Wong Tai Sin Temple is located at 586 6th Avenue, in the Inner Richmond neighborhood, Northwestern San Francisco, state California. This temple is considered to be Buddhist, although it is related, actually, to several religions, particularly Daoism (also known as Taoism) and Buddhism. Being two leading ones in the Orient, Daoism and Buddhism have different founders but a lot in common. For example, both of them do not have any Messiah, a savior or a creator of the world.
Both Taoism and Buddhism include elements of religion and philosophy. Taoism pursues living in harmony with nature and the great Tao, which is the reason, the beginning and the ending of everything: “all things are produced by the Tao” (Lao Tzu and Bradshaw-Jones 73). According to Taoism, all people are good by nature, so, all we should do is to allow ourselves to be good. Buddhism understands the concept of the highest happiness as the achieving of enlightenment and so-called Nirvana (Weeraperuma 169).
Besides, while Taoism perceives our existence as something basically good, Buddhism “adopt an attitude to life… which sees it as suffering, as the result of desire, and as something from which to escape” in order to attach Nirvana (Cooper 142).
Still, both Taoism and Buddhism use the same statues and pictures. The visitors of Wong Tai Sin Temple can find out that it belongs to Daoism and Buddhism since it has particular symbols and images, as well as the form of worship, which convey its unique religious character. In the temple, you can find pictures of Wong Tai Sin (translated as “the Great Immortal Sage Wong”), a Chinese deity whom this temple is dedicated to (Leeming, Madden, and Marlan 981).
There are also pictures and statues of other famous figures, such as Guan Yin (deity of mercy), Guan Gung, different faces of Buddha, etc. Visitors can pray to them using peculiar kneeling pads and burning traditional incense sticks. There is also a possibility to buy particular Buddhist items blessed by monks, which are aimed to protect a person whom they belong to.
As for the architecture, this temple is not so beautifully ornamented as the one in Hong Kong, but interior design is still impressive. Besides, the structure of Taoist temple buildings is preserved: there is a reception room, a divine hall, a place for reading scriptures and an altar (“Taoist Architecture” par. 1).
At the end of my report, I would like to mention that there are several sacred details at the temple, which I have found to be personally appealing. Firstly, although this temple is rather small, it is very authentic. Secondly, besides worshipping and praying to different deities, visitors of Wong Tai Sin Temple can also ask for their fortune. This practice is widely spread in Taoist and Buddhist temples and usually called kau cim (“Kau Cim” par. 1).
Frankly speaking, kau cim predictions seemed very accurate and precise to me. Finally, I like how Taoism and Buddhism do not disclaim each other, and how the pictures of Wong Tai Sin can be placed just next to Buddha’s statues. I like that after visiting this temple and after the worship, my mind somehow clears. Besides, I have also admired the way visitors are treated there, how open and helpful the staff is. They will always give a piece of advice, tell you how to pray and so on. I would probably come there again in the future.
Works Cited
Cooper, Jean C. An Illustrated Introduction to Taoism: The Wisdom of the Sages, Bloomington, Indiana: World Wisdom, 2010. Print.
Lao Tzu and Colin Bradshaw-Jones. The Tao Te Ching, Eighty-one Maxims from the Father of Taoism, Maesteg, Wales: Infinity Café, 2006. Print.
Leeming, David A., Kathryn Madden, and Stanton Marlan. Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion: L-Z, New York, New York: Springer Science & Business Media, 2010. Print.
Taoist Architecture n.d. Web.
Weeraperuma, Susunaga. Nirvana: The Highest Happiness, New Delhi, India: Vedams eBooks Private Limited, 2003. Print.
Great emperors and rulers of the past influenced the social order of the modern life drastically. Jasaw Chan K’awiil I and Qin Shi Huang are the great historical personalities of two different civilizations. Chan K’awiil was the king of the Mayan Civilization while the latter was the first Emperor of China.
The tombs of both leaders are masterpieces that exemplify the immortalization of their power as well as the belief that a new life begins in the other world. The Tomb of Emperor Qin and the Temple of the Great Jaguar represent unrelated ancient cultures that have a common purpose — to perpetuate the grandeur of their rulers and to ensure their blissful lives after death.
