Category: Terrorism

Terrorism has become a serious and broad issue for the security of the United States since the 9/11 attacks. Foreign terrorist organizations create a hazard of international terrorism and represent a challenging problem as they obtain significant financial resources and power (FBI, n.d.). At the same time, there is a growing issue of domestic terrorism, defined as crimes committed based on domestic influences of a political, religious, social, racial, or environmental nature (FBI, n.d.). Although international terrorist organizations have undermined security in the United States, domestic terrorism appears to be the most dangerous element due to its growing tendencies and unexpected expansion.

Many domestic crimes in the United States raise concerns regarding their definition as terroristic. For instance, the absence of a political element in the crime often hinders defining it as a terrorist act, but researchers argue that such crimes as mass shootings should be referred to as terrorism (Hunter, Ginn, Storyllewellyn, & Rutland, 2020). Mass shootings display the tendency to continue and have become a significant threat to American society. They also correspond to the criterion of creating fear in people, which refers to the definition of terrorism (Hunter, Ginn, Storyllewellyn, & Rutland, 2020). Therefore, mass shootings can be considered a dangerous terrorist element undermining the security of civilians.

Hence, the expansion of social media has contributed to the growing threat of conspiracy theories that inform peoples behaviors. The recent case with the 3N conspiracy theory demonstrates the effects of radicalization and growing violence among individuals who believe in conspiracy ideas (Kruglanski, Molinario, Ellenberg, & Di Cicco, 2022). The robust spread of such theories on social media creates a danger because people who believe in them can ridicule instantly and apply terrorist methods against an alleged enemy (Kruglanski, Molinario, Ellenberg, & Di Cicco, 2022). Consequently, the emergence and influence of such issues are challenging to predict, which makes conspiracy-driven radicalization a dangerous terroristic element.

Overall, such terroristic elements as mass shootings and social radicalization induced by conspiracy theories appear to be the most dangerous terrorist elements in the United States. Although many of these crimes are not officially defined as terrorism, they fit the definition by various criteria and increase the level of fear within society. Continued mass shootings and unexpected tendencies on social media create a significant challenge for state security and social well-being.

References

FBI. (n.d.). Terrorism. FBI. Web.

Hunter, L. Y., Ginn, M. H., Storyllewellyn, S., & Rutland, J. (2020). Are mass shootings acts of terror? Applying key criteria in definitions of terrorism to mass shootings in the United States from 1982 to 2018. Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression, 13(4), 265294. Web.

Kruglanski, A. W., Molinario, E., Ellenberg, M., & Di Cicco, G. (2022). Terrorism and conspiracy theories: A view from the 3N model of radicalization. Current Opinion in Psychology, 47, 101396. Web.

Introduction

Terrorism is a significant threat to domestic and global security. The is no universal definition for terrorism as different actors define the term according to varying considerations. The latest publication of the Global Terrorism Index (GTI) 2022 adopts the terminology defined by Terrorism Tracker (Rise to Peace, 2022). The GTI report indicates that terrorism is the systematic threat or use of violence, by non-state actors, whether for or in opposition to established authority, with the intention of communicating a political, religious or ideological message to a group larger than the victim group, by generating fear and so altering (or attempting to alter) the behavior of the larger group. The GTI report indicates that the definition has not captured all forms of terrorism. Therefore, the meaning can be expanded to include profit-oriented criminal violence, acts of warfare (either irregular or conventional, civil unrest, violent anti-social actions, and other remote acts of violence by unstable people, such as shooting incidents.

Explosives and firearm assaults are the most common weapons used in terror attacks across all regions. Other tools used include fire bombs, combustive devices, knives, and vehicles, among others. The focus of this paper is on terrorism in South America as a result of rising concerns from the United States and other countries. Terrorist groups mainly focus on influencing or overthrowing elected governments (Clifford, 2017). South America has traditionally not been associated with major terrorist activities. However, individual nations struggle with domestic terrorism, and international terrorist groups pose an additional danger by using the region to advance their causes.

Trends in Terrorism in South America

South America is not characterized by major terrorist activities, especially in recent times. The GTI report states that the region recorded a fall in deaths due to terrorism by at least ten percent in 2022. In general, terrorism-related deaths decreased by 41 percent, from 157 to 92 between 2020 and 2021 (Rise to Peace, 2022). The GTI report states that even as five countries in South America improved their GTI score, four nations reported a worse outcome, while two countries had no change. However, the region is not free from challenges associated with terrorism. Even as some countries recorded a decline in terrorist behavior, other countries are in a worse state that threatens their national security.

