Theology refers to the rational and systematic study of religion and the factors that influence religion. There are two schools of thought that aptly define theology; process theology and secular theology. Different theologians have based their philosophies on either of these two categories. This paper will address the connection between process theology and the thoughts of theologian Paul Tillich. Additionally, the paper will discuss secular theology and the relation it has with the philosophy of Bonhoeffer. Finally, the paper will discuss the validity of the views on God as presented in process theology and secular theology.
Process theology, refers to the school of thought that was developed by Alfred North Whitehead. It is therefore greatly influenced by his philosophy of metaphysical processes. Process theology considers God to be fully involved in temporal processes. Additionally, the theory supposes that God is affected by such temporal processes. The traditional notion of theism differs from process theory in several ways. First it suggests that God is eternal and unaffected by temporal processes (non-temporal). It also suggests that God is immutable (does not change), impassable and not affected by temporal processes. However, process theory does not completely deny the fact that God possesses aspects of immutability and impassibility. However, it does not concur with the classical view that suggests the temporality and mutability of God (Grenz and Olson 1993).
Paul Tillich, a Christian existentialist philosopher expresses two sentiments about the nature of God. To begin with, Tillich suggests that God is a ‘being’ and that God is the ultimate concern for man. Tillich views the ultimate concern as a means of describing the greatest commandment of all; “the Lord our God, the Lord is one; and you shall love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with your entire mind and with all your strength.” According to him, this commandment requires the complete devotion and dedication of man to God.
Secular theology is a theological school of thought that combines both theology and secularism. It goes against the idea that holiness can only be attained through the church. It suggests that people can attain holiness through other avenues that are worldly and have nothing to do with the church. It is advanced by several theological philosophers such as John Shelby Spong, Soren Kierkegaard and Dietrich Bonhoeffer. Secular theology supports a nuanced view of the scripture rather than the blatant biblical literalism proposed by the church. However, it argues that the nuanced approach be accompanied by compassion and scholarship which are consistent with Christian values and an understanding of the universe. Secular theology argues that it is no longer credible to consider theism as a valid means of conceiving the nature of God. Furthermore, it denounces the idea of a personal God. It however accepts Christology, Jesus Christ and eschatology as myths in Christianity, however, without a historical basis. Dietrich Bonhoeffer, one of the major secular theologians, argued that, “the world had come of age” and that it was time for, ‘a religion less Christianity.’ In relation to secular theology, such ideas suggested the end of pious religiousness. Pious, theological words could no longer be used to inform people about everything. Therefore, according to Bonhoeffer, the task at hand was to lead a Christ-like life, as if God did not exist (Hordern, 2002).
Secular theology supposes the inexistence of the supernatural while process theology supposes the existence of the metaphysical. Proponents of process theology believe in the omnipotent, omniscient and omnipresent nature of God. However, according to secular theologians, the idea of God is untenable. Due to the lack of a common ground between the two schools of thought, the debate on the nature and existence of God continues to rage on.
References
Grenz, S. J., & Olson, R. E. (1993). 20th-Century Theology: God & the World in a Transitional Age. Westmont, IL: InterVarsity Press.
Hordern, W. E. (2002). A Layman’s Guide to Protestant Theology. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock Pub.
Bible scholars consider Colossians 1:15-20 an early Christian Hymn due to its rhythmic two-stanza prose. The stanza in verses 15-17 is a glorification of Christ’s domination over all creation while verses 18-20 attest to His preeminence in salvation.1 Its emphasis was on accurate Christology to dispel the heterodox beliefs that had cropped up in the church at Colossae. It affirms the Christological image of Jesus Christ as the Lord and His glory and majesty. It reiterates the Lordship of Christ as an important theological foundation for the Great Commission to a world soaked in unorthodox Hellenistic practices and Jewish mysticism. This paper examines the history, background, and context of the book of Colossians as well as the theology and significance of the Christ Hymn to a postmodern world.
History, Background, and Context of Colossians
History of Colossians
The authorship of the epistle to the church at Colossae is attributed to Paul. He wrote this letter while incarcerated (Col 4:3) in a Roman prison. However, some scholars suggest that Paul was imprisoned in either Caesarea or Ephesus when he authored Colossians, Ephesians, and Philemon.2 With regard to its provenance, Paul points to his drawn-out imprisonment (Col 4:18), which, according to Abbott, indicates that the epistle could be dated between 60 and 61 AD.3
The historical city of Colossae lay in Asia Minor in the Lycus River bordering Laodicea and Hierapolis.4 The cities in this region were under the Roman rule. The church at Colossae was planted by Epaphras (Col 1:7), implying that Paul had not been in this city before writing the letter. It is likely that Epaphras converted to Christianity during Paul’s 3-year ministry at Ephesus. According to Barth and Blanke, Epaphras sought Paul’s assistance to deal with issues in the Colossian church, including the “philosophy and empty deceit” (Col 2:8) drawn from the Hellenistic-Jewish traditions.5 Therefore, Paul’s letter sought to denounce and rebut the false doctrines that had infiltrated the church at Colossae.
A significant proportion of the population in Colossae was Gentiles comprising of the indigenous inhabitants (Phrygians) and settlers (Greeks and Jews).6 The Jewish population was the descendants of Jews settled in Colossae from Babylonia in 2nd century B.C. As a result, Colossae was a city practicing diverse Hellenistic cults, Judaism, and early Christianity. As O’Brien writes, the polytheistic environment raised the likelihood of religious syncretism creeping into the church.7 This formed the motivation for Paul to write to the church to depict an accurate Christological image of Jesus Christ.
Paul’s letter is intended for the Colossians who he refers to as “the saints and faithful brethren in Christ at Colossae” (Col 1:2). Paul’s diction indicates that he was addressing Gentiles, not the Jewish population (Col 1:21). It is likely that the establishment of the church by Epaphras followed Paul’s missionary work described in Acts 19 prior to his imprisonment. O’Brien argues that the church at Colossae was multiethnic; it comprised “majority gentiles with a few Jewish believers”.8 However, the church was under a strong Jewish Christian influence, as seen in the call for the observance of “Jewish festivals, New Moon celebrations, and Sabbaths (Col 2:16). Further, it is evident that the Colossians had strong links with the church at Laodicea (Col 1:4).
Background of Colossians
Paul’s letter is meant for the church planted by Epaphras at Colossae. Scholars believe that the letter is a response to Epaphras’ revelation of heretical doctrines in the church upon to Paul.9 Epaphras, a disciple of Paul, had converted to Christianity at Ephesus prior to his incarceration. He planted the church at Colossae to spread the good news message to the gentiles. Barth and Blanke state that the epistle was written after Epaphras visited Paul in prison and informed him of the heresy in the church.10 The false teachings threatened the relationship between God and His church and Epaphras needed Paul’s help.
False teaching was cropping up in the church, presenting a threat to the congregation. Epaphras sought the assistance of Paul, who was detained in a Roman prison. The exact nature of the heresy in the church is not clear. The challenge is that Paul does not name the false teachers or explicate on the nature of the heretical doctrines.11 As a result, the reader can only deduce the false teachings by examining the Hellenistic-Judaic traditions that had cropped up in the early church. Nevertheless, Paul’s overt criticisms of the unorthodox teachings point to an inaccurate Christological message.
Abbott holds that the false teaching revolved around “ascent to the heavenly throne”, especially angelic worship (Col 2:18).12 The threat of this false teaching is that it negates the role of Christ as the intercessor by emphasizing on the mystical experience and asceticism. In order to reach the highest spiritual state, the false teachers gave a set of stringent rules on food or drink, new moon festivals, and Sabbaths (Col 2:16). The rules focused on the renunciation of worldly pleasures and self-abasement as the way to achieving visionary ascent. It appeared that Jewish traditions had infiltrated the church in some form of ascetic piety. Strict Jewish rules on circumcision, nutrition, and Sabbath observance had entered the church at Colossae.13
In other words, the emphasis on visionary experience and asceticism resulted in the pushing of Christ to the periphery. It led to the diminution of His work, ministry, and cosmic centrality. The inaccurate Christology and sham spirituality presented a threat to the church at Colossae. The misguided spirituality distorted the intercessory role of Christ and salvation. Paul’s letter to the Colossians was meant to inform the church about the greatness of Christ and his saving power. It puts to rest claims that the ascent to the heavenly throne could happen through meritorious practices or human rules.
Context of Colossians
In a literary context, Paul’s letter to the Colossians centers on the sufficiency of Christ. It is an affirmation of the “supremacy and preeminence of Christ” as the only way God’s creation can access His throne.14 It is grounded in the gospel message and the cosmic centrality of Christ in the church. The epistle builds an image of Jesus as the creator and Sustainer of all creation. Bruce states that Paul’s intent in the letter was to counter the Colossian heresy by reminding the congregation of Christological image embodied in creation and redemption.15
According to Deterding, the message of the letter begins after Paul sends his greetings to the Colossians (Col 1:3).16 He then proceeds to highlight the sufficiency of Christ by refuting the heretical teachings and concludes by encouraging the congregation to lead lives that mirror the Christological message. Deterding observes that the first part of Colossians (Col 1:3-2:7) is a prayer of thanks that implores the congregation at Colossae to focus on Christ as the redeemer who reconciles people to God.17 The mid section focuses on the consequences of the heretical teachings on the believers. Paul first reaffirms the cosmic centrality of Christ before delving into the impact of the heretical views (Jewish mysticism) that contradicted the Christological message.18 Later, he tears into the human traditions and laws that undermine the message of Christ’s sufficiency. In the last section (Col 3:5-4:18), Paul reiterates Christ’s role in redemption and sanctification. He states that Christ’s sufficiency is required in the believer’s lives, family relationships, and social concern for others.
Examination of the Christ Hymn (Colossians 1:15-20)
Context of Christ Hymn
The passage (Col 1:1-23) is considered a part of liturgical section or prayer. Michael Bird structures this section as thanksgiving (Col 1:3-8), intercessory prayer (Col 1:9-14), exaltation (Col 1:15-20), and short explanation of the hymn.19 Therefore, a thanksgiving statement in verses 13 precedes the hymn or praise. After the hymn, Paul provides readers with a message explicating Christ’s role as the reconciler (Col 1:21-23). O’Brien notes that the hymn, regardless of its authorship, is “central to its current context”.20 He further writes that the hymn comes after a thanksgiving prayer and the subsequent section involves “phrases and ideas” derived from it.21 In this regard, Colossians 1:15-20 not only serves as the climax of the praise, but also and enables Paul to put across a strong doctrinal statement, i.e., Christ as the reconciler.
The hymnic passage (Col 1:15-20) is thought to predate the thanksgiving prayer. Scholars note that the pronoun ‘whom’ precedes the hymn, referring to the “Son of His love” (Col 1:13).22 In this context, the function word ‘whom’ is a continuation of the references made in earlier verses. In particular, phrases such as “the Father who has qualified us” (1:12) and “in whom we have redemption” (1:14) form a series of pronouns meant to place the hymn in its context. Paul used these opening relative clauses to contextualize the hymn probably quoted from an outside source.
In addition to the opening relative clauses, the hymn has features indicating that it predates the current discourse. Moo observes a change in pronouns within the passage with “verses 13-14 being in first person, 15-20 being in third person, while 21-23 are in second and first persons”.23 Thus, while the sections preceding and following the hymn speaks to the readers directly, the hymn does not. In addition, the hymn adopts the chiasmus pattern, which makes it distinct from the other sections. Non-Pauline phrases have also been identified in the hymn, indicating that it originated from an external source. For instance, Moo notes that words like “visible, thrones, and beginning” as well as phrases like “to be established and blood of the cross” occur nowhere in other Pauline letters.24 Therefore, Paul could have wise sayings in the Hellenistic-Judaic tradition to affirm Christ’s supremacy in the hymn.
Lohse also observes that if the hymn is omitted, the preceding (1:13-14) and succeeding (1:21-23) verses fits up coherently.25 This suggests Col 1:15-20 is an independent passage adapted from an external source. The intention was to ward of the heretical teachings that had infiltrated the church at Colossae by depicting an accurate Christological image. Therefore, the change of pronouns, chiastic pattern, and distinctive phrases/words used in Col 1:15-20 suggest that the hymn was adapted from an earlier source.