The detection of the Qin Emperor’s Terracotta Army is one of the most prominent events in the archeology and history of the 20th century. Qin, also known as Shihuangdi, was the first ruler who managed to end the continuous conflicts between lords. Qin gathered the army, defeated all of them, and declared himself the Emperor of China in 221 BC. There is no exact answer concerning the primary reason for building the Terracotta Army.
It is significant to examine the epoch to find the motives of the Emperor. Qin began his reign with major reforms. He centralized the State and united the country. The Emperor adhered to the Legalist policy, improved the educational level of the population and promoted the trade.
At the same time, Qin Shihuangdi was a tyrannical and despotic leader. He had a lot of enemies and was afraid of death. Thus, the Emperor decided to achieve immortality by any possible means. His paranoia became an impulse for building the Terracotta Army (Wolff 11).
The excavation of the Temple of the Great Jaguar started in 1955. The reasons for building the Temple of the Great Jaguar were rather different. Jasaw Chan K’awiil I, known as Lord Sky God K, built the Temple I to glorify his success. He was the king of Tikal, the major center of the Maya Civilization. In 695 AD, Lord Sky God K defeated its opponent — Calakmul and made Tikal the prosperous and flourishing place (McKillop 62).
The Temple of the Great Jaguar served not only funeral but religious purposes as well. Maya believed in the existence of Xibalba — the mystical world where the gods lived, and in the two twins who outwitted the gods and opened the entrance to Xibalba. Maya shared the idea that one could depart to Xibalba through the mouth of mountains. The temples embodied those mountains.
Chinese people of that time believed that the soul divided into two constituents after death. The first part stayed with the body on Earth and the second moved to Heaven. The aim of the Qin Shihuangdi was to prepare himself for the eternal life. Thus, he wanted to reduplicate his residence. The Emperor wished all his warriors came with him, but instead of their extermination, he decided to make clay copies of them.
More than half a million workers built the subterranean microcosm of the city in the enormous mound with the height of 75 meters. The tomb comprises an immense number of pits with terracotta soldiers and horses. All figures are life-sized. There are also arms and chariots made of bronze (“Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor” par. 14).
The whole mausoleum is the architectural masterpiece. There were numerous pits and even the representation of the universe. Gems and pearls covered the ceiling to duplicate the sky. Different pits stand for various departments of the Qin’s army. Thus, the first pit is the largest and includes probably more than six thousand soldiers from the Right Army of the Emperor. The clay warriors from the Left Army comprised the second pit.
General Headquarters formed the third one. The craftsmen made all soldiers unique. All of them have individual facial expressions. Even more, they correspond to people from different ethnical groups. Initially, the workers painted every sculpture though the paint worn off in the course of time.
Besides, warriors possessed genuine weapons (Wolff 12). Archeologists have not excavated the tomb of the Qin itself due to the lack of necessary technologies. One more significant fact concerns the finding of the high level of mercury in the mound. Emperor Qin believed that breathing mercury would bring the immortality and ordered to supply his tomb with the substance.
The Temple of the Great Jaguar in Guatemala was a mortuary and sacred structure. Originally, there was only a tomb of Jasaw Chan K’awiil. Researchers argue whether K’awiil or his son planned and conducted the building of the pyramid. Average observers often confuse Temple I with Egyptian pyramids. However, the method of building this pyramid differed from that employed in Egypt. The Temple of the Great Jaguar comprises of smaller blocks.
The structure includes nine levels of blocks arranged in the form of steps, which have symbolic meaning. According to the Mayan religion, a king had to pass all these stages after death. The Temple I is almost fifty meters high. The summit of the pyramid is the sanctuary with carved lintels made of wood.
On the top of the Temple I, there is the sculpture of Jasaw Chan K’awiil I sitting on the throne and a figure of the captured jaguar (Sharer and Traxler 393). However, it is challenging to see it now due to the destructions. There are also images that represent the power and grandeur of the leader. For instance, one can notice the pictures of people who are standing on human bones. Such images meant that the king was the influential and mighty person (McKillop 62).