The GTI developed a composite score that provides an ordinal scale of countries based on the consequences of terrorism. Each country is ranked on a scale of 0 to 10; the best score of 0 symbolizes no effect of terrorism, while the worst score of 10 depicts the highest impact of terrorism that can be measured. The scores show that the overall level of terrorism in South America went up by 0.275 from 2011 to 2021, with Chile, Ecuador, and Venezuela showing an increase in levels of terrorism in a decade (Rise to Peace, 2022). In terms of global rankings, Colombia (14th), Chile (18th), and Peru (37th) had among the highest impacts, while Bolivia and Guyana were both ranked at position 93 (Rise to Peace, 2022). The rankings show that South America is not among the worst areas hit by terrorist activities.

Terrorist Groups in South America

There are numerous terrorist groups in South America, most of which operate across different countries. The worst terrorism in the region involves the National Liberation Army (ELN) and the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC). The two groups that are domiciled in Colombia account for the most terrorist attacks in the region. The FARC is a leftist guerrilla group that is majorly implicated in drug production and trafficking. The terror group was founded in the mid-1960s, while the ELN, a Marxist-Leninist group, was established in 1965. The GTI states that the ELM conducted 35 attacks in 2021, killing 28 people (Rise to Peace, 2022). The FARC and ELM also carry out terrorist operations in Cuba and Venezuela. The Muslim Brotherhood is active in many countries in South America, especially Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, and Peru. The Shining Path is a lethal Maoist rebellion terrorist group that has operated in Peru for over four decades. The GTI report indicates that it was responsible for one terror attack in 2021, which killed 16 people (Rise to Peace, 2022). The Mapuche extremists conduct everyday terrorist activities in Chile.

Apart from the local groups, external players have been involved mainly in propagating terrorist actions in South America. In particular, Iran has been identified as a significant actor in terrorist acts in the region. Jorge (2022) states that the country has shown its desire to expand its influence and scope of action across South America from the northern part of Bolivarian Venezuela to the southern part of Argentina, Brazil in the east, and Chile in the west. Iran has mainly been involved through terrorist groupings, such as ubi Iran, ibi Hezbollah. The Lebanese Party of God organization was involved in the bombing of the Israeli embassy in Buenos Aires (1992) and the AMIA bombing (1994). It has played a crucial part in spreading propaganda, financing, and breeding smuggling activities.

Another Iranian pro-Iranian organization, Al-Tajammu, has spread Iranian influence in South America. According to Jorge (2022), Al-Tajammu, based in Lebanon, is linked to Shiite militias, Hezbollah, and other terrorist organizations such as the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine and the Palestinian Islamic Jihad. Foreign terrorist organizations exert their influence predominantly through the Internet using websites and social media platforms where they share radical revolutionary messages and discussions calling attention to anti-imperialism.

However, the governments in South America have attempted to reduce terrorist actions through various means. The Colombian government has been engaged in protracted standing negotiations with the FARC for a peace agreement. Clifford (2017) states that the government and FARC reached a settlement in late 2016. The Colombian government has adopted supplementary counterterrorism measures, such as boosting the security footprint in major cities, especially Cali. Rise to Peace (2022) states that the newly elected President of Chile, Gabriel Boric, has shown a desire to enhance counterterrorism actions in southern Chile. The Peruvian president has played a significant role in encouraging the region to give priority to the struggle against terrorism in South America.

Conclusion

There are many terrorist activities that make up terrorism ranging from individual actions to operations of organized groups. The activities are propagated through various means, especially using firearms and explosives. South America is not characterized by major terroristic activities, with terrorism being rampant in Columbia, Chile, and Peru. In addition, major terrorist groups account for the majority of attacks and killings, including FARC, ELM, Mapuche, Shining Path, and the Muslim Brotherhood. The region has generally implemented various counterterrorism measures, including peace agreements and enhanced security efforts.

References

Clifford, G. M. (2017). Just counterterrorism. Critical Studies on Terrorism, 10(1), 6792. Web.

Jorge, P. E. (2022). Propaganda, narratives and influence in Latin America: Iran, Hezbollah and Al-Tajammu. ICT. Web.

Rise to Peace, (2022). The global terrorism index: Results and implications in Latin America. Rise to Peace. Web.

In this TED talk, Ali explores the relationship between unemployment and terrorism. Unemployment is one of the challenges facing young people in big cities around the world. As young people pursue their dreams of creating wealth and attaining their goals, they encounter many obstacles that cause frustration and push them to find alternative ways to achieve their objectives. One of the alternatives that many young people explore is joining terrorist groups and other violent organizations (Ali, 2013).

