American Heritage Dictionary define terrorism as: “The unlawful use or threatened use of force or violence by a person or an organized group against people or property with the intention of intimidating or coercing societies or governments, often for ideological or political reasons.” The very word terrorism is capable to fill fear to the mind of common folk. History says that the earliest activities on terrorism were committed by the Siraci Jewish Zealots movement against the Roman occupation of Palestine.
Main body
Before searching for the source of financial and recruitment growth of terrorists since 1980, it will be important to identify the most notorious terrorist groups. They are Al-Qaida and Hezbollah, which acts as threat to the US government. Al-Qaida has the logistical capability to launch an attack on US soil. LTA Wee Wei Sheng points out: “al-Qaeda has effectively harnessed the networked structure in order to remain operational in the post-9/11 security environment.” (Edward).
The leadership of Al-Qaida is in the mountain region between Pakistan and Afghanistan. Whereas, Hezbollah is Lebanon based and Iranian backed group of militants, which was created by Iran in 1980s. Iran spends millions of dollars annually to finance the group’s activities.
Terrorists have so many sources for collecting financial aid and to recruit new members to their group. Financial intermediaries and facilitators infuse terrorist groups with money, material, and support. Martin J. Manning points out that, “The United States and its allies have arrested about 2,290 suspected terrorists and terrorist financiers in 99 countries.” (Manning). Terrorist groups like Al-Qaida and Hezbollah raise their funds from financial networks and mechanisms.
There are wide range of sources for financial support, such as construction companies, shops, tanneries, trade, bakeries, restaurants, and bookstores. Al-Qaida in Afghanistan controls the drug mafia and raise fund from opium plantation and trade.
But Ghassan Abdallah points out that: “presently al-Qaida does not have the logistical capability to launch a spectacular attack on American soil.” (Abdallah). In gulf countries like Iran and Iraq, oil wells provide enormous funding to the terrorist groups. Other sources for terrorist financing are Hawalas and other value transfer systems. Hamas, a terrorist group in Palestine, raise fund through the mosques and through charity associations and foundations. Overseas charity associations which are linked to the main terrorist group also raise fund.
For the recruitment of new members to the group, terrorists use the internet. They exploit this source to recruit supporters and raise funds. Another way is to recruit directly from schools and colleges which are under the control of the religion.
In Afghanistan, there are so many training centers which are under the control of Taliban, a powerful terrorist group. When the children are forced to study the religious principles, it is easy to recruit them to terrorist groups. Attracting adventurous youngsters by providing money and arms is another way for the recruitment. The opinion of O’Connor, T is that, “When teenagers get involved, they can hardly be considered professionals.” (Jamison) nobody will suspect the mastermind. This is so easy among poor, illiterate, and unemployed mass.
The formation of Hezbollah in 1980s under the government of Iran to create problem in Lebanon paved the way for the slow but gradual growth of terrorist groups. Douglas Farah points out that: “Iran is the primary sponsor of Hezbollah.” (Farah) the Iranian government is directly involved in the deal. Tough measures must be adopted to control the growth of these terrorist groups. Designating and blocking of the accounts of terrorists and those who are associated with financing terrorist activities, exposing terrorist financing, supporting diplomatic effort to strengthen other countries, protecting charities from terrorist abuse, blocking trade based terrorist financing and Hawalas can be helpful to control the terrorist groups.
It is evident that, before 1980, there were less suicide attacks and blasts related to terrorism. But when a terrorist group, say Hezbollah was formed by the government of Iran to export terrorism to Lebanon, there happened a rebirth for the global terrorist groups. Earlier no other government supported terrorist groups like this. But later the Iranian government lost the control over Hezbollah and it began to overpower the Iranian government. Before concluding, it is to be stated that creating terrorist groups to control other countries or other terrorist groups will result in super power terrorist groups. The story of Hezbollah and the Iranian government teach this lesson to the world.
Works Cited
Abdallah, Ghassan. Terrorism & The Financial Markets. Financial Sense Editorials. 2007. Web.
Edward, LTA Wee Wei Sheng. Globalization and Transnational Terrorism: Ironies, Interactions and Implications. MINDEF. 2008. Web.
Terrorism has now become the biggest threat all over the world. After 9/11 no one is secured and no one can give surety of anyone’s home, life, and assets. People all over the world, feel insecure while being out of home and no one can grant the security of their belongings. Civilized countries and governments like the USA; Britain can also not be in a position to reduce the increasing crime rate in the world. The crime rate could be scrap by taking some primitive and strong measures at the government level. Strong implementation of policies and steps will help a lot in cracking down the crime. Public Order and Criminal Justice (Scotland) Act 2006 gave primitive measures to control or crackdown crime rate.
Proposed change/measures and results
If the following measures would be taken to combat crime, their results would be fabulous. To achieve perfect results, the criminal agency needs to implement it strongly.
Agency, FBI must support the COPS program and encourage young people to enter so those police departments should not undermanned because of the dearth of young talented qualified personnel.
Support ex-offender to reduce crime and create wale fare -work partnership with them.
Address gun Violence within cities to fight against terrorism.
FBI must create emergency response plans and improve communication between all levels of government to create better evacuation plans to crack down on the crime rate in the U.S.
Improve interoperable communication systems as proper communication helps in reducing the crime rate.
Announce incentive payments for the agency’s actors who have done great jobs in 12 month period. This step will give more strength and passion to combat crime effectively than earlier.
Risom Reform must be implemented immediately.
Should announce youth service program (YSP) to train newcomers.
Negative Aspects of proposed Solutions
These measures will increase competition among offenders.
Actors need to be active 24/7 working hours.
Dr. White an international expert in the field of international terrorism, in his book, sees the definition of terrorism rather differently and when it comes to home land’s security it becomes more confusing. What’s the definition of terror and who will take a lead to define terror, USA or UN. Nowadays, it has been observed that the UN is playing the role of carrot and stick for the USA (Jonathan, 2004).
Resources Needed
To implement new measures support will be needed from every citizen plus agencies to make them result-oriented. These measures will require the support of Police actors, detective or private agencies, and the government criminal justice department. Overall, the crime rate could only be controlled with a strong coalition of a detective agency, criminal justice agencies, police inspectors, and police actors and at the top support of the government criminal justice department.
Crime rate is really increasing a lot in all parts of the world, who is responsible, no one could make clear justifications, but it is destroying our world badly. So, strong and wise measures are needed to be taken at the earliest (Jonathan, 2004).
This new piece of legislation will further support our record number of police officers in tackling and preventing crime and creating safer, stronger communities (Justice Minister Cathy Jamieson).
White, Jonathan R., (2004) Defending the Homeland Domestic Intelligence, Law Enforcement, and Security. Australia: Thomas Wadsworth, 128 pp., ISBN 0534621694.
After the September 11 attacks in the year 2001, President Bush announced that his country would crack down on those involved, and later war was launched against Al-Qaeda and the Taliban leaders identified as terrorists (The Times, 2001). Therefore President Bush chose to approach it with a ‘war on terrorism. However, there have been other efforts aimed at counteracting terrorism by the U.S. Although the administration of Bill Clinton as the president for eight years was criticized for failing to end terrorism, there were proper measures put in place to deal with the vice. These included efforts to pass the Omnibus Counter-Terrorism Act of 1985 and preparation of the Presidential Decision Directives to enable deal with domestic and foreign terrorism (‘President Clinton’s Efforts to End Terrorism’).
The measure by president Bush to fight the terrorist has been challenged, and others like the Green Party think that adherence to UN laws on Human Rights should be observed and that there should be a shift away from the use of militarism and self-interest to attack terrorism (2001).
Terrorism activities today are based on the “kill one, frighten a thousand phenomena,” and although people may feel that Osama Bin Laden and his co-workers have done the worst in the attacks against the United States, others, including the US citizens who participate in abortion also take the face of terrorism (Kevin, n.d.).
Terrorism may take the face of international terrorism, right and left wings, domestic or may be based on special interests. There is an indication that Terrorism is an old venture; for example, Narodnaya Volya is a terrorist group indicated by the authors to have operated from 1878 to 1881 in Russia and insisted on the toppling of the czars. This alone may be an indication of how much deep terrorism is and that stringent effort and measures should be put in place to end the vice. Terrorism can not only be seen to be a problem of the United States but has affected other nations as well. The terrorist may use various types of weapons like nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons to do his job.
According to Turk (1982), innovative policing mechanisms are required to counter-terrorism. Terrorism is a time, for example, the right-wing, came up as a result of paramilitary training sponsored by the Christian Identity Movement, and counterfeiting and bank robbery was the main source of their funding (Smith, 1994). Right-wing terrorism constitutes small groups trying to fight to solve the feeling of victimization. Tuck (1984) has found out that American terrorists of the 1960s and 1970s seemingly came from upper-class and urban areas, and their class structure performed a role of preparing them in making up their manifestos and carrying out campaigns to execute crime against their enemies. Hamm (2005) views that the attacks of the September 11 were a turning point in political violence history.
Efforts by Bush to applying the military approach have achieved some targets in ending terrorism but are not presently a sufficient solution since the terrorist may choose to revenge. The approach has also sparked enmity between the US and countries allied to the Islamic religion. Since terrorism is old and maybe engraved in society, other ways of counteracting it may be necessary, although non-famous, like negotiating with the terrorists. Other ways that the US has put in place involve championing sanctions to be placed against countries perceived to support or indulge in terrorism. The sanctions could, for example, be economical. Generally, punishment for the terrorists and the countries perceived to be involved in the major way utilized in counteracting terrorism. The US has influenced bodies like the UN to impose sanctions on countries perceived to support or engage in terrorism.
References
Clifford E. Simonsen & Jeremy R. Spindlove (2004). Terrorism Today, The Past, The Players, The Future 2nd edition. Cassidy Kevin. A Review. Pearson, Prentice Hall.
Greens. Green Party Statement on Measures to End Terrorism. 2001. Web.
Hamm Mark (2005). Theoretical Criminology. 2008. Web.
President Clinton’s Efforts to End Terrorism. BuzzFlash Perspectives. 2008. Web.
Smith, Brent L. (1994) Terrorism in America: Pipe Bombs and Pipe Dreams. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
The Times, 2001. ‘Bloody Echoes of Pearl Harbour’.
Turk, Austin. (1984). Political Crime. in Robert Meier (ed.). Major Forms of Crime. Beverley Hills, CA: Sage Publications. pp.119-35.
Turk, Austin (1982) Political Criminality: The Defiance and Defense of Authority. Beverley Hills, CA: Sage Publications.
In the near past, there are two principal events that influence the nature of conflicts in the present times. The first being world wars I and II and the next was the rise of Nationalism. The writer of the reviewed article starts by defining ‘terrorism’ by quoting the US Department of Defense definition as ‘the calculated use of unlawful violence to inculcate fear, and usually intended to coerce or to intimidate governments or societies in goals that are either political, religious or ideological.’ If one may ask, how did the world wars and the rise in Spirit of nationalism possibly led to the state of terrorism in the world today? What is the connection stuck between the two? Therefore, this essay looks into depth of these queries.
