Category: The Black Cat

Some might often wonder who or what is an Edgar Allen Poe? What was he or she known for? Edgar Allan Poe was well known as a journalist, editor and literary critic for his stories. Little known fact, just at the age of three, Edgar Allen Poe was an orphan. His alcoholic father disappeared, and his mother died of a slow tuberculosis death. Edgar Allen Poe was then brought up by a charitable Richmond couple who, consumed no children of their own, but curiously refused to adopt Poe. Poe was later on in and out of the Virginia University, West Point, and the U.S. Military in his previous teens, leaving behind a list of unpaid betting debts. Throughout these years, Poe inputted a series of devastating romantic disorders, all of which ended either in his beloved’s rejection or slow death, and so Poe then lost his much-loved foster mother to a surreptitious disease that lasted. Suddenly, a dark side after slowly took a toll on the sophisticated Edgar Allen Poe who he began to grown into.

Poe was most known for his short stories. Most of Poe’s short stories investigated in one of the main characters a psychological problem. The psychological problem being that it was often the narrator or main character in Poe’s short stories who struggled with either mental illness or who was obsessed with some type of seeking revenge. Patterns in Poe’s narratives are mostly male characters with some type of nervous disorders, “The Tell-Tale Heart” and “The Black Cat.” Both stories contained elements of murder and insanity. Both had nighttime scenes that were creepy and frightening. Besides, the characters of both stories seem to have very little in common at first glimpse. They are very different in their marital status, living conditions, and personal responsibilities. Furthermore, if the readers look closer into the stories, the two men appear more and more alike: they both share their criminal history in flashbacks, thus exposing their motivations and confessing to their crimes.

“The Motive and Meaning: The Mystery of the Will in Poe’s The Black Cat” written by Joseph Stark. Joseph Stark states Edgar Allen Poe’s “The Black Cat presents the reader with a troubled tale of homicide, presumably given to place before the world, plainly, succinctly, and without comment, a series of mere household events” (Stark, 255). It begins with the nameless protagonist who defends his narrative’s truth in “The Black Cat.” Whereas committing murder, he expresses his story from a prison cell. Still, his victim was his wife. The narrator tells us how very happy he was with his wife and how they adored and loved a number of pets together.

As a reason for his actions is he puts the blame on alcohol. He faults, however, an unconscious spirit of stubbornness that he claims has forced his hand. “In other words, by depicting a motiveless murder whose actions cannot be sufficiently explained, Poe “place [d] before the world… without comment, difficulties in both scientific and religious thought and ironically upheld the mysterious nature of the human will in a time dominated by intellectual rationalism” (Stark, 255). In the story he notes, both hands led him to kill his once beloved black pet, a shockingly big and beautiful (cat), after a night of corruption, he decides to cut off the cat’s eye from his socket with his pen-knife. “Evangelicals emphasized the power of the human will to overcome sin and crime (culminating perhaps most dramatically in Finney’s belief in perfectionism), while scientific examination narrowed the gap between the rational human and irrational animal, and thereby posited a kind of naturalistic determinism” (Stark, 257).

He eventually kills the cat to get rid of the pet’s ghoulish face which reminded him of his own reflection, by hanging the black cat from a tree in the yard. Not long after the black cat was killed and so was his wife who he shoved into a wall, then decides to bring home a new cat who almost to the likeness of his former animal resembled the one he previously killed. Which leads to Starks position of “Instinct vs. Reason: A Black Cat, in which he discusses the mysterious line between the seeming instinct of an animal and the reason of a human. Such instinct, he comments, is referable only to the spirit of the Deity itself, acting directly, and through no corporal organ, upon the volition of the animal” (Stark, 257-258). Eventually, the narrator becomes terrified of the series of events that occurred by this new cat’s white splotch of fur because he gets flashbacks.

By signifying that, the failure to escape the hauntings of this new cat, the narrator innocently portrays his own insanity. Moving forward, in order for the narrator to portray, determined and defend his own kind of sanity, it often leads him to explain his actions. The narrator uses that as some kind of confession form. The unsuspecting acceptance of the new cat, still, with the changing of its fur, the lack of guilt for this type of action and the crimes he committed, leads to the self-destructive behavior with which he eventually surrendered demonstrate his distorted outlook and untrustworthy narration.