The works of art under consideration epitomize two unique cultures and epochs. The building of the Tomb of Emperor Qin commenced much earlier. Qin Shihuangdi was the initiator of building. What concerns the Temple I, it is not known who made it. The constructions differ severely as well.
The principal aim of both structures was to prepare the best conditions for their rulers when they would depart to the other world. Nevertheless, the Temple I was a sacred religious place while the Tomb of Emperor Qin represented his paranoiac desire to achieve immortality and live in the same grandeur after death.
At first sight, both tombs look dissimilar. It seems there is no connection between Chinese and Mayan Civilizations. In my opinion, the core meaning of both artworks renders the wisdom of the humankind. People, who built these masterpieces, aspired to immortalize their leaders and prepare them for the eternal life.
These works exemplify the way nations behaved and thought in the ancient time. They open the pages of history that have been unknown before. I have chosen these works of art because they prove that the wisdom and faith have no limitations or borders. One can find them everywhere, regardless of the cultures and territories.
Works Cited
Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor. n.d.
McKillop, Heather. The Ancient Maya: New Perspectives, Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2004. Print.
Sharer, Robert and Loa Traxler. The Ancient Maya, Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2006. Print.
Wolff, Jennifer. “Emperor Qin in the Afterlife.” 2007.
Rome is a city of mysteries for, owing to its extremely rich history, it has gradually turned into a collection of architectural and artistic masterpieces which will never stop attracting the attention of tourists. The person of any interest or background will find it interesting to view the works of ancient, Middle Ages, Renaissance, and modern creators who have spent their lives perpetuating their ideas, feelings, and hopes in the intricate patterns of sculptures, buildings, and monuments. Any person, from a beginner to a professional will admire the pieces of art and architecture which evoke the feeling of mystery in the heart of every passer-by. The architectural creations, perhaps, can amaze the viewer most of all for there are always many hidden behinds the walls, arches, domes, and columns of the buildings which once served as residences, churches, market places, courts, hospitals, etc. for people of different origins and social status. One of such buildings is the Temple of Portunus which is often referred to as the Temple of Fortuna Virgilis because this is how the antiquaries have named it; however, such a designation is erroneous. The Temple of Portunus is a creation of the ancient times with such aspects as pseudoperipteral structure and Ionic columns being the most interesting about it; the temple also reveals certain facts about Roman ancient history and culture, as well as proves the uniqueness of the Roman architectural style.
Description of the site: date of construction, location, historical significance
The Temple of Portunus is located in Forum Boarium and the name of a person (or, possibly, people) that designed and erected it is, unfortunately, unknown. Forum Boarium is one of the oldest possessions of Rome which served it as a premier port where several commercial activities have been carried out. It was also a cattle market and the site for gladiatorial contests. However, what is most important, it was a religious center where two major temples, the Temple of Portunus and the Temple of Hercules Victor have been functioning. The Temple of Portunus has been erected between 120 and 80 B.C. on the remains of the building which existed there earlier (Stamper 62). This building, together with the Round Temple, is the only one, except Pantheon, of course, that has been preserved in good condition. The positioning of these two temples is remarkable: “The Temple of Portunus is sited parallel to the Tiber, facing north toward the street that led to the Pons Aemilius” (Stamper 62). The door of the Round Temple, however, is facing to the east, which means that these temples have been built of different sacred zones.
The most interesting features about the site: pseudoperipteral structure and Ionic columns
Quite interesting are the architectural features of the Temple of Portunus. This building is pseudoperipteral, which means, that, unlike peripteral temples that have similar columns at the porch and both sides of the building, this temple has four columns across and only two columns deep; its cella is “lined with five engaged half-columns on the sides and four on the back … with the pronaos occupying about one-third and the cella two-thirds of the stylobate” (Stamper 64). Another interesting feature about this temple is the Ionic order of its columns that, unlike the columns of other orders (Doric and Corinthian), stand on a base, which makes it easy to define their shaft and stylobate. Since the Ionic columns originated no earlier than in the mid-6th century B.C., their presence is of great assistance in determining the age of some ancient buildings.