Causes of terrorism
World wars I and II kindled the passions and hope of Nationalists throughout the world and this destroyed the legitimacy of the international order and the governance systems. Thus nationalism became more passionate at the start of the last century. Nationalism became an influential power in the focus of the group of a variety of royal territories. Later on in the early ages of the last century, many countries became more considerate of the concepts of race and ethnic issues to an extent that political developments that operated at international levels commenced their support for those concepts. This saw the engulfing of minority ethnic groups by others, never to exist anymore! But what could they do? Terrorism was the answer; it was the only way a minority group could let itself known by the larger group whose sympathy was sought. Examples include the Irish and Macedonians in Europe. Irish succeeded while the latter failed. The other factor that fueled the rampant use of terror activities in the quest for ‘independence and recognition’ was the attitude that ‘everybody was doing it- why can’t we?’ The efforts to discourage this attitude from people and communities did not bear fruits but only raised the intensities of the conflicts. More superior weapons were employed to destroy the enemies’ civilian populace (which were often targeted despite being forbidden by rules) and the economy-maintaining ultrastructures thus sending it to a paralyzing fall. Most important forces sustaining the supporters and opposition association using terrorists’ strategy were analyzed as acceptable of their legitimacy.
Throughout the instantaneous postwar phase, terrorism was a premeditated alternative by leaders of pro-independence rebellions. Unbeaten operations for self-governance from royal rule took place all over the globe, and a lot of working terror campaigns as a sustainable approach. When terror campaigns were put into action, it was exercised within the plan of superior activities, and matched with opinionated and military action. Still while terror campaigns dominated, the other sides of pro-autonomy struggles, such as the Palestinian battle against Israel; it was pooled with other activities. It is worth noting that the leaders of the terror groups enjoyed the free gifts of military training and weapons got from the supporting international body.
Conclusion
Modern terrorism started by Palestine’s PFLP hijacked an El Al airliner in 1968 with a specific operational aim on Israel. This action gathered a lot of international concern. In addition, the cooperation of extremist organizations which conducted these operations went a notch higher by crossing borders and becoming international, for instance, the combined function amid the (PFLP) and (JRA) which began in 1974. This review explains the recent developments in the history of terrorism, how it began in the post-world war and its advancements till late 1970s. it has looked into the possible factors that accelerated its spread and practice.
Reference
Terrorism-A review of ‘Terrorism Research.’ 2008. Web.
The wrath of terrorism imposed on today’s civilizations is indeed of a devastating nature in view of the accuracy of attacks resulting from the technologically advanced means available to terrorists. The recent spates of attacks by terrorists are sensational in their use of advanced techniques used in carrying out their attacks. The terrorists can encode their communications in a way that they cannot be traced by the intelligence agencies of the world. Advancements in technology used by terrorists are of such a high order that their communication with each other can be hidden within photographic images as also by using satellite mobile phones that gives them undetectable opportunities to interact in executing their tasks. The basic fact remains that new technologies cannot be restrained from reaching the masses, especially for those who find ways to misuse them in achieving their terrorist objectives (Mohamed Sid-Ahmed, 2001). It is a big question that knowledge cannot be restrained by blocking it or preventing it from spreading to all those who are searching for it. Terrorists are in the possession of means to finance such technologies at any given price and the issue of banning dangerous technologies cannot be considered except in the case of very extreme uses such as nuclear technology, which too is now in a delicate scenario in view of the recent disclosures in some countries of such technology getting into wrong hands. The Iraq war was fought primarily to prevent Iraq from acquiring weapons of mass destruction and to do away with its vulnerability in protecting the technology from getting into the possession of terrorist elements. Sure if such technologies can get into the hands of terrorists there can be havoc in the world because terrorist have no qualms about jeopardizing the life of any number of people to create the much desired fear of terrorist attacks. However the issue of preventing the availability of latest technology getting into the hands of terrorists is difficult to implement since all technologies are for the betterment and development of the human race, and it is unfortunate that terrorists use these techniques to achieve their horrific goals by harming humanity. Prevention and checks are the best means of curbing such acts (Stephen Handelman, 2006).
Different kinds of terrorist activities
While defining terrorism there is need to outline the different kinds of terrorist activities that are present in today’s world. The initial pangs of terrorism were experienced by the world when terrorists used techniques such as hijackings, bombings, diplomatic kidnappings and assassinations in attempts to assert their demand and ultimately such threats made a concrete impact on the world in terms of the permanent existence of these threats on mankind. In this context, politicians and lawmakers began to differentiate the types of terrorism existing in the world and began to find ways to combat such threats.
State terrorism
When governments sponsor terrorist acts it is referred to as state terrorism. There are many countries accused of carrying out state terrorism, like Germany did under Nazi rule. The US has also been accused of state terrorism when it sponsored the Nicaraguan Contras in the 1980s. Another terrorist form is bioterrorism whereby toxic biological agents are released to terrorize and harm citizens of a particular place for terrorist causes. Cyber terrorism refers to the use of information technology to attack civil populations in effort to draw attention to the terrorists cause, and recently this threat has taken alarming proportions. Eco-terrorism is a new term that relates to violence carried out in the interest of environmentalism whereby sabotage is done to inflict economic damages on industries which are seen as damaging the natural environment. Nuclear terrorism is the deadliest form of terrorism that is a potent threat on the world since nuclear materials can be exploited to inflict tremendous loss to life in terrorist attacks. Nuclear facilities can be attacked, nuclear weapons can be purchased, or nuclear weapons can be built as also ways found to disperse radioactive materials (Amy Zalman).
Attempts to prevent attacks
In the face of this new war, the governments of the world face a resourceful and ruthless enemy. Hence all the available knowledge, law and enforcement means are being used to prevail on this threat. In attempts to prevent further 9/11 style of attacks, the US government has set the entire science establishments in motion on a large scale (Pashos Mandravelis, 2005). Biologists, epidemiologists and software engineers have been made to team up to produce techniques that prevent food and air against bioterrorism. Bio forensics specialists and nuclear physicists have teamed up to reduce the possibility of smuggling nuclear techniques and to prevent suicide bombers. A major task in hand is to prevent food, water and air from being targeted in this hi-tech environment, and the agencies are making hectic efforts to combat the challenge. Sensors have been developed that can identify attacks on crops and air conditioning in public places. Miniature toxin detectors have been developed and deployed in several American cities that collect air-borne toxic substances that are sent to labs for testing and ascertaining for their harmful effects. Another measure is the requirement since 2004 for all visitors to the US to have their fingerprints recorded by optical scanners that check such information against a watch list of wanted people and this has yielded good results by way of nabbing anti-social elements with potential terror threats (Anti-Terrorism Technology Key to Homeland Security 2002). Added to this is the development of micron size sensors that can be placed in pipelines to monitor releases of biological chemicals or radio actives to alert authorities of any eventuality. In view of the vulnerability of planes, trains, buses and subways to threats from terrorists, they have been equipped with wireless sensors and fiber optics that are linked to a command post offering security personnel timely warning of such threats. Certainly, detection systems have improved and more advanced versions are in the pipeline to further boost security measures. Advanced video surveillance has been deployed in most public service areas and buildings have now begun to be designed against terrorist attacks by using hi-tech equipment. Additionally, in view of the possibility of cyber attacks being made on the financial networks and telecommunication grids, other means of protecting these facilities have been mooted (Siddharth Srivastava, 2004).
Conclusion
An international terrorist attack is defined in the US as one that is carried out by groups or individuals that are foreign based or sent at the instance of countries from outside the United States and whose actions spread through different boundaries. A typical example of international terrorism was the World Trade Center attack on 11/9. Domestic terrorism is defined as the unlawful use of violence against people or facilities in efforts to force the government and authorities to submit to political or social objectives (Recent Trends in Domestic and International Terrorism 1995). There are several instances of domestic terrorism worldwide and are more in the nature of local inhabitants of that country using such illegal means to further their cause by using coercive tactics into harming the interest of the public by way of damages to facilities as also to human life. However more important in the present scenario is the threat of international terrorism which has now taken a heavy toll and threatens to destabilize countries and cultures.
The following document will look at the definition of terrorism, the forms that it takes as well as the media’s influence on it. There is a relationship that exists between terrorism and mass media. This is because there would not be terrorism without the media. Terrorism was existent even before the media did. An example how terrorism promoted anarchy and there were a lot of assassinations that took place during the wars of the world. There were also killings of very important world figures and there were hundreds of witnesses and this was a strategy to make it known during the time that the government was in control over all media houses and the information that they were allowed to show.
In the recent days, there have been some technological developments that have allowed terrorist attacks to be published and it has been carried out in a way that was thought to be imaginable. Terrorists have been able to find an ally that is very powerful and that is the media and they use them in order to have public attention and have their demands met. According to Adams, James 1987, terrorists usually commit the act of terrorism to achieve three known objectives: for attention; recognition and to achieve respect in a certain degree. Those who make it have the opportunity to make others join in the influence. Terrorists carry out some calculations on the effect that they will have through their actions through the use of the media and this gives them a chance to fit in the circle of political communication.
When they achieve this media is the only source that acts as the channel of communication between the groups that they are targeting and the government that they want to get involved. This is because terrorists isolate themselves from the society and the government so as not to get caught. The image that is gotten from this is that personal and to contact them is impossible and the media is given the chance to take over. This makes the terrorists to get involved in decision making and gets them closer to the democracy of the society.
Introduction
There are some acts of violence that cannot be categorized as terrorism. Terrorism variably referred to as construction that is said to be social and once an action has been labeled it is difficult for the action to be treated in a manner that is of neutral-value. There have been groups that have said that care should be taken when defining terrorism. This is because the people who carry out these acts are terrorists are theoretically impossible; terrorism the act of individual actions. Terrorism is said to undermine the effectiveness of research. According to United Nations they defined terrorism as acts that are criminal and are intended to cause fear to the public and is usually carried out for political, racial, religious, ideological and philosophical reasons.
The common phrase that one mans terrorism is another mans freedom fighter is usually applied in then case of terrorism and is used to apply to the actions that the terrorist implement. This is because the terrorists use their power to implement unfair acts and also oppress others that do not have the power to protect or defend themselves. These people often do not have access to the media and no military force to protect them. The study of any relationship between terrorism and the media would not be complete if the principal peculiarities and the mass medium communication are not mentioned.
Forms of Terrorism
Terrorism takes various forms. The definition of terrorism has become comprehensive because of the separation of terrorism types. One is pure state-sponsored. This includes people sponsoring the implementation of the attacks. Involves buying of tools that are going to be used, bombing buildings and jets as well as any other properties and people. Another form is provocateur. This involves intelligence agencies such as defense intelligence and the FBI looking for a known group of Muslim or other terrorist gang and providing funds to them. This makes these leaders to organize themselves and implement terrorism. The terrorists also use these intelligent agencies in order not to get caught and the fact that these agencies cannot make bombs and build weapons as the terrorists.
Another form is terror that was not supposed to occur or happen and is usually referred to as stillbirth-terror. This occurs when the group uses innocent people to cause terror to the public. The terrorists go for the unfortunate in the society like the homeless and the retarded and provide them with food and drugs and in return they tell them to record a video tape that tells the public to be ware that the terrorist are going to bomb a particular place. This causes terror to the public. Another form is the real terrorism and this is a form of resistance that is in the form of desperation. This is the form of terrorism that does not require skills as it involves suicide bombings and the intelligent agencies are not usually aware of it.
Other types of terrorism involve ecoterrorism and narcoterrorism. They emerge over time. Ecoterrorism is said to have taken a place that is prominent in the media. This is because it involves fire bombings and arson. The forms of violence that are carried out such as sabotage, threats against people and property are said to be committed in the name of environmentalism. The ecoterrists targets vary from one place to another from private companies to automobile companies to hospitals and many other places.
