Cyberterrorism is a serious problem and global concern nowadays. It is usually defined as a politically motivated attack via computers or other information technology that aims at causing damage to a person, a group of people, organizations, or a country and widespread fears in society (Jarvis & Macdonald, 2015). The main dangers of cyberterrorism are the inability to identify an attacker, unlimited boundaries, speed, and low costs. Some people do not even understand the reality of this problem. However, research shows that more than 200,000 new malware samples are developed every day (Dascalescu, 2018). Cyberterrorists may create the conditions under which a person can lose $10 or $100 million in a short period of time (Dascalescu, 2018). The requirement of cyberterrorism is high-tech knowledge.
Dangers of Cyberterrorism
At this moment, a number of attempts are made to deal with cyberterrorism. The government and multiple local and national organizations aimed at promoting overall protection for society. Today, almost every person uses the Internet for a person or professional goals. Therefore, such simple but crucial steps as the creation of strong passwords, the development of firewalls, key encryption, and the improvement of protection systems cannot be ignored. Many newspapers and online forums discuss the importance of protecting emails and PCs because the dangers of cyberterrorism have no limits. Cybercrimes challenge modern society (Kieseberg, Segou, & Roli, 2015). It is recommended to focus on the recent technological progress (new computers and software), social considerations (new social conflicts and concerns), economic impact (the level of unemployment and poverty), and political involvement (unstable political situations and poorly developed national relationships).
Protection to Cyberterrorism
Though there are many dangers of cyberterrorism, there are also many ways of how to stay protected against such attacks. Sometimes, people ignore such steps as the necessity to change a password from time to time, update systems, and address a professional for help. However, when a person neglects the threat of cybercrime, it is easy to become a victim. Therefore, several protective suggestions have to be considered:
Create strong passwords and change them from time to time (birthdates, family names, or passport data are not as reliable and secrete to other users as a person may think);
Change network configurations as soon as a defect is defined (even if you are not sure about an attack, it does not take much time to change the system compared to the outcomes of possible attacks);
Update your programs using credible sources (though it is easy to find and update online, one should remember that some sources may have viruses and other harmful programs);
Use audit systems to define intruders (today, many licensed programs can be offered to computer users to promote safety);
Be careful working online (it is necessary to avoid the acceptance of unknown contacts and never open suspicious emails as they are one of the most frequently used sources of viruses).
Conclusion
In general, cyberterrorism is a problem that cannot be ignored. In addition to the fact that people should be cautious about using suspicious websites and accepting unknown contacts, they have to protect their system by creating strong passwords, updating working systems, and using audit systems. Cyberterrorism is dangerous due to its unpredictability and variety. Though the government and special organizations aim at developing safe systems and protection for online users, a person has to be responsible for their own protection and continue improving knowledge about cyberspace and cybercrimes not to become a victim.
Jarvis, L., & Macdonald, S. (2015). What is cyberterrorism? Findings from a survey of researchers. Terrorism and Political Violence, 27(4), 657-678.
Kieseberg, P., Segou, O. E., & Roli, F. (2015). CyberROAD: Developing a roadmap for research in cybercrime and cyberterrorism. ERCIM NEWS, 102, 50-51. Web.
In the discussion about the full rights of the president, it is observed that the Supreme Court in the U.S has been very doubtful about the Bushs administration views on terrorism. This Court has limited restrictions on what the president can do or not. President Bush on most of the occasion has not been on the right an account. This has seriously reduced and demonstrated him as a violator of most of what the American constitution entails in resistance of the US Constitution delivered at Constitution Hall in Washington, DC.
Discussion
Despite criticism from a huge number of American citizens, the president claims that he has unilateral rights to go on with the war without a review of the recommended laws put in place by the Congress. Various depiction as a result of this abuse resulted to denial of any involvement by the Congress. The result was that, Foreign Intelligence and Surveillance Act (FISA) whose work is to be certain that overseas intelligence observation has been reluctant since it has all the mutual authority from the president.
it is however during this period that the President in the process had to go out of his way to restore confidence to the American people that one some occasions the judicial permission is required for any government taking up war to another country. These lawful acts safeguards are still in place but astonishingly the Presidents statements turned out to be false. Therefore the president of the United States in the resent times has been breaking the law over and over and persistently for his own good.In most instances, a leader who does not adhere to the law is a threat to the structure of the U.S Government.This is in accordance to the founding fathers who were unbending because they had put in place laws and they acknowledged that the structure of government which had been enshrined in the Constitution had an organization of checks and balances with a central purpose of governing through the rule of law.
Recent studies declassified documents showing that the war in Afghanistan which was given a full backing by senate was actually based on false information. On the other hand, the judgment by Congress to give authority on the Iraqi War perpetuated on the basis of wrong information. At this point, America would have been better off getting to know the truth and trying to avoid both of these huge mistakes in the history.
There is one thing that ought to be agreed upon, in that the danger from terrorism is all very real and there is merely no question that America should continue to go through.challenges steped in the wake of September 11th attack. The American government ought to be watchful in trying to shield its citizens from danger. A disagreement should come in where the President has to break the law to hinder terrorism a factor that can result to a weaker and more vulnerable exposure of the U.S citizens to attacks.
Contradictions in Bush Administration have sprouted up and there are claims that are defending their unprecedented power grabs.However the Attorney General asserts that the executive knew that the NSAs scheme was a forbidden one by existing law and that they had to consult with some section of Congress on changing the statute but since they were told that it probably would not be possible, there was no point of them to disagree on the Authorization of the Use of the military (Dickinson).
President Bush failed to convince the Congress so as to be given all the authority he acquired on the amendment of the AUMF but he secretly assumed power in the end and as if the congressional authorization was not of e y use therefore proceeded with his war on terror.
Looking at the war with Iraq, it was not worth the loss of Americans lives and other cost of attacking Iraq because up to date most of the families who were affected are still in pain since they either lost a family member or friend for some political gain of a single person (Feldman 67). President Bush on his part asserted since he was worried about the culture that devalues life and being an American president he had an a duty to advocate for the protection of every individuals life. This statement however true it may be was based on the fight for supremacy at the expense of others that who entail the Americans lives that have so far been lost.
The question of whether to get rid of dictators in other countries is relative because it depends on thet level of dictatorship that is taking place in the said country. At some point, it will be a no because when a country helps another to get rid of a dictator, the helping country will invest much in this project thus affecting the economic status of the country. Like what happened in the U.S, it spent much of its budget in military sidelining other projects, this lead to the current economic situation where the dollar is declining compared to other strong currencies. When a country is spending more than their income, it is the common man who is going to suffer because their will be an increase in the tax ratios so as to cover the influx.
The other thing about getting rid of a Bush leadership is that he suppressed human rights since he used force so as to control the situation in the war between the U.S and Iraq. However, during this process several lives were lost. There was massive killing of the Iraqi militia leading to deprivation of human rights. Therefore when such acts are being committed , there will be war and the impact of war will lead to destruction of properties and a decline in economic situation of that country thus still the common man of the affected country will suffer since they will not be working and others will not engage in food production activities thus leading to hunger striking a group that are low income earners.
The Americans do not understand the issue of tradeoffs for security because if we look at the debate that sums up post 9/11 political affairs, it is politics that deals with security issues versus privacy. Discussions to monitor all the rights that an individual possesses is like taking off once life and it involves taking up all internet connections for security reasons an idea that is so extreme that the whole word will also feel too mild. In order for cyberspace to be policed all the internet surfing will have to be watched closely and this would mean that they will be providing the government with the power to look into the content of any e-mail received and all file transfer or any Web search.
Google has records that could also help in a cyber-investigation and it is said that privacy and security are said to be a zero-sum game. Were by if any privacy and security would really be a zero-sum game, there would have been mass migration into East Germany and current China because it is true that police states like those of China and Germany have less street crime and no one can try to argue that the general public are necessarily more secure. Debates have risen that there should be trade off security and privacy so often.Protection and privacy are not conflicting ends of a swing, one does not have to recognize merely less in one to get more of the other.
Since 9/11, just about three things have been in potential improvement, that is the airline security which entails reinforcing of the cockpit doors and the other prominent parts of an airplane. Everything else including all the security procedures that have an effect on the privacy, isecurity threats and are seen as a waste of effort.
By the same voucher, many of the security measures are being taken including a thorough look of national ID cards, warrant less massive data mining so it does very little to advance security and in some cases cause harm the security system. The government still claims of their success to be either wrong, or against fake threats therefore leading us to think that the debate going on is not for security versus privacy, it involves liberty versus control (Farer 361).
This can be noted in the comments made by government officials under Bush that privacy will no longer mean anonymity but Instead it should have a different meaning that the government and business to gain properly should safeguard individuals private communications and monetary information that is everybody is expected to give up control of their isolation to others, who most probably get to make decision of how much of it is that deserve and what dont you deserve (Stellios 30).
It therefore will result that people would have to choose security over privacy even if you dont subscribe since it is obvious that security is one of the most important factors since it is vital to the survival, however, not just to human being but also to every living thing. Bush must know that privacy is unique to a person, but its a collective need and it is vital to personal dignity, to family life and to society and to what creates us to be uniquely human but not for survival.
Conclusion
When people set up untrue dichotomy it will of course lead peoples will to choose security over privacy in particular if they are scared them first. But it is still a false dichotomy since there is therefore no security when there is no privacy. Therefore liberty needs both the security and privacy since those people who would give in to essential liberty so as to purchase a small momentary safety, ought to have neither liberty nor safety.
Bibliography
Feldman D, Deprivation of Liberty in Anti-Terrorism Law (2008) 67(1) Cambridge Law Journal 4.
Laura Dickinson Using Legal Process to Fight Terrorism: Detentions, Military Commissions, International Tribunals and the Rule of Law Journal: California 2003 Law Review.
Michael Kent.A global view on the war against terrorism focus on the developed nations.Longman publications 2006 (2) 22-26.
Stellios J, Sedition, Security and Human Rights: Unbalanced Law Reform in the War on Terror (2006) 30(3) Melbourne University Law Review 923.
Tom J. Farer Beyond the Charter Frame: Unilateralism or Condomunium The American Journal of International Law, Vol. 96, No. 2. pp. 359-364. 2008. Web.
Agro-terrorism is a form of bioterrorism that is gradually taking shape across the world following realization by the terrorists that it is cheap but effective means of weakening great economies of the world, threatening the lives of many people and causing political instability.
Agricultural sector is highly susceptible to terrorists because agricultural activities occur in expansive tracts of land where security surveillance is minimal, unlike business activities in towns that receive maximum protection from all forms of criminal activities. Moreover, ability to culture virulent pathogens and accessibility to poisonous chemicals predispose agricultural products to acts of terrorism.
Water infrastructural systems also provide means to terrorists of propagating their activities since contamination of water using virulent pathogens and poisonous chemicals have magnified effect due to great number of industries, farms, people, and animals relying on water supply from a common source. Therefore, agro-terrorism activities that target food and water supply are posing threatening challenge to agricultural economy, health of population and political stability of many countries.
Introduction
Following the September 11, 2001, attacks, the United States has been facing constant terror from terrorists for they seemed to be in a position to use all possible means of attacks including biological weapons. Biological weapons are increasingly becoming terrorists means of attacking or instilling fears to Americans.
Given that agro-terrorism falls under biological weapons, terrorists have vowed to use agro-terrorism to attack the United States and its allies across the world. This means that agro-terrorism is becoming a national security as it is threatening food production and subsequently, human health. In agro-terrorism, terrorists generate plant and animal pathogens that have potential to cause diseases with the view of instilling fear, causing agricultural losses, economic instability, and even deaths of human beings.
Monke (2004) argues that, agriculture is more susceptible to acts of terrorism because terrorists prefer using plants and animals as they have diverse pathogens as compared to human beings, it is hard to protect expansive farms, production and processing of food entail long procedures, and that agriculture is central to economic growth of a country (p.5).
Thus, agriculture is a potential means of terrorism since human beings are dependent on agricultural food. Moreover, since human beings rely on water and aquatic organisms as food, water systems also pose potential source of terrorism. Given that agro-terrorism has potential effect on food and water systems, what are the current agro-terrorism events with respective lessons learned, and greatest impending threats that the world is facing?
Agro-Terrorism in Food and Water Systems
Agro-terrorism is threatening the safety of food and water systems because terrorists are increasingly innovating various means of propagating terrorism activities in jurisdictions of their perceived enemies. Counter-terrorism experts argue that agro-terrorism is an emerging terrorism issue that seems to have potential impact of undermining not only safety and security of the people but also poses great challenge to health and economies of nations.
Due to its potential impacts, legal experts have defined agro-terrorism as deliberate use or introduction of pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, fungi or protozoa into plants and animals with the objective of eliciting food insecurity, threatening lives of the people, destabilizing food industry and consequently causing economic losses.
According to Hurt (2010), agro-terrorism is affordable means that terrorists use to attack United States economy, disrupts political stability, generate terror on food security and propagate their activities and networks (p.4). Despite the potential impact that agro-terrorism poses, the United States is insufficiently prepared because there are diverse pathogens that terrorists may deploy, thus making it hard to devise intervention measures that involve detection, prevention, and management in the event of attacks.
