Identity defines or distinguishes each and every individual. In contemporary society, people often strive to create an identity that separates them from others. Race, on the other hand, is a word that characterizes humans not only by their physical aspects but also through socially constructed terms (e.g. Scots-Irish), shared beliefs (e.g. Muslim Americans), political ideologies (e.g. republicans versus democrats) and so forth. Racial identities in many occasions have led to intractable conflicts, which have shaped the course of history.
In the19th century, the Southern United States was dominated by the Scots-Irish. The Scots-Irish were customarily pastoralists and originated from the most ferocious territories in Europe. In addition, they practiced cultures of honor, which relied profoundly on hostility, high respect for manhood, and stock theft. Gun violence was viewed as a means of building a reputation and preventing stock theft. In addition, the culture of honor helped the Scots-Irish in combating the external enemy and protecting their property. This brings us to the question of whether the culture of honor played a significant role in their survival during the Texas Revolution. We will find out in the next chapter.
The Texas Revolution in 1836
In 1836, a war broke out between the centralists and federalists in Mexico. The main people who took part in this war were Anglo-Americans, Mexican-Texans (also known as Tejanos), Scots-Irish, and Mexicans. The war started when the 5000-strong Mexican army marched in and attacked Alamo from all corners using canons and handguns. The locals tried to fight back but they were overwhelmed. The military base in Texas was destroyed and almost 450 prisoners of war were executed. Many of them were Scots-Irish.
The Scots-Irish joined the war following the wanton destruction of their properties and loss of lives. To be precise, they were the greatest casualties of the war. Their properties were destroyed, their cattle were driven away, and their families were displaced. It is not clear how many of them died during the war. As a result, they joined the military and fought the enemy ferociously. It is alleged that nearly one-third of the army was made up of Scots-Irish.
The aim was to recover their lost land and properties. In April 1836, they took part in the battle of San Jacinto. The San Jacinto ambush was brilliantly and speedily executed. The ambush claimed more than 650 Mexican lives and wounded thousands of them, which led to a victory. The majority died of gun wounds. It was until 1837 when they decided to rebuild their communities. Even though they continued to suffer from numerous attacks, they fought tooth and nail to protect their families and properties. The new government of Texas rewarded their loyalty with more parcels of land.
From the war, it is very clear that Scots-Irish never gave up even after they were defeated in Alamo. This is largely attributed to their culture of honor, which places a high value on individual status and protection of property. In spite of the defeat, they continued to engage in the battle so as to reclaim their land and property. Numerous studies have described Scots-Irish as unchallengeable due to their culture of honor. However, during the Texas Revolution, they were the main casualty. They lost many lives, properties, and animals. However, it is clear that the Scots-Irish will do anything to restore their honor and protect their families and properties.
Conclusion
The Texas Revolution in 1836 is a clear indication that Scots-Irish is ready to defend their lives and properties at whatever cost. Regardless of defeat in the early stages of the war, they never gave up. They fought very hard to reclaim their land and other properties. Their culture of honor played a huge part in their survival. In the end, they were rewarded with large parcels of land for their loyalty.
Bibliography
Campbell, Randolph. Gone to Texas: A History of the Lone Star State. New York: Oxford UP, 2003.
Davis, William. Lone Star Rising: The Revolutionary Birth of the Texas Republic. New York: Free Press, 2004.
Kriesber, Louis. Identity Issues: US verse Them. Boulder CO: University of Colorado, 2003.
Maiese, Michelle. Disputes and Conflicts. Boulder CO: University of Colorado, 2003.
O’Donnell, Ian. “Lethal Violence in Ireland, 1841 to 2003.” British Journal of Criminology 45, no. 2 (2005): 671-695.
Woodward, Kath. Questioning Identity: Gender, Class, and Ethnicity. London: Routledge, 2004.
Discrimination based on ethnicity and race is present in various forms in societal and communal life, not excluding jurisdiction. In this aspect, despite constituting a large portion of the United States population, Mexican Americans were viewed as citizens of secondary importance throughout history, specifically by jurisdiction. Hernandez v. Texas was one of the historical cases that somewhat altered this distorted perception. The location of the case is also significant for its in‑depth understanding. Texas does not appear to be an arbitrary place for this incident since, even compared to other southern states, its societal system may seem to be unyielding to change. The law case helped to unveil biases that hindered the work of the judicial system and highlighted which parts were the most in need of revision. Therefore, Hernandez v. Texas laid the foundation for further expansion of civil rights concerning discrimination against ethnic minorities in the jurisdiction and Mexican Americans in particular.
The Background of the Case
The case under consideration may be seen as a consequence of continuous exclusion and skewed tendencies in societal structures. In 1951, when Pedro Hernandez, a farmer, killed one of his workers, the tendency became more evident; since Hernandez’s guilt appeared indisputable the predominantly Caucasian jury of Edna, Texas, where the law case proceeded, became its crux (Jillson, 2019). The whiteness of the jury contradicted the premise of “equal protection of the laws” and constituted to a degree Hernandez’s new defense (Jillson, 2019, p. 78). The lawyers of the defendant expressed their worries that Mexican Americans were a different class in the eyes of jurisdiction – the status of this particular demographic group depended directly on the court’s decision (Jillson, 2019). It is stated that many Mexican Americans were apprehensive that the Supreme Court might have applied to them the same position as it did with the African-American population and proclaimed them “separate but equal” (Jillson, 2019, p. 78). In this way, the Mexican Americans recognized the significance of the case when it was in process and awaited the court’s decision.
