
What is the conceptual level of the theory/model (theory, midrange-theory, model, etc.)?
What is the basic idea of the theory/model? Give a brief summary.
Define or describe the nursing metaparadigm concepts of person, health, environment, and nursing. If they are not defined, is there an implied definition or are you able to see the author’s viewpoint? (You must not copy the definitions from the nursing theory textbook).
Are the four metaparadigm concepts related in the theory/model? How?
With what areas is the theory/model concerned?
Is this theory/model supported by research? How?
Does it generate areas for future research?
Evaluate for clarity, simplicity, and generalizability.
Does this theory/model contribute to the body of nursing knowledge?
Is it current and applicable to nursing?
Is it significant and will it make a difference (either alone or when used with other, relevant theories) in an area of clinical nursing?
How are the two theories similar and different? This compare and contrast
Each section should have a single heading.
Compare and Contrast Theorists Related to Nursing
Directions
It is the student’s responsibility to seek clarification if the assignment is not clear. Read directions in the syllabus and note additional clarification given in class.
This paper must be developed using the following criteria and must be in APA format, narrative form, title page, second page titles, headings, and references.  Please follow the general guidelines for written papers that were included in your syllabus and specific guidelines for this paper also in your syllabus. Pre-read and follow the grading rubric. This paper is to be 5-6 pages in length. The title page, reference list, and appendices are NOT included in the total number of pages. Please edit your work to meet the page limit. The title of the paper must include the FULL names of both theorists.
Follow guidelines for electronic submission to upload your document. 
Area
Points Available
Your Points
Body of Paper
1-Introduction to paper & theorists
10
2-Description of theories/models
10
3-Analysis of each theory/model (see p. 38 in syllabus)
(Include arguments—is it useful?  Relevant?  Current?  Applicable to nursing?
40
5-Comparison/Contrast of theories
20
6-Conclusion
10
Research
Addressed all elements in the analysis guidelines in syllabus
5
References, Citations, Quotations (minimum 4 references, in APA format)
10
Text Mechanics
APA Format (title page, pagination, headings, form)
20
Grammar/form/spelling/punctuation
10
Logical flow/readability/ Overall impression
5
Grading  & Text Mechanics Sheets sheet attached (minus 5 points each if not submitted)(minus 5 points for each page over page limit)
—