Ali incorporates stories from his native country to support his arguments and explain why it is important to help young people avoid the deadly trap. Terrorist groups lure young people into their organization using money and other incentives (Ali, 2013). They help them take care of their families and find purpose in their lives. Ali argues that inspiring young people and encouraging entrepreneurship is an effective strategy to caution unemployed youths from recruitments by terrorist groups. He urges everyone to incubate and nurture young peoples innovations and empower them to embrace entrepreneurship (Ali, 2013).

References

Ali, M. (2013). The link between unemployment and terrorism. Web.

Introduction

Terrorism has been of social life since the early history of humankind. Nevertheless, the concept of terrorism gained new meaning after the mass-destruction attack on the United States on September 11, 2001. The terrorist attack was carefully planned and resulted in thousands of deaths of civilian people. Terrorism is a war in essence; however, unlike war, the enemy is not always known or can be punished for the crimes. Terrorism is an act carried out by a group of people to impose fear, bring destruction, and kill. 21st-century terrorism is characterized by radical ideologies and it is possible to suggest that contemporary terrorism embeds the ideological tension between the Western and Eastern cultures.

The last 10 years were marked by the increased number of terrorist attacks. Moreover, the destructive consequences of the terrorist attacks gained the national scope. Ironically, while the global society agrees on the statement that terrorism is wrong and should stop, some of the countries use terrorism as their state policy. Such countries as Iran, Syria, Libya, Palestine, and Cuba support terrorists with direction and hosting. Cordesman (2002) argues that some states allow terrorists to operate on their land. The changing terrorist threat makes it more dangerous and difficult to counter despite the international cooperation and unity in efforts to combat terrorism.

Current Definitions

The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) of the United States of America defines terrorism as based on the currently most probable threats rather than examine the full range of possible asymmetric threats and consider how they may evolve (Cordesman 2002, p.12). This definition suggests that terrorism leads to three specific shortcomings:

1. the belief that the terrorism threat comes from illegal or illegitimate groups of people driven by extreme political and ideological motives;
2. the ignorance of the risks associated with the use of more sophisticated weapons and
3. definition of terrorism as an attack produces moderate casualties.

Thus, the traditional definition of terrorism is limited to the attacks by small organizations while it does not take into account that attacks can be planned and organized by strong, non-state, international actors.

In addition to the definition provided by the CIA, there are several alternative definitions of terrorism. For example, the State Department relies on the following definition: premeditated, politically motivated violence against noncombatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an audience (Cordesman 2002, p.12). The Federal Bureau of Investigations (FBI) defines terrorism as the unlawful use of violence, committed by a group of two or more individuals against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives (Cordesman 2002, p.12).

This definition includes bombings, assaults, hijackings, kidnapping, and arson committed by individuals and groups of people. FEMA, on the other side, refers to the following definition of terrorism the use of force or violence against persons or property in violation of the criminal laws of the United States for purposes of intimidation, coercion, or ransom. Terrorists often use threats to create fear among the public, to try to convince citizens that their government is powerless to prevent terrorism, and to get immediate publicity for their causes (Cordesman 2002, pp.12-13).

While there are many official definitions of terrorism, the changing tactics of terrorists require a more sophisticated approach to define terrorism as the threat for or actual violence against humankind.

Historical Overview

From 1955 to 1998, there were approximately 2,700 terrorist incidents in the United States of America (Nunn 2007, p. 90). Therefore, the average annual rate is 63 incidents. The research done by Nunn (2007) did not reveal any tendency in these incidents in terms of geographical location. All 48 states (except Hawaii and Alaska) are highly vulnerable to terrorist attacks. However, in 11 states there were no fatal results of terrorist activities. It is important to add that such organizations as Animal Liberation Front and Earth Liberation Front are also terrorists due to their spread of eco-terrorism.

On the global scale, in the late 1980s, the number of terrorist attacks reached the point of 600 incidents annually (Morgan 2004, p. 29). In the mid-1990s, the number of terrorist attacks slightly decreased.

Nevertheless, the new wave of terrorism at the beginning of the 21st century revealed that it was naïve to think that terrorist attacks will become less destructive and less frequent. The terrorist attacks have become more destructive and culturally driven.

Motivations

To explore the meaning of terrorism in the 21st century, it is vital to address the motives of the terrorists.

According to the National Commission on Terrorism, fanaticism rather than political interests is more often the motivation now, and that terrorists are more unrestrained than ever before in their methods (Morgan 2004, p. 29). Morgan (2004) refers to the cultural motivation of terrorism as non-traditional because it is opposed to political terrorism in terms of targeting the whole nation rather than the government. While previously most terrorist attacks were carried out to alienate people from supporting the decision of the government, contemporary terrorism is focused on the conventional goals of religious movements as well as seeking destruction as the end.