The temple’s revealing certain facts from ancient Roman history and culture
What’s more, the Temple of Portunus reflects certain aspects of Roman culture and history. Firstly, it represents the Romans as believers. The name of the temple is symbolic, like any masterpiece of architecture of ancient times. It is connected with Fortunes, the god of keys and doors This means that people who lived in those times when the temple was constructed were religious and relied on the help of gods in any undertakings. Since the building also served as a cattle market and a center of commerce (even though only local), the patronage of divine powers was extremely necessary for people involved in the trade. Portunus was believed to protect the warehouses where the goods were stored. He was also regarded as the god of sailors and ports (from porta, the “gateway”). He has often been represented by the Romans as “youthful with long hair and the attributes of anchor and serpent” (Richardson 320). The area which the temple occupies was “where the docks and the warehouses were located, thus the need for a temple” (Zeleznikar 60). This all testifies to the fact that the Romans of the 1st century B.C. were believers and that they needed faith in gods to carry out business successfully; thus, the temple under consideration reflects cultural and historical aspects of the then society.
Topical importance of the temple: a mixture of different architectural styles
Finally, the topical importance of the Temple of Portunus consists in its being eclectic, which characterizes it as a creation of Roman architecture. The temple is a mixture of numerous styles of architecture, which makes it hard to define what exactly is so peculiar about this temple. In general, the temple’s walls and ceiling are organized by the Etruscan patterns. However, this is where the unknown Roman architect managed to add mystery to his creation:
The high podium is accessible only at the front, with its wide flight of steps. Freestanding columns are confined to the deep porch. But the structure is built of stone (local tufa and travertine), overlaid originally with stucco in imitation of the gleaming white marble temples of the Greeks. The columns are not Tuscan, but Ionic, complete with flutes and bases, and a matching Ionic frieze. (Garnder, Kleiner, and Mamiya 171)
Therefore, the temple has Greek and Etruscan elements, though at this it remains uniquely Roman. The main reason for this is that the Romans added the main entrance into the building, which made the temple distinctive from the Greek ones which can be entered from different sides. Thus, the topical importance of the Temple of Portunus consists in this building presenting Roman architecture as unique, even though it utilized the elements of other architectural styles.
Conclusion
In conclusion, though the exact age of the Temple of Portunus is impossible to identify, several facts about this building can be discovered from its structure making it possible to describe architectural directions of those times, as well as certain historical and cultural aspects of the then society. Thus, the name and location of the temple show that the Romans of the 1st century B.C. have been involved in trade and were religious, while the mixture of the temple’s Greek and Etruscan styles reveals the uniqueness of the Roman architecture due to pseudoperipteral structure which it achieves with the help of Ionic columns.
Works Cited
Gardner, Helen, Kleiner, Fred S., & Mamiya, Christin J. Gardner’s Art through the Ages: The Western Perspective. London: Cengage Learning, 2005.
Richardson, Lawrence. A New Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992.
Stamper, John W. The Architecture of Roman Temples: The Republic to the Middle Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
Zeleznikar, Alan. Rome Explorations: The Ancient Rome Walking Tour. Victoria BC: Trafford Publishing, 2002.
As mentioned earlier, the Cordoba mosque, also known as Mezquita, stands tall as a representative of the medieval Islamic civilization located in Spain. It is believed that the ground breaking of the mosque began in the Sixth Century AD as a Christian Visigothic church. The Mosque was, however, completed much later, in the year 987 AD, and shared for use between the Muslims and the Christians.
Beginning 784 AD, an Islamist prince called Abd ar-Rahman, acquired the structure from the Christian fraternity and began refurbishing it as a Muslim worship centre. The mosque underwent a lot of ”structural changes and interior design repair” (Savory 1976). This was meant to fit the mosque into the “Islamic design”. The purchase of the cathedral by the Muslims also meant that it would be refurbished to “rid it of the “Christian characteristics”(Ching and Prakash 2011).
The magnificent building is outstanding with the huge arches and numerous columns that exceed 1,000 in number (Savory 1976). The columns consist of various valuable stones such as Jasper, Onyx and marble that have been artistically modelled to provide the artistic countenance that the mosque has.