Although terrorists utilize pathogens that target animals and plants, their primary objective is to attack human beings. Since plants and animals interact effectively with human beings and provide source of staple food, terrorists have noted that introduction of pathogens through them is an effective and affordable means of creating terror among humanity.
Since economies of most countries heavily rely on agriculture, terrorists have found out that agro-terrorism is an effective way of crippling agricultural and food industries so as to subject target population to economic and political crises.
According to Monke (2004), potential impact of agro-terrorism emerged in the year 2002 when United States military found out Al-Qaeda manuals showing procedures of creating poisonous plants and animals to threaten existence of agricultural and food industries in the United States with a view of crippling the economy (p.6).
Since terrorists aim at crippling United States powers across the world, they are employing agro-terrorism in weakening social, economic, and political stability because agriculture interfaces with them.
Expansive nature of agricultural resources in farms and diversity of pathogens make it challenging to devise and implement counter-terrorism measures. Moreover, agricultural production and processing of food is a long procedure that is highly susceptible to contamination by terrorists. Thus, agro-terrorism poses significant threat to food security and safety.
Apart from threatening food safety and security, terrorists can also direct their attacks on water infrastructural systems by contaminating or disrupting water supply.
Since government is responsible in ensuring that citizens get sufficient and quality water, contamination or disruption of water supply means that government does not perform its role of protecting the interests of the public, thus creates social and political instability. Also, lack of water or contamination of water results into serious health and environmental problems that are difficult to address or costly to mitigate.
Copeland and Cody (2005) assert that, water infrastructural facilities are very susceptible to terrorist attacks because they have political inclination, play significant role in industries, and are essential in maintaining health conditions of Americans (p.3). Thus, agro-terrorists can disrupt or contaminate water supply that is critical irrigating expansive tracts of farms, hence causing a crisis in agriculture and food industries.
Moreover, water infrastructural systems intricately link with other infrastructures such as roads, electricity, pipelines, and communication lines making it a potential target for terrorists. Water infrastructural systems can become a potential means of propagating terrorism because large population of plants, animals, and human beings rely on a single dam or water reservoir.
Contamination of dams and reservoirs using pathogens or chemicals can have direct effects on plants, animals, and human beings or can cause indirect effects on human beings through food chain. According to Copeland and Cody (2005), water infrastructural systems pose great challenge in combating terrorism because terrorists introduce undetectable levels of pathogens or chemicals that have long-term health effects (p.9).
Pathogens are more dangerous because they are virulent, hard to detect, multiply exponentially and requires expensive interventions when eliminating them in water infrastructural systems, thus threatens the lives of many people. In this view, agro-terrorists can use water infrastructural systems as means of propagating their activities in the United States and across the world. Therefore, what are the current agro-terrorism events that affect food and water systems?
Ku Klux Klan Agro-Terrorism
In 1970, members of Ku Klux Klan carried out agro-terrorism by poisoning cattle that belonged to black farmers in Alabama, United States. Ku Klux Klan members envied that the black farmers in Alabama had large number of cattle that made them wealthy and thus planned to exterminate their cattle to weaken them economically.
Since livestock and human beings rely on water from common water supply systems, the Ku Klux Klan poisoned water using cyanide salt. The poisoned water led to death of great number of cattle and left others very adversely affected by the poison.
According to Foxell (2001), black farmers in Alabama were in great terror for the agro-terrorism acts of the Ku Klux Klan threatened their source of livelihood and by extension posed a great threat to the safety of water systems in the United States (p.117). The availability of poisonous chemicals like salt of cyanide, water supply as means reaching out targets and terrorists like Ku Klux Klan predispose people and livestock to agro-terrorism acts.
Following this agro-terrorism action, the greatest lesson learned is that terrorists can use water supply systems as a means of targeting livestock as well as people. Given that, water sources such as dams and reservoirs are very expansive, which make it difficult to secure them, they present a potential means that terrorists can employ in carrying out their activities. Introduction of poisonous chemicals or virulent pathogens into water supply implies that both industrial and domestic uses of water become unsafe.
Copeland and Cody (2005) argue that water infrastructural systems offer terrorists effective means of carrying out their terrorist actions since they supply water to virtually all farms and households (p.12). Thus, water infrastructural systems, as seen in the case of Ku Klux Klan poisoning of water provide infrastructural means for agro-terrorists to inflict terror on population and cause deaths to both animals and human beings.
Another lesson learned is that availability of water-soluble chemicals or pathogens that can survive in water enables terrorists to use water infrastructural systems as a means of targeting large population of livestock, crops, or people. If terrorists can easily access poisonous chemicals such as cyanide and virulent bacteria, all they need is just to contaminate water systems and subsequent all water supplies in a given city become contaminated.
The consequences of water contamination are very grave since chemicals and pathogens affect plants, animals, and people. By the time health experts identify the cause of massive poisoning or spread of diseases among the population, it would have cost many lives. Moreover, medical costs of treating patients and expenses incurred in decontaminating water supplies are very high for a nation. Thus agro-terrorism affects negatively growth of economy and destabilizes the political climate.
To prevent future occurrence of agro-terrorism actions that target water infrastructural systems, the United States government and other nations across the world should ensure that sources of water supply and water infrastructural systems receive constant surveillance to prevent terrorists from contaminating them. Since water infrastructural systems are very expansive, they increase probability of terrorists contaminating water. Hence there should be series of water treatment plants, which ensure real-time testing and purification.
Byrne (2007) argues that highly sensitive detective techniques are essential in monitoring safety status of water so that incase of contamination, people can receive warning in time to avert impending crisis that would have occurred (p.18). Thus, water treatment experts and personnel carrying out surveillance of water infrastructural systems are critical in preventing terrorism actions. In addition, government should restrict access to poisonous chemicals and virulent pathogens in various laboratories.
Rajneeshee Agro-Terrorism
In 1984, cult members of Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh who believed that the world was going to end sooner due to atomic bomb or occurrence of some incurable diseases launched an agro-terrorism act where they contaminated food in a restaurant using a bacterium called Salmonella typhymurium.
The cult members aimed at incapacitating local population so that they could not vote in a local election and give them an upper hand in taking leadership. According to Dudley (2004), the cult members cultured Salmonella typhymurium, and came to restaurants in Dallas, Oregon where they spread the bacterial culture on salad bars (p.123).
The cult members sprayed bacterial culture on salad bars in several restaurants, on grocery stores, public places and doorknobs so that whoever touched contaminated surfaces with virulent bacteria were infected. During the fateful day of election, about 700 people were suffering from food poisoning, although it never resulted into any death. This became the first incident of food poisoning that emanated from pathogens in the United States.
The incident of food poisoning that occurred at Dallas awakened Americans for they learned that food poisoning does not only occur due to chemicals but also due to contamination of food by virulent pathogens.
The greatest lesson learned in the incident of food poisoning that occurred in Dallas is that virulent pathogens such as Salmonella typhymurium have capacity to infect greater number of population within a short period. Byrne (2007) asserts that ability of virulent pathogens to multiply rapidly and grow exponentially make them potential weapons that terrorists employ when targeting greater number of population (p.13).
Moreover, it is cheaper for terrorists to culture virulent pathogens than to make atomic weapons. Another lesson learned from Dallas incident of food poisoning is that pathogens are very hard to detect and thus, food need to be in secure and safe places to prevent terrorists from accessing and contaminating it.
Prevention of food poisoning requires that foodstuffs should always be in safe and secure stores where limited number of people who deal with their storage, processing and packaging in industries can only access. Food industries and restaurant need to restrict strangers and screen them before allowing them to enter into specific places.
According to Byrne (2007), free entrance of strangers into the farms, food industries, hotels, and food stores pose great threat to food poisoning since agro-terrorists may take the opportunity and introduce virulent pathogens that contaminate food and eventually lead to food poisoning (p.18).
Moreover, the government should be vigilant in ensuring that terrorists do not build laboratories where they can culture virulent pathogens or gain access to available laboratories and use them in culturing and manipulating pathogens. Virulent pathogens that cause food poisoning need destruction so that they are neither easily available nor accessible to any potential agro-terrorists.
Wisconsin Agro-Terrorism
In 1996, agro-terrorists at Wisconsin, United States contaminated animal feeds with organophosphate pesticide, chlordane. Chlordane is a very poisonous insecticide that does not decompose immediately in the feed or in the animals. If animals ingest chlordane, it persists in their systems through accumulation and eventually passed to human being through various animal products, hence causing human poisoning.
In Wisconsin, agro-terrorists spread chlordane to over 4,000 farms that mainly produced dairy feeds. The agro-terrorists aimed at crippling lucrative farming activities that gave them competitive edge in dairy markets.
They targeted animal feeds because they were easy to contaminate and that they wanted to affect the quality of products and degrade safety confidence that people had in the dairy products that originated from farms. Schneider, Webb, Hubbard, and Archer (2009) explain that, contamination of over 4,000 farms using chlordane resulted into great losses because it led to recall of dairy products such as butter, cheese, milk, and ice cream of Midwestern states (p. 3).
The dairy farmers in Midwestern made great losses due to agro-terrorisms, which cost above $500 million combined with contaminated animal feeds. The chlordane contamination also posed great threat to human health because organophosphate, a component of chlordane is a poisonous chemical that accumulates up the food chain.
Lessoned learned from Wisconsin agro-terrorism is that contamination of animal feeds using pesticides such as chlordane with organophosphate does not only affect human health but also has great economic losses that add into millions of dollars.
Organophosphate is a chemical component of chlordane that has detrimental effect on the animals and subsequently human beings since they will acquire it by consuming various dairy products such as milk, butter, cheese, butter, and meat.
Given the diversity of dairy products that human beings utilize daily and expansiveness of farms that produce feeds, it implies that dairy farming offers potential means that terrorists can use in threatening the existence of humanity and in crippling economies that rely on agriculture.
Padilla (2008) affirms that, well-coordinated agro-terrorism attacks in United States farms can have significant impact on economy because farming and related economic activities accounts for about 16% of employment opportunities (p.55). Hence, misuse of agricultural chemicals such as pesticides can have detrimental effects to both human health and agricultural economy.
To prevent future occurrence of agro-terrorism that involves contamination of animal feeds using harmful pesticides that have organophosphate such as chlordane, the government should ensure that there are no harmful pesticides in the markets.
If harmful pesticides are accessible to agro-terrorists, they will use them when they want to attack farmers, entire populations and eventually cripple agricultural economy. For farmers and consumers of dairy products to be safe, government needs to ensure that there are no harmful pesticides or other chemicals that agro-terrorists can potentially utilize in threatening lives of people or animals.
According to Padilla (2008), to combat agro-terrorism, agro-chemicals require certification of safety to prevent terrorists from taking advantage of available chemicals in propagating their activities (p.58). Thus, government must ensure that all agro-industries produce safe chemicals that affect neither animals nor human beings. Moreover, mega farming companies need to monitor constantly their farms because they are potential targets of terrorists.
The Aum Shinrikyo Agro-Terrorism
Aum Shinrikyo is a religious sect, which believed that doomsday was to happen according to their apocalyptic prophecy that they had preached across Japan. Seeing that probability of doomsday happening was quite negligible, the sect planned to release anthrax and other pathogens both into the livestock and people so that they can prove their prophecies.
In 1995, the sect attempted to spread anthrax pathogens across Japan targeting both animals and populations to enhance spread of pathogens. The sect carried out agro-terrorism acts across Japan because they wanted to weaken political stability and attain power so that they could establish their own theocratic state.
According to Turvey, Mafoua, Schilling, and Onyango (2003), in spite of numerous series of attacks that the sect conducted in Tokyo, Japan, the spread of anthrax and other pathogens failed to become virulent and thus no one suffered from any sicknesses related to the attacks (p.26). The pathogens were not virulent because the sect did not manipulate and develop the pathogens well in their laboratories to become virulent as they expected.
Further investigation of the sect members led to the discovery that they were developing a host of virulent pathogens, which included anthrax, Ebola virus, botulinum toxin, cholera, and dangerous chemicals such as sarin gas and hydrogen cyanide. The pathogens and chemicals did not only threaten existence of humanity and animals, but also political and economic stability of Japan.
Following this incident, the lesson learned is that agro-terrorists can use virulent pathogens that target animals, food, and people in causing great terror and havoc in a country. The Aum Shinrikyo sect use of variety of virulent pathogens did not only threaten existence of humanity and their animals but also caused political and economic stability of Japan. The incident depicted that terrorists are devising all possible means of instilling terror among populations, causing significant financial losses and even loss of lives.
Since the sect members used virulent pathogens of anthrax, which affect both animals and human beings, they aimed at causing both the death of human beings and animals. Moreover, given that the sect members were developing other virulent pathogens and preparing dangerous chemicals, it means that they had well-equipped laboratories where they manipulated pathogens and prepared chemicals.
Monke (2004) argues that, agro-terrorists can generate pathogens that affect plants, animals, and human beings at the same time if they want to cause utter destruction of a nation (p.21). Thus, the Aum Shinrikyo sect was developing various kinds of virulent pathogens so that they could decimate population of Japan within a short period, but their plan did not work as they expected it.