“The Tell-Tale Heart” which was created about a confession by a murderer who kills an old man who he once lived with. “The Tell-Tale Heart: The Life and Works of Edgar Allan Poe” by Julian Symons presents “The real challenge for the biographer of Poe lies in bringing some understanding to the dark side of Poe’s personality that propelled him through his disturbed adulthood, and that was clearly the source of his genius” (Symons, 43). The narrator tells us he had no reason to want the old man to be killed. Truly, he claims the fact that he never been wrong with the old man and that he loved him and didn’t want his money.

Except because of how the old man looked, that petrified the narrator. “He gives us all the evidence. But the mystery of Poe is not easily solved; a summary of the evidence is not enough to suggest a solution” (Symons, 43). This indicates that the narrator is terrified of the so called “vulture eye” because of how he saw his own image in his external ugliness; the narrator was ridiculous and repulsive inwardly because he planned and executed murder; his heart is more repulsive than the face of the old man. Readers then can interpret and take a closer thought of the “vulture eye” not as just an organ of visualization, but as the homonym of “I.”

So, what the author actually wishes to kill is the self, and is subjected to this desire when he was no longer able to grasp his intense sense of guilt and yielded to the law, exposing the remains of the old man hidden under the floor boards. Symons suggest that “No more helpful with the question of Poe’s drinking. Poe was no Ordinary alcoholic… Remains steadfastly superficial throughout his treatment of the life. Most often he is content to describe the ups and downs of Poe’s life as “hard” periods, “happy times”, or “very strange” events (Symons, 43). Which all of that can reflect back to Poe’s short stories. He now reveals the disturbing specifics of his crime, determined to defend his safety. His irrational fear of the cat’s “vulture eye,” the violent substance of his admission, and his self-destructive behavior undermines his effectiveness as a sound narrator.

The short stories, “The Black Cat” and “The Tell-Tale Heart” have a lot to do with each other. Both of them are the same kinds of scary twisted story as the twisted justice trademark of Edgar Allen Poe. The first person relates the two stories. This gives the reader some insight into what’s happening in the main character’s heads. It can be very useful if not necessary in stories with very twisted characters like Poe’s. The first person view has the reader interested in every moment of the life of the characters from an entertainment perspective. You even sometimes find yourself talking to the characters as a reader reading the story in the first person.

The opening for both is a main feature at the beginning of each of the stores. Both start with the main character offering up to date an overview of their lives. It offers the reader a brief description of where and what the story is about. Twisted is the conclusion of each of the stories. We both make the reader think they’re wondering, “What the heck just happened here.” Poe will surprise his two stories at the end. Between “The Black Cat” and “The Tell-Tale Heart”, both characters implicate themselves. To the fact they seek to teach the readers a lesson about our own consciousness, is Poe using this? Fear is the most effective of all of Poe’s techniques. Poe appears to be a master at it. He may write a whole novel, all based on fear. Fear is what makes the poetry of Poe memorable and classic.

With his extreme writing circumstances, Poe will always be remembered. Poe’s writing style was brand new up to this period. “Known for his black attire and self-destructive tendencies, Poe experienced difficulty during his first several attempts to publish his short stories” (Renfro, 5). Since America was still a growing country, there is no question why this major change in literature has led many people to fail to grasp it and therefore not as a genre except it. “With his nods to Gothicism and his macabre and even ‘unsavory’ subject matter, readers were so intrigued that Poe began to build many of his stories in an almost formulaic matter” (Renfro, 5). A formula that allowed him to establish manifestations of aberrant psychological tenderness and explore the problem of the reaction of man to the unknown. Poe’s “The Black Cat” and “The Tell-Tale Heart” brought so much attention to what was considered right and wrong, morals and ethics.