The Analysis of the Court’s Decision
The Hernandez’s right to be judged by the representatives of the same ethnicity was established by the Supreme Court’s decision and accentuated the changes that started to occur in the domain of social equality at the time. According to the Fourteenth Amendment guaranteeing Hernandez equal protection, he had a right to be judged by a more diverse jury. In 1954, the Supreme Court decided that Pedro Hernandez had to undergo a new trial conducted by a jury that included Mexican American jurors (Jillson, 2019). The law case’s principal outcome was not the imprisonment of Hernandez as he was guilty of murder but the willingness of the Supreme Court to revise the juridical process involved and adjust it to the ethnic background of the accused. This decision proved to be essential for elevating Mexican American citizenship in Texas in particular, where risks associated with being of Hispanic origin seemed somewhat higher. By warranting Hernandez a more diverse jury, the Supreme Court acknowledged the rights’ of Mexican Americans and increased their status in the face of jurisdiction.
The Fourteenth Amendment’s role was decisive for the case, namely its equal protection clause – the clause was designed to equalize the juridical treatment in every state, securing an individual with a right for a just trial. The combination of the equal protection clause and the due process clause justified the need for incorporating a specific ethnicity into the process to avoid potential racial bias from the side of predominantly Caucasian jurors (Morin, 2016). Zuckert (2019) states apropos of the role of the amendment that “the positive task of government in securing rights can be stated in terms of the duty of governments to supply “protection of the laws” (p. 4). The inclusion of Mexican American jurors into Hernandez’s trial that was guaranteed by the Supreme Court completed the governmental task outlined in the citation. Additionally, the outcome of the case may be linked to the civil rights movement that deployed in parallel to the events surrounding Hernandez’s future.
The Impact of the Case on Mexican American Rights’ Movement
The defense of the Mexican Americans’ rights accelerated to a degree as an outcome of the case. The Civil Rights Movement that was happening approximately at the same time as Hernandez v. Texas may have played an essential role in its conclusion, changing the political and social atmosphere of the historical period. It is acclaimed regarding the case that “it addressed the invisibility of Latinos/as at a national level, particularly to the systematic deprivation of Latina/o rights” (Morin, 2016, p. 303). The case can be viewed as one of the first attempts to approach the issue of the exclusion of Mexican Americans from specific societal structures, the juridical one particularly. Even though Mexican American citizens were classified as white, unofficial segregation still existed in education, for instance (Santiago, 2016). Since the Mexican American Civil Rights Movement appears to be an under-researched issue, the law case’s importance is elevated further as it constitutes a piece of primary evidence for the movement.
The discrimination against Mexican Americans and the unrest experienced by this part of the population in Texas was, to a degree, mitigated by the outcomes of the case. With the progression of the movement, the need for trials concerning ethnical minorities based on the principles grounded in the due process clause grew accordingly. The case under consideration may have set in motion the inclusion of ethnically diverse professionals in the jurisdiction domain to ensure that the outcomes of a trial are not affected by racial biases. The Chicano movement initiated nearly five years after Hernandez’s trial in the Southern states can also be viewed as indirectly affected by the case (Morin, 2016). Political demonstrations organized by the movement aimed to defend the rights of Mexican American citizens and overcome the unofficial segregation, aided by the cases’ aftermath.
Conclusions
Despite the objective of protecting rights, the field of jurisdiction is not devoid of racial biases. The Mexican American population has a long history of being discriminated against, and a courtroom for many may represent a place where absolute justice should prevail. Hernandez v. Texas demonstrated that instances of discrimination could be controlled and established further the importance of ethnical representation for ensuring the fairness of a trial and excluding the possibility of bias against an accused. The case indicated that all ethnic minorities should be under the Fourteenth Amendment’s protection, extending the limits of its application. In conclusion, Hernandez v. Texas initially denied the right for equal protection granted by the Fourteenth Amendment on the basis of the defendant’s race, serving as a landmark in the history of jurisdiction.
References
Jillson, C. (2019). Texas politics: Governing the Lone Star State. Routledge.
Morin, J. L. (2016). Latinos and criminal justice: An encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO.
Santiago, M. (2016). Erasing differences for the sake of inclusion: How Mexican/Mexican American students construct historical narratives. Theory & Research in Social Education, 45(1), 43–74.
Zuckert, M. (2019). On the Fourteenth Amendment: A textual analysis. Perspectives on Political Science, 1–7.
The fifteenth chapter of Richardson et al.’s Texas: The lone star state focuses on the events of the early 1900s as Texas transitioned into a new century as a diverse and modern state after the tragedies and unrest of the Civil War and the Reconstruction. Approximately 80% of the population still lived in rural areas, and work patterns often changed little from pioneer days. Even larger cities experienced lax lifestyles that were not as demanding. However, urban Texas was gradually growing, due to the advent of new technologies such as electricity and light industries as well as telephones. Railroads, first automobiles, and electric streetcars made transportation easier. Urbanization occurred largely due to industrialization as industries sprung up and expanded near the urban areas. One of these industries, oil, made Texas a completely different economy and state almost overnight. Although oil production was ongoing in the 1890’s, the discover of oil on Jan. 10, 1901 on Spindletop Hill demonstrated the immense amounts of oil that the Texas land held, and brought on a new age of wealth and industrialization (Richardson et al., 2010).