Prevention of future occurrence of agro-terrorism acts that involve spread of pathogens requires the government to investigate all laboratories to ensure that they do not store virulent pathogens or manipulate microbes. The government also needs to be vigilant in monitoring terrorist activities with objective of tracking and preventing them from committing heinous crimes. Given that pathogens have ability to multiply exponentially and spread across population within a short time, it poses great challenge to intervention measures.
According National Defense Research Institute (2003), since pathogens and agro-chemicals are central in agro-terrorism, and are accessible and affordable, government should establish intelligence surveillance of potential terrorists attacks, carryout vaccination and establish laboratories that monitor occurrence of virulent diseases in time to avert serious crises (p.2).
As a preventive measure, vaccination of animals and population is critical in averting and alleviating impacts of agro-terrorism attacks and controlling spread of pathogens in population.
Chilean Agro-Terrorism
In 1989, there was great political rivalry in Chile, which prompted anti-Pinochet movement to poison grapes with cyanide so that they could weaken agricultural economy and subsequently create political instability in the country.
According to Turvey, Mafoua, Schilling, and Onyango (2003), poisoning of grapes with cyanide led to serious economic crisis in agriculture, as major importers of Chilean fruits such as United States, United Kingdom, Canada and other countries suspended their importation because consumers feared poisoning (p.24).
The anti-Pinochet movement used cyanide successfully in poisoning grapes and weakening Chilean fruit farming because it led to losses that added up to $210 million. Moreover, grape poisoning led to political instability as farmers lost confidence in government, and damaged bilateral relationship with business partners across the world.
Chilean agro-terrorism led to realization that use of poisonous chemicals such as cyanide has detrimental effects on agriculture, human beings, and political stability of a nation. Agricultural sector can lose millions of dollars when agro-terrorists poison agricultural produce because customers will shy away from buying products that emanates from the region where attacks occurred.
If a country loses confidence of customers due to agro-terrorism, it directly translates into losses since customers turn to competitive products that are in the markets. Moreover, restoring confidence of customers is an expensive and daunting task that ultimately slows down agricultural economy in a country.
Foxell (2001) argues that agricultural economy is very fragile and susceptible to terrorism, yet it is central to economic development in any nation (p.27). Thus, Chilean incident proved that agro-terrorism have grave impact on agricultural economy and subsequently political stability because it also affects lucrative relationships with other countries and citizens confidence on government.
Since agricultural economy plays a central role in general economic development of nations and provides stable food supply to the people, it is imperative that government aids farmers in protecting their farms and agricultural products.
The Chilean agro-terrorists successfully used cyanide, which is a poisonous chemical, in poisoning grapes so that Chilean fruit industry could lose competitive advantage in the world market. Subsequently, the Chilean fruit industry and farmers made significant losses worth $210 million dollars. Therefore, government should ensure that poisonous chemicals that terrorists can potentially utilize in agro-terrorism are inaccessible to public who do not have appropriate certification to use them.
According to National Defense Research Institute (2003), comprehensive intervention measures are critical in ensuring safety and security of food during production and processing to prevent terrorists from poisoning agricultural products (p. 4). Hence, surveillance of farms and carrying out real-time quality analysis of agricultural products can help in averting great economic losses that resulting from agro-terrorism.
Greatest Agro-Terrorism Threats
Agricultural economy is very fragile because it is susceptible to various actions of agro-terrorisms such as food, animal, plants and water poisoning or contamination. In this instance, food and water systems are the main targets that terrorists focus in achieving their ends. Food poisoning is the greatest agro-terrorist threat because production of food is a long process that entails farming, processing, and distribution to respective consumers.
The long process of food production provides an opportunity for terrorists to poison or contaminate food using chemicals and pathogens. Pathogens pose greatest threat to humanity and agricultural economy because it is hard to detect their presence in food and they spread very fast. Unlike chemicals that can undergo dilution with time, pathogens multiply exponentially and increase in number, hence threatens existence of animals and humanity.
Monke (2004) asserts that it is very difficult to detect presence of pathogens in food samples unless they cause contamination because agro-terrorists are generating new strains of pathogens, which require a lot of time to identify and classify (p.11). Thus, identification and classification of new strains of pathogens is a great challenge in combating agro-terrorism, and therefore agro-terrorists are taking advantage of weak intervention measures that result into slow response to their attacks.
Water infrastructural systems are another target for terrorists because disruption of water supply or contamination of water results into grave consequences in health and economy. The case of Ku Klux Klan poisoning of water using cyanide salt depicted that poisoning of water using lethal chemicals or virulent pathogens adversely affect the lives of people and animals that rely on poisoned water supply.
Since there are numerous pathogens that can contaminate water, terrorists can decide to use various pathogens at the same time in contaminating dams and water reservoirs. The contamination will result into grave consequences because it is very difficult and take great deal of time for water experts to indentify and classify each strain of pathogens. In addition, given that patients will depict various symptoms of illness, it will be very confusing for medical experts to ascertain real cause of water poisoning.
Expansive nature of water systems make them prone to contamination or poisoning as security are not able to carry out real-time surveillance of water systems. Hence, multiple poisoning of water systems is a potential threat that terrorists may employ in targeting population that lives in cities and have common source of water supply.
Conclusion
Agro-terrorism is an emerging issue in terrorism because since Second World War, cases of terrorism attacks that target agriculture and human beings have been gradually increasing. Since the aim of terrorists is to weaken economies and create political instability of their enemies, agricultural sector has provided an effective platform for terrorists to achieve their desired ends.
As examined in various cases of agro-terrorism across the world such as Ku Klux Klan, Wisconsin and Chilean agro-terrorism, it emerged that agricultural sector is highly susceptible to terrorism acts that involve poisoning or contamination of agricultural products using chemicals and pathogens. During the dawn of 21st century, the United States faced serious terrorism attacks on September 11, 2001, and subsequently experienced anthrax attacks.
The anthrax attacks signaled that terrorists are gradually beginning to use biological weapons in expanding their terrorism actions and instilling terror on Americans and entire worlds population. The terrorists have realized that agro-terrorism is an affordable means of causing political instability, threatening lives of many people, and weakening economies of great nations.
References
Byrne, R. (2007). Agro-Terrorism and Bio-Security, Threat, Response and Industry Communication. Rural Affairs and Environmental Group, 1-31.
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Schneider, R., Webb, C., Hubbard, M., & Archer, D. (2009). Agro-Terrorism in the United States: An Overview. University of Florida, 1-5.
Turvey, C., Mafoua, E., Schilling, B., & Onyango, B. (2003). Economics, Hysteresis and Agro-terrorism. Food Policy Institute, 1-28.
The advent of the 21st century has been marked with globalization, closer intercultural relations, and numerous technological and scientific advances. However, despite a significant potential for peaceful cohabitation in the world, the global community faces an enormous level of violence manifested in various forms, including terrorism. It is important to keep in mind that one of the primary motivations of present-day terrorist attacks is considered to be religious.
In literature, the term terrorism has many definitions. In fact, the understanding of the word varies depending on socio-cultural, political, religious, and historical backgrounds. Nevertheless, researchers agree that all terrorist acts are inherently violent and dangerous, usually have more than one target, and are intended to bring about either political or ideological change (Rausch, 2015). Thus, for the convenience of this research, terrorism will be defined as a violent act or a threat of violence targeted at several individuals at once and aiming to initiate social, political, or religious transformations.
Despite the common evangelical view of the problem, terrorist attacks are not committed solely by Muslims. History shows that terrorism occurs all over the world, yet the scope of recent terrorist acts, initiated by organizations that claim to be religious, has contributed to the creation of a negative image of Islam. Nevertheless, terrorist groups from other religious backgrounds continue to initiate terrorist attacks today as well. One of the best examples of violent actions caused by Christians is the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) who have exploited religious justifications for the engagement in terrorism, similar to those used by radical Islamists.
It is possible to make a distinction between individual self-named Islamic terrorist groups who abuse religious concepts to justify their actions, and Islam, a world religion, that does not promote violence and, moreover, shares humanistic values similar to other theological traditions. To understand if Islam itself holds an inherently terrorist nature, and whether Christianity presents a contrast, we will review the factors pertaining to religious terrorism and evaluate them using examples of terrorist organizations from different religious backgrounds.
Christianity
Initially, Christianity developed as a movement within Judaism in the 1st century C.E. when Jesus started to preach about his spiritual revelations and wisdom (Boisi Center for Religion and American Public Life [BCRAPL], 2015). Over several centuries after his death, his followers recorded his teachings in numerous religious documents and created narratives of his life events. These texts are now known as the Christian Scriptures.
As Christianity drew more and more devotees, a few denominations developed, including Protestantism, Catholicism, and Orthodox Christianity, and nowadays, the beliefs and values held by U.S. Christians can be regarded as ranging from evangelical, fundamentalist, conservative, or liberal (BCRAPL, 2015). These terms represent slightly varying interpretations of Christianity and imply different modes of behavior and views on religious practices. For instance, fundamentalists tend to interpret the Bible literally, while most other Christians allow for a more symbolic understanding of certain parts of the texts (BCRAPL, 2015). While liberal Christians permit the metaphoric interpretation of information comprised in the Biblical scriptures, e.g., the creation of the World, the miracles of Jesus, etc., conservative Christians usually read the Biblical texts in a literal way and, therefore, have a less positive view on human nature (BCRAPL, 2015). However, despite these differences, they all share the core beliefs that individuals should seek spiritual rebirth through faith, convert others to Christianity and convey the theological message to both Christians and non-Christians, and treat the Bible with sanctity because it is considered to be directly inspired by God (BCRAPL, 2015).
Love, justice, and forgiveness are the three major spiritual values within Christianity. At the same time, researchers observe that throughout world history, Christian missionary activity has not always been associated with fair and just treatment of other cultures, communities, and societies. Some scholars tend to see evangelism as self-righteous and arrogant and relate it to Western imperialism (BCRAPL, 2015). During some periods, Christians implemented radical, violent, and intolerant methods to spread their faith and strengthen political power using religion, e.g., during colonization. In this way, the desire to proliferate specific theological views and beliefs is, to some extent, present in any mainstream religious community. At the same time, it could be argued such desires are inherently interconnected with political motivations and, thus, cannot be regarded as purely religious.
Islam
To understand Islam, we should review the context in which Muhammads religious message appeared. The society in which the prophet was born in the 6th century AD is known as the Jahiliyah or the age of ignorance (i.e., ignorance of Islam) (Pinault, 2017, p. 14). The pre-Islamic world was tribal, and paganism was a major religion. At that time, Mecca was the center of commercial activities, polytheistic worships, and pilgrimage. As Pinault (2017) states, the Kaaba was surrounded by a circle of 360 stone idols representing various tribal spirits (p. 15). Among a great variety of pagan spirits, there was a supreme deity known as Allah, the greatest god (Pinault, 2017, p. 15). Worship of Allah introduced by Muhammad was not something new; the prophet just brought a new, refined understanding of the nature of Allah, and promoted the understanding of Allah as the only God who is gracious and merciful.
The analysis of historical and cultural contexts makes it clear that one of the main purposes of Islam was to bring about the unification of the Arabic tribes. Muhammad also conveyed a peaceful, religious message aimed to bring meaning to human lives. As with many other monotheistic religions, devotion to God became a core spiritual element, and the direct links between the quality of individual behavior and the outcomes of life appeared in Islam. We may see that still today, where religion significantly affects the behavior and social practices of many Muslims around the globe dedicated to daily prayers, and other religious rituals, including a pilgrimage to the holy sites and zakat (purifying almsgiving) (Rowan, 2014). Overall, submissions to God create a deep spiritual meaning for all Muslims, and similarly to Christians, where most perform their religious duties in a peaceful manner.
As is the case with Christianity, Islam is now divided into several denominations. While some Muslims prefer a liberal approach to religious practices, others remain conservative and strict. Although the findings of the literature review suggest that terrorism is not inherent within Islam, researchers suggest that it may be closely associated with fundamentalist movements within the religion because it implies a categorical, and highly critical, view on human behavior in society. According to Rausch (2015), ideological requirements for modern fundamentalism include defense of tradition, selective choice in doctrine, dualistic morality, absolutism, and messianism (p. 30). These features correlate with the attributes of religious terrorism, i.e., fanaticism, the involvement of extremist militancy, etc. (Rausch, 2015). Therefore, we may conclude that religious terrorism is associated with a particular approach to religion in a social-political context rather than a theological perspective itself.
ISIS, Al-Qaeda, and Boko Haram
Although Islam was initially a profoundly unified religion, it divided into two denominations Sunnis and Shiites directly proceeding Muhammads death. The differences in practice, traditions, and customs are manifested in the several schools of law: Hanafi, Maliki, Shafii, Hanbali (for Sunnis), and Jafari (for Shiites) (Azumah, 2015). To understand how does terrorism fits into religion, we need to investigate the views of behavioral norms held by the representatives of the most conservative school of Islamic law, Hanbali.