Works Cited

1. Marshall, Megan. “The Tell-Tale Heart: The Life and Works of Edgar Allan Poe.” New Republic, vol. 179, no. 9/10, Aug. 1978, pp. 42–44. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=11102131&site=ehost-live&scope=site.
2. Renfro, Alexis. “Metaphysics of Mania: Edgar Allan Poe ‘ s and Herman Melville’s Rebranding of Madness during the American Asylum Movement.” Metaphysics of Mania: Edgar Allan Poe ‘ s and Herman Melville’s Rebranding of Madness during the American Asylum Movement, 2017, pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3e4c/67c93595d22338bcf53e0f67521c60610f2b.pdf.
3. Stark, Joseph. “Motive and Meaning: The Mystery of the Will in Poe’s ‘The Black Cat.’” Mississippi Quarterly, vol. 57, no. 2, Spring 2004, pp. 255–263. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=14856337&site=ehost-live&scope=site.

Many of Edgar Allan Poe’s works discuss the importance of mental health and the factors that might hinder the mind’s function and well-being. The Boston born writer is notorious for his cultivation of literary pieces that include elements of mystery and macabre. Writer Julian Symons believes that “the qualities that make Poe’s horror stories… unique in their kind are not to be found in plotting, characterization or style”; it is that “Poe is spelling out his personal agonies in fictional terms” (Symons 210). ​Death is a favored topic of Poe’s that he incorporates into many of his stories​. Many of Poe’s short stories are thematically similar even though their plots vary. One of Poe’s most famous accounts, ​The Tell- Tale Heart​, depicts a tortured narrator who is driven to murder while ​The Black Cat ​analyzes the impactful effect profuse resentment can have on one’s actions. Nonetheless, ​Morella ​which examines the concept of metempsychosis consists of comparable matters relating to psychiatry and sanity (Peithman 39). Each narrative includes how one’s morality can be considerably affected by emotions and or even the absence of them. The ruinous and overwhelming influence repression, the subconscious transference of identity, and guilt can have on one’s conscience are demonstrated in Edgar Allan Poe’s ​The Tell-Tale Heart, Morella, and The Black Cat.

The Tell-Tale Heart, Morella,​ and ​The Black Cat ​explore the destructive impact repression can have on one’s psyche and how it then can result in irrational and unjust behavior. In the ​Tell-Tale Heart​, the narrator engages in self-imposed emotional repression because of the 1 illusory subjection he formulates in his own mind. The narrator never reveals what relationship, if any, exists between him and the old man who presumably live together exclusively (Hoffman 25). One of the most distinguishable, and most disturbing according to the narrator, aspects of the man’s appearance is his, what the narrator entitles, the Evil Eye. To the narrator, the eye “resembles that of a vulture- a pure blue eye, with a film over it” (Peithman 135). The Evil Eye vexes the narrator to such an extent that eventually he took “the life of the old man, and thus rid [himself] of the eye for ever” (Peithman 135). Throughout Poe’s literary catalogue, in other instances, a vulture is associated with time which is then affiliated with morality. Moreover, the Evil Eye signifies the severe reproaches of conscience and reminds the narrator of his subjection to time, age, death, and his own unbearable mortality. If he could rid himself of the eye, he would be liberated from its all-seeing scrutiny, ethics, and fatality (Hoffman 26). The narrator does not have a just motive that prompts him to kill the old man. He claimed to love the old man, but as a result of his repression of his fondness, he was overcome by the desire to murder him (Hoffman 25). Poe’s ​Morella​ analyzes sexual repression in addition to emotional. The narrator asserts that he does not experience fondness for his own wife, Morella, and therefore, is inhibiting his sentiments. The narrator was initially and solely attracted to Morella because of “her powers of mind” and her profound erudition (Peithman 40). She, in return, exhibited sincere admiration and devotion to her husband while he disallows himself from returning her passion.