The history of ecoterrorism began in the 1960s when the advocates in England that belonged to a group of animal rights and they formed an association that is referred to as Hunt Saboteurs Association. They are said to have spent most time and money on fox hunts sabotage. In 1972, they were known as Band of Money and were a violent activist group that destroyed most property and their meetings became frequent in places that were rich. In 1975, a book was written and it had the title Animal Liberation. The book covered the rights of animals and is said that the book was the most influential and was the source of motivation for some groups to become active than violence.
This is because according to the book, any being that is living and had a face has to have a soul and the ability to feel pain as well as sadness. To this date the organizations that are active have their own have their own websites where they outline their tactics and is acts of violence such as arson, graffiti and their targets is usually big companies and they cause a lot of damage.
Narcoterrorism is a term that is used to describe many of the activities that are associated with the terrorist group like the Al-Qaeda Hezbollah AUC as well as FARC. The term is said to have originated in the 1980s and it came about as the president of Peru used it to describe the attacks that were carried out against his anti-narcotics police. It was said that the terrorist organizations were funded by narcotraffic and this had enabled the group to implement the acts of violence.
The Media and their influence on Terrorism
The language in which the message of the terrorists is portrayed about their organizations and actions that they commit is very important. This is because it is that language that will set the parameters that the public will discourse. Insurgent terrorist terminology and the officials of the government are said to be at the odds and this forces the media to adopt a strategy that will lead to expression of terrorism in a way that is accepted to the public.
This means that if the terrorism group induces the media to accept what they want to be featured they will have emerged victorious in a psychological manner. According to studies there exists a relationship between terrorism and the media and it mainly focuses on the response that they these terrorist incidences. The relationship is agreed to be symbiotic and the terrorist use the media to fulfill their political ambitions and their messages to be heard by the groups that they are targeting. Research carried out show that there exists a relationship between the media and terrorism on political, legal and psychological grounds.
Other methods that are existent are said to be ignored and this is said to be dangerous. There is a language that is said to make its way to the media about terrorism. It is also said that the terrorist have a language that the journalists cannot resist as the language is said to be romantic. This is not to say that the media has adopted the language that the terrorist use. The media is said to have adapted to the language that the government allows. This is because the government has intimidated the way that the media displays such information about terrorism. When the terrorist release a video tape the journalists have to look for a language that they will use to broadcast the message of the terrorist. This is because the government does not want the public to become terrified.
The media in some cases are said to be collaborators with terrorists. This is the case as there is fierce competition in the media houses and many top executives are not mainly journalists but people who are from the cooperate world. The most widely used form of media that the terrorist prefer is the television. This is because the television is the leading medium and the newspapers are a supplementary of the televisions. The other reason is that the information displayed on the television can be simplified, transformed into pictures and this is referred to as emotional intelligence.
Terrorism has been a practice that has been going out since history and has taken recent characteristics in some of the decades that have passed. According to Adams, James. 1987, terrorism is a product o f freedom and specifically that of the press. Terrorism is said to be on the increase because of the media and the acts of violence are increasingly terrible. It is also said that the media is the best friend of the terrorism. There is a controversy between the relationship between the media and terrorism. This is because their relationship is said to be symbiotic but researchers disagree with this and they say that no evidence is clear that the publicity they give to terrorism is the one that is responsible for occurrence of terrorism.
Government officials are the ones who have linked the media and terrorism. This is because they believe that the terrorists should not be given any kind of publicity. They disagree because they know that the terrorists are after publicity in order to create propaganda. They also know that the media has overreacted to terrorism by making their desires to be met.
According to Acquaviva, Mike. 1989, the relationship between the media and terrorism is not symbiotic and has explained this in four different ways. One is that there is pure indifference. The goals of terrorism are to cause fear to victims and they do not do this to gain attention from the media. They do not expect the press to get involved in their implementation.
Another is relative difference and this means that terrorists’ list concern is to be featured on the news even though they want to be gain power that the media can help them with. Media oriented strategy is another factor and this means that the media can expand their research on words and actions that the terrorists use and this is not in the knowledge of the terrorists. This makes the media to become integrated in the actions that the terrorists implement. Finally complete breakaway is another factor. This is whereby the terrorists view their biggest enemies to be the media and their journalists. They see them as enemies that must be destroyed and are put as direct adversaries.
These factors do not give the idea that there is a variety of relationships that can be established between these the media and the terrorism group. These factors show us how the terrorist can alternate the models and adopt one or more simultaneously. According to research modern terrorist that use some strategies to satisfy the news that the media show while the same time viewing them as enemies who must be overcome.
There have been two models that have been created in recent decades to show the relationship between the media and terrorism. One is the Culpable-media model and it is the link that is casual with terrorism and it calls for regulation. The model shows that the media covers terrorism and in turn incite more terrorism acts to be implemented as they give more coverage to these acts. The model contains a cycle of control. It is said that if the government tries to censor the coverage it causes harm because of the credibility of the government.
The other model is the vulnerable media model. This type of model states that the media is a victim and does not cause the acts of terrorism to be implemented. It also states that the control of the media on coverage is usually an ineffective one because the terrorists have other forms that they can communicate. Research that has been conducted shows that those who view the acts of terrorism react by fearing.
The Jihadist Perception of the Media
There are some characteristics that are structural and are said to be within the terrorism history. The history of the media and terrorism is said to have followed the same patterns as the history of terrorism. This is because the terrorism group knows the final goals that it wants to achieve and they also know that they cannot reach these goals without the media. The message that terrorism wants people to know is that they will be hostile to those who are guilty of failing in the Jihadist movement.
According to the Al Qaeda they blame the media for Salafist Islam message that is being ignored and distorted. This has made the Jihad group not to penetrate in other Muslim communities and make it large. This makes the Jihad movement not to be understood by other communities and they blame the media for it. The media on the other hand is controlled by the government and the policies of the government do not allow them to broadcast such things.
In stead the media has given very negative information about the movement because most of the time they focus on the actions of the group that involves terrorism and not the message the group is passing across. This is why the group considers the media to be their major enemy. Before the attacks of September 11 the jihadist group said that the media had some propaganda about the group and they had ignored them and their perspectives. This is because there are some countries that were attacked.
They were regarded as madmen who are crazy in all the interviews that were conducted in the previous years. They also say that the media is trying to fight against Muslim. The jihadist group has some tools that they have enumerate that the powers the western uses to achieve this. Jihadist propaganda is said to denounce the roles that the media frequently plays in the role of covering the war on terrorism and the world of Muslims.
Their views are presented in a way that they tend to cover more lies about the movement and not the real issues such as motivations of the muyahidin. According to the Al Qaeda what is covered in the media is about the motivation of the western government. This news cover international security and they hide the economic exploitation of the world of Muslim and the hostility that they face against their religion from the western government.
The jihadists view the role of the media and the influence they have as they try to develop the crusade that are said to be new. They have summarized the roles as one: the media has numbed populations of people and especially Muslims; they provide entertainment that contains sinful acts. This is intended to keep the Muslims unaware that there are serious situations that they have to step up to as believers. They believe that the media works hard to beatify the leaders and fulfill the plans that they have over their enemies and this way they occupy people’s minds with matters that are not important according to them.
The second thing that the media does according to the jihadist is that they spread false image about the strength of Islam. This makes them to be distrusted and this is because of the media. The media has taken the role of creating an image that has seen the power increase and the capacity that the military has. This has made it impossible for them to become reluctant in rising against acts of injustices because they know that they will be defeated.
According to the jihadist, the media is the one that is responsible for distorting the motivation that Islam has. These actions that the media has are said to be the reason that prevents that population from appreciating the culture of Islam. The media is said to distort the information that Islam has and this destroys the image that they have. The media is also blamed for the contribution that they have towards the aggression against Islam.
This means that they reduce the support that the Muslims have from the western governments. This way the Muslim remains a community that is hated and one that cannot be accepted by others because of their violent acts. There are many communities that remain against the Muslim community and cannot agree to do trade with them as well as entering into partnerships.
In conclusion the media has played a big role in the influence over terrorism. There have been both positive and negative effects as discussed above. As they try to cover the news on terrorism, they continue to tarnish the imager of the Muslims. That is why they will continue to be the greatest enemies of the Muslims. The best way to avoid all this problems is to carry out research about the Muslim community and the jihadist movement because terrorism will continue to take place with or without the media.
References
Aaron, Henry J. 2003. Agenda for the Nation. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.
Abraham, A. J., 2002. Islamic Fundamentalism and the Doctrine of Jihad. Lima, OH: Wyndham Hall Press.
Abuza, Zachary. 2005. Balik-Terrorism: The Return of the Abu Sayyaf. Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army War College.
Acquaviva, Mike. 1989. Terrorism: Special Studies. Bethesda, MD: University Publications of America.
Adamec, Ludwig W. 1996. Dictionary of Afghan Wars, Revolutions, and Insurgencies. Lanham.
Adams, James. 1986. Financing of Terror: The PLO, IRA, Red Brigades, and M-19 andTheir Money Supply. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Adams, James. 1987 Secret Armies: Inside the American, Soviet and European Special Forces.
Adams, James. 1998. Next World War: Computers Are the Weapons and the Front Line is Everywhere. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Martha Crenshaw (ed) 1995. Terrorism in Context.Penn State University Press.
Walter Laquer 1999. The New Terrorism: Fanaticism and the Arms of Mass Destruction Oxford University Press.
A survey conducted in 2006 in Britain indicated that the majority of people believe that the world is losing the war on terror. This survey should have been a wake up call to the United States. The Bush Administration could have been made aware that it was using the wrong strategy to fight terrorism. Terrorism cannot be defeated through the use of force alone. We cannot eradicate terrorism without worldwide unity from political, social and religious standpoints. By addressing these three issues, analysts believe that the fight towards the eradication of terrorism would be worn (http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2006/aug/17/foreignpolicy.uk ).
Main Text
A look at the origin of the largest terrorist groups in the world indicates that their most important objective is to seek solutions to a political stalemate. These groups believe that certain political injustices have been committed against them and they should be addressed. The Palestine Liberation Organization was formed with a broad intention of addressing the obvious injustices meted out against them in the Middle East. The disputes between Palestine and Israel are being resolved through a political process. Terrorist groups and political parties espouse the same ideals of change, the main difference being their tactics towards achieving this. While political parties push for their agenda through compromises, lobbying and political representation, terrorists groups go further and are ready to wage violent attacks against the aggressors and establishments to force them make concessions (William E. Messenger, 34).
They are entangled in the same maddening pursuit of power and influence just like the politicians. It is only that the means of getting it may seem unconventional. Deep down, the cause of the aggression and hostility exhibited by the Hamas is because they would want to entrench themselves in a position of power to probably address their grievances. Terrorist organizations usually lack the financial and logistical muscle to get to power through the conventional means. So they resort to making attacks against the civilians to instill fear and drive their point home.
Politicians have resorted to fighting terrorism with military strikes. The term terrorist is being used worldwide to brand groups that are considered the enemy of the existing establishment. This is not resolving the underlying issue, which are political. The misdiagnosis of the problem is leading to maltreatment and if this is not correct, respite is nowhere near. Nelson Mandela was branded a terrorist and the African national union in South Africa, a terrorist group. Mau Mau in Kenya was regarded by the British to be terrorist organization. These two groups were simply trying to fight against colonial and racist establishments. They lacked in financial and tactical resources and guerilla warfare was the only way out (Lerner, Brenda Wilmoth & K. Lee Lerner, 19).