The mosque had a turbulent moment in the year 1236 when it was captured from the moors and used again by the Christian fraternity by King Ferdinand three. The proceeding kings that followed later redesigned the mosque according to the Christian beliefs and design (Ching and Prakash).
Initial design
During the re-designation period of the mosque, the most outstanding and notable reconstruction activity involved the construction of the Reconnaissance cathedral in the middle of the structure, courtesy of a Spanish king Carlos who was a Christian by then (Savory 1976).
The Mezquita, or the Cordoba, mosque had different measurement during the initial construction. In terms of the area, it measured a total of 73m square. Out of this area, half was a forecourt (Trachterberg 2002). Later, during the reconstruction periods, there was a need to enlarge the total area and this led to the addition of an extra 65 square miles making the total area to stand at 138 square miles.
During the first construction, the worshipping hall increased two folds at the end of the 9th century and the length widened to a total length of approximately 138m. Proceeding kings that followed later redesigned the mosque according to the Christian beliefs and design (Trachterberg 2002).
Design Structure of the Mosque
Arches
The arches, throughout the structure, have a common shape that is referred to as “the horse shoe form” (Savory 1976). This style is described as being very predominant with the architectural design of the Visigoths, i.e. the inhabitants of the area where the mosque is situated before the arrival of the Islamic population called the Umyyads from North Africa (Ching and Prakash).
The horse shoe form was assumed to be very strong and durable by the medieval architectures other than the fact that they offered very flowery aesthetic finishing, when used in various structures and buildings, all the arches within the cathedral are oriented towards the horse shoe design template borrowed from the Visigoths.
The dome
The dome is located right above the mihrab or the maqrub. It depicts a large structure, of course dome shaped as the name suggests, but carries with itself numerous artistic drawings and calligraphy on the inside. The dome was constructed through an act of crisscrossing those components that form the pointed arches in the building. In the mosque, they are largely decorated in pure gold in a more or less radial and regular pattern (Ching and Prakash).
The dome was constructed during the construction of the cathedral and historians argue that during the construction of this dome, a total number of sixteen columns were demolished and ejected from the main prayer hall to allow a space for the erection of both the cathedral and the dome.
Simultaneously, the cathedral construction was purely based on the early Christian architectural designs. One can easily feel and see the outstanding cocktail of both Christian and Islamic designs standing side by side to depict the history of civilisation of these two contrasting yet marvellous designs.
It is important to note the structure of the double arches that have been used in the building. These greatly assist in the support of the immense weight that the ceilings high above insert on the columns and further prevents the roof from falling off. These arches were conveniently designed with a lower horse shoe arch and an upper semi-circular arch whose role is to offer adequate base for the support of these arches (Ching and Prakash 2011).
The arches along the passages of the mosque consist of several layered segments that run in lines which consist of red bricks and white stones piled in an alternating manner, thus, creating a spectacular pattern of stripes along the arcade, the space is large enough to permit visibility across the arcade (Ching and Prakash 2011).
General Dimension
The Mosque is approximated to measure a total of six hundred and twenty feet ft in length across the North-South orientation (Trachterberg 2002). In terms of the breadth, from the West to the East cardinal points, the mosque measures a total length of four hundred and forty feet. The shape of the mosque is considered to be rectangular inferring that it has four sides and four angles in general. Historians have always argued that the mosque initially had a total of twenty one doors when it was originally constructed. However, the number has so far reduced to only five following various reconstruction procedures by the Christians when they took it over from the Muslims.
External dimension
Two hundred and ten feet out of the total length from South to North, a court was effectively erected and a modern gate installed for accessory purpose. Nineteen aisles that measure three hundred and fifty feet in length by fourteen in breadth ran parallel from the Northern portion to the Southern end through the interior building that forms the central structure (Ching and Prakash 2011). The aisles have a large number of columns with a spectacular arrangement
Elevation of the Mosque
Each of the four fronts of the structure presents a perfectly designed wall that is crowned with crenulations all through. There is a varying difference between each of these fronts in terms of their heights and decorations. Each arch presents a beautiful and well curve horse shoe form that effectively makes a reference of the widely used Moorish architecture through which the whole building is set upon
Interior Design
Columns
The columns in the mosque presently stand at a total of eight hundred and fifty and are made out of granite and jasper together with other precious rocks. Columns display myriad splendid colours. The unique scenery formed by this creativity has been described as “majestic” by some historians (Ching and Prakash 2011).