The apocalyptic perspectives and methods applied by todays terrorists make it increasingly challenging to combat terrorism. As Morgan (2004) points out, Todays terrorists dont want a seat at the table, they want to destroy the table and everyone sitting at it (p. 30).

While it is believed that mass-bombings and destruction have always been part of terrorists plans, it would be unreasonable to deny that contemporary terrorism serves international objectives  to end the domination of the Western democratic countries and to impose Islam as the only global religion.

The culture of terrorism is rooted in Islamic radicalism; however, radical interpretation of Islam is not the only factor motivating terrorists. Morgan (2004) suggested that

Numerous cults, whose emergence in many cases has been synchronized with the turn of the new millennium, have also posed an increasing threat. Finally, the American religious right has been active with escalating and destructive objectives, although law enforcement presence has restrained these groups (p. 30)

In addition to religious aspects of terrorists motivation, political aims should also be mentioned. Religiously motivated terrorist groups strive to achieve greater results than terror and fear. Politically-driven terrorism, on the other side, includes nationalism, anarchism, and Marxism. Contemporary terrorism is both political and religious even though the religious motivation is the strongest. As Morgan (2004) concluded, For religious terrorists, indiscriminate violence may not be only morally justified, but constitute a righteous and necessary advancement of their religious cause (p. 31). The same conclusion was reached by Ranstorp (1996) five years before the attack on the United States on September 11, 2001.

Ironically, terrorist groups do not have the same resources as the American government does; while the terrorist groups are most successful in carrying out their plans. Their success suggests that the United States needs to reconsider the definition as well as the scope of terrorism. The revival of religious terrorism has the most devastating impact on the security and safety of the global population. Targeting all Western-type countries, religious terrorists aim to bring the greatest destruction and the greatest number of deaths to civilian people. The religious terrorist groups are the most dangerous because their attacks rest on the strong ideological commitment to their aims (Ranstorp 1996, p. 41).

Combating Terrorism

Despite the international cooperation in combating terrorism, there is little evidence to support the statement that terrorism is declining. The war in Iraq did not bring desired results. While from an official perspective, modern Iraq is almost democratic; however, from a religious perspective, it will never become such. Jackson (2002) highlights that one of the reasons why initiates to combat terrorism fail is inadequate understanding of the nature, the extent of terrorisms reach, and its power to threaten the global population. In addition, it is not reasonable to assume that terrorists target only the most developed democratic countries such as the United States and the United Kingdom. In particular, terrorists activities are part of daily life for thousands of people in Algeria, an unstable developing country (Jackson 2002).

Jackson (2002) points out that it is a myth to believe that terrorism can be defeated.

The reality is that terrorism can never be eliminated or suppressed by any society, much less a democratic one. It is far more helpful to view it as a problem somewhat akin to organized crime. While a range of law enforcement agencies attempt to suppress and curtail it, no one entertains the unrealistic expectation that organized crime can ever be eliminated (Jackson 2002, p. 6)

While the acceptance of this reality requires courage and admittance of the failure, the realization of the undefeatable nature of terrorism may improve the effectiveness of counter-terrorism programs.

However, it does not mean that terrorism should be accepted as normal or legitimate. The attack on September 11, 2002, has encouraged the international community to reconsider the global perspectives on terrorism. As the result, prominent politicians, leaders of international organizations, and non-profit units have developed several strategies to deal with terrorism. While the strategies are diverse, they share a vision that the only path to global security is through international law rather than military intervention. The set of specific international laws has been already ratified by most of the developed countries. These international laws include:

Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, the International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings, the International Convention for the Suppression of Financing Terrorism, the Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production, and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and Their Destruction, and the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (Cohn 2002, p. 33)

Even though international terrorism cannot be fully eliminated, international cooperation in combating terrorism is the fundamental requirement for the successful prevention of terrorist attacks.

It is a well-established fact that terrorism has many supporters. From one side, there are countries with corrupted governments that offer hosting and other support to terrorist groups. On the other side, there are groups of people who share with the terrorists the belief that the domination and intervention of the developed countries, mostly the United States of America, into foreign affairs have reached an unacceptable limit. It should be accepted that there are many reasons why people support terrorism. Even though the number of supporters is low, their assistance helps terrorists carry out their destructive plans.

In conclusion, the success of counter-terrorism campaigns depends on an adequate understanding of the essence of terrorism in the 21st century. In the light of the lack of the global definition of terrorism, the anti-terrorism programs are weak. The failure to combat terrorism reveals that the international community does not have a proper understanding of the motivations that guide and inspire terrorists. Contemporary terrorism is characterized by the extreme cultural clash between the Western and Eastern worlds.