While in the most liberal school of Islamic law, Hanafi, scholarly reasoning, and individual opinions are respected and supported, Hanbali is largely suspicious of them and only acknowledges the authority of the Quran and Sunnah. Hanbali tradition itself is also divided into two lines: Wahhabi and Salafi. Salafis only acknowledge the old Islamic traditions and refuses new religious trends and tendencies. However, it is Wahhabism that is regarded as, the most literalist and iconoclastic branch of Hanbalism, which itself is the most conservative of the four main schools (Azumah, 2015, p. 34). For instance, Wahhabis forbids the use of any intoxicating substances, including alcohol and tobacco. They dictate what type of clothing should be worn, what cultural and social practices should be performed, and even with whom one can and cannot relate, encouraging devotees to avoid non-Muslim friendships and activities. Above all, Macris (2016) states, early Wahhabi sources encourage violence in spreading Islam and fighting foreign political and religious forces.
According to Azumah (2015), the origins of Boko Haram lie in a network of Wahhabi-Salafi groups in Nigeria, while Al Qaeda is a direct spinoff of Wahhabi Islam (p. 34). Wahhabi principles and beliefs are also practiced by ISIS (Macris, 2016). All three extremist organizations seek to reconstruct a contemporary caliphate. To do so, they try to evict the Western political and social agents from the Middle East and reduce their influence by using mainly violent methods. Boko Haram, Al Qaeda, and ISIS emphasize their disconnection to the modern democratic systems which reveal their close relatedness to fundamentalist Wahhabi-Salafi ideology, and the given ideological context provides a framework for justifying violence (Azumah, 2015).
The findings of the literature review make it clear that such radical organizations as Boko Haram and ISIS are, to some extent, related to Islam. Nevertheless, jihadists are at odds with the majority of Islamic traditions. All schools of Islam, including the most conservative ones, declare that jihad operations should never target vulnerable groups within the population (women, children, elderly, etc.) (Azumah, 2015). However, Rowan (2014) observes that the destructive measures undertaken by terrorists can aim to eliminate towns inhabited by innocent, noncombatant people from non-Muslim religious backgrounds. Additionally, Islamic tradition is against attacking holy sites and places of worship, as well as the places of economic value (e.g., markets) (Azumah, 2015). Yet, terrorist attacks often take place in such locations because they are crowded by civilians. One of the most important features of radical Islamic groups is that they declare Muslim governments illegitimate. For this reason, religious terrorists may kill Muslims as well. No Islamic school justifies the killing of fellow Muslims in the name of holy war or Allah; Rowan (2014) states that, although jihadists fight in the name of Islam, the motivations behind their acts are primarily political. ISIS, Al Qaeda, and Boko Haram are mainly self-interested and anarchical in their nature and, therefore, do not represent the true face of Islam.
Comparison to Christian Terrorism
Despite the common view of religious terrorism held by the Western media, and the presumption that it is a solely Islamic phenomenon, the evidence makes it clear that terrorism can occur within any theological context, including Christianity. Many Christian groups are reported to use terrorism and violence as a strategy to fulfill their missions and purposes. One example of such an organization is the Hutaree, a Christian militia group that initiated attacks on U.S. police officers. The Hutaree quotes the Biblical scriptures and use them to encourage violent acts meant to prepare the organizations members, for the end time battles to keep the testimony of Jesus Christ alive (Christian terrorists?, 2010, p. 7).
Like many other radical religious groups, the Huretee violates strict Christian tradition. The Biblical quotes used by its group members are nothing more than distortions of mainstream religious beliefs. Van Pelt Campbell (2011) states that the Biblical texts teach Christians to react to hostility and other unwanted phenomena without violence or vengeance. In addition, the Bible provides behavioral alternatives including trustful belief in God, love for others, and self-control. In general, religious scriptures encourage Christians to follow the example of Jesus (Van Pelt Campbell, 2011). This means that even if the person is mistreated, he or she should practice forgiveness, one of the paramount Christian values.
Overall, Christians are called to trust God, love others, and contribute to the development of common welfare rather than react with anger and violence. Thus, even if religious terrorists cite the Bible and endow their acts with religious significance, they do not represent the original, true face of Christianity.
A Special Case: The Nation of Islam
The Nation of Islam (NOI) is an African American religious organization, established in Detroit, Michigan, in the 1930s. According to Fishman and Soage (2013), it is based on a heterodox form of the Muslim religion, i.e., the NOI members use the same terminology as the representatives of mainstream Islam, but hold untraditional beliefs. For instance, the NOI members believe in a succession of Supreme Beings, consider Blacks as the supreme race and regard Whites as blue-eyed devils (Fishman & Soage, 2013, p. 59). Therefore, the NOIs core ideas do not conform to the traditional Islamic views described in the Quran. Even the NOIs perspective on God significantly differs from the orthodox Islamic image. While Muslims regard God as omnipotent and omniscient, and do not give any particular form, the Nation members consider God a human-like being who, moreover, is specifically Black (Fishman & Soage, 2013).
The suggestion that only black people are divine reveals the supremacist and radical nature of this religious organization. Although the NOIs activities are carried out in the name of Islam and God, the fact that it has a distinctly divergent understanding of multiple Islamic concepts and beliefs, including the afterlife and the creation of the world by God, show that there is no significant affinity between the two theological movements. On the other hand, the propaganda of the inferiority of Whites makes the NOI ideologically closer to extremist Islamic groups. Researchers observe that despite significant differences in faith, the NOI managed to build alliances with the leaders of many Arabic nations which had the same enemy Western imperialism (Fishman & Soage, 2013). Although there is no evidence of the NOIs direct collaboration with Islamic radical groups, and their acts are mainly performed within specific social-political contexts, the organizations ideology provides areas of solidarity with these other groups.
A Special Case: The KKK
The KKK is also similar to many Islamic supremacist organizations. According to Ward (2011), like Al Qaeda, the KKK incorporates reactionary political views into its activities. Both organizations appeared in similar circumstances, as the opposition to unwelcome forces: the military occupation of Afghanistan in case of Al Qaeda, and the occupation of the Southern States by Federals in case of the KKK (Ward, 2011). Along with this, similar to Islamic radical groups, the KKK uses religion as the ideological justification for violent behavior. The Klansmen claim that their organization adheres to Christian traditions:
Membership is restricted to those who accept the tenets of true Christianity, which is essentially Protestant&We can say to the world without apology, and say truly, that our forefathers founded this as a Protestant country and that it is our purpose to re-establish and maintain it as such. While we will energetically maintain and proclaim the principles of religious liberty as essential to the life and progress of this nation, and we will vigorously oppose all efforts to rob the American people of this right (Traditionalist American Knights of the KKK, 2017, para. I).
Other KKKs principles include; the use of the image of Jesus Christ as the criterion of character and behavior; the consideration of the Bible as the foundation of the American Constitution and the political establishment; the promotion of the worship of God; and serving the higher purpose, moved by unselfish motives, such as characterized by Jesus Christ (Traditionalist American Knights of the KKK, 2017, para. V). In this way, we may say the KKK uses religion to encourage ethnic discrimination and violence. It is also possible to conclude that the KKK is fundamentalist in its nature its activities are associated with the aggressive politicization of religion for the pursuit of non-religious goals, it has a defensive attitude, and its morality is profoundly dualistic (Rausch, 2015).
However, at the same time, the very purpose of maintaining the racial ideals and segregation of individuals by their ethnicity goes against the core Christian values of equality, fraternity, and justice. For instance, in John 13:34-35, Jesus said: A new command I give you: Love one another. As I have loved you, so you must love one another (New International Version [NIV]). Moreover, from the Christian point of view, justice and impartiality are incompatible with solidarity and favoritism: Do not pervert justice; do not show partiality to the poor or favoritism to the great, but judge your neighbor fairly (Leviticus 19:15 NIV). These verses emphasize the importance of fraternity and equality in the Christian worldview. Although the KKK claims to be religious, the purpose of their existence significantly deviates from mainstream Christianity.
Conclusion
The findings of this literature review make it clear that there is a link between religious fundamentalism and terrorism. It appears that a particular way of looking at religion be it too strict, too literal, and fanatical may accelerate violence in the modern world. The analysis of scholarly evidence reveals that various radical religious organizations, including ISIS and the KKK, emerge under similar circumstances. This finding points at the reactionary nature of those terrorist groups. It is also clear that religious terrorists primarily fight social-political phenomena and trends. In this way, their acts are mainly politically oriented. Based on this, it is possible to conclude that neither Islam nor Christianity, as a world religion, is inherently violent.
References
Azumah, J. A. (2015). Challenging radical Islam. First Things: A Monthly Journal of Religion & Public Life, (249), 3337.
Christian terrorists?. (2010). Christian Century, 127(9), 7.
Fishman, J. E., & Soage, A. B. (2013). The Nation of Islam and the Muslim world: Theologically divorced and politically united. Religion Compass, 7(2), 5968. Web.
Macris, J. R. (2016). Investigating the ties between Muhammed ibn Abd al-Wahhab, early Wahhabism, and ISIS. Journal of the Middle East & Africa, 7(3), 239-255. Web.
Pinault, D. (2017). The Story of Islam. Commonweal, 144(6), 14-18.
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Van Pelt Campbell, G. (2011). Resisting religious violence with religious resources: The case of Christianity. Review of Faith & International Affairs, 9(3), 45-50. Web.
Ward, T. J. (2011). The shared trajectories of Al Qaeda and the Ku Klux Klan. International Journal on World Peace, 28(4), 3358.
The damaging effect of terrorism on modern society was brought to the worlds attention following the terrorist attacks in New York and Washington in September 2001. This acts by the Al-Qaeda terror network demonstrated that international terrorism has the power to disrupt social life even in the worlds super power.
Since then, a wide-ranging debate has developed about the level of threat that international terrorism poses to the global community. While some people regard international terrorism as a marginal threat, others see it as an existential threat to society.
This paper will argue that international terrorism is the main challenge facing the world in the context of international security and therefore, measures should be taken to address this issue and safeguard global security.
International Terrorism as a Global Challenge
International terrorism has become the greatest danger to world security, overtaking the threats of military confrontations from rival great powers. Stewart (2006) observes that the international security threat posed by military confrontations between rival great powers has reduced dramatically since the Second World War.
Most Western nations have formed alliances such as NATO, which makes it almost impossible for them to engage in aggressive military confrontation against each other. The possession of nuclear weapons by the major powers such as Russia and China acts as a deterrence from any major confrontation (Lutz & Brenda 2004).
Nations are therefore more likely to resort to diplomacy instead of risk military confrontation with each other. However, international terrorists attack nations without fear of retaliation since they do not have a well established base or economic resources that they hope to protect.
The activities of international terrorist organization have made the world unsafe. Terror activities have not been limited to US targets and the rest of the world has suffered from the actions of terrorists. The international terror organization, Al Qaeda did not limit its attacks to US targets and on March 11, 2004, it carried out the Madrid train bombings.
London also experienced terrorist attacks in July 2005 when the London Underground was bombed by Islamist extremists (UK Defence and Security Report 2010). Indonesia experienced terrorist attacks in 2002 that killed 202 people while a hotel in Jakarta was bombed in 2003 killing 12 people.
Thieux (2004) asserts that these attacks prove that international terrorism is a serious and potential threat not only for the United States but also for EU member states and the rest of the world.
International terrorism presents the most significant risk to global nuclear non-proliferation efforts. Presently, all functioning Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) including nuclear weapons are in the hands of legitimate governments.
However, intelligence reports indicate that terrorist organizations such as Al Qaeda have made efforts to obtain WMDs especially from weak states such as Pakistan. Bowen and Cottee (2012) state that if international terrorists obtain WMDs, they will be able to inflict major damages to targets all over the world.
International terrorism has increased the vulnerability of nations to attacks from their own citizens. Thieux (2004) documents that in addition to the Islamic radicals who joined the Al Qaeda network in the past, this terror organization now attracts members who are well integrated in the society.
International terrorist organizations are able to radicalize citizens of a country leading to the development of home-grown terrorists. For example, individuals can access jihadi websites and obtain information on suicide bombing (The UK Defence & Security Report 2010). Tackling this threat has proved to be a major challenge for most nations.
Thieux (2004) notes that international terrorism has led to a blurring between foreign and domestic affairs as nations have to deal with issues such as home-grown terrorists and sleeper cells. The difficulty of identifying terrorists increases the risk that these elements pose to the global community.
International terrorists are spread all over the world and it is difficult for law enforcement agencies to correctly identify all potential suspects. Stewart (2006) notes that unlike in a conventional war where the enemy combatants are easy to identify, the diverse pool of individuals involved in international terrorism makes the threat hard to identify.
International terrorism presents a major challenge since these actors do not follow any international laws of combat. There are well-established rules that can be used by nations when dealing with traditional security threats. These laws include rules of engagement that forbid soldiers from attacking unarmed civilians.
Diplomacy can also be used to resolve the differences between nations without resorting to armed confrontation. With international terrorism, there are no rules of engagement and terror organizations target civilians in order to spread fear (Engene 2004). The traditional tools of military deterrence and diplomacy are not effective in dealing with the threat of international terrorism.
International terrorism has led to the development of poor relationships between Western countries and the Arab world. Since most international terrorist organizations are operated by radical Islamists, the policies adopted by countries such as the US to counter them focus on these radical elements. The fight against terrorism has therefore focused on tackling the issue of Islamic extremism (Victoroff 2005).