At the same time, the 20th century saw various social changes as well. Public leisure activities became more common, particularly an attraction in urban areas. Public healthcare became greatly established with building of hospitals and professionalization of nurses. Education, riding on the progressive boost of the late-19th century saw increased interest and investment. There was some progressive changes for certain populations such as women gradually attained more rights and generally enjoyed more freedoms than in other states. Meanwhile, Texas was becoming very diverse with greater participation of African Americans in the labor force (as well as politics and education) and the incoming immigrants from Europe and Mexico who were attracted by the freedoms and prosperity of Texas. Culturally, Texas which was not commonly seen as a leader in the arts, saw a rise in both academic literature as well as fictional literature and creative arts being produced in the Lone Star state, establishing it as truly a diverse, strong state of the Union. The three main ideas of this chapter are transition into the new century, technological adoption and oil boom, lifestyle and cultural shifts.
References
Richardson, R. N., Anderson, A., Wintz, C. D., & Wallace, E. (2010). Texas: The lone star state (10th ed). Routledge.
The thirteenth chapter of Richardson et al.’s Texas: The lone star state deals with ongoing events on the Western Frontier after the Civil War. The early years saw significant pushback from Indian tribes against the settlers, and despite the military setting up a chain of forts for defenses, it was inadequate protection at first. Meanwhile the federal policy for years was aimed at negotiating peace and treaties, despite evident failures. The raids and massacres grew continuously worse including the Salt Creek Massacre of 1871, which resulted in massive mobilization and retaliation by the U.S. military. The Indian tribes were quickly defeated and accepted peace, but from then on, it was a universal drive to push Indians further back from Texan territory. This took a 3-part approach, each differing in effectiveness – 1) the military, 2) the rangers, and 3) buffalo hunters. Military was for massive resistance and attacks, rangers made raids extremely dangerous for the Indians, while buffalo hunters massively eliminated the living creatures that were both sacred to the tribes as well as their primary methods of survival. These conflicts were both necessary but extremely violent and devastating as the Indian civilization was being eliminated.
With the Indians being driven out, it provided an opportunity for Texans to settle in the region. Their economic growth and resources stemmed from farming as well as the rapidly growing industry of cattle. Representing a symbolic period in Texan history, the ‘Cattle Kingdom’ was formed in the West and South of Texas. Ranching was established, and along with its development transportation systems to the region expanded as well as efforts to establish reliable water supply. Cattle drives became prevalent, driving the massive cattle to the Northern markets. Ranging established its own unique subculture in Texas with cowboys and other aspects but was a critical contributor to the growth and prosperity of the state in this post-war period (Richardson et al., 2010). The three main ideas of this chapter are conflict with the Indians, the systematic eradication of Native American tribes, and the cattle-focused economy of West Texas.
References
Richardson, R. N., Anderson, A., Wintz, C. D., & Wallace, E. (2010). Texas: The lone star state (10th ed). Routledge.
The twelfth chapter of Richardson et al.’s Texas: The lone star state deals with the political, economic, and social realities of the aftermath of the Civil War in Texas. There was significant political upheaval as the Democrats took power in the legislation in 1872, the governorship in 1873, and ratified a new Constitution after a state convention in 1876. Eventually, the judiciary was also overturned as legislative maneuvering allowed for judges to be replaced and a new state Supreme Court to be formed, with Democrats filling vacancies. Overall, it began a period of almost a quarter of a century of conservative Democratic rule, supported by the majority white, farmer population. Meanwhile, the Republicans were in the significant minority due to both their loss of identity as a party and association with African Americans as a prevalent supporting population for the party across the country.
In the midst of the democratic leadership, Texas was undergoing various socioeconomic changes. In the context of the political and constitutional conventions, several issues were especially relevant to Texans at the time. This included economic growth, crime and public indebtedness, agricultural depression, railroad expansion and industrialization, use and sale of public lands, and financing of public education. The Democrats believed that economic entrenchment was better than aggressive reform, and this led to significant agrarian discontent. Some other policies such as attempting to sell public lands were largely a failure, unable to generate revenue to decrease public debt. However, with a frugal and effective approach, changes were made that improved that economic status, law and order, and public services financing across the state.
In the years of democratic leadership, there were significant changes to the state economy. First, the railroad expansion was greatly seen, demonstrating progress since before the Civil War with many new connections being built both in critical junctures as well as in the context of further Westward exploration. The increased presence of railroads allowed for rapid commercialization of farming as train freight rates were at least twice as cheap in comparison to wagon trains, giving Texas farmers access to lucrative markets. At the same time, this allowed for this majorly agrarian state to develop industrialization, including in the context of building materials for construction and expansion, producing goods that farmers bought now that the majority of their product went to market, and to package some of the farm products being shipped across the state and country (Richardson et al., 2010). Overall, despite some policy errors, the Democratic governance in the state produced a period of economic growth and stability which impacted the socioeconomic status quo and raised Texas a strong state power again. The three main ideas of this chapter is legislative/political reform, addressing vital social issues, and economic growth.