Literary Forms
Colossians 1:15-20 qualify as a hymn as it contains the “V pattern that characterizes early Christological hymns”.26 Such hymns reiterate the story of creation, redemption, and glorification. Paul affirms Christ’s role as the Creator, Sustainer, and Savior in Col 1:15, a presentation that is consistent with the Christological stages of a hymn. According to Lohse, a hymn encompasses liturgy, baptismal confessions, and praises.27 He holds that if the hymn was a baptismal confession, then it could be a “creed to which every believer pledged” during baptism.28 Based on this view, the passage is a believer’s pledge of faith in Jesus upon baptism. It is a solemn promise to lead a life free from the “elemental powers of the world” (Col 2:8). Through baptism, Christ overcame death through resurrection. O’Brien holds that it is plausible that Paul introduced words or phrases from an external source to teach the congregation at Colossae to counsel each other, praise Christ, and give gratitude to the Lord.29
Origins of Christ Hymn
Scholars riding on the fact that evidence suggests that Colossians 1:15-20 has pre-Christian origins give diverse perspectives on this subject. O’Brien asserts that some of the words and ideas in Christ’s hymn originated from a Gnostic hymn.30 He notes that omitting the phrases “of the church and through the blood of his cross” diminishes the Christological message in the passage.31 He concludes that Colossians 1: 15-20 seems like a pre-Christian Gnostic hymn focusing on metaphysics and a supernatural redeemer. It was adapted as a baptismal liturgy that Paul uses to refute the heresy in the Colossian congregation.
Evidence of Gnostic origins is seen in the phrases or words that Paul uses in the hymn. Words such as ‘fullness’ (Col 1:19) appears in Gnostic view where it means the “totality of emanations” originating from God.32 Pre-Christian Gnostics believed in heavenly realism that exists near the throne of God. Paul purposely uses this phrase in the hymn to disprove this false belief and reaffirm that Christ is a manifestation of God to humanity. In addition, the attribution of creation and redemption to an agency was abhorrent to Gnostic beliefs. Therefore, Paul seeks to counter the heretical views and myths through the hymn.
However, according to Dunn, the hymn has no connections to either Gnostic or Jewish traditions.33 It was commonplace for writers to appropriate useful words or concepts from a different tradition to make it palatable to the readers. Similarly, Col 1:15-20 was probably adapted from various resources without retaining the actual argument or philosophy. Religious syncretism that dominated the Greco-Roman society is another possible heritage of the hymn. Terms and ideas created in the church with syncretistic though could have been adapted as part of the hymn.34 Therefore, it can be argued that both Judaism and religious syncretism influenced the ideas and phrases used in Christ’s hymn.
Moo asserts that while the Jewish religion is the primary resource for the hymn, syncretistic ideas in the passage must be acknowledged.35 For instance, the language in the passage is consistent with the perspective on “divine Wisdom” literature in the monotheistic Jewish religion.36 Furthermore, the phrase “image of the invisible God” (Col 1:15) appears to correlate with the “aura of the might of God” in Wisdom literature. Proverbs 8:22 also talks about “the firstborn of His ways”, which captures the flow of ideas in the “firstborn of all creation” in Col 1:15. For Paul, divine Wisdom was embodied in Christ; hence, he uses these words to describe His nature to the Colossae church. However, Paul’s reliance on the syncretistic resources is not substantial as the hymn contains concepts developed in the synagogue.
Theology and Significance of Christ Hymn
The main theological themes in Christ Hymn relate to Christ’s role as the Creator, Head of the church, a reconciler, and Redeemer, among others.
Christ in Creation
Colossians 1:15-20 is considered a liturgical section exalting “Christ’s supremacy in creation” (vv. 15-17) and His preeminence in salvation (vv. 18-20).37 Paul refers to Christ as the “image of the invisible God” (Col 1: 15). He stresses not only Christ’s similarity to God, but also His manifestation to us. The verse affirms Christ’s statement that “He who has seen Me has seen the Father” (John 14:9). Therefore, Paul implies that Jesus is a representation of God’s true nature. Matthew Gordley, commenting on Paul’s epistle to the Colossians, writes that Christ is the “personal revelation of God to humanity”, i.e., an embodiment of the divine manifested to us.38
In the Christ hymn, Paul also calls Christ the “firstborn over all creation” (Col 1: 15). According to Gordley, this reference does not imply that Christ is part of God’s creation; rather it suggests His supremacy in creation.39 The heretic view had permeated the Church at Colossae. The phrase ‘firstborn’ is an affirmation of non-temporality as seen in Exodus 4 where Israel is called God’s firstborn. This makes Israel God’s chosen nation. As the firstborn, Christ is the Ruler over all things in the universe.
Jesus’ role in creation is seen in verse 16: “For in Him all things were created that are in heaven and on earth, visible and invisible, whether thrones or dominions, or principalities or powers. All things were created through Him and for Him”. According to Abbott, the phrase ‘in Him’ is a dative case that could mean either position or agency.40 Based on the first interpretation, Paul stresses the cosmic centrality of Christ in all creation. The second interpretation could be that Jesus is the agent of creation. The first view is supported by Paul’s repeated use of the phrase ‘in Christ’ and ‘in Him’. Therefore, Christ is the representation of reality as pertains to creation and salvation.
The last part of verse 16 affirms Jesus as the agency of creation. However, even here His role is interpreted as locative. The words ‘in Him’, as opposed to ‘through Him’, accentuate Christ’s role as the ‘location’ from which all creation was brought into existence.41 Verse 18 reiterates this concept; it states, “He is the beginning”. His role in creation is extensive and covers “all things in heaven and on earth, visible and invisible” (Col 1:16). The qualifiers used in this verse were important considering the heretic teachings that were going on in the church at Colossae. It shows that all creation, including the imperfect men in the eyes of the ascetics, originated in Christ, a view that heretics considered abhorrent.42
It reaffirms the idea of Incarnation and Christ’s role as the Creator of all things. This contradicts the idea of paying homage to intercessory beings and angelic worship practiced in Hellenistic culture and Jewish mystical beliefs. Paul declares that Christ created all things, including the ‘invisible’ heavenly angels. This dispels the Colossians’ belief in angelic worship or mysticism, which Paul labels a false teaching. Since Christ is the creator of angels, the idea of ‘heavenly ascent’ embodied in Jewish mysticism as well as angel worship was considered heterodox (Col 2:18).43
Christ’s supremacy in heaven and earth contradicts the false teachings that diminished His role in creation. Part of His creation includes “thrones, dominions, rulers, or authorities” (Col 1:16). Melick writes that in Jewish traditions, ‘thrones and dominions’ were synonymous to angelic beings.44 The hymn exalts Christ (the Firstborn) as the one who has dominion over all these forces, including evil spirits. Further, since “all things have been created by Him and for Him” (Col 1:16), which communicates the permanence of Christ’s creative work. All existence is through Him and for Him. As Melick writes, the words ‘for Him’ refer to Christ’s purpose and being. It also reflects Him as the sole goal of creation.45
Christ’s unchanging nature is clear in verse 17: “He is before all things, and in Him all things hold together”. In Melick’s view, the present tense ‘He is’ affirms Christ’s unchanging nature, sovereignty, and preeminence.46 Moreover, the phrase ‘before all things’ communicates “His preexistence” as the Firstborn of all creation.47 Christ’s claim of preexistence is also evident in other scriptures in the bible. He says, “Before Abraham was, I AM” (John 8:58), which is an affirmation of His preexistence. Christ is also the reason for creation and he holds all things. He is the glue holding all creation together. Thus, Christ’s preexistence is an encouragement for believers.
Christ’s Work in Reconciliation and Redemption
In the Christ hymn, Paul spoke about Jesus’ divine nature as the ‘head’ of the church. In verse 1:18, Christ is called the “beginning and the firstborn of the dead”, implying that He is the sole leader of the church. Weaver’s definitive analysis of the Greek lexica found that the word ‘head’ means a “leader or one in authority”.48 Therefore, Jesus is the leader of the church as stated in Colossians 1:18. Further, as ‘the beginning’, He is the source of creation. His crucifixion and death heralded a new beginning for Christians. It marked the beginning of a new age for humanity characterized by a close relationship with Christ through redemption.49
As the “Firstborn from the dead”, Christ has authority over all things on earth (Col 1:18). This statement shows that Christ reigned supreme over death through His resurrection. He has preeminence in all things, including overcoming death and redemption. As the firstborn, he reigns supreme over all things in this world. Christ’s power to save is seen in verse 19, which says, “For in Him all fullness of God was pleased to dwell”. This verse could be understood as a solemn declaration of the deity of Jesus, an embodiment of God’s nature manifested to humanity. It could also be taken to mean that Christ is the intercessor between God and humanity. It suggests that redemption power is found in Christ. It depicts Christ as the Redeemer, which is consistent with the idea of Him being a deity.
The power to redeem is vested in Christ alone. He is the agency and purpose of reconciliation as seen in verse 1:20. This verse concludes with a redemptive view, which reinforces the statement made at the beginning that “And through Him to reconcile all things to Himself” (Col 1:20). The phrase ‘to reconcile’ expresses the act of switching enmity with affection and trust. Complete reconciliation occurs when God brings humanity to Himself despite man’s disobedience. Christ reconciles “all things to Himself” (Col 1:20) by His blood. It points to the end of times (Judgment) when every person will bow before the Lord and attest that Christ is Lord as seen in Romans 14:11. All beings, visible and invisible, will attest to His sovereignty, which is consistent with complete reconciliation.
Reconciliation is different from redemption in the sense that the former breaks down the barriers between the Lord and humanity to allow for “a new form of relationship” while salvation is only achieved through “the blood of His cross” (Col 1:20).50 Further, while in reconciliation all beings will attest to His sovereignty, salvation is achieved through Christ’s death and resurrection. His blood at the Cross was an atonement for sin. The Christ hymn is a revelation of Christ’s person and supremacy seen through His creative work. The hymn first focuses on His preeminence in creation and later stresses His role in redemption. The powerful message in this hymn sought to set the record straight on Christ’s role in creation and redemption to refute heresy and confusion in the Colossian church.
Significance of Christ Hymn
Paul, in Colossians 1:15-20, presents Christ as answer to false teachings and heresy in the church at Colossae. The passage affirms the truths about Christ that counters the heretical ideas in the modern church. It stresses an accurate Christological image characterized by the fullness of God vested in Christ, His supremacy over angels, preeminence, and firstborn status. Abbott states that Paul’s argument in this hymn centers on Christ as “the image of the invisible God” and as the “firstborn of all creation” (Col 1: 15).51 This means that since the fullness of God rests in Christ, He is the only one capable of reuniting all creation to God. Therefore, a believer can only be reunited with God through Christ who bears the fullness of the His Father.
Christ hymn also reveals the identity of God through Christ. In a bid to debunk the false teachings going on at the Colossian church, Paul reveals multiple attributes of Christ that can strengthen the believers’ faith in Him. The first attribute is the “image of the invisible God” (Col 1:15). The word ‘image’, in this context, describes the complete manifestation of God to man. Christians can learn that Christ is a perfect manifestation of God’s nature to humanity. The hymn also presents Jesus as having sovereignty over all things being the “Firstborn over all creation” (Col 1:15). This view helps debunk the erroneous belief that Christ was the first being God created. On the contrary, in Christ and through Him “all things were created” (Col 1:16), affirming His supremacy and preeminence.
He is also the glue that holds all creation together. Paul writes that Christ “is before all things and in Him all things consist”, affirming that He is the Sustainer of all creation. Believers can learn that Christ “holds, unites, and maintains” all existence or the universe. He is the power that sustains all creation. We also learn that Christ is the head of the congregation. Paul writes, “He is the head of the church” (Col 1:18), which is an attestation of Christ’s authority over the congregation. The verse also tells us that Jesus is the first to overcome death, which makes Him the preeminent one over all creation. Christ’s supremacy extends to redemption. God’s reconciliatory role and redemption power are seen in Colossians 1:19. Believers learn that it is through salvation in Christ that man’s relationship with God can be restored. It refutes the act of praying to intercessory beings, including heavenly angels (invisible things) that are part of Christ’s creation.