Serbia fought the Turks and Vietnamese fought the French in the 19th century for the same reasons, injustices. Terrorists might be using uncondonable means but it does not mean they don’t have a point. The only way that such groups may be eradicated is through a political solution. Dropping bombs may end up killing innocent lives and further aggravating the group’s grievances. Addressing historical injustices that are the root to such anger and resentment can curb terrorism. It is all about fine-tuning the sates policies and equitable distribution of resources. It is all about making concessions and compromises to bring on board a minority group that may have been left out in sharing the national cake (Hoffman, Bruce, 32).
There are quite a number of terrorist groups whose extremism is fueled by social issues rather than the mere pursuit of power and resources. These are people that may use extreme means to try and bring the attention of the world towards addressing some social injustices. These may range from ethnicity, homophobia, and racism. Others just want to impose their cultural and social values upon others. In the Middle East for example, there are many terrorist groups that are waging war against the western nations in the belief that the western culture has eroded the traditional values and morals of the societies. The Taliban for example introduced Sharia law and banned all manner of western lifestyles ranging from music and dressing. Others go ahead and take extreme measures by attacking certain groups of people just because they are either considered to be of a superior or inferior social class, race or tribe.
Cultural, racial and ethnic differences may become a huge source of grievances especially where one is thought of being dominating and overbearing. There are those that target their victims because they believe they are white, black or Asian. Military action against such terrorist organizations would be the least of the solution. This would be healed by massive education of the public, orienting such groups towards cohesion and integrating it with the rest of the society (Laqueur, Walter, 46).
Of the most divisive factors in the society, nothing divides in much more than religion. The seventeenth century was characterized by senseless killing of people on the basis of their religious affiliation. Some form of terrorism in today’s world stems from such differences in religious beliefs. Religious terrorism is fuelled by emotional motivations and the belief that ones religion is the best. The perpetrators of such terrorism have been made to believe that their religion is much more superior to others and its their right to spread its ideals to others even if it means using force (Kochler Hans, 35).
The Jihadists and the crusaders are a good example of this. The perpetrators of religious terrorism use their respective holy books to justify their actions. They use it to spread stereotype beliefs and brainwash their followers by focusing on the perceived benefits of those who comply and the wrath of failing to heed to their teachings. The motivation behind Christian terrorism for example stems from a lopsided interpretation of the Christian bible, using it to justify violent acts against the non-believers. The rationale behind Christian terrorism, or any other act of terrorism is to terrify and publicize such acts to create a feeling of fear to those opposed to the respective religions teachings. This is in the belief that it is their religious duty to convert and spread the religion (Terry Nardin, 17).
The leaders of such groups are revered and are believed to be above reproach. The followers do not question their acts. Jihadists believe that their acts are justified and often cite the Quran for support. Such acts are not carried out by the whole religious grouping but rather by a few extremists who believe their rewards lie in heaven. Religious terrorism is a threat to the peaceful co-existence of people in the society. It leads to stereotypes and prejudices. The Bush administration has been accused of fueling hatred against the Muslims in the United States. The war against terror has mainly focused on the Islamic states creating an informed perception that all Muslims are terrorists.
Conclusion
This paper has established the fact that terrorism stems from a number of issues and perceived grievances. It also takes a variety of forms that are distinctly motivated; these are political, social and religious.
It has been noted the world is trying to grapple with the increased terrorism and initiate efforts to eradicate it, it is important to note that this is a problem that requires a multifaceted approach that should also seek to unearth the underlying issues and their motivation. The United States might be wrong in its one-sided approach to fighting terrorism. fanaticism and terrorism cannot be defeated through militarism as the members are strongly convinced of their righteousness, it can only be eradicated through a religious approach urging the extremists to tone down their rhetoric’s and hostility. Terrorism in large requires a well-calculated approach that should seek to focus at the motivation behind it and employing effort to address them. Bombs cannot stop terrorism, addressing the perceived injustices would do a great deal. This paper has noted that fighting terrorists without tackling the specific causes of the different forms will not help eradicate but will rather aggravate the situation. All the stakeholders in the various fields ranging from religious and political must be brought on board if such a war is to be won.
Works cited
William E. Messenger, Jan de Bruyn, Judy Brown and Ramona Montagnes. The Canadian Writers Handbook. Oxford University Press, 2007,34.
Terry Nardin. Review of Terror in the Mind of God. The Journal of Politics 64.Southern Political Science Association. 2001,17.
Kochler Hans. Terrorism and National Liberation. Proceedings of the International Conference on the Question of Terrorism. Frankfurt a. M. /Bern/New York: Peter Lang, 1988,35.
Laqueur, Walter. No End to War – Terrorism in the 21st century, New York, 2003,46.
Sunga, Lyal S.US, Anti-Terrorism Policy and Asia’s Options, in Johannen, Smith and Gomez, (eds.) September 11& Political Freedoms: Asian Perspectives.
Lerner, Brenda Wilmoth & K. Lee Lerner. Terrorism: essential primary sources. Thomson Gale. 2006, 19.
Hoffman, Bruce. Inside Terrorism. Columbia University Press 1998; 32.
It is projected that total money laundered internationally in a year is ranged between $ 500 billion to $ 1 trillion. According to FinCEN (Financial Crimes Enforcement Network) that over $ 750 billion in illicit funds is being transferred worldwide annually, of which $ 300 billion is laundered in the US alone, which is corresponding to total gross sales in 1996 of two world-leading automobile producers like Ford and General Motors.
If money laundering is left unhindered, it can exhaust a nation’s economy by altering the demand for cash, forcing exchange rates to be more volatile and making interest rates down and resulting in a high inflationary trend in the country where criminal elements are freely allowed to tread. Money laundering has been recognized as a bad element for the economy as it siphons away billions of dollars a year from the economic system of a nation.
Terrorism Financing
The act of raising money through both legitimate and illegitimate means to finance acts of terrorism is known as terrorism financing. In one another chief methodology employed by the fraudsters is to open an account at a gambling website. The ill-gotten money would be deposited in the account using a pay pal account, and then some money is used on gambling. However, the balance money after the sham gambling is transferred to another ordinary bank account, thereby creating a legal status for the laundered money as if it has come from gambling and will be employed for terrorist financing.
Figure 1. VICIOUS CYCLES OF MONEY LAUNDERING
Financing Terrorism through Money Laundering
Money laundering injects funds that act as fuel for terrorists to function and to enlarge their activities. Funding for terrorism through money laundering can hamper the economic prosperity and financial stability of any nation. When a financial institution is employed intentionally by a terrorist, it will create harm to a financial system of a nation. If a financial system of an economy is being used to channel financing or launder funds to terrorists, the injury may be much copious. When a financial system is employed for money laundering mainly to finance terrorist activities, then such a financial system will be later disowned by investors for investment purposes. One another great risk is that when a financial system is manipulated by criminals, then the integrity and confidence of such a system will be at stake.
For some nations and jurisdictions, the financial and economic impingement could be colossal. If the integrity of a financial centre or institution is brought into question, its prosperity, in the long run, will be at peril with credible, serious economic impacts. The economic growth of a nation will be sluggish if there is a lack of integrity in financial systems where a resolution on the distribution of resources are tainted and investment is misallocated, it will hamper the economic growth.
Money laundering is nothing but transforming the proceeds of crime money into a usable form, thereby camouflaging their illegal activities. Once the criminal proceeds are pumped into a financial system, they are laundered through an assortment of transactions and financial vehicles and, in the end, invested in financial and real estate. Money laundering always involves international business transactions as a device of “layering” or clouding the origin of funds. Perhaps, money laundering is fundamentally international in nature. If one jurisdiction or one country stiffen its regulations on money laundering and terrorism financing, then it will be immediately shifted to another unregulated location. Thus, even if a nation does not have any crime or very little money laundering, it has to tighten its economy to shun the “immigration” of the issue.
Terrorist financing can be explained as swearing the property from any legitimate source to be employed to finance terrorist activity that has been or will be unleashed at a future date. Furthermore, out of proceeds of crime, several terrorist organisations are financing their activities. However, there is a vast dissimilarity between terrorism financing and money laundering in many ways which influences public policy. Terrorism financing is much more intricate to identify than money laundering since it is aimed mainly at the future activity.
Further, the terrorist activity requires only a small quantum of funding and hence it is easy for a terrorist to launder the money for possible future terrorist activity. For example, the 9/11 attacks on the pentagon and World Trade Centre were estimated to have cost less than $ 1 million as compared to other types of financing activities.
Both the international community and national government are constantly working together to combat both terrorism funding and money laundering. After the 9/11 attack, the combat against terrorism has been intensified. Some of the countermeasures perused to defy terrorism funding are to embark on tightening regulation and increased supervision at the national level and on plugging the loophole with critical information, especially all-around borders.
The efficacies of anti-money laundering initiatives (AML) and efforts to combat the financing of terrorism (CFT) foot on the conception of a rational system of retaliatory measures, which must include a number of decisive ingredients.
Further, these initiatives must be supported by measures like curbing criminals from taking control of the financial systems. If a criminal is able to penetrate into the nation’s financial system, then it will be an arduous task to identify and uproot the financing of terrorism or money laundering for terrorism purposes. Hence, it is very critical that major stakeholders and senior executives in any financial institution should express that they are ‘fit and competent to maintain these positions of control and omission. These prerequisites apply at the preliminary licensing phase but require to be sustained as stakeholding changes hands and as the management turns over.
Further, financial institutions must launch systems of recognising and reporting suspicious or unusual monetary transactions. These institutions should train the staff in such a way so that they sound an alarm when they encounter a suspicious money laundering transaction, and they should have clear procedures for reporting back to the authorities immediately.
If bank officials who deal with the clients are unable to recognise and report back suspicious transactions, then elaborate CFT / AML systems will be regarded as ineffective. What can go wrong can be illustrated by way of a recent example where a bank hired more employees to handle the increased quantity of new, large-denomination banknotes which were being deposited by one customer. In the first instance, it was thought that the transaction might be connected to money laundering, but in the end, the cash deposits were proved to be of criminal origin.
Further, both the testimony of know your customer and unusual transactions rules need to be corroborated by enough record keeping. Whenever a suspicious transaction is discovered, it is wise to have an audit trail turning back as far as five years.
The government has to form apt institutions, and such institutions should be vested with the resources and power to make sure that the pertinent commercial enterprises adhere to the rules and regulations and any suspected cases of money laundering or terrorist financing can be overseen. For instance, a bank manager has to see that the bank has in place the tools to limit susceptibility to money laundering. Further, banking supervisors in various countries should have a mechanism of exchanging information, and this will assist in controlling the widely located active institutions internationally.
Combating the Financing of Terrorism
G-7 Finance Ministers, in October 2001, declared an Action Plan to fight the Financing of Terrorism and vowed to work with the wider international community to attain results. The Plan contained immediate actions to prevent the flow of terrorist funds as well as fundamental changes to safeguard against the employment of the international financial system for the financing of terrorism.
Blocking the Flow of Funds to Terrorists
The Action Plan includes the following:
To freeze terrorist assets,
To adhere to the International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism and the provisions of the relevant United Nations Security Council Resolutions.
After September 11, more than 160 countries and authorities have initiated concrete action to immobilise terrorist assets, and about US $112 million in terrorist-associated funds has been frozen worldwide. Over 200 countries and authorities have supported the G-7 by declaring support for the battle against terrorist financing.