References
Richardson, R. N., Anderson, A., Wintz, C. D., & Wallace, E. (2010). Texas: The lone star state (10th ed). Routledge.
In 1845, Texas was annexed by the United States to become the 28th state. Having been part of Mexico until 1836, a group of American settlers living in Mexico Texas declared independence calling their new country the Republic of Texas. For nine years, the newly declared Republic of Texas was an independent state (Menchaca 50). The pro and anti-slavery political factions argued over the issue of whether Texas should expand slavery. The U.S politics was fractured, between the inter and intra-part battles, over the annexation, and concerns revolved around whether the country should be a pro-slavery or anti-slavery state. The divisions were later associated with the Civil War in the 1860s. Eventually, Texas was admitted to the United States as a slave state (Minor and Justin 81). The annexation contributed to the Mexican-American War between 1846 and 1848. In part, the conflict began on whether the Rio Grande or Nueces was Mexico’s rue northern border
Historical Debate
There were two main arguments associated with the U.S. annexing Texas. On one side, no Congress wanted to upset the pro vs. the anti-slave balance. Every political leader tried to maintain peace between the northern and the southern states, and an extra free or slave state would begin an uproar (Minor and Justin 87). On the other side, Americans believed the annexation would cause conflict between the U.S. and Mexico. However, the Mexican state had not yet acknowledged Texas as part of it. The annexation was an appealing issue to the British since they did not entertain the notion that the United States would expand westwards (Menchaca 51). The two sides agree that Texas should be annexed as part of the U.S. However, their disagreements were whether the state should be a free or slave state (Menchaca 53). The other disagreement from the people was the impending conflict that would later happen between the U.S. and Mexico.
The evidence used on whether Texas should be an anti or pro-slavery state was based on popular sovereignty. According to popular sovereignty, the people living in the new territories decided to choose whether they wanted free or slave trade (Menchaca 56). The evidence on whether the U.S. annexation would cause war between the U.S. and Mexico was based on two main reasons. The first reason was that Americans were being killed on American land by Mexicans (Minor and Justin 94). The other was associated with the desire to expand westward, hence having California fully.
Conclusion
The reading changed the way I understood the subject since I can now better interpret the meaning associated with the topic. Moreover, I can now better communicate on the issue since I have a different perspective on annexation. The issues presented in the reading are still relevant since they help inform my understanding of how and why the U.S. incorporated the state of Texas. Despite the war that followed the annexation, the U.S. came out victorious with the 1848 Guadalupe Treaty (Minor and Justin 98). When asked to tackle a national or global issue, the reading would help me by factoring in the concerns presented by the involved parties. Subsequently, I would employ my understanding of the pros and cons of the issue to determine which side deserved to have victory. Eventually, I would base my understanding of solving the challenge on the existing protocols between the two sides to help inform what should happen next.
Works Cited
Menchaca, Martha. The Mexican American Experience in Texas: Citizenship, Segregation, and the Struggle for Equality. University of Texas Press. 2022.
Minor, Benjamin B, and Justin H. Smith. Annexation of Texas. Great Neck Publishing, 2017.
Presenting the Idea and Identifying the Qualification of the Personnel
Children that are currently the patients of hospitals often feel difficulties in coping with home assignments because of specific environment and conditions they experience. Similar concerns are connected with children treated in Houston are hospitals who need specific assistance to meet the educational purposes. In this respect, the Cougars for Kids, a volunteer program initiated by Houston University community service seeks to establish an efficient avenue to enable students to realize the significance of making community services contributions and helping pupils meet their educational needs.
Describing the chosen community
Specific focus will be made on children with visual and aural impairments as well as the ones who spent most of their time in hospitals that need especial assistance. Due to the fact that the program will have high standards that are consistent with universal ethical and moral values, students will be thoroughly selected and will be approved by the faculty staff.
Defining the key participants and problems addressed
The program will be carried by UH students, the faculty staff as well as alumni who will provide children with volunteer assistance and will cooperate with existing staff in schools and hospitals to meet the needs of those children. What is more the community is in extreme need with American language specialists as well as specific materials and equipment for educating of children with disabilities. The staff will also assist children in overcoming psychological pressures of existing educational inequalities.
Background
The Community Background
The community under consideration will mainly consist of children staying in hospital of Houston. These are Texas Children’s Hospital, Methodist Children’s Hospital, Shiner’s Hospital, Memorial Herman Children’s Hospital, and HealthBridge Children Hospital. Hence, Texas Children’s Hospital mostly addresses the problems of child’s mortality and provides education and treatment for about 80,000 children worldwide (Texas Children’s Hospital, 2011, n. p.). Methodist Children’s Hospital provides care 24-hours a day and seeks to meet the needs of children of all ages (Methodists Children’s Hospital, n. d.). All this health care establishments are always in need of support and financial assistance to provide more care and understanding on the part of the community.