The consideration of the ideological and cultural motivations of terrorists will increase the effectiveness of the counter-terrorism efforts on the global level. While only a decade ago the majority of the terrorist attacks serves as a tool to express disagreement with policies or the government, todays terrorism has the aim of destroying the superiority of the Western ideology. Terrorism is a crime against humankind as it results in thousands of deaths of innocent people.

References

Cohn, M 2002, Understanding, Responding to and Preventing Terrorism, Arab Studies Quarterly, pp. 25-39.

Cordesman, A 2002, Terrorism, Asymmetric Warfare, and Weapons of Mass Destruction: Defending the U.S. Homeland, Praeger, Westport.

Jackson, R 2002, The Discourses of Terrorism: Myths and Misconceptions Richard Jackson Discusses the Nature of Terror and Questions the Likelihood of Success in the Present United States-Led War on It, New Zealand International Review, vol. 27, no. 2, pp. 2-9.

Morgan, M 2004, The Origins of the New Terrorism, Parameters, vol. 34, no. 1, pp. 29-37.

Nunn, S 2007, Incidents of Terrorism in the United States, 1997-2005, Geographical Review, vol. 97, no. 1, pp. 89-93.

Ranstorp, M 1996, Terrorism in the Name of Religion, Journal of International Affairs, vol. 50, no. 1, pp. 41-49.

The growing numbers of terrorist organizations pose a threat to the government and the residents at the location of their operations. For instance, the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) is recognized as one of the most successful insurgent groups. Established by Velupillai Prabhakaran, it has organized many guerilla attacks since 1976, resulting in increasing numbers of deaths (Chalk, 2021). It seems significant to research the motives of the organization to understand why it chooses to operate this way and endanger the lives of innocent people. Furthermore, it is critical to analyze the groups conflicts with the government or the local police to seek possible solutions for suppressing LTTEs forces in Sri Lanka and, eventually, internationally. Overall, this paper aims to make a prognosis of the LTTEs future operations and answer the question of the possibility of stopping the LTTEs functions in Sri Lanka.

Reference

Chalk, P. (2021). Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelams (LTTE) international organization and operations  A preliminary analysis. Intelligence Resource Program (IRP). Web.

Introduction

South America is not considered a major terrorist region globally. However, a few countries report significant domestic disturbances caused by insurgent groups seeking specific objectives. The groups have set bases in Colombia and Peru, carrying out terrorist activities through war, violence, and ideological impacts. Colombia is home to the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) and the National Liberation Army (ELN) (Meernik & King, 2021). Terrorism in Peru is majorly carried out by the Sendero Luminoso or Shining Path (SL) and the Revolutionary Movement Túpac Amaru (MRTA) (Escalante, 2021). Terrorist organizations were founded to achieve political and ideological objectives using guerilla warfare and radicalization. Terrorist activities in both countries have been characterized by massive loss of life, disappearances, and displacement. Individual countries have suffered economic, political, and social losses through drug trafficking.

Causes of Terrorism in Colombia and Peru

The FARC, ELN, and SL were founded in the 1960s, characterized by regional political disturbance, while the MRTA was established in 1983. FARC and ELN emerged in Colombia as the organizations felt they had been sidelined in power-sharing agreements following the end of the fighting (Meernik & King, 2021). They emerged as communist guerrillas and took up arms to fight the government and seize control. The FARC mainly targeted peasant self-defense groups and militant communists. At the same time, the ELN gained a massive following from Catholic radicals, students, and left-wing scholars who desired to imitate Fidel Castros communist insurgency.

In Peru, the SL began as a small communist extremist organization under Abimael Guzmán, a philosophy professor who disagreed with Perus prevailing political elites. His followers drew on Marxism and the example of Cubas Fidel Castro. They merged into a significant and violent guerrilla army that regularly used terrorist tactics to destabilize and overthrow the Peruvian government (Shane, 2021). Escalante (2021) indicates that MRTA emerged as a Marxist organization seeking to free Peru of all imperialists. The group championed numerous communist doctrines that resulted in the Cuban revolution (Shane, 2021). The group also aimed to clean up the Peruvian government and build a community in which property rights would be shared and everyone enjoyed the same level of affluence.

Consequences of Terrorism in Colombia and Peru

In Colombia, the FARC and ELN have wreaked havoc, resulting in numerous consequences to human life, property, and ideology. The ELN emerged strongly as an ideological organization in comparison to FARC, even though both groups share similar modes of operation (Meernik & King, 2021). The organizations largely caused economic challenges due to opposition to privatizing natural resources. They claimed their position was based on the desire to represent the rural poor against Colombias elitist people. The groups have collaboratively executed terrorist activities in various parts of the country but clashed in other areas.