Conclusion
Paul, in Colossians 1:15-20, presents an accurate Christological image to debunk the heresy in the church at Colossae. The Christ hymn is an affirmation of His person and work in creation, sustenance, supremacy, preeminence (firstborn), and redemption. From a historical perspective, Paul wrote this letter while a Roman prison to assist Epaphras to refute the false doctrine in the congregations at Colossae and Chalcedonia. Scholars believe the hymn is a product of religious syncretism involving the Jewish mysticism and Hellenistic doctrines in the Greco-Roman era. It attests to Christ’s cosmic centrality and power as the glue that holds all creation together. It also emphasizes that all creation, including the angelic beings that were at the center of the heresy, falls under his sovereignty. The main theological themes in this passage include Christ’s role as the Creator, head of the church, Redeemer, and Reconciler. Christ’s death and resurrection that is epitomized in Christ’s hymn has implications for our salvation as the intercessor and reconciler of man with God.
Bibliography
Abbott, Thomas K. “Colossians.” In A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistles to the Ephesians and to the Colossians: A volume of The International Critical Commentary, edited by Samuel Rolles Driver, 88-95. Edinburgh, London: T. and T. Clark, 1968.
Barth, Markus, and Helmut Blanke. Colossians: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. New York: Doublday Publishing Group, 1994.
Bird, Michael F. “Colossians.” In Colossians and Philemon: A New Covenant Commentary, edited by Craig Keener, 79-104. Eugene, OR: Cascade Books, 2009.
Bruce, Frank F. “Colossians.” In The Epistles to the Colossians, to Philemon, and to the Ephesians, edited by Ned B. Stonehouse, F. F. Bruce, and Gordon D. Fee, 132-145. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1984.
Deterding, Paul E. Colossians. In A Volume of Concordia Commentary: A Theological Exposition of Sacred Scripture, edited by Dean O. Wenthe, 56-63. Saint Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2003.
Dunn, James D. “Colossians.” In The Epistles to the Colossians and to Philemon: A Commentary on the Greek Text, edited by I. Howard Marshall, W. Ward Gasque, and Donald A. Hagner, 112-118. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1996.
Gordley, Matthew E. The Colossian Hymn in Context: An Exegesis in Light of Jewish and Greco-Roman Hymnic and Epistolary Conventions. Tubingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2007.
Lohse, Eduard. “Colossians.” In Colossians and Philemon. A Volume. of Hermeneia—A Critical and Historical Commentary on the Bible, edited by Helmut Koester, 85-92. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1991.
Melick, Richard R. “Colossians.” In Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon: Volume 32 of The New American Commentary, edited by David S. Dockery, 145-153. Nashville: Broadman Press, 1991.
Moo, Douglas J. “Colossians.” In The Letters to the Colossians and to Philemon: A Volume of The Pillar New Testament Commentary, edited by D.A. Carson, 78-94. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2008.
O’Brien, Peter T. “Colossians.” In Colossians, Philemon: Volume 44 of Word Biblical Commentary, edited by David A. Hubbard, 54-67. Waco: Word Book Publishers, 1982.
O’Brien, Peter T. Understanding the Basic Themes of Colossians, Philemon. Dallas: Word Publishing, 1991.
Weaver, James A. Colossians 1:15-20 and its Function in the Letter. Ann Arbor: University Microfilms International, 1982.
Footnotes
Frank F. Bruce, “Colossians,” In The Epistles to the Colossians, to Philemon, and to the Ephesians, ed. Ned B. Stonehouse, F. F. Bruce, and Gordon D. Fee (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1984), 133.
Thomas K. Abbott, “Colossians,” In A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistles to the Ephesians and to the Colossians: A volume of The International Critical Commentary, ed. Samuel Rolles Driver (Edinburgh, London: T. and T. Clark, 1968), 89.
Ibid., 91.
Ibid., 94.
Markus Barth and Helmut Blanke, Colossians: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (New York: Doublday Publishing Group, 1994), 41.
Peter T. O’Brien, “Colossians,” In Colossians, Philemon: Volume 44 of Word Biblical Commentary, ed. David A. Hubbard (Waco: Word Book Publishers, 1982), 55.
Ibid., 59.
Ibid., 62.
Markus Barth and Helmut Blanke, Colossians, 54.
Ibid., 75.
Thomas K. Abbott, “Colossians,” 91.
Ibid., 92.
Ibid., 93.
Paul E. Deterding, “Colossians,” In A Volume of Concordia Commentary: A Theological Exposition of Sacred Scripture, ed. Dean O. Wenthe (Saint Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2003), 58.
Bruce F. Frank, “Colossians,” 135.
Paul E. Deterding, “Colossians,” 59.
Ibid., 61.
Ibid., 62.
Michael F. Bird, “Colossians,” In Colossians and Philemon: A New Covenant Commentary, ed. Craig Keener (Eugene, OR: Cascade Books, 2009), 86.
Peter T. O’Brien, Understanding the Basic Themes of Colossians, Philemon (Dallas: Word Publishing, 1991), 112.
Ibid., 119.
Douglas J. Moo, “Colossians,” In The Letters to the Colossians and to Philemon: A Volume of The Pillar New Testament Commentary, ed. D.A. Carson (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2008), 79.
Ibid., 82.
Ibid., 86.
Eduard Lohse, “Colossians,” In Colossians and Philemon. A Volume. of Hermeneia—A Critical and Historical Commentary on the Bible, ed. Helmut Koester (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1991), 86.
Ibid., 88.
Ibid., 91.
Ibid., 92.
Peter T. O’Brien, Understanding the Basic Themes of Colossians, Philemon, 113.
Ibid., 115.
Ibid., 116.
Douglas J. Moo, “Colossians,” 81.
James D. Dunn, “Colossians,” In The Epistles to the Colossians and to Philemon: A Commentary on the Greek Text, ed. I. Howard Marshall, W. Ward Gasque, and Donald A. Hagner (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1996), 114.
Ibid., 116.
Douglas J. Moo, “Colossians,” 81.
Ibid., 83.
Ibid., 85.
Matthew E. Gordley, The Colossian Hymn in Context: An Exegesis in Light of Jewish and Greco-Roman Hymnic and Epistolary Conventions (Tubingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2007), 61.
Ibid., 73.
Thomas K. Abbott, “Colossians,” 92.
Ibid., 94.
Ibid., 95.
Matthew E. Gordley, The Colossian Hymn in Context, 64.
Richard R. Melick, “Colossians,” In Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon: Volume 32 of The New American Commentary, ed. David S. Dockery (Nashville: Broadman Press, 1991), 146.
Ibid., 148.
Ibid., 151.
James A. Weaver, Colossians 1:15-20 and its Function in the Letter (Ann Arbor: University Microfilms International, 1982), 54.
Duties of the nursing profession are inseparable from faith. In fact, according to Christian worldview, nursing professionals should base their roles on faith and care. While non-Christians view nurses as people charged with the responsibility to care and love the suffering, patients in this case, Christians perceive nurses as God’s delegation to humanity.
To non-Christians, the moral and social principles should guide the nursing professionals whereas to Christians the feeling of love should motivate the nurses. Despite these differences, it is unanimous that nurses play a very important role in human life. Through caring for the ill in the society, nurses uphold human health.
Since health extends beyond the physical realm, it implies that nurses, according to Christians, also provide spiritual care to the humanity. Through care, nurses become part of God’s mystery of suffering. Suffering is a subject, which theologians have strived to comprehend since the times of Moses but in vain. Nurses also care for the dying and the dead, with hopes of positive response from God. Death is another component of human thriving which scholars have been unable to unveil its truth.
Is nursing really like any other profession within the society? I believe it is not. In fact, nursing is a component of faith. My personal philosophy in this paper is that ‘nursing is a God’s revelation to humanity’. Based on my personal research and life experience, I will demonstrate how nursing fulfills God’s revelation to humanity through Christian worldview on nature of personhood, health and illness, suffering, death and caring.
Nature of personhood
Fear of death and illness characterizes human nature. Although Christians view death as God’s plan to human life, personal experience reveals that people fear death. In fact, many view it as the interruption to their lives. Human beings by nature believe that they are liable for care and protection from nurses.
They believe that nurses should protect them from all the sufferings in their lives. As a result, most patients solely depend on nurses for the survival. Patient’s fear of death brings worry and uncertainties to their lives. In this aspect, God’s revelation is two-fold.
First, although nurses are human beings characterized by the nature of personhood described above, they strive to end fear within their patients. The bible teaches that “people should not fear anything but God” (Attridge, 2006, p. 123). Nurses manifest this teaching to the patients by giving them hope even at times of death. According to Christian’s worldview, nurses should provide love, hope and care to the patients even at their last breaths.
God’s mission since the time of Moses to the advent of salvation through Jesus Christ has been to provide care, love and hope to humanity. Through Moses, the Israelites felt God’s love and care. Through Jesus Christ, God manifested His unconditional love through salvation for all. Therefore, nursing professionals manifests God’s love, care and hope to humanity, as it was the case for Moses, Jesus and the prophets.
Secondly, by working selflessly to end fear and bring hope to the patients, nurses reveal the will of God to the humanity. As the bible teaches in 1Peter 3:14, God does not want fear among His people. In order to ensure the fear does not prevail in human nature, nurses provide care based on love and faith to the patients (Shelly and Miller, 1999, p.139).
In this case, nurses act as direct God’s delegation for the teaching of eternity and life after death. In biblical context, people should not fear; be it illness or death since there is eternal joy after this life. This ensures that patients are no longer worried for their lives after death. Such hope would not be possible without the nurses. They indeed represent what God wants from humanity in order to achieve eternity. Therefore, nursing is a revelation for God’s will to humanity.
Health and illness
In my research, I justified health as the spiritual well-being of a community and illness as the visible outcome of poor spirituality. As per the worldview, health is the physical, social, moral and spiritual well-being of an individual whereas illness is the state caused by the imbalance of these factors. In Biblical context, disharmony between God and the humankind is what results into illness.
According to Christian worldview, human infringement of God’s will culminates into physical, moral and social instability of an individual or illness. Based on personal experience, I concluded that the scholarly and professional definitions of health and illness are just symptoms of the spirituality. Whichever view, nursing plays an important role in health of the society. Through this way, nursing manifests God in several ways including healing, love and caring.
Nursing reveals God as the healer of humanity. As Jeremiah (30:17) notes, God “will restore you to health and heal your wounds” (New International Version). In this passage, Jeremiah describes God as the healer- the healer of wounds. Wounds in this context refer to the weakness of the human spirituality. As per the worldview, however, wounds represent the physical illness of an individual or a society.
Regardless of the view, it is unanimous that wounds destabilize human health and as Jeremiah states, God restores this health. How does God today restore the health yet He is unseen? Throughout the Christian history, God fulfilled His roles through common people. For instance, to save the Israelites from slavery God used Moses, an Egyptian slave.
Therefore, Taber is justifies when he says, “God uses people through their professions to accomplish His mission on earth” (1998, p. 35). Nursing is a means to healing and through the professionals; God accomplishes His mission of healing. Through this way therefore, nurses manifests God’s power of healing.
Nurses manifest God’s universal love to humanity. According to Christianity, nurses should provide love to the ill. Love is a spiritual component that guides the humanity in comprehension for the need of ill free life. It is justifiable that love motivates nurses (Colson & Pearcy, 1999, p.89). Where do the nurses get this love? Biblically, God is love. The salvation history in which He offered His son, Jesus Christ, for sacrifice, illustrates the loving nature of God.
Because nurses care for the ill regardless of their religious background, it is evident that they get this love from God and manifest it to the world. According to John (1:16), “For so God loved the world that He gave His only begotten son” so that He might heal the humanity (NIV). Nurses today assume the central role-played by Jesus Christ millions of decades ago, thereby illustrating God’s love to the world. In hospitals, nursing professionals ensure decency in the lives of the sick people. They indeed illustrate God’s universal love.
Suffering
Throughout the human history, scholars have sought to understand the mysteries behind suffering. They have never understood why innocent people within the society suffer. In the biblical story of Job, I established that suffering is one of the mysteries of God beyond human comprehension. The argument further established that, it is an inevitable fact in the human thriving. As per the Christian worldview, suffering is a God’s means to reveal His mighty and power to His loved ones.
The Christians also believes that from suffering human beings should derive benefits for their survival in this life. In their perspective, nurses believe that people should not suffer and they should do as much as possible in their profession to help the suffering. By doing so, nurses reveal God in a number of ways two of which I shall outline in the subsequent paragraphs.