This has proved to be problematic since terrorism organizations are not disparate and therefore cannot be handled using a uniform policy response. Hammond (2008) asserts that the overemphasis on Islamic extremism has led to the strengthening of the misperception especially in the Middle East that the anti-terror campaign is actually a war on Islam (p.220).
This situation has threatened to divide the world on religious basis. Hammond (2008) suggests that the division based on religious differences fostered by international terrorism is proving to be the greatest threat to international unity since the cold war.
International terrorism has contributed to the unpopularity of the US in many countries all over the world and the subsequent inclination of terrorists to attack US targets. Meyer (2009) states that terrorism threatens global security by disrupting the peace of mind of citizens and prompting aggressive retaliation by individual states.
Hammond (2008) reveals that following the 9/11 attacks, the Bush administration engaged in controversial security policies and effectively declared that America was at war with international terrorists. Due to the Bush policies, the US carried out military activities against terrorists and their affiliates and used economic means to influence the behaviours or interests of nations that harbour terrorists.
Terrorism threatens to disrupt international relations among traditional allies. Due to globalization, the movement of people from country to country has increased. Many international companies have established themselves in foreign countries and global trade is at a high level. International terrorists target Western citizens in foreign countries leading to immense political and psychological impact.
Tan (2007) documents that in 2002, the Al Qaeda affiliated network in South East Asia, Jemmah Islamiah, planned to carry out a terror attack against American targets in Singapore. If this attack had succeeded, it would have deteriorated the good relationship between the US and Singapore and greatly contributed to the growth of insecurity in the region.
The relationship between Pakistan and the UK has suffered due to international terrorism. The UK has accused Pakistan of not doing enough to prevent terrorism. In 2009, the UK arrested 12 Pakistani students in UK on suspicion of involvement in terrorism (UK Defence and Security Report 2010).
International terrorism undermines the good relationships between nations, and without this amicable relationship, global peace and security cannot be achieved.
Discussion and Conclusion
The global community considers terrorism to be a significant threat to international peace. Following the events of 9/11, most nations, led by the US, have made a public declaration of war against international terrorism. The potential damages that international terrorists can cause, especially if they acquire WMD has led to arguments that terrorism is an existential threat for modern society (Meyer 2009).
With this realization, Western nations have tried to come up with a common and coordinated way of dealing with the threat of international terrorism. However, Thieux (2004) notes that the efforts have not been adequate and terrorism is still a major international threat.
This paper set out to demonstrate that international terrorism is the greatest threat to international security that the global community faces today. It begun by nothing that the global security threat posed by conventional military confrontations between nations is very low. However, the threat presented by international terrorism to global security is on the rise.
This threat has led to the deterioration of relationships especially between the West and Arab countries. The influence of terrorists has spread into many countries all over the world and various attacks have been carried out. For this reason, many countries view international terrorism as a threat to their security. Fighting global terrorism should therefore be a key priority for all nations.
References
Bowen, W & Cottee, M 2012, Multilateral cooperation and the prevention of nuclear terrorism: pragmatism over idealism, International Affairs, vol. 88, no. 2, pp. 349368.
Engene, O 2004, Terrorism in Western Europe: Explaining The Trends Since 1950, Edward Elgar Publishing, NY.
Hammond, A 2008, Two countries divided by a common threat? International perceptions of US and UK counter-terrorism and homeland security responses to the post-September 2001 threat environment, Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 218239.
Meyer, C 2009, International terrorism as a force of homogenization? A constructivist approach to understanding cross-national threat perceptions and responses, Cambridge Review of International Affairs, vol. 22, no. 4, pp. 647-666.
Stewart, P 2006, Weak States and Global Threats: Fact or Fiction?, Washington Quarterly, vol. 29, no. 2, pp. 27-53.
Tan, A 2007, Singapores Cooperation with the Trilateral Security Dialogue Partners in the War Against Global Terrorism, Defence Studies, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 193-207.
Thieux, L 2004, European Security and Global Terrorism: the Strategic Aftermath of the Madrid Bombing, Central European Review of International Affairs, vol. 22, no. 1, pp. 59-74.
UK Defence and Security Report 2010, Domestic Security Overview, Business Monitor International Ltd, London.
Victoroff, J 2005, The Mind of the Terrorist: A Review and Critique of Psychological Approaches, The Journal of Conflict Resolution vol. 49, no.1, pp. 3-42.
The ongoing conflict in Ukraine explains why Russia is being accused of terrorist acts and violations of human rights. The current upheaval began in 2014 when this nation annexed Crimea, a region of Ukraine. After this event, Russias military intervention in the country continued for several years. This was fueled by the events that took place during and after the infamous Ukrainian Revolution of 2014. Many international leaders and nations acknowledged that the annexation violated all international laws. Consequently, the actions of Russia forced the members of the G8 to suspend it from the union. This paper describes the potential future of this conflict and how Russia should compensate for the caused damage.
What Should Happen in the Future?
The current situation reveals that Russia has breached the existing Terrorist Financing Treaty. The state has been funding and supporting self-proclaimed armed groups such as the Luhansk Peoples Republic and the Donetsk Peoples Republic. Russia has also been accused of mistreating different ethnic groups in the troubled Crimean region (Titaev, 2016). The annexation has also been identified as an action that breaches the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD). On the other hand, Russia was keen to indicate that its move was aimed at protecting the rights and liberties of ethnic Russians inhabiting this region.
The current predicament has forced the Ukrainian government to sue Russia for its atrocities and crimes against the people of Crimea in the International Criminal Court (ICC). The current tension can be reduced using a number of options in an attempt to protect the citizens of Ukraine. The first one is for the developed countries such as the United States and the United Kingdom to support Ukraine (Karagiannis, 2014). These states can also provide adequate financial support to empower Ukrainian troops.
The second strategy is the use of sanctions against Russia. This approach will result in increased pressure from international and domestic stakeholders. The move will ensure that Ukraine defends its territories. The suggested initiative can force Russia to stop its intervention in Crimea (Nudelman, 2015). Additionally, the strategy will ensure that the United States and other nations such as the United Kingdom are not involved in this upheaval directly.
Different non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and the media can help to publicize every human rights abuse committed by Russia. This approach will condemn inappropriate acts such as the downing of the Malaysian plane and the annexation of Crimea (Titaev, 2016). The initiative will attract the support of international and domestic stakeholders and mount pressure on Vladimir Putin. Through the use of a powerful campaign, it will be possible to change this situation and address the challenges facing many people in this troubled region.
The final intervention that can deliver positive results is the use of a red line . This concept means that the United States must set a specific date and force Russia to withdraw its troops from Ukraine. The approach will ensure that different rebels are unable to continue their attacks (Cumming-Bruce, 2017). The purpose of this initiative would be to ensure that the conflict is resolved. However, there is a need for adequate negotiation, timing, and coordination of efforts in order to deliver positive results.
How Should Russia Compensate?
The crisis experienced in Crimea has resulted in numerous challenges and issues. For instance, many people have lost their lives and others have been forced to live in harsh conditions. Some of the Ukrainian banks operating in the region were forced to close, thereby losing their business (Nudelman, 2015). This is a clear indication that the decision by Russia has seen numerous changes that continue to affect the people of this nation. It would, therefore, be necessary for Russia to compensate Ukraine if this stalemate is to be addressed.
To begin with, Russia must be ready to relinquish the region of Crimea. This is the case because the decisive vote of 2014 has been observed by many people as an act of aggression or occupation. Many scholars have gone further to indicate that Ukraine must receive monetary compensation from Russia for the illegal exploitation and theft of the countrys assets by Russia (Karagiannis, 2014). The nation has also lost most of its offshore oil deposits. Russia must also be compelled to offer natural resources such as oil as a way of compensation.
It should also be observed that initiatives might have significant consequences on the relationship between the two nations and those of the region. This is the reason why a decisive solution that is backed by the parties should be identified. The ultimate goal is to prevent any form of aggression or war in this region (Khodzhaeva & Rabovski, 2016). The support of the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is also critical in order to ensure that the compensation method is appropriate for the involved parties.
Restitution
In regards to the restitution, there are a number of issues that might be taken into consideration. The application of international law is what is expected to guide the nature and future of this occupation. A good case study is that of 1940 when Stalin chose to invade Finland in an attempt to annex the countrys second-largest city and make it part of Russia. This occurrence is what forced the Allies to come up with the UN Charter. This means that the current occupation of Crimea is something that is against this international Law. The occupation of Kuwait by Iraq in 1990 was condemned widely by the global community (Cumming-Bruce, 2017). The current situation is quite complicated since Russia has veto power in the UN Security Council.
After the annexation of a region in Georgia, the Joint Control Commission (JCC) was formed to promote a ceasefire and deal with the ongoing conflict. The commission also facilitated the restitution process and the return of different refugees. This was also the same issue experienced in Kosovo. Every international attempt put in place to promote or support the reconciliation process was quite ineffective or unsuccessful ( Crimea in the dark, 2016). It is agreeable that the events experienced in Crimea are not unique. This is the case because Russia has been trying to assert itself as a superpower. This has been a message to the West as the nation plans to defend its former territories and pursue its national interests.
If successful restitution is to take place, the international community must look at the ineffectiveness of existing accords and treaties that deal with similar cases. The use of sanctions as an approach has not been fruitful. Khodzhaeva and Rabovski (2016) acknowledge that the involvement of NATO in this region could prepare the best environment for international conflict.
Using the cases of Kosovo and Georgia, the international community must develop an efficient process that is capable of socializing Russia and making it part of this union. The proposed strategy will encourage Russia to compensate victims in Ukraine and return its territorial lands ( Crimea in the dark, 2016). The move will also make it easier for Russia to appreciate and recognize borders in the region. It should also be acknowledged as a superpower in an attempt to prevent possible conflicts that can undermine global peace while at the same time facilitating the compensation of businesses, families, communities, and individuals in Ukraine.
The Finnish model has been referenced by many scholars. It will be appropriate for Russia and Ukraine to be guided in order to establish close financial and economic ties. This means that the current insecurity facing Russia can be addressed by making it part of Europe (Khodzhaeva & Rabovski, 2016). With this strategy in place, Russia will be willing to restore Crimea as a Ukrainian region and give desirable compensations to different parties or stakeholders.
Conclusion
The above discussion has proved that the increasing insecurity concerns facing Russia have forced its leaders to reassert power in the region. The Crimean crisis is a classical case of Russian state terrorism that is being condemned by analysts and political experts across the globe. With numerous possible solutions in place, there is a need to reintegrate Russia into the European fraternity if the current upheaval is to be addressed. Past case studies have proved that every existing international policy and law might not address this kind of predicament since the nation is a member of the UN Security Council.
References
Crimea in the dark: The silencing of dissent. (2016). Web.
Karagiannis, E. (2014). The Russian interventions in South Ossetia and Crimea compared: Military performance, legitimacy and goals. Contemporary Security Policy, 35(3), 400-420. Web.
Khodzhaeva, E., & Rabovski, Y. S. (2016). Strategies and tactics of criminal defenders in Russia in the context of accusatorial bias. Russian Politics & Law, 54(2-3), 191-226. Web.
Nudelman, M. (2015). Who owns the Scythian Gold? The legal and moral implications of Ukraine and Crimeas cultural dispute. Fordham International Law Journal, 38(4), 1261-1297.
Titaev, K. D. (2016). Pretrial detention in Russian criminal courts: A statistical analysis. International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, 41(3), 145-161. Web.
A brief history of Emmas life and how that impacted her political thought on Anarchism
Emma Goldman was a Jew in Russia, born in the year 1869. Her home was in an area called Kovno but they later went to St Petersburg. While growing up, Emma Goldman witnessed the social injustices brought on by the powerful leadership of the Tsar. The latter authority controlled economic activities in the country. They were able to stay and enjoy this domination through the creation of highly bureaucratic systems.
The Tsars also utilized the support of the Russian Orthodox Church as well as the secret police at that time. These unchecked and unpredictable powers contributed to the amassing of wealth by this authority and the continual suffering of the Russian peasant class. Eventually, revolutionary tendencies started cropping up from various parts of society and certain intellectuals started advocating for some kind of socialism that would dismantle the oppressive government authorities in this country and eventually lead to the empowerment of the individual.
Goldman came across this forbidden literature and this is where her consciousness and radical ideas on anarchism started emerging. It should be noted that some of those writers even believed in organized terrorism against government leaders (Wexler, 123).
As Goldman continued growing up, the seeds of rebellion were planted in her through her experience with her father who consistently stereotyped women. He believed that womens value was related to nothing more than having children and taking care of their families. Goldman quickly realized that there was little she could achieve in such an environment especially after her father told her of his intention to marry her off. Her rebellious spirit was soon manifested when she ran away from Russia at 16 with her older sister to the United States. Coming from a highly bureaucratic and repressive country, Emma believed that she would find all her answers in the land of freedom i.e. the United States.
Nothing could have been further from the truth. Goldman soon found herself in the ghettos of New York City at a place called Rochester (Wexler, 201). It was at this point when the latter individual found out that although the economic systems were different, the repression of the masses was still rife. In the United States, the environment was dominated by the laissez fair principle which advocated for freedom to compete and participate in the economy.