According to UNSC Resolution 1267 established under the UN Security Council Committee, which presently lists 313 individuals and business entities whose financial assets have to be frozen by member countries. In response to the UN Security Council Resolution 1373, many individual nations, as well as the European Union, have also recognised and listed terrorists for the reason of applying sanctions.
On April 19, 2002, G-7 Finance Ministers announced the first joint G-7 recognition of individuals and terrorist entities and harmonised asset freezing in all G-7 countries.
These accomplishments have been made possible by the bizarre efforts of financial regulators and institutions, which have coordinated with the relevant authorities to make sure that the assets of listed terrorists are recognised and frozen.
With the definitive endeavour of countering all terrorist activities, the G-7 will work together in recognising, disrupting, and finishing down sources of terrorism financing.
International benchmarks to protect against Terrorism Financing.
The G-7 Action Plan includes the following.
Development and execution of international standards
Vigorous execution of the relevant UN instruments
By directing the Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering (FATF) to formulate special recommendations to counter-terrorist financing.
It also encouraged the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to speed up their collaborative work with the FATF on a wide-ranging framework for evaluating compliance with measures against money laundering and terrorist financing.
Execution of United Nations Instruments
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1373 mandates that all UN members shall illegalise the financing of terrorism and desist from offering any kind of support to those involved in terrorist acts. The Committee is constantly reminding the 15 members that have not yet forwarded their reports.
All G-7 countries have adopted the International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism. Over 130 countries have now adopted the Convention, and 45 countries have approved it.
Special Recommendations by FATF
The FATF, on October 31, 2001, issued eight Special Recommendations on Terrorist Financing. As demanded by the FATF’s plan of action, all FATF countries have finished a self-assessment of their compliance with the recommendations and are dedicated to ensuring the compliance. To date, over 100 nations have submitted self-assessment questionnaires to FATF.
Recognition of Nations that require Appropriate Measures
At their comprehensive meeting held on June 19-21, 2002, the FATF decided to commence a process to categorise jurisdictions that lack suitable measures to fight terrorist financing.
G-7 Finance Ministers appreciates FATF’s pains to develop a process to recognise countries that lack suitable measures to counter terrorist financing for follow-up evaluation and/or technical assistance by the World Bank, IMF and the United Nations. It is necessary that these international bodies extend their full support and collaboration to this exercise, especially to make sure that there exists adequate technical assistance.
The Role of IMF
After the 9/11 attack, IMF started to include AML/ CFT issues in its work on the financial system. Thus, IMF has started to play a facility part, thereby spotlighting the stability and integrity of the international financial system and working intimately with FATF, other standard setters and with the World Bank. IMF is especially focusing its attention on the probable risk arising out of money laundering and terrorist financing.
IMF has considerably stepped up their involvement relating to anti-money laundering and combating the financing of terrorism. From February 2002, the IMF has included the assessment of countries’ anti-money laundering and fighting the financing of terrorism measures in line with their Financial Sector Assessment Program (FSAP) assessments and their assessments of offshore financial centres’ regulatory, legal and supervisory systems. These assessments have assisted to recognise weaknesses, which the World Bank and IMF are assisting countries to address.
Thus, IMF plays only a watchdog role and does not involve itself in law enforcement matters. Combating the laundering of illegitimately obtained revenue and the financing of terrorism is one of the international community’s main concerns. Therefore many countries, especially the world’s developed countries, are initiating steps aimed at waging war against the legalisation of criminal proceeds and employing the same for the financing of terrorism. Financing terrorism through money laundering presumes great synchronisation of efforts among all the constituents of the system for combating “dirty” money and to kindle interdepartmental collaboration. Financial institutions assume the key accountability for revealing illegal efforts endeavoured at legalising criminal proceeds and financing terrorism. A nation’s central bank policy regarding preventing the legalisation through the laundering of illegitimately obtained revenue and the financing of terrorism should be aimed at attaining the following objectives:
Not allowing the banking channel to be employed as an instrument to launder money and then to finance terrorism;
It is safeguarding the business standing of the bank and its clients.
World Bank efforts
World Bank and IMF Executive Boards in mid-summer 2002 authorised proposals to further augment their contributions to the international attempt on anti-money laundering and the combat against the financing of terrorism (AML/CFT) efforts. The Boards conceded to include the FATF 40 plus 8 to the list of standards to be considered, to approve methods for undertaking assessments and arranging reports on AML/CFT, and to shore up a 12-month pilot program. The G-7 encourages these initiatives and looks forward to the full amalgamation of comprehensive anti-money laundering and combating the financing of terrorism assessments into Bank and Fund operations.
Technical Hep
Initiatives are taken to organise and deliver technical assistance quickly and most notably by the UN Counter-Terrorism Committee and by the IMF and World Bank. The UN Counter-Terrorism Committee has started to collect a directory of available help. The IMF and World Bank are instituting a coordination mechanism for technical assistance for both anti-money laundering and combating the financing of terrorism among various members.
G-7 countries will offer technical support to willing and committed nations on a mutual basis as well as support the initiatives of the international organisations.
Resolution 1617 of the United Nations Security Council’s is aiming the support networks of Taliban and al-Qaeda, which authorises permission for the international community to initiate vital action to cut off al-Qaeda’s lifelines in and around the world.
Efforts of U.N Security Council
Resolution 1617 fortifies what the most dominant instrument for global action might be against those who offer arms, money, technology or other help to the Taliban and al-Qaeda.
When an entity or individual is identified pursuant to the resolution, governments are compulsorily required to freeze their assets, refuse them for admission into the financial system and stop them from acquiring arms or travelling internationally. Anyone who wishes to entertain them will encounter the same consequences.
Proposed sanctions are mainly well suited for dismantling terrorist networks. Their most distinct advantage lies in closing down the pipelines through which terrorists raise and transfer money. It is true that individual terrorist attacks may be economical, but terrorist organisations need far more than explosives to endure. They need money to educate, recruit, pay operatives and their families, travel, bribe officials, purchase cover and false documents as well as purchase various materials. Restricting the flow of cash to terrorist groups can also increase disagreement within their ranks and files and will activate hasty communications and actions that expose their operatives and organisers to be easily detected.
Further, past identifications have helped to immobilise financial assets and having offered precious intelligence about facilitators, donors and end recipients.
Resolution 1617 has the probability of being an extremely effective tool. It foresees 191 UN member states acting as single to cut off al-Qaeda’s supporters, both financially and physically.
The effect of these sanctions depends, however, on the depth and breadth of their application. Money will be looked out through the path of least obstruction. Regrettably, earlier iterations of Resolution 1617’s sanction programme have not come near to realising their perspective. Some governments, in Europe and elsewhere, had abstained from bringing terror supporters to the Security Council’s notice, even when these individuals were known to be encouraging al-Qaeda within their own country borders. Further, many nations restrict compliance simply by including designated names to a ‘list’ with no mechanisms to make sure that the sanctions are really being enforced. If financial institutions are not informed instantly upon the declaration of a target and if regulatory authorities are not conforming that financial institutions are properly screening accounts and transactions and in such cases, the financial bite of designations will be fruitless.
Resolution 1617 of the Security Council articulates a clarification and detailed definition of what is tantamount to relations with al-Qaeda and is having enhanced due process of provisions to make sure that the designation procedure is as fair and open as possible. With respect to accomplishment, these solutions embrace standards issued by the inter-governmental Financial Action Task Force that offer internationally endorsed direction on maintaining effective sanctions regimes. The resolution further requires some member states to corroborate regularly to the UN on accomplishment benchmarks, like travel controls and transaction screening.
Requirements for Processing Payments in Foreign Currency
To curtail terrorism financing through money laundering, a country’s central bank shall not permit to carry out payment instructions in which the payer is a bank or company based in a nation in which it does not physically exist or is not associated with a synchronised financial group, or if the recipient is registered or is maintaining an account in a nation that has a low criterion of auditing controls of customers with respect to fighting the legalisation of illegally received revenue. On the basis of news published by OFAC and FATF, nations with a high peril of criminal revenue legalisation are the following:
Iraq
Cuba
Iran
Libya
Liberia
Sierra Leone
Zimbabwe
Syria
Myanmar (Burma)
Nigeria
Sudan
European and American banks have blocked money transfers to these countries.
Patriot act of USA
Patriot Act has assisted the financial institution in preventing fraud, controlling the spread of terrorism and identifying terrorism financing, thereby stressing the financial institutions and banking sector in the USA to gain more information on new banking accounts. So as to help the USA government to fight the funding of terrorism and money laundering activities, now federal law demands that all financial institutions confirm, obtain and record information that recognises each person who opens an account. As such, it has become obligatory now to offer any identification like driver’s license etc., by the applicant while opening a banking account in the USA.
Financial institutions and consumers are facing abundant problems because of identity fraud. As per FTC, in the last five years alone, about 27.4 million people have been affected due to identity theft. A report indicates that U.S. lenders are estimated to lose about $ 1 billion annually due to identity theft.
With the help of identity documents received from the prospective customer and corroborating the name, address, social security number and date of birth by checking with multiple data sources, one can come to a conclusion about the accuracy of information provided and to protect against the fraudulent activity before it happens. Due to identity verification technology and programs employed because of the USA PATRIOT ACT, the institution can now vouch and also screen government lists, identify and store transactions from online applications. Thus, the personal information obtained from the prospective client can thus be corroborated with the credit bureaus, ChexSystems, detailed background search tools and SAR form. Though complying with the USA Patriot Act is time-consuming and labour intensive, it protects against fraudulent activity before it occurs in an enhanced security environment.
Celent Communications, the financial services research firm, has estimated that for the security dealers, banks and insurance companies, compliance with the provisions of the USA Patriot Act will cost about $11 billion by the end of 2005. News week reports that two-thirds of financial records obtained through section 314 of the USA Patriot Act were mainly in money –laundering cases.
Just to beef up cases, there is an increasing number of prosecutions in which a money-laundering charge appears to be included where the underlying charge is minor. Basically, the Act requires all financial institutions to (1) Establish a more formalised Anti-Money Laundering program; (2) Designate an AML compliance officer; (3) Implement an ongoing employee training program; (4) File Suspicious Activity Reports (SARs) on an ongoing basis; (5) Verify the identity of new account customers; (6) Determine whether the potential customer appears on a list of known or suspected terrorists that are being provided to financial institutions by government agencies; and (7) Continue reporting and sharing of information.
Federal statues on money laundering
To deter money laundering activities, U.S has enforced many regulatory and legislative standards, and most important of these are as follows
The USA Patriot Act (Title III, International Money Laundering Abatement and Anti-Terrorist Financing Act 2001).
Anti–Drug Abuse Act of 1988.
Money Laundering and Financial Crimes Strategy Act of 1998.
Section 206 of the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporations Improvement Act of 1991.
Section 2532 of the Crime Control Act of 1990.
The Annunzio-Wylie Anti –Money Laundering Act. (Title XV of the Housing and Community Development Act of 1992).
The Bank Secrecy Act (Currency and Foreign Transaction Reporting Act of 1970)
The Money Laundering Control Act of 1986.
The Money Laundering Suppression Act of 1994. (Title IV of the Riegle-Neal Community Development and Regulatory Improvement Act of 1994.
The Bank Secrecy Act (BSA) was intended to struggle with money laundering, drug trafficking and other crimes. The main object of this Act is to desist banks and financial intermediaries for or being deployed to camouflage any deposit or transfer of money resulting from criminal activity. The BSA enforced an exploratory ‘paper trial’ by mandating regulatory reports and requirements like the currency transaction report and by a subsequent amendment enforced record keeping requirements for wire transfers.
The Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1988 complemented and toughened anti-money laundering efforts by raising the levels of sanctions and penalties for money laundering crimes and by mandating severe identification and documentation of each purchase of certain monetary instruments.
The Money Laundering Control Act of 1986 altered the BSA to augment its effectiveness and to strengthen the U.S government’s capability to fight money laundering by declaring it as a federal crime and by enforcing structuring transactions to avoid BSA reporting requirements as a criminal offence.
Section 206 of the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation Improvement Act (FDICIA) of 1991 permitted the OCC and other bank supervising authorities some laxity in revealing to foreign bank regulatory or supervisory authority’s information gathered during its supervisory role. However, such revelation shall be not bigotry to the interest of the US and appropriate and must be subject to appropriate measures of secrecy.
The Amunzio –Wyle Anti-money Laundering Act of 1992 augmented penalties for depository institutions found responsible for money laundering. The Act included various major provisions to the BSA, including the intimating of doubtful transactions. The Act also made the running of illegal money transmitting businesses an offence and required that banking regulatory agencies formally consider revoking the charters of any depository institution convicted of money laundering.
Section 2532 improved the federal banking agencies enforcement position by extending its power to work with foreign banking authorities on investigations, enforcement or examination dealing with possible bank or currency transaction related violations.
The Money Laundering and Financial Crimes Strategy Act of 1998 necessitated the Secretary of Treasury, in consultation with the Attorney General and other relevant agencies, including local agencies and state, to execute and coordinate a national approach to address money laundering.
Treaties, Acts, and Agreements to prevent money laundering and financing terrorism
The United States first enacted money laundering laws in 1986. And since then, money laundering has slowly become a global problem. It has been considered then that this act involves international financial transactions, currency smuggling across borders, and laundering of proceeds in one country to be committed in another.
Along with all these countermeasures to fight money laundering are acts, policies, bills or treaties, which all serve to back all these actions up. The Money Laundering Control Act declares proceeds of certain criminal offences as a crime. These offences are termed “Specified Unlawful Activities” (SUA) and are defined in Title 18 of the United States Code (1956, 1957) and Title 18 of the United States Code (1961). This secret service has observed a great increase in money laundering activities. These actions are connected to Specified Unlawful Activities. And this is especially true in financial institution fraud, access device fraud (credit cards, telecommunications, and computer investigations), food stamp fraud, and US currency counterfeit.
The secret service of the United States has also enforced the Counterfeit and Fraudulent Identification law in 1982. This law is found in Title 18 of the United States Code, Section 1028, which states that someone who knowingly and without lawful authority produces, transfers, or possesses a false identification document to defraud or deceive the US government is considered a criminal. These criminals, in general, use desktop publishing hardware or software to counterfeit and produce different forms of identification to be able to illegally obtain funds.
The Omnibus Crime Control Act of 1984 was also brought to the secret service. Ever since 1985, there has been a noticeable rapid growth in the number and type of criminal misuse and abuses of electronic technology. Worse, the degree of sophistication of a criminal has also advanced over the years. Computers are now extensively used to investigate electronic crimes like credit card fraud.
US President George Bush also signed the USA Patriot Act on October 26, 2001, a law that was passed under the suspension of Congressional rules while the country was healing itself from the devastating terrorist attacks on September 11 of the same year. It was designed for the purpose of interrupting money flows that help supports terrorist activities (Fisher, teal, 2005). This Act led to the expansion of surveillance activities, taking away the notion that looking into the personal information of customers is an intrusion of law enforcement into the lives of American citizens.
There also exists the Anti-Money Laundering and Counter-Terrorism Financing Bill of 2005. This paves the way for certain important considerations on privacy in the financial sector of the economy. This bill requires financial institutions like banks to obtain more personal information about their customers and dig into their transactions like opening of new accounts to see if there are other suspicious activities going on. And over time, this disclosure requirement has greatly increased as the level of money laundering impact increased. The information abstracted from these customers is very sensitive personal information that proves to be very valuable for these institutions (Privacy Issues from the Anti-Money Laundering and Counter-Terrorism Financing Act of 2005, 2005). While financial institutions collect, analyse, and disclose this information, they still have to ensure the trust they get from customers. This information, by the way, should be used solely for AML/CTF purposes unless otherwise given consent by the customer. And when individuals request access to their personal information done under the Privacy Act, the institutions must separate the information they have to disclose from the information that AML/CTF prohibits them from disclosing. Financial institutions may also choose to explain to the customers the reason for them collecting additional personal information. They also need to assure them of the limitations on its use and the presence of appropriate security measures in protecting it.
Works cited
(2001)’International Instruments against Terrorism.’UN Chronicle, 74+.
(2002)’Financing Domestic Terrorism.’ The Washington Times.
(2005) International Journal of Comparative Sociology 46, no. 1-2: 79+.
(2006)’Teams to Target Financial Crimes; Lawless Region Feeds Terrorism.’ The Washington Times: A13.
(2007)’Fighting Terrorism – ASEAN Style.’ Manila Bulletin: A.
Boran, Christopher. (2003)’Money Laundering.’ American Criminal Law Review 40, no. 2: 847+
Buckley, Mary and Rick Fawn, eds. (2003). Global Responses to Terrorism: 9/11, Afghanistan and beyond. New York: Routledge.
Cortright, David. (2005)’Can the UN Battle Terrorism Effectively? Security Council Resolutions Have “Mobilised States for a Campaign of Non-military Cooperative Law Enforcement Measures to Combat Global Terrorism.’ USA Today (Society for the Advancement of Education), 62+.
Crimm, Nina J. (2004) ‘High Alert: The Government’s War on the Financing of Terrorism and Its Implications for Donors, Domestic Charitable Organisations, and Global Philanthropy.’ William and Mary Law Review 45, no. 4: 1341+.
Cuellar, Mariano-Florentino. (2003)’The Tenuous Relationship between the Fight against Money Laundering and the Disruption of Criminal Finance.’ Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 93, no. 2-3 311+.
Jalata, Asafa. “State Terrorism and Globalisation: The Cases of Ethiopia and Sudan.”
Lagasse, Paul. (2007)’U.S.A Patriot Act.’ In The Columbia Encyclopedia 6th New York: Columbia University Press.
Linde, Erik Van De, Kevin Oíbrien, Gustav Lindstrom, Stephan De Spiegeleire, Mikko Vayrynen, and Han De Vries. (2002) ‘Quick Scan of Post 9/11 National Counter-Terrorism Policymaking and Implementation in Selected European Countries: Research Project for the Netherlands Ministry of Justice ‘. Santa Monica, CA: Rand.
Perkel, Walter. (2003) ‘Money Laundering and Terrorism: Informal Value Transfer Systems’ American Criminal Law Review 41, no. 1: 183+.
Ronczkowski, Michael R. (2004)/Terrorism and Organised Hate Crime: Intelligence Gathering, Analysis, and Investigations. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Thackrah, John Richard. (2004).Dictionary of Terrorism. New York: Routledge.
Weiss, Peter. (2002) ‘Terrorism, Counterterrorism and International Law.’ Arab Studies Quarterly (ASQ):11+.
Zagaris, Bruce. (2002) ‘The Merging of the Counter-Terrorism and Anti-Money Laundering Regimes.’ Law and Policy in International Business 34, no.:1 45+.
Biosecurity is the strategies and efforts by society to protect people, animals, and the environment as a whole against any prevailing biological threats. The main objective of biosecurity is to protect human beings and animals against dangers associated with diseases and organisms within the environment. Biosecurity is successful if supported by an expert management system and other practical protocols that an institution may establish. The basic tools used in biosecurity are exclusion, elimination, and control of the diseases and organisms that pose threats to human health. Biosecurity is a management practice in defending human life against any possible biological threat. Biosecurity is a preventive measure that is designed to the risk of intentional removal of elements of valuable biological material. It involves a combination of practices and systems that are assembled in a very well-organized legitimate place which is considered to be the main source of the pathogens and other toxins. The term biosecurity is not like other kinds of security where we talk of guards, gates, and other machines that are used as security measures, biosecurity encompasses co-operations of scientists, efforts of technicians, those make policies, laws enforcers, and security engineers (Bacot, & Martin, 1998).
A biological laboratory is where most biosecurity operations are carried out. Disease diagnosis, animal analysis, epidemiological studies, and pharmaceutical developments are carried out in biological laboratories. Materials that are used in biological laboratories are used for a justifiable purpose and it is here where large volumes of microorganisms are replicated. In the biological laboratory, cellular components are extracted for purposes of education, medical, and health purposes. Biosecurity programs are conducted in biological laboratories which have the following components:
Personnel security
Physical security
Transport security
Program management
Information security
Material and control security
Terrorists used pathogens and other toxins in the past to threaten and cause disruption in society hence affecting both the political and economic position of these societies. International agreements have been established to eradicate the use of biological agents for malicious purposes by terrorists. Those who carry out such operations of threatening human life in society are considered to go against ethical values and do not respect the rights of people. Global treaties and other conventions have been put in place to curb the accessibility of unauthorized persons to biological agents and toxins that are present in the biological laboratories. To reduce the risk of bioterrorism, the harmonized international regime has been established to enhance biosecurity through the reinforcement of strands. The reinforcement of strands encompasses control of access to dangerous pathogens, transparency for sanctioned biodefense programs, the acts of terrorists to use science to challenge security among others (Appel, 2002).
List of Agents
Some agents are deemed responsible for biological insecurity in society. The US government has established that there are agents responsible for human infections and those which infect both humans and animals. There are also those which infect both plants and animals.
Human agents: These includes ebolavirus, cercopithecine herpesvirus, Marburg virus, lass fever virus, conotoxins, saxitoxin, tetrodotoxin, Variola major virus, Shiga toxin, Variola minor virus
Biological threats are caused by organisms and diseases that are sometimes invisible and these might be used by terrorism to challenge security in society. The target is the invisible killers. Some countries around the world have established Collaborative Biosecurity Research Initiative (CBRI) which is aimed at facilitating countermeasures for foreign animal diseases which has been a threat to the life of booth animals and human beings. The biosecurity initiatives are also intended to provide and evaluate the ability to counterattack animal and zoonotic diseases. The CBR was put in place by the most government to strengthen the biosecurity strategies in certain areas or a given population.
Security handling
The biosecurity program must be implemented by authorities who are well conversant with all the precautions that are mandatory to be observed. The facilities to be employed during the implementation of the biosecurity program provide enough mitigation for security purposes using biosecurity assessment. Any biosecurity program should involve risk assessment as part of security handling measures. Facility management must define site-specific program components which have their foundation on company vulnerability assessment. There should be minimum standards and requirements before implementing a biosecurity program (Stone, 2003).
The organization management must offer support to the process of biosecurity for it to be effectively implemented. It is with deep concern that most organizations are not willing to provide resources to impose and implement biosecurity plans in the organization hence the whole process cannot be efficient. As a security handling measure, there must be biosecurity programs that are supposed to protect the assets that are very important during the implementation process. Physical security encompasses proper building and other premises where the biological laboratories are to be situated; biological storage areas should be evaluated as a security measure. It is recommendable that policies should be established that ensure that paramount information is handled in a very sensitive way (Appel, 2002).