By helping the suffering, nurses reveal the mighty of God to the world. In the infamous Haiti calamity whereby several people succumbed to death and left thousands suffering, nurses from all over the world volunteered to help the victims of this disaster. Christians perceive nurses as people whom God charged with powers to rescue people from suffering. On their part, nurses believe that their role is to serve and save the suffering. Biblical history evidences that God empowered all His delegators.
For instance, God gave Moses power to overcome the pharaoh of Egypt in order to save the people of Israelites. David, the king, is another example whom God gave power to overcome Goliath so that he protected His people. Jesus performed miracles, which nobody else had performed; he raised Lazarus from death; he healed the blind and fed more than five thousand people from five loaves and two fish. All these biblical examples reveal that God delegated powers to those who undertook His work.
Since Christianity teaches that God does not change, it is justifiable that nurses possess the power of God to save and serve the suffering (Lundmark, 2007, p.770). Nursing therefore, evidences God’s power over suffering and hence humanity. I impute this power to the voluntary roles nurses played in Haiti and the recent Japanese earthquake.
Nurses’ contribution in helping the suffering illustrates that God’s mysteries can be unveiled by a few. From Christians worldview perspective, “nursing has unveiled God’s mysteries to a greater extend” (Sire, 2009, p.12). Being the one of the few professions, which takes a direct part in the salvation of the humanity, the Christians perceive it as among the selected few to take part in God’s mysteries, which scholars have not been able to unveil.
In fact, nurses are part of this mystery, the suffering. Biblical Job’s story presents a mystery to the today’s theologians. Job was good and perfect in the “eyes of God” (Job 1:5, NIV). Why then did he suffer? God causes suffering to humanity in order to express His power and further reveal to the world those whom He has appointed to take part in these mysteries. Therefore, nursing is a means for God to show His mysteries and power to the humanity.
Death
Death is the culmination of human activities in this world; it marks the end for one’s reign on earth. To Christians, death is the separation of soul and the body, which God executes.
To non-Christians, death is a curse, which interferes with the natural order of human life. Nurses’ response to death is that, while death is inevitable, people should not fear it. It is in the nursing profession that people should not suffer at their deathbeds. As Colson and Pearcy put it, “Death, to nurses, represents the extreme outcome of illness and suffering” (1999, p.46).
In fact, nurses do what they can to save the dying patient, either from suffering or from dying. Patients’ response on death is varied. It is agreeable that everybody fears death. Fear is therefore the immediate response among the patients. Christians attribute the fear to uncertainty about the destination after death. With their role to protect people from death or reduce suffering during death, nurses reveal God as the savior of human soul.
Nursing reveals God as the ultimate savior of life. Biblically, death is the Christian’s transition to glorified form of existence. Christians therefore believe that death leads to glorification of the faithful ones. However, the bible contradicts that God does not want His people to die. It is for this fact that nurses strive as much as they can to save the dying.
Nurses do not want people to die, like God himself. The bible further clarifies that people should not die in sin. Since nursing professionals are human beings like any other, it is difficult to control the sins for the dying as such they instead control the suffering. They do as much as possible to ensure the dying does not suffer. As God’s salvation to humanity aimed at bringing the end to suffering, the nurses’ attempts therefore reveals God’s salvation to His people.
Caring
Prayer forms an important part for Christian nursing caring, especially where the nurses’ beliefs do not contradict those of the patient. Physical care does not vary greatly with religions as it is in the case for spiritual care. Through prayer, God cares for the needs of His people.
Psalms 32:6 notes that, “Let everyone who is faithful pray to you at a time they can find you” (NIV). This text shows that through prayer God provides for spiritual care to the humanity. Nurses should care for all the patients and the poor in the society regardless of their religious background. Through this way, nurses reveal God’s plan of redemption to humanity.
Nursing professionals reveal God’s universal plan to redeem the world. As Shelley and Miller (1999) notes, “Nurses provide only a small, though significant, part of the whole spectrum of spiritual care” (p.241), it is therefore vivid that nurses help the patients to acquire peace in their souls.
Nurses provide care to all the people regardless of their financial status in the society. In some instances, the world perceives nurses as the miracle performers of today from whom people should seek assistance. Nurses also provide solutions, and comfort, to those in pain and suffering in the society. Through this way, nurses manifest God’s plan of redemption to all the people.
Conclusion
Based on Christians nursing view on suffering, caring, death, health and illness, ‘nursing is God’s revelation to humanity’. Through their nursing profession, nurses reveal God’s will, nature, plan and relationship with man. Nursing is indeed inseparable from faith. Society’s moral and social principles and the feeling of love and care should motivate and guide the duties of the nursing professionals.
Through this way, nursing forms an integral part in God’s accomplishments to the world. Guided by these principles and feelings, nurses do not only reveal God to the societies but also become part of God’s mission in the world. Hence, nursing is not like any other profession, it is indeed a component of faith.
References
Attridge, H. W. (2006). The Harper Collins Study Bible. New York: Harper Collins.
Colson, C., & Pearcy, N. (1999). How now shall we live? Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers.
Lundmark, M. (2007). Vocation in theology-based nursing theories. Nurs Ethics, 14(6), 767-780.
Shelley, J. A., & Miller, A. B. (1999). Called to care. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press.
Sire, J.W. (2009). The universe next door (5th Ed.). Illinois: IVP Academic.
Taber, C.W. (1998). Taber’s Cyclopedia Medical Dictionary edition 18, Philadelphia
The Kumbh Mela emanates from Hindu myth, which is based on the belief that demons and gods wrestled over a pitcher, or Kumbh, which held the immortality drink. Sacred nectar spilled out as the gods rushed to heaven, dropped onto the four locations on the river: Ujjaink, Allahabad, Haridwar and Nashik. Currently, the Kumbh Mela ritual is held after every three years, alternatively among the four cities.
Thesis Statement
This Kumbh Mela practice has been formed on a deception concept and many people without realizing it follow it blindly. The diversity of religion cannot be enhanced in such kind of practices and many incidences that happen negatively is a pointer to this fact.
The British colonial impact left a lasting impact on the religious practices in the India. The Kumbh Mela pilgrimage can be traced to this era of colonialism. The British are responsible for drawing the geographical boundaries that have been important in the location of the pilgrimage sites. The sect system was propagated in this era and is significant in the Hindu religious practices.
This can be concluded so because Hindu religion is credited for having a strong belief in numerous gods. It, therefore, makes it an interesting phenomenon when the Kumbh Mela is mentioned. Such gods include Shiva, Pavarti, Durga, Kali, and Saraswati. Consequently the idea that gods and demons are not very elaborate to a satisfactory level. The particular gods who took part in the struggle should have been mentioned. Moreover there is no clear evidence of when exactly and how this religious practice began. Many ignorant people in their zeal to appear religious were unfortunately caught in the melee. This pilgrimage is said to be held in a variety of locations depending on the Planet Jupiter and the sun (Oxtoby & Segal, 2007).
As it can be remarkably noted that, if the first Kumbh Mela can be traced as far back as 600AD, how was the position of the planet Jupiter ascertained in relation to the position of the sun? Far back then there were no instruments or devices to determine the position of such claims. Even if they were there their accuracy and reliability will be very small. Besides if gods were powerful and exuded such might as anticipated with any god then they would not have struggled with the demons. They would have just scattered the demons in fright and trembling. The demons are not expected to stand the mighty of the gods. Hindus are scattered all over the world and gods for all should be reachable from any location because they should be omnipresent (Fisher & Bailey, 2008).
Fisher & Bailey (2008) note that there existed an absurd case where it is rumored that the holy water only dropped at for location of the river and people have to travel all over the world just to come and plunge themselves in the so-called holy water. This is a deception that holds twisted truths. What would be the result of a struggle between the gods and the demons? It will hardly be holy pitcher that dropped in the water of the river. The tragedies that have characterized this stampede to the Ganges cannot be labeled as holy. At one time when the Juna sect was commencing its procession to the Ganges one of their vehicles hit numerous people in the crowd.
According to Oxtoby & Segal (2007), several people were killed. This should hardly accompany a holy ritual. The procession was stopped and the leader chose to bathe at a different spot of the river. This nullifies the fact that the plunging into the water should be done exactly at a certain spot. A holy religious ritual should not be a cause for controversy but in the case of Kumbh Mela, it has been that a lot of controversies have emerged for example which group should take the holy dip first. This has resulted in infighting and bickering. The leaders of the various sects are unable to come to a clear conclusion of what exactly should be done
Conclusion
It can be aptly concluded that the article ‘Taking the Sacred Plunge: One wave of Humanity at a time’ forms a fascinating fable that leaves a lot to be desired concerning the origin of the sacred ritual. It is also a continuation of the Hindu segregation practices that do not allow people from different castes to interact. Different sects get in at different times.
Works Cited
Fisher P. Mary & Bailey, W. Lee. An Anthology of Living Religions, 2nd. Ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2008.
Oxtoby G. Willard & Segal F. Alan. A Concise Introduction to World Religions. Don Mills, ON: Oxford University Press, 2007.
Medieval theology was the philosophical idea of the Western European philosophers, a period that existed between the fragmentation of the Roman Empires and Renaissance between the 5th and 15th centuries. Philosophers in the medieval period took over from and related much with those of antiquity. Philosophies on Christianity were notably the most influential in medieval times, with the Christian academies adopting firm medieval intellectual cultural doctrines.
This essay endeavors to mitigate the ideological perspectives of Roman Williams in medieval theological presumptions. It seeks to find out whether his assertion on theological integrity is justified in the medieval context. In trying to explain what he means by integrity, Roman William contends that “Discourse is without integrity because it conceals its true agenda, knowing that concealment robs us of our innocence…speech cannot be content with concealment” (William, Theological Integrity, 1). This, to Roman Williams, was a matter of integrity lacking in the medieval theologies. According to him, medieval theologians were not honest in their speeches and discourses, as they did not lead the people in the very right ways of the Christ, but in their own ways of thinking about God and the World as a whole (William, Theological Integrity, 2-3).This paper also attempts to find out whether the stand assumed by Roman Williams was indeed the case in medieval period. Were the rulers, speakers, theologians, or the philosophers of the time short of integrity as he tries to argue? How did their theological works influence the beliefs and faiths of the Christian fraternity? What were the contributions of the traditions and the bible in shaping reality about God? What do other theological writers like John of Damascene and Thomas Anguinas partake in on theological integrity? These are a few of the questions that this essay seeks to re-address more vividly.
Why medieval people contributed to the theological enterprise
The greatest thinkers of the medieval time were predominantly theologians, but they also addressed perpetual philosophical issues in their endeavors to apprehend the universe. Their activities were marred with conscientious philosophical arguments, conceptual analysis, speeches and platonic discourses, making their philosophical theologies be construed more of an enterprise they were venturing into rather than a profession.
Philosophical theology was becoming a successful enterprise of the time, with the theologians trying to outdo each other in interpreting the world. Their visions in understanding the universe were their greatest motivations towards the enterprise. They therefore had magnanimous influences on the ways of life. Ordinary people were easily moved by the concrete and logical ideologies about the world and the god that was being described to them. Their very activities assimilated much of those from the traditional rulers and leaders, though slightly transformed.
“In the language of those in control which will be essentially about the rights to control and the powerless in presence of the powerful, which takes on the images and the definitions offered by the latter as the only possible means to access to their world, their resources” (Williams, Theological Integrity, 6). Williams in this case highlighted the aspect of believes and contribution of the people in the theologian enterprise under the influence of the rulers and the philosophers.
In the classical times, prior to medieval theologies, God’s presence and people’s beliefs in His existence were manifested in many ways. Among such common ways were in the form of symbols, statutes, images, ornaments and instruments. And as the work of Pseudo Dionysius titled “The Mystical Theology” confirms, “In my symbolic theology, I have discussed analogies of God drawn from what we perceive. I have spoken of the images we have of him, of the forms, figures and instruments proper for him” (Dionysius, The Mystical Theology, 138).The use of symbols to present God then became a controversial debate in the medieval era, with the philosophical theologians taking a rather firm stand against the reasoning that people had behind using symbols and statutes to acknowledge the existence of God the Almighty. But from Roman Williams’s point of view, people were free to acknowledge and speak about God and the ways of Christ in any form they preferred, as long as it was the honest and moral way acceptable in the Universe (William, Theological Integrity, 4-6).