These people believed in survival for the fittest where businessmen would compete and win depending on their might or their level of preparedness. The government intended to do little to interfere in these activities. However, the intentions of laissez-faire were very different from the actual depictions of the principle. Instead of minimizing interference, the government began utilizing loans and subsidies. The effect of this was that only the select few could be wealthy. Monopoly was rife and the government justified this by asserting that the select few held those positions because of their inherent wisdom.
Eventually, this led to the concentration of wealth in the hands of the minorities who eventually started garnering political clout. These limitations of the so-called free economic systems in the US-led to the victimization of the working class who were now regarded as nothing more than mere tools in the process of production. Goldman soon realized that to the holders of the wealth-the minorities, workers were to be treated as costs of production.
This implied that they needed to be obtained in the cheapest way possible. As a result, there was continual suffering, poverty, and inequality in America just like Russia. All these factors combined caused an internal rebellion against government authority, property as well as other social structures. To Goldman, Anarchism was the ultimate solution to these problems of repression.
How American political theory then differed from how Emma would view American political theory today
At the time of her activism, Goldman understood American political theory in terms of the new economic institutions prevalent at that time. She soon realized that nothing good would ever come out of government authorities no matter how good their ideologies or intentions appeared to be (Carrol and Noble, 23). At that time, much like today, people would engage in elections and essentially elect a member of parliament who would represent them.
Goldman felt that elections and political participation were an enemy to the emancipation of the masses because it was through this process that the people would transfer their rights of control to a representative. She felt that American political theory was inherently unsatisfactory because it failed to account for the masses. In todays world, American society has rapidly evolved. It is now possible to find that a vast number of individuals have become part of the political scene.
This is because citizens are more aware of their rights and their entitlements. Furthermore, a lot of changes have occurred between then and now especially about trade unionism and the effects of politics at the workplace. The rebellions that occurred during Emmas time could not be compared to the circumstances existing now since people are currently more educated. At that time, Goldman advocated for education as well as agitation.
She felt that once people fully understood the principles at work around them then they would be in a position to effectively apply them in their lives without having to depend on the ballot box. However, it can be stated that the masses today are much more informed than they were at that time, but they have still not been able to put in place some of the arguments that were being advocated by this activist.
Analysis of argument that anarchism leads to individual freedom
In her essay The psychology of political violence , Goldman argues that homicidal outrages are often misconceived. Society tends to think of them as the methods of savages or persons from the underclasses who have no sense of morality. This was the reason why Anarchism was quite often misunderstood. Goldman (562) argues that violence is never the first weapon of choice for those who choose it but it is often their last result.
The Anarchists were pushed to a point of outrage and they felt as though society now lacked life in it. Goldman further uses the examples of the terrorist of Russia to emphasize this point. She believed that it was utter desperation that drove the terrorists to their violent deeds. She claims that violence is against human instinct and people would naturally be able to oppose such notions if there was another way out.
Goldman (578) further believes that the negativities made out against political violence by the Anarchists were never really genuine since there were vested interests that needed to be protected. She believes that any new ideas are bound to create much opposition but this often became even much worse once it has been shown that the new ideology would tear down the old guard. These arguments may appear to hold water but at the end of the day, one must ask whether the Anarchists were able to achieve their desired outcomes. Resulting in violence is indeed one of the most extreme pathways an entity can choose to articulate his or her concerns.
However, if one hopes to instate change in society, then one must use a language that can be understood by those who need to be changed. Anarchists did not succeed at all in employing physical violence because this made them appear as though they were indulging in the same evils that they were rising against. In New York, they were isolated and eventually repulsed because of employing these methods. It is comprehensible why the public was repulsed by such violent actions. The anarchists claimed to be agents of social change. They hated the oppression and unfairness that property and government imposed upon them.
However, by resulting in violence then they were turning back to the same evil methods that started the movement in the first place. One would therefore wonder how it can be possible to radically object to certain principles and then use them again to achieve those aims. To this end, Goldmans argument that anarchism is the best route to individual freedom can be debated because the means required to achieve these ends was contradictory to the very ideology behind it. This is one of the reasons why Goldman was never really able to witness the fruits of her actions as an active anarchist.
In her essay anarchism , Goldman (50) believed that crime was misdirected energy. She asserted that most poverty and the struggle for human survival were the things that led to the crime. Consequently, the government; which was supposed to prevent crime or at least reduce it was creating it. This Anarchist, therefore, felt that the government oppressed individual freedom by creating an atmosphere that would encourage crime.
However, such an argument may be debated because some people do not commit a crime for economic reasons; which is supposed to be the major reason why people may be pushed into crime. Conversely, others may not engage in crime as a conscious act against a bigger authority. They may simply do this because they are deviants by their very nature.
Goldman exonerated the individual over and above any other structures throughout her work; she was therefore trying to send the message that the individual is superior; capable of relying on himself without needing any external structures. However, she did not put in mind that the individual is flawed and that depending on that flawed entity may have its negative repercussions. In this regard, anarchism may not be the best route to freedom (Carrol and Nobel, 47).
Goldmans argument that government and property produce tyranny as seen through her various essays
In her essay Minorities versus majorities , Goldman (245) believed that literal output was under threat because of the evils of property. Concern for economic gains was given more precedence than the qualities of work. Consequently, publishers would ask whether a piece of literature would appeal to the masses and hence bring in a quick sale rather than focus on the degree of quality that is inherent in that piece of art. The same things applied to theatre and other expressions of art.
Goldman claims that those few artists who dare to be different or those who exercise creative genius have no chance of survival because this would entail forfeiting economic gains. She, therefore, believes that the conceptions and executions of art in America are barbarous, to say the least. All these have been brought on by the excessive exaltation of property or economic value over and above anything else. Indeed, these arguments do hold water because one can get to understand this deep contradiction in society.
Individuals are held in high esteem only after their demise and are condemned to a life of misery when still alive. This argument brought forth by Goldman makes sense because one can easily relate artists need for economic survival with the need to perpetuate their talent. Through this argument, it is possible to understand why certain forms of art become so popular even when they may not appear to be original or creative at all. Therefore, one can see why property bounds humans and limits their ability to be free.
In her essay a menace of liberty , Goldman (443) criticizes the concept of patriotism by affirming that patriotism presupposes that one region of the world is more superior to the other in all kinds of ways i.e. intelligence, power, authority, and the like. Consequently, such persons should stop at nothing to protect this special interest or position that is tied to their conception of patriotisms. Individuals would therefore be willing to engage in brutal acts, die, kill or carry out any such actions under the umbrella of patriotism. To Goldman, this is a weapon created by the government to ensure the continual perpetuation and domination of other people.
This argument by the latter Anarchist does bring out some truths because these assertions are quite similar to an even older institution known as religion. Religion advocated for the submission of the individual through acceptance of certain doctrines. (Goldman, 45). It trained a man to believe that he was part of a bigger picture and that he needed to submit to these greater forces to ensure his happiness. However, religion tended to suppress individual freedom because it prevented individuals from questioning what they were told. It instead advocated for an acceptance of whatever ideologies that were brought on and this served to keep the man in check.
Similarly, patriotism as a concept creates the same effect that religion did. It served to restrict individual liberties to maintain the interests of a particular minority i.e. the government. This dominant pattern in the suppression of creativity and a questioning mind illustrates that the motives behind certain government ideologies like patriotism are questionable. One can therefore understand why Goldman held that government limits the freedom or liberty of the individual.
Works Cited
Goldman, Emma. Anarchism and other essays. NY: Dover publications, 1917.
Wexler, Alice. Emma Goldman: An intimate life. London: Virago, 1984.
Carrol, Peter & Noble, David. The free and the unfree. Penguin: Harmondsworth, 1977.
Terrorism has been a continuous topic of discussion despite the fact that there is no universal definition of the same. However, although it is a common occurrence especially in the current society; the word conveys different meanings to different people. It has been defined by the English dictionary as use of violence or coercion with an aim of achieving a political goal.
Groups which make use of terrorism to achieve their goal are inclusive but not limited to religious groups, police department, army, political organizations and nationalists. Although there is no universal definition of terrorism, it bears noting that the word has got a long history.
History illustrates that the word terror was used for the first time in the 18th century signifying continuous use of terror as a government policy. In the view of the fact that there are various aspects of definition of terrorism, this essay shall lay its focus on the same. Apart from that, the essay shall focus on the meaning of the same to different groups of people in the society.
Despite the fact that it has been difficult to come up with a precise definition of terrorism, history illustrates that a lot of law enforcement agencies have been putting in considerable effort in order to develop a proper definition. For instance, the United Nations Office for Drug Control and Prevention and Control came up with a definition which illustrates that it can be used to mean war time or the opposite of peace time.
Since the definition was not precise, other definitions were latter formulated given that it was necessary to come up with a precise definition bearing in mind that it is a sensitive issue. It is worth noting that a clear definition of terrorism is mostly subjective and is rarely objective due to the fact that it is an act of political violence.
For example, the Department of Defense defines terrorism as the calculated use of unlawful violence or threat of unlawful violence to inculcate fear; intended to coerce or to intimidate governments or societies in the pursuit of goals that are generally political, religious, or ideological (International Terrorism and Security Research Para 2).
Although the definition is quite inclusive, it is still not the best due to the fact that it contains some words which are not clear like unlawful violence.
Terrorism has been prone to change bearing in mind that it is a political idea. Originally, terrorism was used to refer to different measures which were used by different governments to control members of society by use of fear. Terror and terrorism was frequently used in Germany and Russia. It is important to understand the origin of the world terrorism to be in a position to understand its definition clearly.
As highlighted earlier in the introductory part, terrorism has been in existence for a long time since its usage started towards the end of the eighteenth century. The first group to use the world terrorism during the reign of terror was known as Jacobin club who used to call themselves terrorists. In most cases, terrorism was used to refer to acts of execution or arrest used with a main aim of forcing the society to comply with the government or the regime (International Terrorism and Security Research Para 4).
The usage and definition of the word terrorism has been greatly influenced by circumstances since it is a political ideology. For instance, the current definition of terrorism incorporates a group of people who were initially known as incendiaries.
On the same note, it is important to mention that the current definition is broader as it is based with the techniques of assassination which were being used by the revolutionaries of the nineteenth century.
From the year 1983, United States has been defining terrorism as any form of violence which is politically motivated and directed towards noncombatants by some groups with the main aim of influencing members of the society.
The definition illustrates that violence in terrorism is different from other forms of violence since it is aimed at influencing governments policy hence the reason why it is politically motivated. For example, the main reason behind terrorist attack in New York City was meant to influence the Policy of the United States Government concerning Middle East. Secondly, terrorism is always directed towards noncombat members meaning that it is directed towards civilians or people who are not usually ready for any political violence.
Lastly, the United States definition indicates that for any act to be termed as terrorism, it has to be committed by sub national groups implying that any other form of violence by whichever group for whichever reason is not termed as such (Ruby pp. 12).
Study of the definition of terrorism indicates that the term conveys different meaning to different people as every group tries to protect its interests. For instance, to the government, it is an illegal act that is aimed at disrupting not only peace but also an act that interferes with the governance as terrorism tries to change the policy of the government.
To terrorists or the groups which commit the violence acts, it is an act that is meant to influence the government to change its policy for the good of the citizens. Lastly, ordinary citizens view terrorism as any act that is meant to destroy them.
This is mainly due to the fact that in most cases, ordinary citizens ends up becoming victims although they are not the main players. Whichever the case, the word terrorism is always associated with illegal and unlawful acts aimed at disrupting peace of a certain region for whichever reason.
Works Cited
Ruby, Charples L. The Definition of Terrorism. Analysis of Public Issues and Sopcial Policy. Waldorf: The Society for the Psychological Study of Issues, 2002. Print.
International Terrorism and Security Research. What is Terrorism? n.d. Web.
The National Response Framework (NRF) governs the national security and crisis response to dynamic emergencies and natural disasters that occur in the community. The NRFs main goal is to manage, train and focus on responders to deliver and apply response tactics during a crisis, such as emergency management, first responders, medical teams, and government representatives. The impact of disaster preparedness on the national level is measured according to protection, response, mitigation, prevention, and recovery. Disaster preparedness helps develop strategy systems that enhance organization within the response teams. The NRF incorporates intelligence, surveillance, investigation, and other tactical response teams to solve incidences that may affect national security. Natural disasters, for instance, as earthquakes, tornadoes, wildfires, drought, and floods, are most common in the United States that cause massive damages. The NRF forms strategies to inhibit and minimize natural disaster effects and determine control zones and responder tactics.
Terrorism Incident vs. Natural Disaster Response
The terrorist incident response differs from the natural disaster response in various ways. The terrorism incident response is carried out in two phases crisis management and consequence management. In crisis management, the federal response, for example, identifies, acquires, and plans a strategic system to prevent and minimize the impact of the incident. Crisis management and response to terrorist incidences involve law enforcement and other technical teams such as negotiation teams, surveillance, investigations, intelligence, and resource mobilization to govern and regulate incidence. Law enforcements dealing with such incidents also assist in public health and safety. Consequence management provides relief and assistance to the negative implication of terrorist attacks by supplying emergency relief to governments, public health, and safety reassurance, and restoring normal day operations within governmental services.