FARC and ELN mainly use kidnappings, violence, and extortion to gain leverage and finances. For instance, the FARC kidnaped presidential candidate Ingrid Betancourt in 2002, who was held along with three United States military contractors for six years (Shane, 2021). The group claimed to assassinate a former culture minister in 2001 and hijacked a domestic commercial flight in 2002 from where they managed to abduct a senator (Shane, 2011). According to Meernik and King, (2021), FARC alone caused the death of 220,000 people in about half a century, while 25,000 disappeared and over 5.7 million were displaced. In Peru, the SL and MRTA caused the death of over 69,000 people through internal conflict in two decades, with the SL accounting for over 50 percent of the losses (Escalante, 2021). Most victims were farmers since the attacks predominantly happened in rural areas.

However, MRTA has been reserved for violent means by opting to cause the least amount of injuries. They often warn of their attacks in advance. It is known for holding 490 people captive in 1996 in the Japanese embassy in Lima, aiming to release its jailed comrades.

The groups have further been involved in drug trafficking. Colombia is recognized as a major hub for cocaine production and trafficking of illicit drugs, mainly propagated by the FARC to generate revenue. Meernik and Kin ( 2021) state that the FARC accounted for over 60 percent of Colombian cocaine exports to the United States. As a result, the United States froze the assets of several FARC members it singled out as notable drug traffickers.

Peru has witnessed drug trafficking actions at a smaller scale compared to Colombia. Shane (2021) states that the ELN avoided drug trafficking for years and has recently been involved in the illicit trade. He further indicates that the organization is linked to a massive cocaine processing plant in western Colombia. Terrorist organizations have further engaged in illegally extracting resources, such as gold, to generate more funds (Escalante, 2011). The SL of Peru has also financed its operations from funds obtained through the trafficking of narcotics and forced taxation on individuals and small businesses in areas they predominately control (Shane, 2021). These terrorist undertakings resulted in economic sabotage of the local economy and distraction of social, ideological, and cultural connections.

Conclusion

Colombia and Peru are the top hot spots for terrorism in South America. The two countries are home to the biggest terrorist organizations in the region, including the FARC, ELN, SL, and MRTA. The groups emerged mainly in the 1960s to oppose discrimination in governments through war and violence. The activities of the groups have resulted in the death of thousands of people and the displacement of millions, especially in rural areas. They caused political instability through kidnappings and extortion. They engage in illicit trade involving the trafficking of narcotics, illegal extraction of resources, and taxation of individuals and small businesses.

References

Escalante, E. E. (2021). A self-defense network against terrorism and crime: Evidence from Peru. Terrorism and Political Violence, 118. Web.

Meernik, J., & King, K. (2021). Political violence and language endangerment in Colombia. Terrorism and Political Violence, 117. Web.

Shane, R. (2021). Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism in Latin America: A comparative study of Peru and Colombia. Global Tides, 15(1). Web.

The instance of a terrorist act is always a tragic occurrence since, especially when it results in a tremendous number of casualty and the deaths of innocent civilians. Although the very fact of a perpetrator threatening the lives of numerous people creates a sense of deeply seated insecurity within the community, the presence of victims makes the situation even more drastic, aggravating the problem. The 26/11 attacks represent the specified problem since they have shaken the Indian population to its core, causing them to experience profound fear for their lives. Thu, examining the effects of the specified terrorist act will allow addressing the observed problem, while also learning how to predict and prevent the acts of terror in the future.

The attack in question transpired on November 26-29, 2008, in Mumbai, India. The attack was perpetrated by unknown individuals from Pakistan, who, presumably, belonged to the Lashkar-e-Taiba group, allegedly associated with Al-Qaeda. The attack had been taking place for four days, with continuous shooting and bombing of the areas in the vicinity, which led to the tragic deaths of numerous civilians. Unfortunately, only one of the victims managed to survive the attacks; the rest were killed in the shootings and the bombings. Zakiur Rehman Lakhvi, a Pakistani citizen, was defined as the leader of the terrorist group.

When considering the case of the 26/11 terrorist attack and making necessary conclusions, one should point out the fact that the perpetration under analysis has been a massive intelligence oversight. Due to the failure to control the areas that are highly exposed to the potential threat of acts of terror, as well as being unable to identify a threat when it became evident, the representatives of the Mumbai intelligence showed the lack of preparedness and the need to improve the current intelligence standards and risk management.