The role played by theology in medieval society
The main agenda of theology in medieval context was to promote not strictly the Christian faith and believe in the Almighty God, but to endorse morality in the world, what theologians like Roman Williams termed as the moral universe (William, Theological Integrity, 3). And since the theological philosophers concentrated much on the Christian ways of life, theology became like part and parcel of Christianity, transforming the word of God into more of political matter than a spiritual scripture as Williams contends by saying, “Such a lack of integrity in speech is manifestly a political matter” (William, Theological Integrity, 6).
According to Thomas Anguinas, “The King and the Load of heavens set down this law from all eternity that the gifts of his providence should come to the lower through intermediaries. Hence Dionysius in the celestial Hierarchy 5 says, and he quotes: “It is the most sacred law of the divinity that things in middle should be led to his divine light by first things” (Aquinas, Commendation and Division of Sacred Scriptures, 5-1).This was not to be the case in the medieval context, as the theologians chose to make it their own business of interpreting the ways of the lord based on their logical thinking capacities. There was no “low-less-ness” in their arguments. They wanted the world to hear their providence of what they asserted as the living reality about God. The philosophers perceived traditions of Christianity merely as ideas that had no proves of logic and science.
The limits placed in theological statements and language
Statements and language of the medieval theologies were hard nuts to crack. They were characterized by axioms, allegories, aphorisms, dialogue, disputations, meditations, soliloquies and commentaries. “Discourses that conceals its discourse that consciously or not sets out to foreclose the possibility of a genuine response” (Williams, Theological Integrity, 1).The limits that the theologians placed on their discourses were therefore short of integrity as per the arguments of Roman Williams.
Philosophical and or theological texts were scripted in various forms that were majorly found in the ancient times, totally not synonymous to either the modern or the classical incarnations. Theologians in the medieval era conducted their works under the pressure of censorship from political and religious authorities that were constantly on their case. Their peculiar language and statements were a strategy used as a scapegoat from persecutions. The language was too technical and very difficult to be understood by ordinary people or those who were not trained as theologians or philosophers of that time. This kind of strictly narrowed down communication was therefore limited to the medieval thinkers.
In the theological work titled, “The Mystical Theology”, Pseudo Dionysius probes the case of language and sentences used in medieval world. The work has in fact helped us understand to what extent the language used by the medieval philosophers was obscured and meaningless to the ordinary people, what they termed as the mystery in the words, dialogues, speeches and all sorts of discourse (Dionysius, The Mystical Theology, 138-139). Roman Williams referred to it simply as lack of Theological Integrity (Williams, Theological Integrity, 6-9)
Medieval Ideas about God
Medieval ideas about God were dominantly a matter of controversies, disputations and argumentations. They had no permanent or unified belief in one God. To them, if at all there was God, then there were also many ways of acknowledging that belief, that is, by doing what according to them was godly in the moral universe.
As John of Damascene notes,”…I see the Church, which God built upon the foundation of the apostles and prophets, Christ his son being the cornerstone, battered as by the surging sea overwhelming assault of wicked spirits…”, the medieval ways of Christ were at the verge of living the right paths of the load, following the powerful ideological influences of the medieval theologians and philosophers who had the wills of the people at their hands. There were no clear paths to guide the righteous people to the living reality about God. (Damascene, Three Treatises on the Devine Images, 19)
The role of traditions and the bible in Medieval Context
The traditional ideologies of the classical thinkers contributed significantly to the medieval works. Most of their ideas about the spiritual world were borrowed from the classical thinkers like Aristotle. Bible scriptures took a center stage in their arguments, as they struggled to debate on and dispute technical clauses of the bible. On the same note, it also acted as a point of reference and a source of knowledge to them about God, to find out what their predecessors said about Him.
Roman Williams take on Theology
Williams’s stand on theology is broadly based on the honesty manifested when talking about God, which he may have observed to be totally lacking in medieval society. To Williams, it was not right that medieval theologians talked about the ways of Christ in obscurity and in a concealed form, hiding the agendas of their messages (Williams, Theological Integrity, 9-2).
Conclusion
In conclusion, it is apparent that Roman Williams’s assertion on the state of theological Integrity in Medieval context is to a great extent justifiable. As he posits, there was indeed no openness in discourse between the ordinary people, the theologians, politicians and religious leaders. These then were a matter of untrustworthiness in speaking the word of God. Williams’s stand on medieval theology is therefore defensible.
Works Cited
Aquinas, Thomas. Inaugural Lecturers. Commendation and Division of Sacred Scriptures. New York.Penguin.1998.
Damascene, John. Three Treaties on the Devine Images.1st Ed.New York.St.VladimirsSeminary Press Crestwood.2003.19-25
Dionysius, Pseudo. The Mystical Theology. New York.Paulist Press.2003. 218-63
Williams, Romans. Theological Integrity: New York. New Blackfriars.1991.1–9
Theological discourse makes use of liberation theologies to review the goal of human existence, religious thought and practice, and faith by focusing on individuals who have been deprived a voice, adequate standards of living, and a positive identity. Liberation theology critiques moral evil like undeserved and unjustified suffering, pain, and subjugation and marginalization.
Liberation theology is globally recognized, but the United States remains the origin/birthplace of various impressive liberation theologies. Liberation theology, therefore, concerns itself with the serious problem of injustice and oppression, seeking to “advance enhancing self-images and communal images, enabling coping techniques and socio-political adjustments that could foster greater social justice as a whole” (Valentin, 2010, p. 98).
It is precisely because of this that liberation theology makes inquiry into and searches for responses to questions on people’s thoughts and opinions about God; on human capability and limitation; on the saving example of Jesus Christ; on Christian hope to overcome underserved agony, inequity, unjustified subjugation, and marginalization; and on challenge and promise of the church.
In addition to placing much attention to injustice and suffering, and ameliorative impulses, liberation theology is characterized by two keynotes. The first one entails a comprehension of the factors that shape and govern the role of theological treatises. These factors include socio-cultural, historical, and socio-economic attributes. Secondly, liberation theology possesses a desire to reach into, and draw from certain realities of life, and expressive cultures of a defined group of people (Valentin, 2010).
Hispanic theology is a complex form of theology that encompasses the social and cultural contexts of the Latino/as. The Hispanic theology is composed of women leaders in various areas of life that unfortunately lack recognition from official leadership structures and within institutional church (Valentin, 2010).
Despite the eminent oppression, Hispanic theology acknowledges the important role played by women in the maintenance of life and health in the community. This paper gives insight into Hispanic/Latino (a) theology by discussing the effects and importance of Hispanic/Latino (a) theology and its link to Christianity.
Discussion
The nascence of liberation theology was as a result of fermentation of a long historical process in the 1960s and 1970s. This emergence was triggered by religious, economic, and political forces. It was a new approach to theology as opposed to the traditional form of theology that was characterized by an imbalance of power between the church’s hierarchy and its members (Isasi-Diaz, & Segovia, 1996).
The liberation theology was, therefore, a wakeup call to change the social conditions of the church members by denying a subordinate class, ethnic, or gender status. Hispanic feminist theology, known as mujerista, shares some characteristics with other North American feminist theologies.
The discrete and dynamic perspectives of the Hispanic women theology help the Latina/o community and its Diaspora to comprehend the multifaceted oppressive structures, define their preferred future and face internalized oppression (Dyrness & Kärkkäinen, 2008).
The origin of the Hispanic/Latino (a) theology is complex, intriguing and emanates from a combination of political, cultural, and religious factors. The Hispanic theology is born from the creation of the Hispanic/Latino/as. In actual sense the Hispanics are not foreign newcomers to the United States, but instead their history predates that of the United States. The exploration and colonization by the Spanish on the Caribbean islands is what gave rise to the Hispanics/Latino/as in North America.
The Spanish boon in the American lands gave rise to a new culture as the American indigenous populations were coercively conquered and their lands taken away from them. These natives were exposed to new strains of diseases obtained from the Spanish. The devastating effect of the diseases, mistreatment and imposition of a new language and culture took a huge toll on the indigenous Amerindians.
In addition, poor nourishment, broken family life and oppressive labor conditions led to a rapid and tremendous dwindle of the native populations. Scant labor force led to the conquering of Africa, and with their migration to this part of the world, led to the birth of new cultures and large populations of mestizo/as and mulatto/as.
This new culture had great impact on every aspect of the Latino/as. This community was characterized by a lot of heterogeneity, which was aggravated by variations in socio-economic standing and period of stay in the United States inter alia.
Irrespective of the heterogeneity involved, the U.S. Hispanic/Latino (a) population has forged a delicate but appreciable pan-Latino identity in the U.S. Since the 1960s with the birth of Hispanic theology aimed at bringing about wholeness or solidarity, panethnicity and collectivity among the Hispanics/Latino (as) is eminent. This solidarity has been a turning point to the Hispanics/Latino (as). Edna Acosta-Belen simply says that:
The shorthand label Hispanic/Latino is turning out to be a symbol of cultural affirmation and identity in an alienating society that traditionally has been hostile and prejudicial to cultural and racial differences, and unresponsive to the socio-economic and educational needs of a large segment of the Hispanic population (Valentin, 2010).
Other factors that have been responsible for the solidarity within the Hispanic community include common widespread cultural traits shown through language, customs, life sensibilities, and rituals; a sensibility of ubiquitous exile arising from annexation/colonization of a majority of Latino/as’ countries of origin by the United States; and due to a feeling of marginalization even among those Latinos born in the United States.
The Hispanics/Latino (as) mainly encounter racial discrimination and cultural alienation, which exudes from living within a dominant society that is after the victory of its own, excluding Anglo culture. In addition, the Latino (as) have mainly been at the bottom of the economic ladder and unfortunately lack the ability to ameliorate their socio-economic condition.
Hispanic theology, therefore in addition to the confounding factors mentioned above has played a pivotal role in bringing about solidarity and cohesion among the Hispanic as quoted by Edna Acosta-Belen. This quote is of significant implication because it aims at building strong ties among the Hispanics/Latino (as).
The Hispanic/Latino (a) theology makes responses to, reflects on, and builds on the complex history and complex amassment of the experiences by the Hispanics/Latino (as). This theological concern began in 1975 with initial inflections of the Mexican American Catholic theologian Virgilio Elizondo.
Mujerista theology aims at giving voice to Hispanic women, who are not comfortable with their identity in relation to mainline feminist theology. Mujerista is sourced from the lived experiences of Hispanic women, which is intrinsically connected to the survival of their community, and especially the children of the community.
The Hispanic women are constantly struggling to survive against anthropological poverty, which is beyond material poverty. They fight against sexism, ethnic prejudice, and class. The survival of Hispanic women revolves around self-definition and self-determination. It is also sourced from religion and culture. The religious aspect of Hispanic women theology aims at purging African and Amerindian influences (Sindima, 2008).
While Hispanic feminine theology seeks equality, the male Hispanic theologians, on the other hand, are inclined to the fact that women and men will never be equal. According to Williams, God is partial and discriminating. She illustrates this by using the covenant code in Exodus 20-23 and the holiness code in Leviticus 19 to indicate that male and female slaves were not treated equally.
Therefore, unlike male theology, the feminine Hispanic theology as described by Williams is skeptical that God is the liberator of all who are oppressed. Unlike the male Hispanic theology, the feminine Hispanic theology is more aggressive and more inclined towards achievement of self-description and self-determination (Kärkkäinen, 2004).).
I, however, defy Aquino’s mission statement that the poor are currently agents who are in charge of their own destiny. Theoretically speaking, this statement is valid, but in actual sense, the poor are still marginalized in contemporary society and the gap between the rich and the poor is continuously growing due to external forces. If only the Hispanic feminist theology would be a reality, but then it seems to be a whirling wind that stirs up a lot of debate.
Despite the fact that women have somewhat become liberated from the traditional perception, they are still a marginalized group within the dominant male community. A clear illustration of this continued marginalization is in the distribution of power and resources in the world we are living in.
Presidential candidature, for example, has entirely been a male ground and rarely will women assume such a prestigious position. In addition, male have full charge of most resources and even though the Latino (a) theology has been in the forefront trying to address marginalization and discrimination against women, this continues to be a contentious issue.
The Hispanic theology is shown as a representation of the religious and theological inflections of the Hispanic people staying in the United States. It is a North American theological tradition that has a solid origin and fundamental ground in the United States. The theological voice entailed in Hispanic theology is sourced from thoughts, writings, and activities of a pluralistic society of theologians. Hispanic/Latino (a) is a distinctive expression of liberation theology.