For example, the response framework to the September 11 attack on the twin towers in the United States was immediate which included investigation, surveillance, and military actions. (Kwan & Lee, 2005) The strategies and responses formed afterward became dynamic to prevent incidents from reoccurring, even though terrorism is unpredictable (US Dept. of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation, & Terrorist Research and Analytical Center, 2001). The governments and the national response team evolve in their approach to security in the United States. The NRF identified the need to form different strategies that specialize in various national security threats such as terrorism and natural disasters.
However, during natural disaster response, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) responds, governed by the NRF. Natural disasters are majorly focused on the restoration and redevelopment of the people and infrastructure in the community. Natural disaster response developed a strategy that targets a regions reestablishment to full function; these areas of focus include housing, health, resources, and capacity building. Unlike terrorism incidents, a natural disaster can incorporate members of the community to help rebuild the neighborhood. The NRF identifies the need to form different strategies that specialize in various national security threats such as terrorism and natural disasters.
Control Zones
First responders are highly trained and skilled individuals in the technical team who use control zones to respond to emergencies during emergencies such as natural disasters, terrorism, or any other national security threat. Before responding to an occurrence, first responders create a comprehensive plan that guides and coordinates them throughout the incident. First responders should isolate hazards by establishing three types of control zones in an incident; the control zones are commonly known as hazmat (Hazardous Material) zones (World Health Organization, 2017). Control or safety zones mainly indicate hazardous zones to the safe spaces in an incident, categorized into three main sections; hot zone, warm zone, and cold zone.
The hot spot is also known as an exclusion zone and is handled with caution as it is greatly affected by the incident and requires highly trained personnel to handle the situation. For example, during a tornado, the hot zone indicated would be the areas most affected or likely to be hit by a tornado, like in Oklahoma City Area in 2013 during the Turbulent Tornadoes that caused a $2 billion in damage to the area (Graettinger et al., 2014). The warm or yellow zone is mainly close to the hot spot; in most cases, the response team set up their working station at the yellow site to manage and minimize the crisis occurring in that area. In the yellow zone, the immediate danger is eliminated due to the proximity of the incident, although the zone itself may not be fully safe. The yellow zone acts as a bridge between the hot and cold zones as it rescues victims and ferries them from danger to safe zones.
During incidents, it is common for the warm zone to have several stations set up such as transport, medical services, and other critical information regarding the incidents state. For example, in the case of terrorism, the yellow zone is used as a first stage of rescuing victims and seeking first aid services before being rushed to the hospitals for instance, during the Boston Marathon in 2013 that injured 270 people (Biddinger et al., 2013). The cold zone or the green zone is stationed away from danger, and in the yellow zone, outside risk of first responders and patients, the likelihood of threat in this zone is minimal. Most operational and tactical teams operate in this zone in the green site and continue assessing patient care, safety, and medical checkups. In all areas, transportation is highly required as it transfers injured people from hot zones to green zones in the incidents safety sectors. The transport team is regularly the first responders since they must be highly trained to move in between the zone while being safe.
In conclusion, the National Response Framework (NRF) governs the nation in responding to various types of disasters and emergencies. It involves flexible, scalable, and adaptable approaches and identifies the national incident management systems in aligning the critical roles and responsibilities across the country. It describes various principles, roles, obligations, and the coordination of structures to deliver the vital capabilities required in responding to an incident and further explains how efforts made during response integrate with those of the other areas in the mission. First responders are trained to make decisions as fast as possible before the effects of terrorism incidence or natural disasters evolve and become fatal. For example, in the incidence of natural disasters like tornados, the first responders develop the most efficient strategy to reduce damage or fatality by evacuating the particular areas residences before the tornado occurs. The three types of control zone established during the crisis include the exclusion, yellow, and cold zone. The hot zone is highly dangerous and only enters highly skilled individuals to deal with the incident; the warm zone is mainly placed between the green and hot spot, although it is not completely safe. The green zone identifies areas far away from the danger and is considered safe to set up a response and tactical team.
References
Biddinger, P. D., Baggish, A., Harrington, L., dHemecourt, P., Hooley, J., Jones, J.,& & Dyer, K. S. (2013). Be preparedthe Boston Marathon and mass-casualty events. New England Journal of Medicine, 368(21), 1958-1960. Web.
Graettinger, A., Ramseyer, C., Freyne, S., Prevatt, D., Myers, L., Dao, T.,& & Alfano, C. (2014). Tornado damage assessment in the aftermath of the May 20th 2013 Moore Oklahoma tornado.
Kwan, M. P., & Lee, J. (2005). Emergency response after 9/11: The potential of real-time 3D GIS for quick emergency response in micro-spatial environments. Computers, Environment and Urban Systems, 29(2), 93-113. Web.
US Dept of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation, & Terrorist Research and Analytical Ctr. (2001). Conplan: United States government interagency domestic terrorism concept of operations plan.
World Health Organization. (2017). Emergency response framework (ERF): The Incident Management System. WHO
On September 11, 2001, devastating attacks on the United States by the Islamic extremist group called the Al Qaeda made the nation to come to grips with reality. Since these attacks were well planned, the historic occurrence triggered the need for the establishment of a more reinforced network of homeland security and consequence management in the country.
Consequently, the sorrowful event resulted in major policy changes that were aimed at enhancing organization and cooperative information sharing within the different government agencies in the country. Even though this effort is still progressing since the historic occurrence, the new system is a milestone improvement towards combating terrorist threats in the twenty first century. This paper demonstrates the concepts of homeland security and consequence management in the U.S.
When most people hear the word terrorism, it makes them to be afraid since they relate it to violent unacceptable behavior in the society. It is important to note that humankind has practiced different kinds of terrorism since the very beginning of recorded history. Despite being practiced for a long time, the term terrorism is still not easy to define. Nonetheless, the Department of Defense defines it as the calculated use of unlawful violence or threat of unlawful violence to inculcate fear; intended to coerce or to intimidate governments or societies in the pursuit of goals that are generally political, religious, or ideological. 1 These violent activities have made many kingdoms to fall, rise, and others have ended up exerting undue authority on the less powerful kingdoms.
Currently, because of the prevalence of terrorist acts that has made the condition of this world to be unsteady, more leaders of the world are increasingly paying more attention to countering terrorism. This is for the reason that a simple terrorism incidence is able to lead to loss of close ties between two or more nations.
As an example, the Israelis and the Palestinians most of the time take part in endless fighting because of unresolved religious convictions and territorial conflicts. Terrorism is exhibited in the form of disagreements with neighboring countries, bombings of nations, kidnappings and hostage-takings, armed attacks and assassinations, arsons and firebombing, hijacking and skyjackings, bioterrorism, and cyber terrorism.
Current threats to the U.S. environment
After 9/11, global efforts to counter terrorism have been intensified. However, most countries of the world, including the U.S., are still at risk of getting attacks from emerging as well as evolving terrorist groups.2 Despite the intensive efforts that have been aimed at interrupting and restraining al Qaedas ability of plotting an attack, the U.S. is still susceptible to attacks from this worldwide terror group.
This Islamic extremist terror group is driven by a never-ending strategic intention of causing major destruction to the U.S. and its citizens in different places around the world. As much as earlier military campaigns in the countries of Afghanistan and Iraq weakened the influence of the terror group, many of its top leaders, including Osama Bin Laden, are still at large.
Therefore, the possibility of them planning another attack on the U.S. is still high. Al Qaeda also collaborates with other dreaded terror groups around the world in order to carry out its mission. These include al Qaeda in Iraq and other Islamic extremist groups around the world.
In addition, other groups and individuals are also prepared to use terror in order to wreak havoc against the U.S. Among these is the Lebanese Hezbollah. This terror group is continuing to issue threats to U.S. citizens both locally as well as overseas. The country is also not immune to the development of small groups composed of home-based Islamic extremists.
These groups are especially dangerous since they consider the use of violence within the borders of the country as justifiable in defense of their rights. Other local terror groups consists of the white supremacist organizations and animal rights extremists.
It is also significant to note that the U.S. is also under the threat of the occurrence of natural disasters, which can lead to wanton destruction all over the country. Contagious diseases that occur naturally put the lives of Americans at risk. Not long ago, Americans had to deal with the effects of Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) and H1N1 virus, which resulted in major economic and social disruptions around the country.
Natural catastrophes, such as hurricanes and earthquakes, are meteorological and geological dangers that the country sometimes has to deal with. Finally, the last category of threats includes disastrous accidents and other hazards. Industrial hazards as well as infrastructural failures fall into this category. The spillage of toxic chemicals such as the deepwater horizon oil spill that took place on April 20, 2010, and the collapse of buildings across the country pose a great danger to the citizens of U.S.
Major post 9/11 initiatives in homeland security
In the nineteenth century, the federal governments response to emergencies was unplanned and involved the use of the military. This was for the reason that there was no established institutionalized emergency relief program.
During World War I, the American army instituted an emergency relief program mainly as a military response action plan. From then on, different American leaders have continued to lay more emphasis on issues of homeland security in order to make the country as secure as possible from internal as well as external interference.
On November 25, 2002, the United States Department of Homeland Security was established with the clear objective of protecting the territory of the country from attacks due to terrorism as well as enacting suitable response strategies to manage the occurrence of natural catastrophes. In this regard, the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) is mandated to come up with appropriate initiatives of preparing, preventing, and managing the occurrence of domestic catastrophes, with special emphasis to acts of terrorism.
This major milestone improvement is considered as one of the integral government reorganization efforts in over five decades. As an umbrella term, homeland security came into the public limelight following the major American government restructuring in 2003, and it alludes to the security measures that are aimed at guarding the country from possible internal and external threats from the enemies of the great country.
Officially, it is defined as the concerted national effort to prevent terrorist attacks within the United States, reduce Americas vulnerability to terrorism, and minimize the damage and recover from attacks that do occur. 3 The Federal Resource plan defines consequence management as the measures taken to protect public health and safety, restore essential government services, and provide emergency relief to governments, businesses, and individuals affected by the consequences of terrorism. 4
The DHS, under the Presidents proposal, was established in order to consolidate the different response plans into one workable unit for consequence management. Its formation led to the integration of the separate federal government incident response plans to form what is now called the Federal Incident Management Plan.
This major initiative guarantees timely responsive action in case of an emergency. This is because the Department is endowed with the responsibility of bringing together all the response efforts. Another major initiative in post 9/11 entails the establishment of a national incident management system.
The DHS communicates with other departments within the U.S. government in order to come up with a comprehensive national consequence management strategy. This is made possible by the establishment of standards of common terms used that ensure there is smooth flow of vital information in case of a disaster. The common terms are designed such that they are scalable regardless of the magnitude of the catastrophe.5
Major counter-terrorism efforts after 9/11
A number of counter-terrorism efforts were intensified after the unfortunate events that took place on September 11.6 Counter-terrorism refers to the military or political initiatives, strategies, procedures, and other appropriate means established for the purpose of combating terrorism in the world.
These initiatives particularly became more practical after 9/11. To begin with, more emphasis has been put on identifying potential terrorists before they are able to carry out a planned attack. In most cases, after a terrorist act has occurred, it is made known to the public that the individual suspected of the crime had terrorist connections in the past.
This has usually raised questions why the person was left to live freely if he or she was having traceable terrorist connections in the past. When a potential terrorist is allowed to live freely, the possibility of him or her to plan for an attack is more likely. This is because the person will be at liberty to associate with his or her partners in crime so as to effectively arrange for an attack without much problems.
Currently, preventing terrorism strategies are aimed at establishing monitoring systems that have the ability of keeping track of individuals with suspected histories of terrorism, or probable connections to terror groups.7 In the United States, some departments within the government, such as the FBI have been endowed with this responsibility. The FBI monitors the movement and communication of potential terrorists who are on the list of suspected terrorists.
This strategy is beneficial since it can impair or do away with the possible communication between the potential terrorists and their accomplices. In this case, the activities of the suspect are simply monitored and he or she may be held on parole. Since the suspect is not considered a criminal, he or she is allowed to proceed living normally. Where the suspects live are most of the time searched thoroughly. This is meant to unlock any secrets of any plan to engage in terrorism in future.
Bioterrorism is one of the most dreaded types of terrorist acts since it is able to cause the loss of many innocent lives in a matter of minutes. All it takes is to have a terrorist having a little quantity of powdered anthrax or any other lethal chemical. The terrorist then accomplishes his or her mission by going to a busy place such as a football stadium to release the poisonous substance.
As the lethal substance spreads in the form of thin dust in the air, the outcome is catastrophic. The people around the place full of activity would inhale the toxic substance without knowing. This, if no timely appropriate response action is taken, can lead to massive loss of lives.
Countering such terrorist threats may be an uphill task. However, a number of preventive measures have been adopted that will make sure there is minimal loss of lives in case such a catastrophe takes place. In the United States, the National Pharmaceutical Stockpile is endowed with the responsibility of ensuring quick response to incidences of bioterrorism.