Information that is related to pathogens and toxins is considered to be very sensitive information and it encompasses facility security plans, access control codes, and storage locations among others. The information security program is very important in biosecurity implementation because unauthorized access should be prevented and that appropriate confidentiality measures are preserved. Secure information is tailored to mitigate any predicted threat and support the mission of the organization of implementing a biosecurity program. The organization should ensure that critical information should be handled with care and control of this information should be taken as security measures. The organization must establish policies purposely for the identification of sensitive information. Policies should also secure information in electronic files and other removable electronic media.
Security handling is very imperative in a biological laboratory. Laboratory security policies should be aimed at responding to situations that happened without the awareness of the team that is responsible for implementing the biosecurity program. Human life preservation and laboratory employees’ health should be considered to ensure that there are emergency responding mechanisms for handling such cases to protect the lives of all who participate in the process. There should be security breach response plans which involve proper coordination of facilities with the responsible person such as medical personnel, those who are responsible for emergency firs that can lead to burning of the whole premises and any other emergency officials. The facilities should be integrated with the specific security plans. These plans should accommodate adverse events that might occur such as bomb threats, adverse weather conditions, and natural disasters (Ryan, & Glarum, 2008).
It is also important that personnel management identify the obligations of employees who are responsible for the handle, use, or store of dangerous pathogens or any other crucial assets. In addition, there should be an effective communication chain that includes organization management, program representatives and officials, laboratory technicians, and public authorities.
Mode of dispersion
Biological agents are unique hence can be efficient biological weapons. The fact that these agents can replicate after it has been disseminated makes them attractive in weaponizing. The ability of a country to disperse biological agents depends entirely on the stabilization facilities such as missiles and advanced aircraft. It is important to understand that a small group of people can infect a large number of targeted if single individuals are deployed in a military staging are persons. The mode of dispersion to be adopted is determined by the target group. Massive social disorganization can be achieved in civil situations if the biological agent strike is targeted at populated areas. Dispersion is very critical due to the receptiveness of the biological agents to the environment due to the application stage. The weakness of the organism to the inactivation of the biological weapon is a challenge to end the use of biological weapons. Before any dispersion process is done, it is important to examine the environment as to whether it is a very high physical and chemical stress environment. The environment might be high salt concentration, extreme temperatures, and high surface area with air-water interface which might not support the process of biological weapon implementation (Alibek, 2000).
The best and the efficient mode of dispersion is aerosolization of the agents by use of spray devices. This is because there are extreme conditions that are linked to hotheaded dispersion which can inactivate the agent. The choice of aerosolization as a mode of dispersion is considered to be the best since it allows for control of the particle size. It also allows the control of the density size to adequately protect the agents from environmental degradation. The process is considered efficient and sufficient because it ensures the uptake of biological agents into the lungs of the targeted population. The systems used in aerosolization generate invisible clouds.
References
Alibek, K (2000). Biosecurity Information. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Office of Health and Safety. 140-170.
Appel, G. (2002). Biosecurity in Microbiological Laboratories, 5th Edition – U.S. Department of Health Services and the National Institutes of Health. 150-200.
Bacot, A & Martin, J (1998). Biohazard. Lanham, MD: Government Institutes; 339-375.
Ryan, J & Glarum, J (2008). Biosecurity and Bioterrorism. 90-130.
Stone, B (2003). Chemical and Biological Terrorism: Harcourt Brace & Co. Academic Press; p. 240-260.
The Palestine Islamic Jihad (PIJ) is the potential radical terrorist organization operating in the Palestinian arena. The Palestinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ) is a vicious creature among Palestine’s extremist groups like that of Hamas. Islamic Jihad launched suicide attacks against Israeli targets with a view to establish an independent Palestinian state. The PIJ nourished the ideology of jihad in its spontaneous endeavors to liberate considered as a holy struggle. Palestine from the yoke of Israel. The PIJ was little more than a shapeless collection of factions like that of Hamas in the mid 1970. The group maintains nexus to the Muslim brotherhood in Palestine and Egypt.
The PIJ received spontaneous enthusiasm from the Jihad movement in Egypt which dreamt to install the secular government in Cairo as an Islamic alternative force. The Jihad movements abnegated the political ideology that was prevalent in the Middle East. It is a unification of the Islamic world as a pre condition for the salvation of Palestine. Palestinian nationalist’s optimist that the struggle against the “Zionist entity” would forge broad based unity among Arab states.
Group Ideology
Czwarno, M., (2006) addressed that the Islamic Jihad holds the view that it is in the precursor of a pan-Islamic revolution that instigated the revolution in Iran. In spite of Shia orientation, the Iranian revolution provided insight a potential prototype for the PIJ. The PIJ opposes moderate secular Arab administration.1 Two demagogues have played vital roles in the PIJ’s history. Fathi Shaqaqi was despaired by the moderation of the Muslim Brotherhood. Egyptian administration expelled Shaqaqi from Egypt after the assassination of President Anwar Sadat in 1981. He repatriated to the Gaza Strip to form the Palestinian Islamic Jihad.
Subsequently, Israeli authorities expelled Shaqaqi to Lebanon in 1988. During his stay in Lebanon, he maintained political nexus with Syria and Iran, as well as Hezbollah.2 The group received training and armaments from the Iranian Revolutionary Guards. The PIJ returned to Lebanon in support of Hezbollah. Shaqiqi was assassinated by Israeli intelligence agents in Malta in 1995.
Arquilla, J., and Ronfeldt, D. (2001) mentioned that Dr. Ramadan Abdallah Shalah, a close associate of Fathi Shaqaqi took over the responsibility of PIJ after Shaqaqi’s demise. At the onset of the first Intifada, there are as many as 250 militants in PIJ. The PIJ introduced the use of suicide bombers following their contact with Hezbollah. The group is liable for dozens of attacks at Israeli targets on the anniversary of Fathi Shaqaqi’s demise.
Harakat al-Jihad al-Islami al-Filastini is known as Palestinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ). It was established in 1979 by Islamic fundamentalist Fathi Shaqaqi. The 1979 Islamic revolution in Iran influenced the group’s founder Shaqaqi influenced Iran Islamic revolution in 1979. The PIJ is committed to create of an independent Islamic Palestinian state and the devastation of Israel through a jihad.
Targeting & tactics
The Whitehouse (2008) cited that the PIJ members remained active in Egypt launched attack a tour bus in Egypt in February 1990 killing 11 people. PIJ agents were arrested in Egypt in September 1991 while attempting to launch terrorist attack. The PIJ launched its terrorist attack against Israel in the 1980s. Before the intifada in 1987, it carried out several terrorist attacks in the Gaza Strip. The factions leaders, Shaqaqi and Abd al-Aziz Odah, were expelled to Lebanon in 1988.. After Olso peace treaty in 1993 between Israeli and the Palestinians, Shaqaqi expanded the political network of the organization to become a member of the new Syrian influenced Rejection Front.
The group is patronized from Damascus and its financial assistance from Damascus and Iran. The PIJ also located offices in Beirut, Tehran and Khartoum. Except Israel, PIJ deems the United States as an enemy because of its support to Israel. The PIJ also opposes moderate Arab regime.Since September 2000; The PIJ has been liable for scores of terrorist attacks since September 2000.3
Capability and overall goals
Office of Homeland Security (2008) stated that Shiqaqi admired Ayatollah Khomeini for being the first Muslim leader to bestow Palestine its proper place in his Islamic ideology. The PIJ began its armed operations in 1984. The PIJ consolidated relationship with Hamas during the 1987 to 1993 intifada, but subsequently the policy was discarded. Shiqaqi’s exile to Lebanon consolidated the movement’s ties with Hizballah and Iran.
Iran became the movement’s major financial sponsor. Hezbollah provided it with training facilities and logistical support.. The PIJ expanded its network in the Palestinian refugee camps in Lebanon. Hamas was always an independent Palestinian movement. Islamic Jihad became a tool of Iranian policy in the Arab-Israeli disputes. The outset of the Israeli-Palestinian confrontation boosted the morale of Islamic Jihad in September 2000.
The American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise (2008) stated that the genesis of PIJ is from among Palestinian fundamentalists in the Gaza Strip during the 1970s. The PIJ is committed to create of an Islamic Palestinian state and the devastation of Israel through jahad. The PIJ showed its terrorist identity when it attacked a tour bus in Egypt killing 11 people including nine Israelis in 1990. The PIJ has launched cross border raids against Israeli targets in the West Bank and Gaza Strip.
The PIJ has threatened to attack US interests in Jordan. PIJ agents were arrested in Egypt while trying to enter the country to instigate terrorism in September 1991. The PIJ receives massive financial assistance from Iran. The PIJ’s annual budget has been calculated at several million dollars, a lion share of which is earmarked for funding terrorist attacks against Israel.4
A terrorist organization that threatens the U.S. homeland
Basics Project, (2008) mentioned that on Sept. 11, 2006, al-Qaida deputy leader Ayman al-Zawahiri announced the merger of al-Qaida and the GSPC on sept11, 2006. The GSPC changed its name to the Organization of al-Qaida in the Islamic Maghreb on Jan. 26, 2007, after receiving permission by Osama bin Laden. Al-Qaida was established by Usama Bin Ladin in the late 1980s with a view to liberate Afghanistan against the Soviet invasion. The present objective is to establish a pan-Islamic Caliphate throughout the world by working with allied Islamic extremist groups’.Under the leadership of Osama bin Laden; Al Qaeda operated military training camps in Afghanistan from 1996 to 2001. The U.S. attack on Afghanistan and subsequent collapse of the Taliban regime eliminated this presence.
Tom, R., (2008) added that the newly renamed organization of al-Qaida in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) — formerly the Salafist Group for Call and Combat (GSPC) — recently killed approximately 30 people and wounded more than 220 in two suicide attacks in Algiers. The AQIM also launched attack in Algeria killing four people on Feb. 13, 2007. The implications for international security as al-Qaida and the AQIM take advantage of their extensive network and export operatives to the European continent and the United States. In January 2007, French intelligence gave the evidence of possibility of a terrorist attack within France during the elections in April and May 2007. The purpose of the attack would be to influence the outcome of the elections. 5
Steve K., (2005) argued that the escalation will prevail steadily in Algeria will depend on a few factors, including
al-Qaida’s ability to inspire more fighters to help sustain AQIMs offensive in the long term,
the strength of Algerian counter and anti-terrorist methods, and
whether a significant portion of the former GSPC will join the global jihad and export themselves to foreign theaters to fight.
According to some sources, many AQIM members have joined the insurgency in Iraq. The use of suicide bombers is the first introduction of al-Qaida’s methods in Algiers. There is no reason to believe that AQIM will not export these tactics to the western arena.
Steve K., (2005) also added that the Al Qaeda’s financing model appears to be result-oriented rather than rule oriented. Al Qaeda works on multiple levels, which is what makes it such a formidable opponent. Sometimes it operates top-down, with orders coming from the CEO,” The Washington Post. 17 February, 2002.Al Qaeda recruits and trains its own cells, and retains complete operation control over them. Al Qaeda would send funds to conduct the operation.
Figure -1. Macro-trends in terrorist financing.
Breinholt, J. (2004) argued if the funds move internationally, the number of terrorist groups increases but decreases their size. As the risk of moving money increases, terrorist groups make the decision to launch attack in order to continue operation below the new risk verge. If the capacity remains the same, the supply of terrorist dollars will not decrease.6 In the introduction of the baseline model for donations, various risk levels emerged different numbers of groups (fig- 2).
If the risk of soliciting and holding donations increases, there will be possibility of financial fractionalization of terrorist groups.