Poe never indicates the gender of the narrator in any of these stories. In purposes of this document, the narrator will be referred to as “he”. He even denies his happiness by affirming it is a delusion and refuses to submit to his affections (Fukuchi 149). Furthermore, the narrator prohibits himself from surrendering to his carnal urges as well which additionally contributes to the complex relationship he shares, strangely enough, with his daughter (Fakuchi 152). Contrary from ​The Tell-Tale Heart​, the narrator’s repression does not result in a violent manner. Nevertheless, the conclusion of the ​The Black Cat ​is parallel to that of ​The Tell-Tale Heart ​even though their subject of repression differs. ​The Black Cat examines how cruel behavior might ensue one’s repression of impulses. Poe presumes that there is a human instinct to “do wrong for wrong’s sake” against sensible yearnings which is proven throughout the piece (Symons 211). Roberta Reeder considers the story “a study [of] self-delusion,… self justification [and the narrator’s] desire to abrogate responsibility for his actions” (Reeder). Reeder mentions that Jungian psychology would deem the actions committed by the narrator a matter of repression (Reeder). Carl Jung, who had taken an early interest in the unconscious, eventually developed his own interpretation of psychoanalytic theory (McLeod). In accordance with Jung’s conjecture, if the narrator in ​The Black Cat​ integrated rationality into his instinctual psychic energy rather than suppressing his urges, his actions would not have been uncontrollably destructive. As Pluto, the narrator’s feline companion, merely innocent and affectionate manner becomes intolerable to the narrator, the narrator struggles to express his irritation. Ultimately, however, as his instinctual urges resurface, the more he desperately tries to suppress them which then results in severe acts of violence (Reeder). All of these Poe stories, despite varying in plot, illustrate the damaging effect repression can have on one’s conscience and produce a culmination of immorality.

The subconscious transference of identity throughout ​The Tell-Heart, Morella, ​and ​The Black Cat ​establish how significant of an impact the mind can have on perspective. In Poe’s Tell-Tale Heart​, the narrator perceives the Evil Eye as a father or even god-like figure. From the narrator’s viewpoint, the eye is considered pansophical which immensely disturbs the narrator. Correspondingly, Hoffman supposes that the origin of a child’s conscience is the result of the ingraining of ethical paternal principles into the soul. He continues to claim that a child most likely fears a father when she or he suspects the father has discovered her or him engaging in self pleasure (Hoffman 26). In response to the narrator’s distress of being viewed, he decides to murder the old man, more specifically, the Evil Eye. He longs that the old man suffers to a comparable amount, therefore, he formulates a disturbing procedure that would ultimately result in his demise. Hoffman infers that the narrator consciously chose to suffocate the old man because one’s ability to breathe is equivalent to one’s sexual impotence. Moreover, in striking the old man, the narrator is expunging the possible observation of his own sexual misdemeanors from the Evil Eye (Hoffman 28). While the subconscious transference of identity in ​The Tell-Tale Heart ​prompts homicidal deeds, the narrator’s actions in ​Morella ​culminate in a contrasting manner of disturbing behavior. The concept of metempsychosis, the passage of the soul from one body to another, is prominent in ​Morella​ (Peithman 39). When Morella suddenlybecomes ill of an uninformed disease, she decides to reveal to her husband that she is bearing a child. As a consequence of Morella’s lack of attention from her husband, she predicts as she is giving birth to their daughter that he will love the baby out of regret for not showing affection towards her. Morella ultimately dies while she is in labor and the narrator becomes the sole caregiver of the unnamed infant (Fukuchi 152). As his relationship with his daughter deepends, he claims to have “loved her with a love more fervent than [he] had believed it possible to feel for any denizen of earth” (​ABC​). The narrator quickly becomes entranced and sincerely considers his fondness and attachment he has towards his daughter to be genuine when in actuality it is completely artificial. Comparatively, both of the narrators in ​Morella​ and ​The Black Cat ​transfer the identities of their wives onto other beings.

Particular, the narrator in ​The Black Cat​ begins to perceive that his wife has supernaturally assumed the role of their beloved feline, Pluto. Critic Daniel Hoffman claims with further evidence, it leads him “to suggest that in the synoptic and evasive glossary of the tale [that the wife is a witch]. Ergo, [the black cat is the wife]” (“​Analysis – “The Black Cat (1843)​”). . Hoffman goes on to emphasize that the narrator’s impressions of Pluto are apparent, but his attitude towards his wife is not and if so, is barely mentioned. Correspondingly, the narrator is confronted with intemperance which furthers his inability to express his emotions in a sound manner. He shortly becomes an alcoholic and begins to demonstrate abusive behavior towards his wife and Pluto. Out of fear, the narrator’s actions become more irrational and extreme. Despite being sober, he still does not experience remorse for his misconducts because of his sincere belief that his wife and Pluto are supernatural beings. In reference to his instinctual repression, his acts of violence increase in severity. In due course, the narrator hangs Pluto as well as murder his wife without a trace of regret (“​Analysis – “The Black Cat (1843)​”). With one motion, he successfully removed “from his life both the real and surrogate source of his terror” (​ABC​). As a result of the narrator’s persistent assurance that both his wife and Pluto are witches, he behaves illogically and savagely. Throughout these Edgar Allan Poe literary compositions, the narrators’ subconscious transference of identities does not only immensely damage their conscience, but can generate violent and wrongful behavior.