This is because the Hispanic/ Latino (a) theologians emphasize all the elements of liberation theology. For example, the Hispanic/Latino (a) theologians often delve into and seek responses for specific experiences and scenarios that have had impact in their lives and those of their colleagues in the social sphere of the U. S. Hispanic/Latino(a) theology is therefore built from specific people’s life experiences and circumstances, as well as their cultural practices.
This way, they focus on responding to fashion, and theological reflections that are fundamental to the Hispanic’s/Latino’s cultural agency. A representation of this is carried out through interpretation of the scripture and theological doctrines in the eyes of experiences and perceptions of the Latino (a) communities.
Poverty, alienation, marginality, exile, or estrangement, form the basis for these experiences and perceptions. A different basis is that of mestizaje or mulatez, which entails mixed ancestry and cultural heritage that acts as a vantage point in deciphering and exploring the meanings of religious ideas.
Hispanic/Latino (a) theology is bent on improving the lives of its people. The Latinos and Latinas experience discrimination and disrespect of their Hispanic cultures, and because of this, the theologians have embraced an identity politics /cultural politics to distinguish them from other cultures.
The Hispanics face cultural discrimination through: cultural domination, non-recognition, and disrespect. Latino theologians have voiced out these injustices especially related to culture because it is a potential source of oppression than political economy. Forms of cultural oppression include cultural imperialism, ethnic prejudice, sexism, and racism, all of which contribute to the agony of the Latino/as.
Hispanic/Latino/a theology, therefore, focuses on enfolding liberal cultural discourses to counter efforts at cultural homogenization by the United States. This theology aims to protect the beliefs and practices of the Hispanics/Latino/as and replace denigrating images with self-defines and affirming images of the Latino/as. This way, Hispanic theology helps in incorporating the Latino/ as full, equal, and active citizens into the society in which they live in (Valentin, 2010).
Christianity vs. Hispanic/Latino (a) Theology
Tradition, experience, scripture and culture form the sources of Christian theology. The scripture generally makes references to the Bible (both Old and New Testaments). The Bible provides a ground for the Christian faith through initiatory events, beliefs, and testimonies.
Tradition entails accrued interpretations of scripture, doctrines, and ritual/practice that have been transmitted in the history of Christian thought and practice. Culture in Christianity is varied depending on the theologian, thus it could mean a “sphere devoted to the production, circulation, and use of meanings and identities” (Valentin, 2010). A more general definition is that culture could refer to everything that makes up the social matrix in which occurrence and exercise of religion take place.
Experience looks at the personal life experience and perception and this entails religious experience and perception, as well as collective historical experiences of a group defined by religion, nationality, ethnicity, social norms and culture. Gonzalez interprets Christianity by use of Santa Biblia where he points out five injustices relevant to Christianity. These are marginalization, poverty, mestizaje and mulatez, exile, and alienation.
Just like in Christianity, Hispanic theology aimed at bringing about cohesion and unity among a heterogeneous group of people. Initially, there was disunity among the Hispanic themselves due to variations in origin aggravated by social position. Christianity also aims at bringing people of different mixtures of races and social classes, who have a common belief, together and guarding this belief in relation to tradition, the scripture, culture and experiences.
Christianity protects the Christians against non-believers. Hispanic theology is also charged with the responsibility of protecting the Hispanic people against outsiders, who aim at diluting the social and cultural norms and practices of the Latino/as.
Just like the Latinos who are mestizaje, Christianity follows this example since Jesus himself is described by Elizondo as a mestizo. This kind of mixed culture is expressed as a first-century borderland. Jesus was descendant of the Jews, who were at the borderline of the Jewish and the Gentile societies.
Poverty is an element of social injustice in both Christian and Hispanic theology (Isasi-Diaz & Segovia, 1996). This is because poverty is associated with alienation and inequality based on social position. Hispanic aims at bringing all people of different social positions together irrespective of their wealth. The church actually aims at helping the poor so that they can socially be uplifted and thereby fit in the church setting.
Churches and Christianity, for example, an international one known as the Joyce Meyer Ministries is well known for helping the poor and marginalized societies as a way of exemplifying equality and togetherness. Christianity is, therefore, the avenue through which wealth is fairly distributed to the poor and thereby addressing the issue of marginalization due to poverty. Jesus came from uninspiring village in Galilee called Nazareth.
Jesus, therefore, experienced marginalization as a Galilean Jew in the first century, just like the Hispanics in the U.S. today. In the same way that Jesus was able to generate new modalities of life from the margins of His society, the Latino (as) have also found their selves charged with a liberating mission not only for themselves but also for others in contemporary society.
Marginalization based on gender is also germane to Christianity, just as in Hispanic theology. Feminist Hispanic theology aims at addressing discrimination against women and giving them a voice. Christianity is also a means through which women are given an opportunity to express themselves and offer their services in the church.
It is through such roles in the church that women become appreciated and acknowledged as important and functional members of the community. In addition, Christianity stems from the experiences and life situations of its followers (the Christians) as Hispanic theology stems from the life situations of the Hispanics/Latino (as).
My Perception
I have always viewed Christianity as a mere believe in Jesus Christ, but after reading this text, I have realized that there is more to Christianity than meets the eye. As indicated above, Christianity is somewhat complex because it is defined by the scripture, people’s tradition, culture and experiences. These elements are mainly not realized, but I have learnt that surely Christianity has got to embrace these facets for it to thrive.
Therefore, Christianity is a critical facet of people’s lives that mainly goes unnoticed while considering the mentioned elements that define it. Christianity is used to bring about unity and give the marginalized people hope and a voice to express their experiences and life situations. Christianity acknowledges the important role played by everyone irrespective of their social and cultural status. In addition, Christianity seeks recognition as a unique entity and guards its followers from being assimilated into other doctrines.
References
Dyrness, W. A., & Kärkkäinen, V. (2008). Global Dictionary of Theology: A Resource for the Worldwide Church. Dormers Grove, IL: Intervarsity Christian Fellowship.
Isasi-Diaz, A. M., & Segovia, F. F. (1996). Hispanic/Latino Theology: Challenge and Promise. Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Fortress Publishers.
Kärkkäinen, V. (2004). The Doctrine of God: A Global Introduction. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic.
Sindima, H. J. (2008). The Gospel According to the Marginalized. New York: Peter Lang Publishing, Inc.
Valentin, B. (2010). Hispanic/Latino (a) Theology. In S. M. Floyd-Thomas, & A. B. Pinn. Eds. Liberation Theologies in the United States: An Introduction. New York: New York University.
The search for the truth as one of the aspects of human existence is the subject of not only sociological but also theological sciences and concepts. The notions of spirituality and pragmatism intersect, which leads to the mixing of theories and entails deep discussions of faith, the philosophical background of religion, and other significant issues. Based on the doctrines that are presented by the modern church community, the understanding of the mysteries of faith comes through studying the science of God and the ideas that are considered in the Scripture.
However, in addition to spiritual concepts, the importance of reason is also considered an essential component in theological practice, and rational arguments in support of certain hypotheses are permissible. This work is aimed at determining the significance of reason, the element that contributes to the understanding of the mysteries of faith and its essence.
Reason as One of the Aspects of Doubt
Due to a large amount of information and constantly changing priorities, modern society tends to be more practical than philosophical. Religion has not lost its value; nevertheless, the manifestations of reason are observed in doubts about theological concepts, and the search for the truth has become the integral part of the process of knowledge. According to McGrath, “faith is not the same as certainty,” and the evidence of salvation that people seek to find is due to the natural human desire to learn the unknown (343).
Withal, the denial of the secrets of religion and the complete disregard for theological teachings cannot be considered a positive trend since such a categorical position contradicts the essence of the science of God. Therefore, human reason as one of the aspects of doubts plays an essential role in forming the concept of faith and may be viewed from different standpoints.
The philosophy of rationalism that is closely associated with doubts and the desire to obtain irrefutable evidence is alien to traditional theological doctrines. Reason as the integral component of human existence is not the tool aimed at exposing or reprimanding ecclesiastic concepts. On the contrary, as Pearse argues, even in early teachings, “acquiring divine truth or morality by reason was constitutive of natural religion” (231). The method of understanding the secrets of faith is an attempt to find out but not to expose, to achieve but and not to disprove. Therefore, when applying reason as the instrument of rapprochement with God is not only welcomed but is also a natural condition for people’s interaction with religion.
At the same time, any other manifestation of mental activity, which is based on doubts, alienates skeptics from the notion of spirituality. Therefore, reasonable does not mean controversial, which it is essential to accept as one of the divine truths.
Role of Reason for Theology
Not only reason as an ability to think precedes faith but also thinking itself. In order to follow faith, a rational human being should have any supportive basis. To encourage the will to accept any religion and its truths, reason, first of all, investigates the teachings of the proposed philosophy, draws certain conclusions, and only after that, it accepts the concept itself. As Gordon remarks, for faith to emerge, preaching is necessary, and theology as the science of the divine essence is involved in searching for the substantiations of church teachings (84). Consequently, the concepts of reason and the search for the truth intersect and form a single picture. Theology as a scientific discipline benefits from this fact, interpreting church doctrines from those points of view that are understood by contemporary people.
Thus, the relationships between faith and reason in the context of theology are complementary. Before accepting any truth, a person needs to make sure that they are sound and logical. At the same time, according to Miller, it is essential to trust certain authorities, which are expressed in the Holy Scripture (15). An ability to analyze and comprehend the secrets of the universe opens up broad spiritual perspectives.
Believing in the soundness of truths due to immutable authoritative sources, faith acquires its strength, and new horizons open up for it. The power of theology as a science allows people to avoid any doubts concerning the reliability of religion and prepares their minds to understand the truths that are included in the science of God. In other words, faith is the primary form of the manifestation of spirituality, which is one of the basic theological doctrines.
Conclusion
Reason is the essential component of contemporary theological concepts, which contributes to the understanding of the mysteries of faith and its essence. Due to the rapid development of civilization, humanity faces doubts regarding divine powers and church doctrines. One of the key tasks of theology is to convey to people that not only rational judgments but also faith help to form the comprehensive picture of the world. The role of special authorities described in the Holy Scripture is significant. The religious picture of spirituality provides the relationships between reason and faith, which corresponds to the key theological teachings and allows learning the secrets of the divine principle.
Works Cited
Gordon, J. Dorcas. “Stewarding the Mysteries of Faith: Preaching the Gospel in Twenty-First-Century Canada.” Toronto Journal of Theology, vol. 30, no. 1, 2015, pp. 81-92.
McGrath, Alister E. Christian Theology: An Introduction. 6th ed., John Wiley & Sons, 2016.
Miller, Ed L. God and Reason: An Invitation to Philosophical Theology. 2nd ed., Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2015.
Pearse, Harry. “Historical Faith and Philosophical Theology: The Case of Thomas White.” Intellectual History Review, vol. 26, no. 2, 2016, pp. 221-243.
There are various interpretations or misconceptions, should I say, to the parts of the Bible that refer to the tribulation, rapture, or the end of the world. Which is really the “end portion” of history, the tribulation or after the tribulation? These things have to be clarified in the context of Biblical interpretation and other interpretations by Bible scholars so as to be able to get a proper view of the Christian beliefs that have influenced many of us.
First, what is the tribulation? And what is the end of the world? Are the “signs of wars” or rumors of war the end of the world?
It is the purpose of this paper to give some views and ideas on the exposition of Matthew 24 and 25 in the context of Biblical passages and to arrive at a safer interpretation after consulting the literature on the various tribulation concepts.
Exposition of Matthew 24 and 25
Matthew 24 connects to the Gospel of Mark Chapter 13, which talks of the “end of the world.” The prophets of the Bible pointed out, and as what the Jews also believed, the destruction of Jerusalem, the Temple in particular, and the places surrounding it was the foretold end of the world. The prophets speak of the end of the world, which would initiate God’s universal kingdom. And when Jesus speaks of the destruction of the Temple, the apostles think and understand it as the end of the world.
The Jews asked: when will the end happen? When will the end of history be? The apostles confuse somewhat the two questions, but Jesus makes a clear distinction. The end is near, but not yet, meaning it is about.
Before going any further, are we in the “time” that the Bible refers to as the tribulation? The answer to this is possible, but this is a personal opinion. Bible scholars suggest that the understanding of the Bible, especially the tribulation aspects, should be understood by believers in a logical way.