Figure- 2. Risk, total groups, and financing per group.
Breinholt, J. (2004) also mentioned that terrorist groups respond to a scarce resource through a corresponding decrease in the scope of operations. A terrorist group could conduct fewer operations, less expensive operation. The terrorist group looks for alternative scope to maintain the current pace of operations, but trim costs elsewhere such as in recruiting, propaganda, and training. (Figure- 3)
Figure- 3. Terrorist group budget adjustment in declining revenues.
Basics Project, (2008) stated the standard economic assumptions of utility curves, any of the adjustments mentioned above necessarily lead to a loss of utility. The extremist group could respond in multiple ways if they expect to minimize such a utility loss. Al Qaeda’s use of airliners as missiles against buildings rather than as simple hijackings represents successful achievement. The extent of economic and symbolic damage and number of casualties from this different operation immensely increased the group’s utility with little cost.7
The strategic doctrine and targets of Al-Qaida’s to launch attack on the United States. Al-Qaida mastermind planning against US railways after observing the economic impact of the 11 September attacks on the US airline industry. The rail or subway terminals present same attractions as airport terminal. The huge crowds help them to move freely. Al-Qaida’s preferred to use a valid passport containing a legitimate US visa. Al-Qaida has instructed operatives to travel to the United States on original passports with no indications of suspicious travel.
Basics Project, (2008) addressed that terrorist networks pose the national security threat to the United States. The greatest threat of most wanted terrorists come from the al-Qaida (AQ) network. This forum included a core al-Qaida organization and numerous confederated extremist factions. The al-Qaida network has been characterized as a “globalize insurgency”, sabotage, open warfare and terrorism. It strives to procure armaments of mass destruction and other mechanism to cause massive damage on the United States.
The objective of AQ is to overthrow the existing world order and install it with a reactionary, authoritarian and fundamentalist regime.. This intimidation and menace will be sustained over a protracted period and will require a global response to foil its move regionally and nationally decades not years.
Czwarno, M., (2006) pointed out that nineteen hijackers usurped multiple planes on September 11, 2001 and used them as an instrument to destroy the World Trade Center in New York and to attack Washington, DC. The United States took retaliation by launching war against al-Qaida. The U.S.A is using every instrument of national power such as diplomacy, intelligence, law enforcement, financial and military tools with a view to disrupt the global network. Consequently, the U.S.A has made significant strides in making America and its allies more safe and secure.8
Arquilla, J., and Ronfeldt, D. (2001) stated that Al-Qaida carries out terrorist operations against US and Israeli tourists visiting Jordan for millennial celebrations. This terrorist organization launched attack in the US Embassies in Nairobi, Kenya, and Dar-es Salaam, Tanzania in 1998 killing at least 301 persons and injured more than 5,000 others. It has shot down US helicopters and killed US servicemen in Somalia in 1993 and conducted three bombings that targeted US troops in Aden, Yemen, in December 1992. Al-Qaida has masterminded plan to assassinate Pope John Paul II during his visit to Manila in late 1994.
Arquilla, J., and Ronfeldt, D. (2001) also argued that there are several thousand Al-Qaida members. It has also serves an umbrella organization for a worldwide network that includes many Sunni Islamic extremist groups. Bin Ladin, son of a billionaire Saudi family provided is said to have inherited approximately $300 million to finance the group. Al-Qaida also maintains moneymaking front organizations, receives donations from like-minded supporters.9
The Whitehouse (2008) pointed out that Al-Qaeda continues the war by conducting bombing attack in Riyadh on 9 November 2003. The attack killed a large number of Muslims. According to the Saudi security forces killed many al-Qaeda extremists. These actions reduce al-Qaeda’s competence as well as decrease the acceptance of al-Qaeda’s message, two of the vital variables in the simulation. A time-series of simulation depicts historical scenario of fundraising within Saudi Arabia that is reasonable. The simulation offers a total sum of money for al-Qaeda raised from 1992-2003 in figure- 4.
Figure- 4. Simulated funds raised in SA.
The U.S homeland security policy
The Whitehouse (2008) addressed the proposal of president is to establish a single department whose primary mission to safeguard the American people and their homeland. It has been emphasized on principal border and transportation security agencies; coordination a cohesive network of disaster response capabilities; dissemination of intelligence and other information pertaining to terrorist threats to safeguard America’s critical infrastructure from terrorist attack. It is integrating the existing border security and interior enforcement functions; sharing information and counterterrorism cooperation with other responsible federal agencies.10
Office of Homeland Security (2008) carried out that the U.S.A suffered immensely on September 11, 2001. Since then, the President and his colleague made hard and untiring endeavor to safeguard America against another such terrorist attack. The emergence of the new Department of Homeland Security (DHS) is one of the courageous and potential steps. The new department will execute the federal government’s plan to extricate the homeland with the objective of building stronger, safe and secure America.
The National Strategy for Homeland Security was unearthed by the President on July 16, 2002. It is a massive plan for using America’s talents and resources to provide our protection and reduce our vulnerability from terrorism. The budget for the year 2004 provided unstinted supports in the homeland security policy11.
The Primary Mission of homeland security policy is to prevent terrorist attacks within the United States and reduce the vulnerability of the United States from terrorism, minimize the colossal damage, and assist in the recovery from terrorist attacks within the United States. It will carry out all functions of entities to the Department regarding natural and manmade crises and emergency planning. It also ensure that the function of the agencies and subdivisions within the Department that are not related directly to safeguard the homeland and supervise nexus between illegal drug trafficking and terrorism.
After September 11th, the President acted quickly to safeguard the nation. He immediately provided $40 billion in emergency funding and created the Office of Homeland Security, to coordinate the implementation of a comprehensive national strategy to safeguard the United States from terrorist threats. Consequently, on June 6, 2002, the President proposed creating a new cabinet-level department with the primary mission of safeguarding the American people on June 6, 2002. The President signed the Homeland Security Act of 2002 creating the new department.
The American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise (2008) addressed that the department of homeland security (DHS) upholds communication and accountability vacuum by consolidating border and transportation security arrangement. It is creating a focal point to foil terrorist move against vulnerabilities, coordinating homeland security strategy. The President and the Administration are acting speedily swiftly to address the problems of the past and highlight on protection of the American people.
The Department will put into place an organizational structure that meets the dual needs of centralized planning and decentralized operation. Headquarters will be liable for functions such as planning, policy, budgeting, strategy, integrated intelligence and analysis, integrated research and development, information technology, and legal affairs. According to the Homeland Security Act of 2002, DHS is responsible for “providing the Federal Government’s response to terrorist attacks and major disasters.12
Policy Recommendations
The Whitehouse (2008) argued that it is not possible to deprive terrorist organization of raising fund. The aim of policies at disrupting terror money does not appear to be effective. The sequel of such policies is understandable. This course work analysis depicts law enforcement information; case studies and simulation lead to recommend a variety of policy recommendations. This analysis launched operations at tracking terrorist funds.
The impacts of counter finance categories can fall in four different categories:
Decreasing supply of terror funds;
Decreasing demand of terror funds;
Collapsing the mechanisms which enable supply to meet demand
Decreasing the utility of money by increasing the obstacle, terrorist organizations have in making it accessible to those individuals who will use it for launching terrorist insurgency.
It depicts primary counter-finance policies and these policies affect. It provides assessment as to how the US and international community has sought such strategy.13
The first and foremost duty of these organizations is the Financial Action Task Force (FATF). It basically created to combat money laundering. The FATF was established in 1989 in response to the G-7’s recognition of the threat posed by drug money laundering. The result was FATF’s recommendations, which include the following core suggestion.
It needs to criminalize the laundering of criminal proceeds and enacting laws to seize them.
It needs to obliging financial institutions to identify all clients and keep appropriate records.
It needs to requiring financial institutions to report suspicious transactions to the appropriate national authorities.
It had better create and put into place adequate systems for controlling and supervising financial institutions.
It needs to emphasize on agreements to permit each financial jurisdiction to provide effective international cooperation, especially with respect to exchanging financial information and other evidence of a financial crime.
Tom, R., (2008) added that the impacts of these policies include the reactions by terrorist groups to exerting more endeavors to maintain revenue flows. These impacts are reducing scope of operations. The exploiting of these second order impacts is a significant progress regarding counter-terrorism policy.14
Incomplete and unaddressed recommendations
The 9/11 Commission completed its investigation after two years and a half years since its emergence. It offered its recommendations for safeguarding U.S.A from terrorist threats. Nearly half of the recommendations have gone unaddressed. Many of the recommendations have not been effectively or fully implemented. The following report depicts the status of some of the key 9/11 recommendations.
The limited homeland security funds are not being allocated wisely
The first responders do not have the tools they need to effectively respond to terrorist attacks.
The nation’s borders remain porous and vulnerable to terrorist threats
The significant security gaps remain in the transportation systems.
The information sharing remains inadequate.
The current strategy in the war on terrorism is not effectively confronting terrorist threats.
The initiatives to address the threat of nuclear weapons are not as aggressive as they need to be.
The civil liberties guarantees are not being adequately balanced against national security requirements.
Assessment
The Whitehouse (2008) mentioned that the structure in which both the United States and international community approaches terrorist financing has unearthed. These two communities have achieved nominal success in foiling al Qaeda’s finances. The endeavors to disrupt terrorist financing were introduced in antiterrorism strategies. With in a short span of time, the US moved beyond its state-centric approach to terrorist financing in 1995.15 All terrorist groups had diversified their revenue streams beyond exclusive state financing. Realizing the vulnerabilities of keeping assets in the international banking system, al Qaeda mobilized its assets into other areas shortly.
The voluminous funds seized after 9/11 were seized within the first three months after President Bush’s directive (see Figure- 5)
Figure- 5: Cumulative Terrorist Asset Seizures.
Office of Counterterrorism, (2005) mentioned that there has been indication that $136 million in terrorist funds have been seized since 9/11. The claim of seizing $136 million is technically true, it is not authentic. This figure depicts that the total amount of new funds permanently denied to organizations connected with terrorist groups since President Bush issued EO 13924 is less than $50 million that was a negligible amount.16
Conclusion
Various dissident groups’ adopt strategy of attacking by targeting its assets. The new information system has developed regarding both the target and the strategy’s ability to wield influence the target. It would enable policy analysts and policymakers to be fully aware of changes within the greater terrorism phenomenon. Al Qaeda’s financial infrastructure has shown an impressive ability to adapt to adverse conditions.
It will take advantage of available opportunities; pursue creative, non-traditional and unorthodox methods of money management. It geographically launches operations to areas where laws are non-existent. The expanded international endeavors to foil those financial networks face the great challenge for Al Qaeda. It has been portrayed the terrorist activities of Palestine Islamic Jihad (PIJ) especially on Al-Qaida in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) in this assignment. We highlighted on U.S. homeland security policy and how to extricate international community from Islamic terrorist militants.
Bibliography
Arquilla, J., and Ronfeldt, D. (2001), Networks and Netwars: The Future of Terror, Crime, and Militancy. Web.
Algiers Le Jeune (2006), Algerian Security Forces Break Up ‘Major’ Terrorist Support Network in Boundaries, FBIS report, Independent.
Breinholt, J. (2004), Counterterrorism Enforcement: A Lawyer’s Guide. Columbia, SC: Office of Legal Education.
Basics Project, (2008), Terrorism. Web.
Czwarno, M., (2006), In the Spotlight: Organization of Al-Qaida in the Islamic Maghreb. Web.