The program, managed jointly by DHS and the Department of Health and Human Services, augments the countrys pharmaceutical and vaccine stockpiles. To prevent mass casualty occurrence, the medical initiative has strategically positioned Push Packs across the country.
These have approximately six thousand tons of medical supplies, which can be conveyed to the scene of an incident in less than twelve hours. In case of biological warfare, the populace may be frightened at the invisible, odorless, and tasteless menace; therefore, a race against time to provide the victims with appropriate medication is beneficial in such a scenario.
The United States has sufficient preventive measures against incidences of chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear detonation. To ensure that this preventive measure is realized, DHS usually undertakes certification process on a yearly basis.
The certification process is aimed at authenticating the ability of the state and local first respondents timely response to emergencies. Moreover, the Environment Protection Agency functions to disinfect the affected area in case of an attack and gives beneficial information to public health authorities when determining if the affected area is out of danger.
The economy of the United States relies on the appropriate use of digital information. The reliance on computer networks to provide fast connectivity has evolved a new form of terrorism called cyber terrorism. This form of terrorism gives terrorists the ability to fulfill their missions with minimal or no risk to themselves and to disrupt or destroy networks and computers, with destructive results. Consequently, government or business-related operations are usually impaired because of these fraudulent deals.
Cyber terrorists most of the time target the internet since it is what makes most of the worlds digital infrastructure. In the aftermath of 9/11 attacks, several security experts are increasingly getting worried about the safety of the digital information assets in the U.S. Following the attacks, many hacking groups have been established.
Many of them usually take part in pro-U.S. and anti-U.S. cyber activities. These are mostly fought through web defacements. Therefore, the U.S. has enacted measures through developing strong vision and leadership aimed at transforming technology and polices in order to keep its digital infrastructure as safe as possible.
In this century, acts of terrorism are increasingly being revealed in new forms. Therefore, an effective counter-terrorism strategy that the U.S. has embraced is by having a specialized team with adequate training on appropriate techniques of fighting against kidnappings and hostage-takings.
As much as kidnapping is a difficult operation for terrorists to be successful in achieving, if successful, it can make the authorities to make compromising decisions in order to yield to the demands of the terrorists. Hostage taking takes place when terrorists seizure a facility taking hostages with them as human shields in order to provoke a confrontation with the authorities and attract media attention.
That is why the specialized team should be able to go into any place the hostages might be held to attempt carrying out a rescue mission. These include buildings, airplanes, or wherever the hostages might be held.
Since 9/11, every regime in the U.S. has been involved in efforts of averting the emergence of violent Islamic radicalization in the country since most terrorists usually arise from such groups.
Engaging key communities as partners in the fight against terrorism, identifying and countering the possible sources of Islamic radicalization, improving the ability of the governmental agencies to address radicalization issues, and enhancing the citizens understanding of radicalization, is applied to achieve this initiative. In addition, the U.S. is also involved in consultation efforts to limit too much use of military force in parts of the world that are prone to the emergence of such Islamic radical groups.
Throughout the history of terrorism, the use of nuclear and weapons of mass destruction (WMD) have not been very much common. These dangerous weapons are able to cause widespread destruction. In this century, some countries are taking part in arms races with their enemies to acquire WMD.
This is because they view the acquisition of these weapons as a main restraint of attack by their neighbors who are usually ever ready for war. However, it is important to note that the increased development of WMD equally increases the possibility of their acquisition by terrorists.8 This is because unstable countries may lack the ability to protect their stores of WMD from accidental losses, illegal retailing, or burglary.
In addition, terrorists can also acquire these destructive weapons through secret independent research teams or by employing experienced people to develop for them these weapons. This calls for sufficient investment that is of essence in the efforts of enhancing the capability of sharing the sensitive information regarding the use of WMD.
The tragic events of 9/11 made the U.S. to realize that terrorist organizations are able to acquire and use WMD. In the aftermath of the attacks, some terror groups, such as al Qaeda, with radical ideologies, have demonstrated their interest of acquiring WMD to undertake mass casualty attacks in order to obtain worldwide recognition for their cause.
They consider the use of such weapons to be their religious obligation; thus, they have attempted to gain access to them in a number of occasions.9 The stakes involved in the propagation and illicit use of WMD has made the United States military to use forceful means to thwart their illegal use; for example, the U.S. led invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq in 2003 was aimed at achieving this objective. 10
The movement of terrorists around the planet is closely monitored. As a strategy in the global War on Terror, measures have been put that are aimed at detecting, interrupting, and interdicting the unauthorized movements of terrorists and dangerous weapons from one part of the world to the other.
Most nations have improved their border security in order to prevent terrorists from exploiting legal entry points into the nations. Presently, every migrant entering the United States has to undergo a thorough check up in order to validate his or her adequacy of entering the nation. However, these strict border security efforts are not enough since the territory of the country is vast. Thus, to prevent illegal entry into the country through illicit pathways, the government has adopted the Secure Border Initiative.
This has been achieved through establishing a well-integrated system of individuals, machinery, and strategic communication systems aimed at easier identification and detection of illegal entries into the country. Moreover, scientific investigations are currently being carried out in order to develop next-generation technologies for close monitoring of the movement of terrorists around the globe.
The need to establish strict gun control measures was fuelled in the aftermath of 9/11. This counter-terrorism strategy limits the access of terrorist groups to dangerous weapons. Ultimately, the number of terrorist incidents will be lowered significantly. One way of achieving this is by having a considerable waiting period at gun shops. This is because potential terrorists or their accomplices may go into a gun show separately and purchase dangerous weapons to be used for producing widespread fear in innocent people.
In some places of the world, a close tie exists between ones religion and politics; therefore, in such places, one is deemed a hero when he or she sacrifices his or her life on a suicide mission.11 This notion has escalated the number of suicide terrorist attacks in the world in this century, especially in hostile places such as the Middle East region and Somalia. For U.S. citizens travelling to such hostile areas, prevention is usually done by increasing their awareness of the threats that awaits them.
The U.S. government provides information to Americans regarding the activity of terrorist organizations in such areas. These include, but not limited to, the local populaces attitude towards Americans, and the areas potential for violence.
Furthermore, Americans are advised to keep off from potentially dangerous destinations, maintain alertness, stay from suspicious looking individuals, acquaint themselves with emergency first aid equipment, use every means possible to avoid being identified as Americans, and promptly inform the authorities in case of any strange occurrence.
The infamous September 11 disaster was achieved by the use of civilian airplanes as assault vehicles to wreak havoc to the U.S. Such a happening has no precedent in the history of the airline industry. No one had ever imagined that terrorists could be able to hijack an airplane and use it to carry out an attack.
Following this strange occurrence, the confidence of several individuals concerning air travel was shaken. Some people even cancelled their trips to popular tourism destinations and others avoided places full of activity such as theme parks and big cities. Therefore, to prevent such disruption of life, major initiatives have been implemented.
These include, but not limited to, proper screening of all travelers, checking if the travelers are eligible to travel by reviewing their history, and questioning travelers who seem to be suspicious. Through these strategies, the airline industry is able to thwart the efforts of the terrorists use of airplanes as means of wreaking havoc in the world.
Consequence management
Despite the superb prevention and mitigation efforts that can be done in the War on Terror, terrorist attacks are sometimes inevitable. Therefore, the U.S. government has developed measures that are aimed at alleviating the effects of this disaster in case it takes place. Establishment of enhanced notification, alert, and warning systems, which are totally reliable, effective, and flexible are some strategies that the government has adopted to realize this.
Moreover, pre-incident alert and warning systems have been designed such that they are able to convey vital security information to Americans to any place they might be within the country. This warning system is also able to give situational updates and appropriate directions of movement to Americans even after an incident has taken place.
In the aftermath of September 11, the expectations of Americans concerning the federal governments incident management plans has increased considerably, especially in a situation in which a domestic crisis of national significance has taken place. In such circumstances, the citizens expect it to accomplish its obligations, make minimal mistakes, and be both virtually omniscient and omnipotent.
Because of this endless public examination, the governments consequence management plans have been intensified to avoid the mistakes that were done in pre 9/11. One of these improvements in consequence management entails appropriate passage of information from one place to another. As was evident during 9/11 attacks, communication breakdown usually take place in case of a terrorist attack and the public most of the time thirst for information.
As much as only few individuals can feel the physical impacts of the disaster, the rest of the people may be afraid of being the next victims. This is what causes the thirst for information. Therefore, the public expects the government to provide them with the vital information that is needed in such times.
In effective management of a complex national emergency, the statements of the president and those of high-ranked government officials are carefully calculated to avoid possible deaths and loss of public confidence. In most situations, it has been observed that the initial reports are not true. In addition, the public usually demand for information much faster than the officials of the government are able to give.
Because of these facts, most of the consequence management that is practiced in the United States in the first hours of a disaster is aimed at providing the President together with some high-ranked government officials with accurate information.
This is because they are usually on the spot in situations whereby emergencies of national significance have taken place and, more so, they are expected by the public to deliver correct information when making a nationwide address on the issue in the first news cycle after an emergency.
In a situation in which a nuclear weapon has exploded in a city in the United States, measures have been put in place to ensure that as many lives as possible are saved through immediate evacuation of the affected individuals.
Because of the immense effects of the detonation, such as thermal radiation and nuclear radiation, not so much can be done to save the lives of those within the immediate vicinity of the blast. Nonetheless, protection of people in such circumstances can be achieved by moving them to another place before they get into direct contact with the dangerous radioactive materials.
The U.S. army played a vital role in the countrys response to September 11 attacks. That is why the government has launched plans to enable the military to assist civil authorities in case of an emergency. The military have been mandated to give technical assistance to law enforcement authorities, assist in restoration of law and order, and lend specialized equipment as initiatives in consequence management.
To increase the chances of saving more lives in case of a terrorist attack, DHS is involved in efforts of planning and expanding volunteers called Citizen Corps. The volunteers are effectively trained and equipped with essential skills of detecting possible terrorist incidences and responding accordingly to prevent further damages from taking place.
The increased terrorist threat on the U.S. has made the federal government to offer more funding targeted at training more first responders. However, since the countrys program for training first responders is increasingly being strained, the government is involved in efforts of developing a national training and evaluation program aimed at meeting the growing demand.12
Conclusion
Since the turn of the century, terrorist threats against the U.S. have escalated to unprecedented levels. Amidst these hard times, the great nation has responded with courage and now it is safer, stronger, and even more prepared to face the issues that threaten its very principles of democracy.
Nonetheless, since the country is safer, but not completely safe, a significant number of challenges are still lying ahead. That is why the American government has implemented several strategies aimed at ensuring that the lifestyle of the residents proceeds normally without undue interruption.
Because of the fact that the country is not immune to terrorist attacks and several terrorist organizations have shown relentless determination to cause havoc in the country, it is prepared to protect its critical resources as well as promptly act in response to emergencies that take place on its soil.
Bibliography
Bartholomees, Boone. National Security Policy and strategy. Washington: Department of National Security and Strategy, 2008.
Biddle, Stephen D. American Grand Strategy after 9/11: An assessment, Strategic Studies Institute, 2005. Web.
Bullock, Jane A. and others. Introduction to homeland security. Burlington: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, 2006.
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Bush, George W. Overview of Americas National Strategy for Homeland Security. National Strategy for Homeland Security, 2007. Web.
Miskel, James F. Disaster response and homeland security: what works, what doesnt. Westport: Praeger Security International, 2006.
Purpura, Philip.Security and loss prevention: an introduction. Burlington, MA: Elsevier/Butterworth-Heinemann, 2008.
Schultz, George P. An Essential War-ousting Saddam was the only option. The Wall Street Journal. 1997.
The Department of Homeland Security. United States Department of Homeland Security handbook. Washington: International Business publications, 2006.
United States Marine Corps. Individuals Guide for Understanding and Surviving Terrorism. New York: Cosimo Publications, 2007.
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Footnotes
United States Marine Corps. Individuals Guide for Understanding and Surviving Terrorism (New York: Cosimo Publications, 2007), 1.
Stephen D. Biddle. American Grand Strategy after 9/11: An assessment, Strategic Studies Institute, 2005.
George W. Bush, Overview of Americas National Strategy for Homeland Security. National Strategy for Homeland Security, 2007.
Jane A. Bullock and others. Introduction to homeland security, (Burlington: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, 2006), 613.
The Department of Homeland Security. United States Department of Homeland Security handbook. (Washington: International Business publications, 2006), 41-42.
Boone Bartholomees. National Security Policy and strategy. (Washington: Department of National Security and Strategy, 2008), 99-112.
Elaine Bunn, Preemptive action: what, how, and to what effect? Strategic forum 1, no. 200 (2003), 1-7 .
The White House. The National Security Strategy of the United States of America, Global Security, 2002.
George P. Schultz, An Essential War-ousting Saddam was the only option. The Wall Street Journal. 1997.
Harry R. Yarger. Strategic theory for the 21st century: The little Book on the Big Strategy, Strategic Studies Institute, 2006.
James F. Miskel, Disaster response and homeland security: what works, what doesnt (Westport: Praeger Security International, 2006), 44.
Philip Purpura, Security and loss prevention: an introduction. (Burlington, MA : Elsevier/Butterworth-Heinemann, 2008), 480.