Namely, the need to scan the target environment for the presence of possible threats on a regular basis has been identified as a major issue that has been, unfortunately, omitted when handling the issues of foreign policy and creating a safety framework for safeguarding the lives of Mumbai citizens. As a result, the area that was left exposed experienced a drastic attack that led to devastating outcomes and the deaths of numerous innocent people. The analysis of the 26/11 case holds major significance since the assessment of the outcomes and the analysis of the factors that have contributed to the specified disaster will lead to the improvement in the current state of intelligence in Mumbai. Namely, the case will point to the strategies of forecasting terrorist attacks in more efficient way and introducing the protection measures that will allow shielding people form further instances of terrorist acts, as well as identifying the emergent threats and preventing specified acts of terror accordingly. Namely, the attack has shown that even the slightest warning signs must not be taken for granted but, instead, have to be viewed as the legitimate source of threat. Additionally, multiple avenues for handling the situation and enhancing the safety of civilians must be introduced, even though the described measures may turn out to be unnecessary eventually. Overall, the 26/11 tragedy has demonstrated the need to prioritize the safety and security of the population and recognize the early warning signs of the possible threat, especially in the situations of political conflicts and ongoing confrontations.

In Combs Terrorism in the Twenty-First Century, Chapter 4 Criminals or Crusaders? describes and attempts to unravel the thinking that drives terrorists to act the way they do. The chapter begins by classifying three categories of persons who commit terrorism, according to Fredrick Hacker. According to him, terrorists can be crazies, crusaders, or criminals. Hacker identifies crazies as individuals who are emotionally disturbed and who indulge in terrorism for what is only known to them.

As criminals, terrorists commit acts of terrorism for personal gain. Such terrorists are fully aware of what they are doing and will accept negotiation in exchange for profit and/or passage. Crusaders are a type of terrorists who do not go after material gain but prestige and power for a collective cause. Crusaders often base their terrorist acts on the belief that they are serving a higher authority. This type of terrorism is most common currently is almost always driven by religion or politics.

According to hackers, to effectively deal with terrorism one needs to understand them. He identifies criminals as the easiest to negotiate with as compared to crusaders who are much more committed to their cause. The author proposes negotiations to be done with leaders of a terrorist rather than a whole group due to mob mentality.

As described by Edgar OBallance, a successful terrorist is one who is dedicated, brave, without pity or remorse, fairly intelligent and sophisticated, and be reasonably well educated and with good general knowledge.

The author describes dedication as the most important aspect of modern terrorism and cites terrorist groupings such as the Palestinian and the Hamas.

The author identifies the struggle for a common cause as a significant motivating factor for terrorism. The author completes the chapter by looking at the changing trends in modern terrorism, which now has less educated younger men and increased womens involvement.

Introduction

To begin with, it is necessary to mention that mitigation is the key assignment of the emergency management. Mitigation itself is the necessary effort aimed at decreasing the dangerous impact of disasters on people and property. The mitigation actions should be taken before the disaster strikes. Mitigation of the terrorism includes the security measures, aimed at excluding the likelihood of a terroristic attack. From the viewpoint of risk assessment and prevention, terrorism mitigation requires the incorporation of serious security measures on the governmental level. Originally, managing security risks on the governmental level are associated with the increasing reliance on the IT sphere. (Bullock, 2006, 17) Particularly, the federal agencies, like any other organization, have to find the necessary ways of preventing, or, at least, mitigating the probable hazard, and the approaches for finding these ways are different, and depend on every particular situation.

Mitigation

The evaluation of the potential risks from terrorist actions is similar to the evaluation of other risks and hazards, such as dam failure, earthquake or any other event where the annual probability of such event is comparatively low, however, the consequences may be high. These events, first of all, should be included in the mitigation planning. The consequences of serious terrorist actions are generally rather dangerous, thus, the pragmatic measures should be inevitably warranted. (Smith, 2006, 56)

Originally, the effects of terrorism can vary significantly from loss of single life to mass destruction, numerous injuries and damage to infrastructure: electricity, water supply, transportation and communications. From this point of view, the preparation for terroristic attack is similar to any catastrophe. It is necessary to emphasize that mitigation measures from other disasters often help to decrease the consequences of a terroristic attack. Thus, the all-hazards mitigation approaches are elaborated. These techniques are created on the basis of the existing programs that are aimed to mitigate natural and technological disasters, focusing on public security. The mitigation steps entail the following points:

• Define the vulnerabilities of the facility or infrastructure, and fined structural strategies of mitigation
• Increase security measures at critical objects
• Create the vehicle barrier systems
• Define the mitigation strategies in order to increase security measures, and reduce the vulnerability of the objects.
• Incorporate the coordinated and well-elaborated emergency management systems, improve and enhance the communication systems (Lesser, 1999, 23)

The mitigation actions which are aimed at decreasing the terroristic attack risks also entail the following steps:

• Define the specific consequences which should be avoided
• Evaluate the credibility of malevolent actions
• Estimate the current safety measures.
• Set up the priorities in risk mitigation plan (Levy, 2003, 38)

Conclusion

Risk mitigation is the serious task which should be solved not only by business corporations, but also by federal agencies. Originally, risks are evaluated depending on the profile of the company, however, the consequences of the disasters may be equally hazardous. Terrorism mitigation is the assignment that should be solved on all governmental levels, and, in comparison with risk mitigation the terrorism mitigation entails several additional steps, as originally, risk mitigation and terrorist mitigation are similar tasks.