Identifying the Benefits of the Partnership between CCPH and the University Sponsored Organization
Due to the fact that Community-Campus Partnerships for Health (CCPH) promotes specific health reforms whose major aspects are considered in a broad sense and encourages University sponsored communities activities aimed at improving health issues, our program perfectly meets its main objectives and purposes (Community-Campus Partnerships for Health, 2011). Furthermore, the proposed program will contribute greatly to the quality of education, specifically among children with disabilities and improve the overall welfare in the community.
Methods and Schedule
Objectives and Materials
The main objectives include:
To meet the needs of children with disabilities and those who spent most of their time in hospitals;
To engage the community, particularly UH students and alumni into developing strong social networks helping children in overcoming educational difficulties;
To create effective conditions and facilities for assisting children in studying;
To find American Sign Language professionals that would train students to help students with ear and sight disorders;
To enhance the network system and involve more volunteers to the program.
The faculty staff has created a number of specific criteria according to which volunteers can be accepted for the program. Before being admitted to the volunteering, they should take specific training course and pass the orientation session where they will be informed about the specific of working.
The Workings of the Organization
The volunteers from Houston Universities will be engaged in helping children with reading, writing, playing games, storytelling, and doing home assignments. In this respect, special literature will be needed to develop specific children skills. More importantly, the program is also orientated on creating a favorable environment for socialization and interaction to enhance children’s communicational skills, which is an inherent condition for children’s effective learning and development. Finally, the organization will also plan to introduce strategies aimed at minimizing psychological pressure that children endure while staying in hospital.
Steps to be Implemented
Due to the fact that the program is oriented on meeting the need of children with disabilities and creating specific conditions for effective communication and interaction, students will, first of all, need to be carefully selected before being accepted to the program. In particular, the faculty staff will conduct a number of interviews to understand students’ competencies and readiness to enter the program. Further, students will need to familiarize with major activities they are going to conduct as well as major purpose they need to achieve (Gargiulo, 2010, p. 44). Disabled children should feel that they acquire knowledge and proper education just as healthy children. Because the program is person-oriented and focuses on meeting individual need of a child, it does not have specific schedules of accomplished because different problem have different deadlines for solving those.
Staffing
With regard to the presented scheme, it should be stressed the UH program Cougars for Kids has a well-organized chart for carrying specific workings of the organization. Each member is responsible for particular operations. Hence, all volunteers should report to student officers who control proper accomplishment of all planned activities. In their turn, they report to faculty sponsors and staff concerning the money spent and the stages fulfilled. There is a certain subordination among the volunteers where UH students and alumni are subjected to faculty members, including teachers, professors, and tutors.
It is also worth saying that the program will be oriented on introducing specific strategies of educating and treating people to the hospital staff. This training program will involve the presentation of the cultural and ethical values that should be pursued by the program. The training program is considered as a compensation itself because it is directed et enhancing the overall cultural and social atmosphere in the facilities concerned.
Budgeting
Funding will be allocated among three major categories: facilities, equipment, and materials. The latter involves all necessary literature, textbooks, and lectures that should be worked out and selected for a step-by-step program accomplishment.
Pie Chart: Budget Allocation
It is impossible to prioritize each of the proposed categories because they are all equality important. In this respect, the budgeting will be nearly evenly distributed. The overall value of the project is evaluated in about $ 100.000 to start up the process and involve people. Further funding is also inevitable because more and more hospitals will be involved. Other categories are not involved because it is planed to be a volunteer program based on students’ awareness and responsibility. Separate funding should be oriented on campaigns engaging more and more people to participate in the proposed activities.
Expected Results and Feasibility
The program seeks to improve the existing conditions in hospitals and introduce modernized equipment for children with disabilities. In particular, specific facilities, literature, and proper assistant will help kids feel more comfortable and save. Moreover, their educational level will be equal to that obtained in schools.
In this regard, the program will create great partnership between the University of Houston and CCPH by means of enhancing the quality of education and health care.
Conclusion
The program called Cougars for Kids provides a number of solutions to the problems existing in Texas hospitals. In particular, the program seeks to establish a favorable psychological environment for children who have unequal access to education. The established program procedures and the identified training staff provided by the faculty staff will greatly contribute to the improvement of the present conditions.
Reference List
Community-Campus Partnership for Health. (2011). Transforming Communities and Higher Education. Web.
Cougars for Kids. (n. d.) University of Houston Technology. Web.
Gargiulo, R. M. (2010). Special Education in Contemporary Society: An Introduction to Exceptionality. US: SAGE.
Methodists Children’s Hospital (n. d.).Hospital Highlights: Methodists Children’s Hospital of South Texas. Fast Facts. Web.
Texas Children’s Hospital (2011). Center for global child health announced by Texas Children Hospital and Baylor College of Medicine. Texas Children’s Hospital. Web.
Differentiated Essentials Curriculum (DECs) has its own unique history. The practice of Nursing in Texas runs with a range of practice scale based on learning and training from the Licensed Vocational Nurse (LVN) to the doctoral trained and Registered Nurse (RN). The latter is attributed to the fact that demand for more nurses has been rising over the past few decades (Ferguson, 2007).
Its premier history can be traced back from 2000 when the Board of Nurse Examiner directed the Advisory committee on Education to evaluate and improve the inventive competence manuscript on 20th January, 2000.