Further, the Olivet discourse contains Jesus’ warnings about the destruction of the Jewish nation that would occur 30 years after, but what he said clarifies the meaning of the conflicts that occur at present in the whole world.
John comments that “though He had performed so many signs before them, yet they were not believing in Him,” and cites the divine, judicial rejection of Israel in Isaiah 53:1 and 6:10 as fulfilled on this occasion (John 12:37-40). Jesus then withdrew from the Temple – His final exit – and from the city, crossed Kidron, and sat upon Olivet, where he spoke His discourse. (Gundry 131)
According to some interpreters, “the gospel of the kingdom” (Matt. 24:14) preached during the tribulation will differ from the Gospel preached in the Church age even though both gospels agree in their soteriology (Gundry 131).
Moreover, Jesus says that the tragedy that will end with the destruction of Jerusalem is near, but that shall not be the end of the world. Those are the “signs of the times,” but the end has yet to come. Is the end of the world the end of everything?
Thirty years after Jesus, the Jews rebelled against Roman oppressors. The Roman Army became stronger after its first defeats and, with its flags adorned with the image of their idols, approached the Holy City. Then many messiahs (v. 22) appeared, that is, those who claimed to be the saviors of the Jewish nation and led many followers.
During the siege, the more fanatic Jews locked themselves in the City of Jerusalem, waiting for God’s intervention; they were so divided that they fought among themselves. Many were arrested by the Romans, who crucified the captives in front of the walls. The Romans destroyed the Temple and the other places surrounding it, took captive the men, women, and children, and made them slaves.
After announcing the end of the Jewish world, Jesus speaks of an even more important event: the end of the world, or better still, its transformation, not the end as in everything is finished or consummated.
The images of the sun and the moon are spoken in Is 13:10 and 34:4, which express the confusion, the surprise, and the disintegration of a man and the Universe before the majesty of the Supreme Judge. The sentence “He will send the angels” is a common image of the Jewish books that spoke of God’s judgment.
The Biblical connotation for tribulation is “suffering and death”. Paul boasts of the Thessalonians’ “persecution and trials” (the Greek word for tribulation), and God will judge those “who trouble you” (the verb form of “tribulation”) (Fee and Stuart 258).
The Olivet discourse describes the course of the age between two advents and refers to the great tribulation just preceding His second coming to the earth. Having set forth the rejection of Christ in the context of ultimate glorification, the Gospel of Matthew then records the facts of His death, resurrection, and post-resurrection ministry. (Walvoord, “Thy Kingdom Come” 13)
Borne out of the many interpretations on the tribulation message of the Bible are the so-called pretribulationists, midtribulationists, and the posttribulationists. The pretribulationists posit that God would intervene before the tribulation. All nations of the world would join forces to destroy the Holy City of Jerusalem, but right at the moment of greatest despair, God would intervene in a triumphant way to establish his own kingdom.
The question of pretribulationist and posttribulationist interpretation is a major theological problem in the area of eschatology, according to Walvoord.
Walvoord points three reasons:
“First, a question such as the use of the literal method of interpretation as contrasted to the nonliteral, spiritualizing method is most important.
“Second, another major factor is the separation of divine programs for Israel and the Church.
“Third, the larger issue of amillennialism versus premillennialism, which is also involved, makes the doctrine of the Tribulation significant beyond its own borders.” (Walvoord, “The Rapture” 14)
Logic also plays a part in the proper application of theological conclusions in general. To some extent, the interpretation of the tribulation is predetermined by theological conclusions in other aspects of eschatology. (Walvoord, “The Rapture” 15)
The concept of eschatology, the end of the world, and the various interpretations should be understood in a logical process.
Eschatological Framework of the New Testament
Authors Fee and Stuart suggest that the basic theological framework of the entire New Testament is eschatological. The Greek word for the end the Jews were looking for is eschaton.
To be eschatological in one’s thinking meant to be looking for the end (Fee and Stuart 145).
A diagram symbolical of the cross is presented here (Fee and Stuart 145):
The eschatological way of looking at life is figured with the cross. Early Christians understood this – Jesus’ coming, death and resurrection, and his giving of the Spirit – were all related to that end which they all expected to be the “Day of the Lord.”
The early Christians understood how to look at life in an eschatological way. Jesus’ life on earth, his passion and crucifixion, his resurrection, and the coming of the Holy Spirit are all related to their expectations of the coming of the end.
The coming of the end also meant a new beginning or the beginning of the messianic age, also referred to as the kingdom of God, “the time of God’s rule” (Fee and Stuart 146).
More biblical passages and meanings of the eschatological concept are found in Isa. 11-4-5, a time of righteousness; the people would live in peace (e.g., Isa 2:2-4); a time for the fullness of the Holy Spirit (Joel 2:28-30) when the New Covenant spoken of by Jeremiah would be realized (Jer 31:31-34); sin and sickness would be done away with (Zech 13:1; Isa 53:5).
Eschatological fervor reached a fever pitch during the time John the Baptist announced to the people that the coming of the end was to be near, and when he baptized Jesus, the Son of God. This was the new beginning that the people of Israel were expecting. But like any other event, there were misconceptions that only Jesus and the Holy Spirit could give light.
Jesus came and announced with his ministry that the kingdom was at hand (e.g., Mark 1:14-15; Luke 17:20-21). He drove out demons, worked miracles, and freely accepted the outcasts and sinners – all signs that the end is at hand (Fee and Stuart 146).
When Jesus was performing these miracles, everyone was watching, and they thought he was the “Coming One.” But Jesus was tried by Pilate, accused by the Pharisees for rebellion (and maybe for usurping their authority), and subsequently was crucified. However, on the third day, Jesus rose again from the dead. Jesus’ resurrection brought another stage in the eschatological concept again. Was he now to restore the kingdom of God?
The inspired prophecy of Peter, which states that skeptics would ask the question “Where is this ‘coming’ he promised?” (2 Peter 3:4), is still being fulfilled (Walvoord, “The Rapture” 11).
Beginning with Peter’s sermon in Acts 3, the early Christians came to realize that Jesus had not come to usher in the ‘final’ end but the ‘beginning’ of the end, as it were (Fee and Stuart 146).
With the coming of the Holy Spirit, the blessings and benefits that the believers had acquired and felt, it was like the end had come. But still, the end has to be consummated because the Lord Jesus has to come again, we still die but will be brought to life, and there will still be future judgment. Because of this continuing eschatological and theological framework, we continue to wait for the next stage or coming.
Mark 13:7 (when you hear about wars) does not mean that God leaves the world in the hands of evil. It is more delivery than a failure because humanity is maturing, and the nations encounter more complex problems in their life and development. The crisis suffered by the Jewish nation in the time of Jesus was similar to that experienced by other civilizations.
The same chapter of Mark (v. 32), regarding the day, this is the day of the judgment, also called the “Day of Yahweh,” spoken in the prophets Anis and Zeph 1:15. And Jesus states it clearly, “No one knows when.”
Back to Matthew 24, v. 4-28, Jesus speaks of the days of anguish that will conclude with the destruction of Jerusalem, which the listeners of Jesus will witness. It will be possible to run away before the disaster occurs (15-20); a time for evangelization, a time for persecutions, and for Christians’ testimony before the Jewish and pagan worlds (9-14).
Jesus shows that this general confusion about the true savior is very far moved from what will happen when he returns at the end of time. Jesus talks about his glorious coming. Then Jesus reasserts two things: the events and signs which refer to the end of Jerusalem will take place in the present generation (32-35).
The comparison of the two men (or women) working together means that, upon the coming of Jesus, the Judgement will take place, then there could be separation within the same social or family group: some headed towards the Lord, others to be condemned (37:41).
How is it that Jesus related the destruction of Jerusalem to the end of time? This is because each event concludes one phase of Holy Scripture. First, Israel is the chosen people; God nurtured their development and made them a model for all nations. Jesus arrives at a perfect time when the nation Israel is in a crisis, but Jesus introduces them to the Gospel. A minority of the Jews believed.
The Gospel was (is being) preached to other nations – the era of the New Testament. The Church does have a new awareness of what the Gospel means for humankind and will have it as the center of all her teachings and actions. Amid a crisis, universal this time, in which all humankind will be submerged in violence and hatred, a new era of intense evangelization will take place with reconciliation as its main theme. This is the coming of Jesus.
The postmillennial point of view of Charles Hodge (qtd. in Walvoord, “The Rapture” 15) “considers the Tribulation a final state of trouble just preceding the grand climax of the triumph of the gospel.”
The emphasis in Scripture on the Forty-two months preceding the Second Coming of Christ an indication of a midtribulational rapture?
Gleason Archer (qtd. in Walvoord, “The Rapture” 127) called attention to the fact that in both the Old and New Testaments, the last three and one-half years prior to the Battle of Armageddon and the second coming of Christ are emphasized.
Archer cites chapters 7, 9, and 12 of Daniel and chapters 11 and 12 of Revelation, which give importance to the 3½ years (or forty-two months) when some great event will mark the midpoint of the final seven years of pre-Kingdom history. This is, according to Archer, the fulfillment of 1 Thessalonians 4:15-17, the sudden removal of the Church from the world scene. (Walvoord, “The Rapture” 127)
Archer also cites the passages in Daniel 7:25; 9:27; and 12:7, 11. These all state the Great Tribulation will be three and one-half years, although Walvoord argues that whether the rapture will automatically take place immediately before the final three and one-half years is the question in point.
Archer (qtd. in Walvoord, “The Rapture” 127) also takes support from Matthew 24, Mark 13, and Luke 21. Archer states: “There is no explicit reference to welcoming the Church into the presence of Christ prior to the final doom of Armageddon, and most advocates of the any-moment rapture question whether it is even alluded to in this prophetic message of Christ during Passion Week. Nevertheless, it is highly significant that the same term for the coming of the Lord is employed in the Olivet discourse as is used in the rapture passage of 1 Thessalonians 4.”
As a Jew himself, Matthew writes an account of the incarnation, life, death, and resurrection of Jesus the Messiah from a Jewish standpoint for the purpose of winning Jews to Christianity and confirming Jewish believers in their Christian faith (Gundry 130-131).
The Parables
The three parables in Chapter 25 present three aspects of God’s judgment. The first one is addressed to the members of the Church.
Because the chief priests, scribes, and elders rebuffed and challenged his authority, Jesus retorted with three parables of judgment which signify that because the Jewish nation had rejected him, the King’s son, God the King had rejected the Jewish nation. The second parable climaxes with these terrible words: “the kingdom of God will be taken away from you, and be given to a nation producing the fruit of it” (Matt. 21:43). (Gundry 131)
The kingdom of God is compared to a wedding, in which some young girls are chosen to form part of the entourage: Like them, we have also been selected by God to prepare for the wedding of the Lord Jesus with humanity.
The girls were ready for the wedding, but Jesus was delayed and time passed by. The sleep which takes possession of the girls is not the result of negligence on their part, but it simply means that the time when they could have entered without problems was over. We, likewise, when we began our journey in faith, could not foresee that we would meet trials. Young People do not believe that one day it will cost them everything to remain faithful to their commitment. They do not realize that, as time goes by, their attitudes and obedience to the faith will change.
During the time of Jesus, a talent was a coin worth some precious metal, but in the parable, when Jesus spoke of talents, he meant the abilities given by God to each of us.
The way to wait for the kingdom is to work for it to be realized. The servant who hid his talent represents the lazy or the indifferent person who considers faith as family inheritance, or the coward who never dares to take initiatives that would be helpful for everyone. Faith should be nurtured and cultivated. We should work for our own salvation. When the Master realizes that we can be entrusted with a few talents, He will entrust us with more.
How will God judge the unbelievers? The Jews envisioned a huge multitude, ready to “devour them,” like a restless world where God should one day impose His law. They used to call them: the nations.
Jesus answers these fears in the last parable of the Gospel of Matthew, saying that he will return as King of all the nations. All those who, without knowing Christ, have shared in the common destiny of humankind will be judged by him. In fact, he never abandoned them but placed at their side “those little ones who are his brothers” as his representatives.