References

Bullock, J. A., Haddow, G. D., Coppola, D., Ergin, E., Westerman, L., & Yeletaysi, S. (2006) Introduction to homeland security Elsevier publishing

Lesser, I. O., Hoffman, B., Arquilla, J., Ronfeldt, D., & Zanini, M. (1999). Countering the New Terrorism. Santa Monica, CA: Rand.

Levy, B. S. & Sidel, V. W. (Eds.). (2003). Terrorism and Public Health: A Balanced Approach to Strengthening Systems and Protecting People. New York: Oxford University Press.

Smith, J. F. (2006). Budgeting for Disasters: Part I. Overview of the Problem Budgeting Philosophies and Practices Can Be Applied to Different Disaster Response Challenges: Planning, Prevention, Preparedness, Mitigation, Response, Recovery, Remediation, and Reconstruction. The Public Manager, 35(1), 11

Dissecting the Definition: The Complex Nature of Terrorism

First, terrorism is a growing problem that our world leaders have faced, particularly in the last thirty years since the 9/11 attacks. Over the years, a variety of governments and world powers have tried to agree on a singular way to define terrorism, but it is often confused and compared to other forms of political and social violence. The boundaries between these different forms of violence are often blurred. This leads to difficulties when it comes to charging the perpetrators of these acts. Therefore, the question is, what is terrorism? The actual definition of terrorism remains complex and controversial. Because of the inherent ferocity and violence of terrorism, the term has been heavily stigmatized.

According to the Larousse dictionary’s direct definition, terrorism is a set of violent acts (attacks, hostage-taking, etc.) committed by an organization or individual to create a climate of insecurity, to blackmail a government, to assuage hatred towards a community, a country, a system.’ In broader terms, terrorism is the unlawful use of violence and intimidation in pursuit of political objectives. While we understand that the definition is unspecific and subjective, it outlines a box in which terrorism is found.

The Evolution of Terrorism: From Historical Acts to 9/11

Throughout history, terrorist attacks have been recorded around the world. However, the 20th century has seen great changes in the use and practice of terrorism. Technological advances, such as automatic weapons and explosives, have given terrorists new mobility and lethality. In addition, the development of air travel has provided new methods and opportunities for new threats. As a result of these tactics, on September 11, 2001, the most destructive terrorist attack the world has ever seen was committed when four airplanes were hijacked by members of the revolutionary group Al Qaeda. Two of the planes crashed into the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center in New York City, a third hit the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia, just outside of Washington, D.C., and the fourth crashed into a field in Shanksville, Pennsylvania.

Counter-Terrorism: The Global Response to an Ever-Present Threat

In the space of less than ninety minutes, the world changed. Nearly three thousand people were killed that day, and the United States quickly became embroiled in what would become the longest war in its history, a war estimated to cost eight trillion dollars. The events of September 11 not only reshaped the global response to terrorism but also raised new and troubling questions about security, privacy, and the treatment of prisoners. They reshaped U.S. immigration policies and led to an upsurge in discrimination, racial profiling, and hate crimes.

Following the attacks of September 11, 2001, the meaning of the word terrorism has changed in every American household. Before, it was a distant word that was not personal, but after the horrific events that took place that September morning, everything changed. Terrorist attacks are a persistent global threat that knows no borders, no nationality, and no religion, and it is a challenge that the international community must face together. This threat must be fought with determination and solidarity. Counter-terrorism, a military tactic, has been introduced to combat the new and growing crisis.

Work on counter-terrorism focuses on improving threat awareness developing preparedness and response capabilities. It is about creating alliances and systems within organizations to demilitarize and disarm specific political groups with violent and destructive methods.

References

1. Global Terrorism: Origins and Evolution. Smith, J., & Jones, R. (2005). Oxford University Press.
2. Larousse Dictionary. (2022). Definition of Terrorism. Paris: Larousse Publishing.
3. The Age of Terrorism. Wilkinson, P. (1987). London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
4. Inside Terrorism. Hoffman, B. (2006). Columbia University Press.