This committee formed a sub committee comprising of six nurses who would represent Diploma, ADN and BSN categories. They brought unique and positive contribution to the entire program (Vallano, 2008). They were chosen to bring such contributions to the committee.
The charged subcommittee met on 9th August, 2000 and begun their tasks as was earlier directed. They evaluated two important documents namely ‘Essentials of Baccalaureate Education’ as well as the ‘Educational Competencies for Graduates of Associate Degree Nursing Programs’.
Their findings were that the fourteen competencies in the original document were in the same line with these two documents. They also realized that nursing schools had already used the fourteen core competencies in various ways in a period of more than seven years. Besides, the schools had revised their course objectives and statements. In 2002, this revised document was approved and updated.
The purpose of DECs project was to offer new directions to nursing training programs for curriculum progress. This purpose played an important role in preparing graduates effectively in order to offer good, proficient and concerned care. The project was set to accomplish its purpose because nursing is widely known as a patient- oriented career (Sacks, 2003).
Besides, the project was slated to run from 2000 to 2010 when the executive gave their updated report. In addition, the personnel competencies involved in this Nursing Workshop included Member of the Profession, Provider of Patient-Centered Care, Patient Safety Advocate and Member of the Health Care Team. These premises provide good management in individual’s efforts (Rigolosi, 2005).
The project is currently organized in such a way that there is clear cut difference of what goes on there. It has evaluated all the nursing programs for efficiency. Its current status is working as a bridge and has helped many nurses to realize that nursing is more of a service industry (Turner, 2007).
Its management system is undoubtedly good since it has moved from strategic planning to the level of implementations and proper supervision of its organizational details. The project will be implemented by following the set down procedures and practice in all levels.
It is not enough to put in place strategic planning without a comprehensive implementation phase. Good management usually practices constant and complete responsibility to implement its plans and objectives (Zimmermann, 2002).
On a final note, it is also profound to note that this project has personally and positively impacted me as a future nursing educator in Texas.
References
Ferguson, J.G. (2007). What Can I Do Now? Nursing. New York: InfoBase Publishing.
Rigolosi, E. (2005). Management and Leadership in Nursing. New York: Springer Publishing Company, Inc.
Sacks, T. (2003). Careers in Nursing. New York: The McGraw-Hills Companies Inc.
Turner, S. (2007). The Nursing Career Planning Guide. Ontario: Jones and Bartlett Publishers.
Vallano, A. (2008). Your Career in Nursing: Manage Your Future in the Changing World of Healthcare. New York: Kaplan Publishing.
Zimmermann, P. (2002). Nursing Management Secrets. Philadelphia: Hanley & Belfus, Inc.
The nursing fraternity has experienced some changes in its administrative structure that has percolated to nurses’ professional behaviors. Since 2009, the nursing fraternity in Texas has been subjected to restructuring in terms of service provision and enhancing professional conduct, which has resulted in changes to some key bills governing nursing. It should be brought to the attention that all key changes to the bills governing nurses have been noted and the pros and cons from the same evaluated by nurses concerned. Although the amendments done to some bills were done in good faith and for the efficiency of the board and nurses, the changes have been received with mixed views. Some nurses view the changes as a disturbance in the hither to a smooth-running system whereas others view the amendment as timely readjustments needed to pace up with the dynamic nature of the nursing profession. On my part, I would like to voice my support to some key areas of some amendments (Willman, 2011).
I would like to highlight the importance of making amendments to chapter 214, §§214.1 – 214.13 as proposed. As it is known to you, this chapter deals with vocational nursing education, which is an essential aspect for nurses aspiring to advance in their profession. After reading the proposed amendments to the chapter on vocational education, I have realized that the amendments will clear the air on some ambiguities on the same. For instance, code §214.3(a) explains the requirements for the author of an education program in nursing. The amendment indicates that the author should be a registered nurse in Texas for at least one year with a practicing experience of more than five years. That the author should have been in practice in Texas for more than one year means that the program will be tailored to the local needs. The former law had some loopholes that would have permitted strangers in Texas to impart their own system of education based on foreign rules without regard to the local taste. At the same time, nurses graduating from this program will have an upper hand in existing job opportunities in Texas. This is because they will be considered based on the fact that they have experienced the local nursing climate and are suitable as they will fit in immediately (Texas Nursing Board, 2012).
I would also wish to highlight further the importance of the amendment to code §214.3(a). As a nurse, there are problems that ought to be addressed locally. For instance, there is a need for having a localized planner for nurses to use proper time management. Such an item can only be made if the existing program will be tailored by an author with a good grasp on the local nursing climate in Texas and with wide experience in nursing and teaching. As it is evident from the bill, the amendment stipulates that the author should have at least five years of experience as a practicing nurse and one year as a teacher in the same field. This means that the amendment will give provisions for the local needs of nurses. The overall evaluations of the amendments are generally acceptable in my opinion and should be implemented.
Finally, as a nurse who is in the system, I wholly agree with the proposal.