Christ spoke through John in Revelation. To the Church at Smyrna, Christ warns the believers that they can expect tribulation for ten days (2:10). While it is probable that this is not referring to the climactic, end-of-history tribulation, it should be noted that believers are promised persecution and possible death. Similar to this verse is 2:22, only, in this case, those who engage in Jezebel’s sin are promised “great tribulation” – the lack of article suggests that this refers to suffering in a general sense. Thirdly, Christ exhorts the Church at Sardis to repent and warns: “If you do not wake up, I will come like a thief, and you will not know at what time I will come to you” (3:3). (Archer et al. 197)
In Revelation 3:10, it is probable that the reference is to the Great Tribulation, and all agree that the Philadelphian church is promised protection from it. The question is how: through physical removal in pretribulational or midtribulational rapture or through divine safekeeping during the period of distress? (Archer et al. 197)
Conclusion
Part of the tribulation “promise” is the trials and sufferings of Christians as they go along preaching and doing the “work” that Jesus has entrusted them to do. Whilst the end will really come, and it is the hope that Christians have in their hearts, to wait for it is the same as the Jews’ wait for the kingdom, the eschaton.
We are in the midst of the tribulation, the suffering, the wars, and the rumors of war have happened or are happening, and no matter what the literature have all espoused for us to believe for as long as we do the will of the one who was with us and will be with us, Jesus Christ, it only matters if we slow down our faith.
Works Cited
Archer, G., Feinberg, P., Gundry, S., Moo, D., and Retter, R. Three Views on the Rapture. U.S.A.: Zondervan Publishing, 1996.
Fee, Gordon D. and Stuart, D. How to Read the Bible for All Its Worth. Grand Rapids, Michigan: OMF Literature, 2003.
Gundry, Robert H. The Church and the Tribulation: A Biblical Examination of Posttribulationism. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1973.
Pentecost, J. Dwight. The Words and Works of Jesus Christ. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1981.
Walvoord, John F. Matthew: Thy Kingdom Come A Commentary on the First Gospel. Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Publications, 1974.
Walvoord, John F. The Rapture Question. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1979.
Theology is the systematic study of the concepts of Deities and religion. The main role of theology is to study Deities, the elements of God and the creation. According to Ormerod (2010), theology is based on the divine truth. The influence of the divinity and the truth of God in the majority of religions, such as Christianity and Islam, has massively decreased. Gorski (2000) noted that the separation of the state and religion, that had prevailed in the 19th century, generated the secularization that completely changed the basis of theological imaginations. The arguments were that the theological imaginations and religious divinity had lost their glitter. As a result, there was a discourse on the issue of theological imagination and secularization. The political, cultural and religious relations that form the behavior of humanity in the 21st century form the basis for this discourse.
Secularization can be observed when the role of religion and its influence on people’s lives decreases. On the other hand, Ormerod (2010) asserted that theological imagination was the prime role of religion, in which doctrine of God was raised. In the ancient time, theological imagination formed the basis of the amalgam of state and religion. The two formed cohesion in which religious doctrines were norms that formed the social, economic and political practices. This meant that there was a very thin line between religion, social and political orientation. However, the realm has faded rapidly, and the issue of separation of state and religion has been taken to the fist lines. Ormerod (2010) argues that, the new progress is driven by modernity and failure of the theological imagination to resonate with the changing economic, social and political forces. As such, Ormerod (2010) notes that theological imagination doctrines are being overtaken by a modern construct of secularization.
The construct of secularization is driven by the consumerism and modern science. Ormerod (2010) stated that secularism had become a mainstream normatively credited for the decline of the spiritual phase of the modern world. Gorski (2000) noted that the world had lost the traditional religious hegemony. In the modern world, there is a clear separation of the spheres that traditionally were bound by the religious doctrines. A clear division exists between the state and the religion. The primary agent of secularization and driver of modernization is the emergence of science (Ormerod, 2010). The scientific discoveries of the 21st century drive the advancement in medicine and the modern technology; hence, it has become a challenge for theological imaginations to hold the traditional influence. For example, in US and England the huge reduction in the number of Christians attending churches was noted.
The perspective that the theological imagination doctrines have been eroded by science and modernization is an assumption that has gained popularity. I believe that this assumption is false. Theological imaginations form the religious thoughts, which are still prevalent in the 21st century. The separation of state and religion is not an absolute basis for accepting the concept of secularization. In the 21st century, religious doctrines are still held by religious believers operating in small sects. In addition, the secularization theory is based on local trends in Europe and Northern America. The social vectors and forces of the economy that have changed the social order are not a definite representation of secularization. Despite separation of state and religion, theological imaginations still have significant impact on the social orientation of the world.
References
Gorski, P. (2000). Historicizing the Secularization Debate: church, state, and society in late medieval and modern Europe. American Sociological Review, 65 (1), 138– 167.
Ormerod, N. (2010). Secularization and the rise of atheism. Australian Journal of Theology, 17 (1), 13-22.
Pauline theology relates to the beliefs of the apostle Paul about God, and the world, that he expressed in his letters in the New Testament and his thoughts recorded in the Book of Acts. Many literary works cover the understanding of Paul’s lessons and opinions on various themes reflected in his epistles. Moo (2021) and Schreiner (2020) present their approaches to studying theology and letter perception, which are seen as more acceptable for students and non-professional readers. Hence, their works reveal Paul’s life, achievements, and legacy in a straightforward but meaningful manner.
Both works provide a detailed analysis of thirteen letters written by Paul, his understanding, and comments on diverse ideas. However, each book utilizes distinct methods of realizing the material. The structure of Moo’s work (2021) consists of three parts, each underlying the features essential to theological knowledge. The first part explains introductory points: what theology is as a study, the book’s methodology, and the life of Paul. The second part analyzes letters, while the author presents an exposition and meanings behind each epistle. Moreover, the book’s last section is the most significant part, directly reflecting Paul’s beliefs: the salvation history, the gospel, and Christ. The feature of this work is that Moo (2021) approaches the study with his understanding while still considering the perspectives of other scholars, which he presents in the footnotes. Therefore, exploring the book of Moo, the reader gets the whole picture with the author’s view and the opposite critiques, which helps synthesize the student’s opinion at the end.
The other book on Paul’s theology, “Paul, Apostle of God’s glory in Christ” by Schreiner, has a different structure and approach. The author’s ideas operate through the image of Paul as a missionary apostle whose suffering became crucial to the gospel’s spread. For instance, the core of his mission is emphasized in Chapter 3 (Schreiner, 2020, p.75). The goal was not ultimately the Jewish and Gentile reconciliation or fulfillment of God’s salvation promises to both nations. The mission was about seeing God glorified, and worship was one path he accomplished this (Schreiner, 2020, pp.84-87). At the same time, the focus of Chapter 4 is utilizing suffering to share the gospel (Schreiner, 2020, p.89). The messenger’s frailty in imprisonment and misery reveals God’s might and power. The whole book structure is based on moving ideas synchronically with Paul’s thoughts and letters. In contrast to Moo’s work (2021), Schreiner (2020) did not analyze the Pauline letters as separate units but studied the ideas conveyed as a whole. Therefore, the two books present different ways of understanding the same material.
Another significant issue in books is identifying the central theme in Pauline’s letters and studies. Schreiner is convinced that “each theme fails as the “center” for the same reason that every proposed center suppresses part of the Pauline gospel” (2020, p. 15). However, the theme of “God’s glory” can be defined as the core, which is seen as an attempt to de-center other ideas such as justification and sin. The purpose of de-center is to unify mentioned themes as co-dependent, which should be viewed as equal relevance in theology. Contrastingly, Moo’s fundamental idea of “unity with Christ” is thoughtfully conveyed (Moo, 2020, p. 36). Sometimes by defending theological ideas of salvation or righteousness, Jesus and the divine-human relationship he mediates may be neglected. Therefore, the two books convey different approaches to the central themes of Paul’s letter, which results in the distinctive analysis of the authors.
The analysis of letters also was done according to contrasting techniques. In Schreiner’s book, Paul is believed to be the author of all thirteen letters, the Book of Acts (2020, p.8). His writings are treated as a single union, while Schreiner rejects the notion that Paul’s theology changed throughout the missionary path. Additionally, there is a lack of debating opposing viewpoints on many subjects since the author claims his primary intention is to provide his perspective. Such a choice restricts the book’s potential applicability, for instance, as the leading work on Pauline theology. The focus remains on Schreiner’s interpretation regardless of scholars’ findings. Yet, Moo (2021) highly depends on other perspectives to explain or support his own. It may be more helpful for students to understand Pauline theology better through contrasted viewpoints of research and conversation between the author of “A theology of Paul and his letters” and current interpreters. Thus, Moo’s take on Pauline theology benefit students in providing a broader understanding of opposite opinions.
Additionally, there is another advantage in the form of the concept of the new realm. It is the term that Moo uses to describe what he believes to be the organizing unit of Paul’s theology (2020, p.107). It aims to encompass several significant concepts at once, including the new age, the gospel’s power to transform, the presence of the Spirit, and the rebirth of Christ in a society freed from the control of sin, and the forces of the anti-God. Moo’s word “realm” adds more tangible imagery to salvation history, providing a clearer perception of the book.
However, books contain well-organized information that provides lessons on Pauline theology. Schreiner (2021) examines ideas through his perception to provoke the thought about the relevance of universalism in the teaching of Paul. An excursion on universalism and the acceptance of the Gentiles at the end of Chapter 7 caught my attention (Schreiner, 2021, p.160). The author makes a point of stating that to be saved, one must repent and have faith. Nevertheless, he argues that Paul was a universalist. Schreiner notes, “All will acknowledge Jesus as Lord, but it does not follow from this that all will be saved” (2021, p.202). The evidence is several letters to Romance 5, Colossians 1:20, and Gentile; the universalism is challenged by the comparison of Adam and Christ, which leads to the conclusion by the reader that even righteousness is secured by Christ and not a spiritual gift to the humanity (Schreiner, 2021, pp.199-200). Therefore, this chapter provokes a rethinking of the concept of universalism in terms of Pauline theology.
Another lesson I conceived through the book is based on exploring the spiritual gift, particularly the understanding of tongues, as one of the gifts, a sign of judgment, and as heavenly language. Mainly, Chapter 13 explores the subject, which is a reaction to Wayne Grudem’s works on prophecy; the author concludes that in the New Testament, there were possibilities of expressing both truth and false (Schreiner, 2020, p.369). The author argues that “the tongue is a gift by which one can speak the way only God can understand” by saying that the tongue is in the language; it has to be interpreted (Schreiner, 2020, p.413). At the same time, prophecy in the tongue can be understood concerning the context of the message. Therefore, the tongue discussion of gifts with the potential interpretation broader my understanding of the spiritual language as a concept.
The first lesson gained from the work of Moo – on women and marriage – inspired disagreement and further investigation on the matter. Even though women’s roles and family are only briefly discussed by Moo (2021), he sees wifely subordination to the husband as a theological, and hence universal, imperative according to the New Testament regulations beliefs. The husband, Paul implies, has the duty of being the final authority in the partnership; however, it does not negate the fact that wives and husbands eventually submit to Christ. We should remember that Paul gives a similar command to the enslaved people – to obey their masters – despite Christ being the highest master of people. Hence, the support of claims encourages to reflect the letters of Paul not only through the prism of context but also by applying them to the cultural and social norms.
The problem of justification significantly impacted me after finishing the book. The author pays attention to explaining God’s will and righteousness in front of his eyes (Moo, 2021, pp.934-936). He shows that even though the core of Paul’s theology is union with Christ, justification is of utmost importance. If Pauline theology is centered on unity with Christ and if that relationship cannot help but transform one, the question remains how can Paul’s view of justification be unaffected by it. The relationship between justification and final judgment is another complex topic in this discussion. Moo (2021) omits to explain how Paul, whose justification is assured, could emphasize decision and the prospect of divine wrath. It gives the impression of no intended resolution on the matter. Thus, it is up to the reader to convey their own decision.
Thus, books on Pauline theology provide a consistent impression of letters and ideas. While Schreiner (2020) offers a more straightforward book based on personal opinions and thoughts, Moo (2021) gives a critically balanced work with a solid methodological base. The second book better introduces Pauline to a student, while the first is suited to expand personal perception. However, both books create ground for further research of theology and present good material for introduction to Paul’s life, mission, and legacy.
References
Moo, D. J. (2021). A theology of Paul and his letters: The gift of the new realm in Christ (Biblical theology of the New Testament series). Zondervan Academic.
Schreiner, T. R. (2020). Paul, Apostle of God’s glory in Christ: A Pauline theology. InterVarsity Press.