Edgar Allan Poe exhibits how profusely detrimental of an effect guilt can have on one’s conscience throughout ​The Tell-Tale Heart, Morella​, and ​The Black Cat​. Due to only the narrator’s viewpoint being depicted in ​The Tell-Tale Heart​, it is unspecified if others are aware of the old man’s eye. Regarding the narrator’s subconscious transference of identity, the Evil Eye’s existence can be considered a figure of the narrator’s imagination that he attributes with his guilt. The night of the murder, the old man awakened and uttered a slight murmur that was not of pain or grief, but was a “low stifled sound that [arose] from the bottom of the soul when overcharged with awe… [the narrator] knew it well” (​ABC​). As a result of the familiar emotion he experienced himself, he becomes eager to complete the slaughter of the Evil Eye that generates such a substantial amount of anguish. As he approaches the old man, he apprehends “a low, dull, quick sound, such as a watch makes when enveloped in cotton” (​ABC​). In reference to the narrator’s subjection to time, the representation of it through the man’s chest pulsations as well as the Evil Eye’s resemblance to a vulture reminds the narrator that the man’s homicide will reprieve him of the concept. Once he executes the murder, he slices the corpse and deposits the fragments underneath the floorboards. Neighbors who perceive the noise that occurs during the act, retrieve the police who then go to the narrator’s residence. The narrator then explains that the clamor was his own which transpired in a dream. He invites the police inside while affirming the old man is away. As the narrator and the officers converse, the narrator’s mind begins to ache and his ears are pervaded with a continuous buzzing (Hoffman 28). The narrator presumes he is listening to the palpitating of the old man’s heart when in actuality it is his own that is hammering. He is never truly released from the Evil Eye’s influence as long as he is alive because of the lasting guilt the narrator experiences (Hoffman 29). Similarly in ​Morella​, the narrator is confronted by an identical emotion of self-reproach.

After rejecting his wife’s affection out of fear, he later projects his absence of fondness he had for his spouse onto their daughter out of guilt. The narrator’s sentiments for the unnamed child is deceptive and synthetic even though he suspects that his emotions were sincere. As the child develops her resemblance to Morella increases and therefore begins to detect similar traces of anxiety that he suffered through when his wife was still alive (Fukuchi 152). He suddenly discovers that their alikeness is “food for consuming thought and horror- for a worm that would not die” (​ABC​). The narrator originally allows himself to express his fondness towards his daughter, but as she aged into an attractive woman that mirrored her mother, carnal urges began to ensue (Fukuchi 152). He seeks “deliverance from the terrors of his destiny” and from the guilty sorrow his wife predicted and perhaps his own inhospitable rationality (​ABC​). Moreover, compelled by his wife’s underlying presence, he raises the daughter as a replacement of Morella. Consequently, because of the narrator’s transference of identity, he destroys the identity of the living by projecting onto his daughter the identity of the deceased (Fukuchi 154). Comparatively, Poe’s ​The Tell-Tale Heart similarly to ​Morella ​discusses the disastrous effect the mind can have and contort one’s sense of reality. Through the narrator’s repression of his impulses in ​The Black Cat, ​he engages in violent acts such as hanging Pluto because he was so irritated by the innocent feline’s adoring behavior.

The narrator then encounters another black cat who is an exact duplicate of the departed Pluto. He then notices on the cat’s breast, a figurement of the gallows (Symons 211). Author Julian Symons avows that Pluto’s doppelganger is indirectly responsible for the homicide of the narrator’s wife. In accordance with ​The Tell-Tale Heart​, only the narrator’s perspective is depicted in ​The Black Cat ​as well, therefore, it is uncertain if the wife envisions the new Pluto in a similar manner. Due to the presence and appearance of Pluto’s impersonator, the narrator’s loathing for the feline and his wife increases until ultimately he tortures both. Throughout ​The Tell-Tale Heart, Morella, ​and ​The Black Cat​, Poe demonstrates the pernicious impact guilt can have on one’s mind through the disturbing actions of the narrators.