Neural tube defects (NTD) are the commonest birth defects accounting for one in every 1000 birth defects in the USA. A neural tube defect is defined as an opening that develops early in life in the brain of the fetus (Golalipour, Mobasheri, Vakili & Keshtkar, 2007, para. 1). The condition develops between the 25th and 28th day after conception. There are two types of neural tube defects with the most common being the open NTDs which occur when a defect in the backbone and the skull exposes the spinal cord, particularly during birth. Spina finida, anencephaly and encephalocele are the most common types of open NTDs in the United States of America. A constellation of factors is responsible for causing neural tube defects: environmental, genetic and dietary factors. About 60% of NTDs can be prevented through supplementation of women’s diet with 0.4 mg of folic acid and water-soluble B vitamins (Duke Centre for Human Genetics).
According to Suarez et al (2000, p.1017), high prevalence rates of neural tube defects have been witnessed in the Mexican populations and subsequently in the areas along the Mexico USA border. The prevalence rates of NTDs in pregnancies during the period between 1993 and 1995 were found to be 6.4, 7.1, and 1.1 for anencephaly, spina bifida and encephalocele respectively (Hendricks, Simpson &Larsen, 1999, p.1120). The Chinese province of Shanxi has recorded the highest incidence of neural tube defects and NTD birth prevalence rate in the world. This has been blamed mainly on folic acid deficiency (Liz et al, 2006, p.238).
The prevalence of NTDs in the United States is around 1 in 1000 live births with 3.7 in 10000 for anencephaly, 1.4 in 10000 for encephalocele and 5.5 for 10000 for spina bifida (Smith and Dlugos). The states bordering Mexico have reported higher prevalence and incidences of NTDs compared to other states. This is because most of the inhabitants are of Mexican origin. According to Harris and Shaw (1995, p.163), Mexican Americans have between 50 – 200 % higher than the whites, non-Hispanic, and African Americans. Cameron County in Texas recorded 29 cases per 10000,the highest prevalence for NTD in the USA, in 1995 with the authorities confirming that the endemicity of this condition was due to the high proportion (95%) of the population being of Mexican descent (Suarez et al, 2000, p.1019). Suarez and Hendricks (2002) found that prevalence in Mexican Americans was double compared to the US-born in California, Texas Mexico border and Cameron County particularly in 1990-1995.
This study was done in Texas where epidemiological data was collected from the Texas department of health to analyze it and utilize it as a basis for policy recommendations.
Methods
Data for this study was collected from the Texas Birth Defects Epidemiology and Surveillance Branch of the Department of Health for the period 1999-2005. This branch is mandated to record and publish all data relating to neural tube defects research and surveillance and prevention in all the counties in Texas. The data was broken down in relation to maternal age, maternal race /ethnic group, infant/fetus sex, public health region and country of mother’s residence at delivery. The data were categorized into two geographical groupings; border counties and non-border counties. There are 240 non-border and 14 border counties. The 14 Texas border counties are: Cameron, Hidalgo, Starr, Zappata, Webb, Maverick, Kinney, Val Verde, Terrell, Brewster, Presidio, Jeff Davis, Hudspeth, El Paso The data sources were mainly primary (vital records) and medical records from the department of health services. Data analysis was done through use of descriptive statistics and presented in graphs and tables (Department of state health services Texas, 2009).
Results
The study delved in compiling and analysis of data on neural tube defects which was confirmed and published by the authorized agencies. The data had to be inclusive of all counties in Texas. In this case, the study considered and utilized data from 1999-2005. The findings from the health documents in the Texas Birth Defects Epidemiological And Surveillance branch yielded mixed data on the prevalence from 1999-2005 (National Birth Defects Prevention Network, 2009). Prevalence rate of encephalocele in Texas was found to be the lowest with ranges of 0.60 in 2004 and 1.07 in 2000. A decrease of 1.09 in prevalence rate was observed in anencephaly. Year to year decreases was evident with the highest rate at 3.52 (123 cases per 10000) in 1999 to the lowest rate at 2.23 (86 cases) in 1999. Persistently high rates were observed in spina bifida without anencephaly for the whole period with ranges of 3.03 (113 cases) and 4.54 (173 cases).
The distribution of neural tube defects by geographical locations showed variations with slightly higher prevalence rates evident in the non-border counties. The prevalence rate for anencephaly was 3.60 in border counties and 2.51 in the non-border counties. This represented 122 and 567 cases respectively. Encephalocele had a prevalence rate of 1.00 in the border counties and 0.83 in the non-border counties representing 34 and 188 cases per 10000 live births respectively. 150 cases of spina find without anencephaly were recorded in border counties while 807 cases were reported in the non-border counties. These figures stood for prevalence rates of 4.43 and 3.58 respectively.
The prevalence rates for all types of neural tube defects were higher in border counties than non-border counties from 1999 to 2004. Anencephaly had the high prevalence of 6.2 in 1999 in bordering countries compared to 3.1 in the non-bordering counties. The average for the five years was highest in spina find without anencephaly with a rate of 4.4 in the border counties and 3.8 in the non-border counties. Encephalocele had the lowest averages with 0.8 and 1.1 for bordering and non-bordering counties correspondingly.