These columns have an equivalent length which stands at nine feet from the base. The shaft too, of the existing columns, reflects equivalency in terms of the size and measures approximately seventeen inches in terms of the diameter. The Chapiters on the other hand, support the arches that emanate from one column to the other where they perfectly form a horse shoe form (Ching and Prakash 2011).
The beams of the mosque are extremely huge in diameter for the sole reason of offering support to the structure. The beams are numerous in number and the cross beams have been well decorated with paint to provide the aesthetic magnificent sight they possess (Ching and Prakash 2011).
One of the most stunning features of the mosque is the maqsura or rather the prayer space for the ruler (Trachterberg 2002). This space was specifically preserved for the King. It was personally commissioned by the caliph himself in the 12th century.
The space is separated from the rest of the prayer section by alternating arcades that possess several lobes that offer a distinctive horse shoe form. It was then decorated using marble that were well curved together with various other precious stones like the stucco and the mosaics too (Ching and Prakash 2011)
The Mihrab
The interior portion of the mosque is the house of the Maqsura which is, perhaps, one of the landmark features in any Islamic worshiping centre. The Mihrab refers to a designated area on the wall of a mosque that is used to depict the direction Makka, the holy city of Islam (Trachterberg 2002). By the use of a horse shoe form arch, the architecture adorned the Mihrab in the mosque using some of the most precious gems and metals.
The mihrabb is encapsulated it in a more or less rectangular frame that house numerous verses that have been keenly selected from the Muslim holy book of Koran. The writings used are indeed very artistic and clearly pointing out to the origin and development of the Islamic calligraphy. One can never miss the great manifest of the Islamic art at every point of the building either within the structure, or outside the structure (Trachterberg 2002).
The choir loft in the cathedral is coated with wood carvings that offer it a magnificent finish. The space around the loft has overleaped ceilings together with large domes that rise above the main altar. There exists an open and easy to see difference between the chapels of the cathedral and the normal conventional chapels. The cathedral chapels are not situated around the major cathedral area but rather, the chapels occupy the area around the primary cathedral area (Trachterberg 2002).
There has been a raging debate though on the reason as to why the mihrab is not facing Makka, the Islamic holy city,yet, conventionally, all the mosques belonging to the Muslim worshippers have erected the mihrab facing Makka. Now, various historians have put forth their arguments on the same but the most agreeable version is that the initial inhabitants of the structure were not Muslims and during the construction of the structure, there were no intentions of using it as a mosque in the future.
This argument is very valid and easily accepted since the presence of any Muslim during the construction would have led to the proper orientation of the Mihrab towards their holy city, Mekka. All in all, it is a popular version of the story that the Muslims acquired the structure after its full construction but yet did a few modifications to fit it into the Muslim definition of a “worship place”
The hypostyle hall
This is the most spacious area within the Mosque (Ching and Prakash 2011). The hall is essentially filled with numerous columns that support the huge roof above it. It is called the hypostyle hall to refer to the large number of columns that stand regularly arranged around the hall (Ching and Prakash 2011).
This large and expansive prayer hall appears unusually very wide due to the mirage formed by the presence of repeated geometry, an aspect of gothic design that was essentially meant for decorative purpose and also to instil support in different structures.
The repeated geometry has been widely applied in the decoration of the prayer hall. The hall is believed to have been constructed using refurbished columns that were excavated from the Roman structures (Ching and Prakash 2011). The columns are modified into a combination of two symmetrical horse shoe form arches that are formed from red brick and the stones. This distinct the arches out as well decorated and adorned to radiate immense beauty and magnificence.