Edgar Allan Poe’s ​The Tell-Tale Heart, Morella​, and ​The Black Cat ​illustrate how damaging repression, the subconscious transference of identity, and guilt can be to one’s conscience. Many of Poe’s literary pieces discuss the importance of mental stability and sanity. Even though the plots of these stories vary, each demonstrate the destructive nature one can have on one’s own mind. Poe’s ​The Tell-Tale Heart ​analyzes how the suppression of one’s emotions can result in violent behavior and considerable amounts of guilt that will burder one’s soul. In Morella​, the narrator’s artificial affection he exhibits towards his daughter is a consequence of his restrained sentiments he refused to express to his departed wife. Due to his latent transference of identity, he sincerely supposed that his fondness was genuine and did not arise out from self-condemnation. Conclusively, the narrator in ​The Black Cat ​who contains his instinctual urges ultimately engages in extreme acts of brutality. Consequently, his guilt prompts him to visualize crude images that remind him of his doings. Poe demonstrates the ruinous effect of when each element combines to produce instability in one’s conscience which then can destroy one’s sense of morality.

Works Cited

1. “Analysis – “The Black Cat” (1843)” Amerlit, www.amerlit.com/sstory/SSTORY%20Poe%20Edgar%20Allan%20The%20Black%20Cat%20(1843)%20analysis%20by%202%20critics.pdf​. Accessed 26 April 2019.
2. Bloom​, Harold, editor. ​Bloom’s Modern Critical Interpretations: “The Tell-Tale Heart” and Other Stories – New Edition.​ Infobase, 2009.
3. Fukuchi, Curtis. “Repression and Guilt in Poe’s “Morella”.” ​Studies in Short Fiction,​ vol. 24, no. 2, Spring 1987, pp. 148-154, http://web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail?vid=3&sid=84468aef-7498-48c8-8a20-5e139fed0eb5%40pdc-v-sessmgr01&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#AN=7133158&db=fth​. Accessed 22 April 2019.
4. Hoffman, Daniel. “Grotesques and Arabesques.” Bloom, pp.9-29. McLeod, Saul. “Carl Jung.” Simply Psychology, 21 May, 2018, www.simplypsychology.org/carl-jung.html​. Accessed 27 April 2019.
5. Reeder, Roberta. “‘The Black Cat’ as a Study in Repression.” ​Poe Studies​, Vol. VII, no. 1, June 1974, pp. 20-22, ​www.eapoe.org/pstudies/ps1970/p1974104.htm​. Accessed 27 April 2019.
6. Stephen Peithman, editor. ​The Annotated Tales of Edgar Allan Poe. Avenel Books, 1986.
7. Symons, Julian. ​The Tell-Tale Heart: The Life and Works of Edgar Allan Poe.​ Harper & Row, New York, NY, 1978.
8. http://www.amerlit.com/sstory/SSTORY%20Poe,%20Edgar%20Allan%20The%20Black%20Cat%20(1843)%20analysis%20by%202%20critics.pdf
9. http://www.amerlit.com/sstory/SSTORY%20Poe,%20Edgar%20Allan%20The%20Black%20Cat%20(1843)%20analysis%20by%202%20critics.pdf
10. http://web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail?vid=3&sid=84468aef-7498-48c8-8a20-5e139fed0eb5%40pdc-v-sessmgr01&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#AN=7133158&db=fth
11. http://web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail?vid=3&sid=84468aef-7498-48c8-8a20-5e139fed0eb5%40pdc-v-sessmgr01&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#AN=7133158&db=fth
12. http://web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail?vid=3&sid=84468aef-7498-48c8-8a20-5e139fed0eb5%40pdc-v-sessmgr01&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#AN=7133158&db=fth
13. https://www.simplypsychology.org/carl-jung.html
14. https://www.eapoe.org/pstudies/ps1970/p1974104.htm