Female infants were more susceptible to anencephaly and encephalocele than males with prevalence rates of 2.59 and 0.90 compared to 2.21 and 0.90 respectively. However, 488 cases of spina bifida without anencephaly which translated to rate of 3.68 were reported in male infants compared to 455 cases in females in Texas
High prevalence rates were recorded among the Hispanic and white non-Hispanic races across the three types of NTDs. Generally, the Hispanic infants had prevalence rates of 3.20, 1.03 and 4.30 for anencephaly, encephalocele and spina bifida respectively for the period 1999-2005. The black non-Hispanic recorded the lowest rates of 2.06 and 2.72 in anencephaly and spina bifida without anencephaly. The white non-Hispanic has the lowest rate in encephalocele with 0.63 against 1.03 recorded in the Hispanics.
The data on prevalence rates against mothers’ age painted a dull picture on young motherhood with most cases being experienced by infants whose mothers were below 30 years for the whole period. Infants born by mothers aged 20-24 years had the highest prevalence rates of 2.75 while the lowest was in mothers aged 40 years and above for anencephaly. Prevalence rates of 1.10 (41 cases of encephalocele) were reported in infants born by mothers aged less than 20 years while rates of 0.71 were recorded in 30-34 age brackets. 24 cases of spina bifida without anencephaly which translated to rates of 5.07 were reported in infants born by mothers aged 40 years and above.
Discussion
Because Texas department of health had only partial data from 1995-1999, the study considered utilizing data from 1999 to 2005 to ensure consistency and ease in data comparison with respect to the various parameters that were in use. Health data on neural tube deaths for the years 2006 and 2007 had not been authenticated thus was left out of the study (Department of state health services Texas, 2009).
The prevalence rates for encephalocele and spina bifida without anencephaly are almost constant for six years. A marginal drop in the prevalence rates in anencephaly has been observed during this period. This is in tandem with previous researches that had noted that the prevalence rates of anencephaly and spina bifida have continued to decline in Europe, New Zealand, and North America (McDonnell et al, 1999) Overall, this represents a big drop compared to health statistics of 1993- 1995 where 14.9 per 10000 of the infants had developed the condition in the Mexican America border (Hendricks, Simpson & Larsen, 1999, p.1128). The high numbers of Mexican American mothers in Texas are responsible for the perpetuation of the NTDs cases.
Variations in the prevalence rates existed between the border and non-border counties with a much higher rate being recorded in the former. This notion is in agreement with Forester and Merz (2000) who noted that the prevalence of NTDs varies with geographical locations within or without a region. The variation can also be reflected direction wise whereby a decline is observed in the east-west or north-south directions.
The data on the prevalence for the six years shows little discrepancy with the rates changing marginally. This means that factors such as use of folic acid do not protect the infants from the condition as witnessed in other parts of America. This concurs with a study carried out by Suarez et al (2000, p.1018) where they concluded that folic acid supplements have little usefulness in the prevention of NTDs in Mexican Americans. The prevalence may also be due to the ingestion of fumonisin found in corn tortillas. A U-shaped pattern of occurrence, which is symbolic of the accumulation of NTDs to dangerous levels, is capable of causing fetal deaths (Missmer et al, 2006).
The female infants had higher prevalence rates in all types of NTDs. According to McDonnell et al (1999), the sex influences the risk whereby the females have higher tendencies to get anencephaly and spina bifida than male infants. This tendency is linked to additional birth defects and other factors such as geographic location. The variation in the process of development of males and female fetuses in the womb is a likely explanation for the tendency. The Hispanic mothers were more likely to give birth to infants with the NTDs compared to the non-Hispanic mothers. The same trend was observed by Hendricks et al (1999) where they noted that prevalence was highest in Hispanics followed by the non-Hispanic whites and African Americans. This may be due to differences in the genetic susceptibility to neural tube defects, lifestyle or cultural practices. However, insignificant differences have been noted in studies carried out in other parts of America.
Young and old mothers were more likely to give birth to infants who have NTDs. Higher prevalence rates were reported in mothers in age bracket 20-24, below 20 and 40 and above compared to the middle age brackets. This was mainly observed in anencephaly and encephalocele. This is in tandem with Golalipour and colleagues’ (2007) study which noted the same trend among its respondents.
Conclusion
Neural tube defects are known to cause many deaths in infants particularly in the United States. Texas is among the few states which have high prevalence rates for neural tube defects. This is mainly due to the large proportion of the population being Mexican Americans and its location at the border with Mexico. The preponderance is mostly influenced by the sex of the infant, maternal age, maternal race or ethnicity and lifestyle. There is a slight variation in the prevalence rates in Texas with higher rates recorded in the border counties than in the non-border counties. This is mainly due to the composition of the population in the two regions.
The findings in this paper concur with other earlier studies and publications made by the Department of Human and Health Services. It is vital for the relevant state agencies to utilize this paper and earlier publications to come up with policies that will advocate for prevention programs in the state. This is to cover the Hispanic and Mexican Americans who can’t benefit from the utilization of folic acid as prevention program.
There is need to carry out more research on the association between the increased incidences in specific age groups and the exposure to fumonisin. This is in tandem with the recommendations made by the Food Drug Administration that there was a need for an evaluation on this relationship with regard to the potential health risks be carried out (2001). The impact of the association on the development and the outcome of the embryo should also be assessed. Mothers in specific risk groups should be advised to avoid having children early or late in their lives since this is one of the major risk factors. The Mexican and Hispanic populations must be educated on the proper lifestyles such as dietary intakes to lower their vulnerability to the NTDs.
Reference List
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