The Roofing
The roofing of the structure was skilfully done to accommodate the large columns of the structure (Trachterberg 2002). The roof is artistically done using selected species of cedar together with pine wood. These are some of the strongest species of timber known and are conceived to remain unaffected by seasons or insects for the longest time possible. The timber is “sandwiched” with lead in a fine precision that brings out the artistry applied.
Exterior view
The external walls are fortified with utmost ingenuity depicting the strength of the structure. The walls are intermittently supported by buttresses which make it appear like a legion of towers (Trachterberg 2002).
Below the bell tower, lies a courtyard with orange trees together with a fountain that is specifically used for lavation purposes.
Cathedral
The cathedral is located right in the middle of the mosque. This cathedral was constructed after the Christians acquired the structure from the Muslim believers during the reign of king Carlos of Spain. It is postulated that the cathedral must have been constructed in the sixteenth century. To the left hand side of this cathedral lies the Capilla de Villacios building that was constructed by the Moorish craftsmen earlier by King Alfonso.
The Cathedral boasts of a gothic architectural style that was introduced by an archictect Hernan Ruiz who worked on the structure transforming it into a gothic design which essentially refers to an architectural design of the medieval era.
The bell tower
The bell tower is perhaps the longest structure in the whole building. It was never part of the original building when it was still inhabited by the Muslims. However, during the reign of King Carlos and the restructuring period, the Architects designed a long tower for the purpose of erecting the bell.
The tower is approximated to be ninety three metres in height and is constructed together with winding stairs that leads up to the top. The bell tower is referred to as the Torre de Alminar. From the bell tower, it is possible to have a view of the whole mosque aerially.
The mosque has a total tally of three gates that are all designed using different architectural designs for accessory purposes.
Conclusion
The mosque describes the artistry and displays some of the characteristics of Islamic civilisation. The design represents one of the last remaining representatives of the Moorish architecture. The paper has sought to highlight the outstanding features of this design and relate it to Islamic civilisation (Trachterberg 2002).
The antique appearance of the structure has helped to unfold various historical issues in as far as the ancient civilisation is concerned. The structure has, in itself, revealed numerous historical facts and phenomenon that has opened up debate for critical study of the architecture of the prehistoric era, it is my submission therefore that this paper has adequately helped tie the ends by exploring these historical phenomena
The mosque has had a fair share of its challenges since the Christians took over from the Muslim users. A number of violent episodes have been witnessed where some radical Islamic groups has invariantly attacked and injured several other Christian worshippers in their demand to repossess the mosque, or worship in turns with the Christians.
The Spanish Muslims have been lobbying the Spanish Catholics to allow them use the cathedral, however, this has been severally rejected by the Vatican city and the Spanish Catholic administrators. This was followed by violence by a few Muslim tourists who assaulted the guards at the cathedral.
References
Ching, Frank, Mark Jarzombek, and Prakash Vikramaditya. A global history of architecture. 2nd ed. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley, 2011. Print.
Savory, Roger. Introduction to Islamic civilisation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976. Print.
Trachtenberg, Arvin, Hyman. Architecture: From Prehistory to Post modernity, 2nd edition, Pearson; 2002. Print.
The evolution of architectural styles is defined by their tendency for linear progression. Unlike with other forms of art, where evolution can branch out into different and sometimes bizarre directions, architecture is motivated not solely by the aesthetics, but also by the practicality and purposes of any given structure. While art techniques are capable of evolving at a relatively rapid pace, architectural styles are limited by the construction technology available to engineers, architects, and workers.1 This progression can be observed when comparing Italian structures from different time periods. In the majority of cases, architectural choices were motivated by the available technology as well as various socio-political and economic factors. If we observe and compare the Church of Gesu, constructed in the late 17th century, with Santa Maria Novella (early 14th century) we could see that the latter was built in an effort to recreate the monumental style of the ancient Roman and Greek architecture, whereas the former, while sharing the same monumental purpose, also expressed a powerful theological statement and a symbol of Catholic Counter-reformation.
If we analyze the façade design and the architectural layout of both churches, they would appear to be very similar. The façades are divided into two sections, with the lower sections featuring pillars decorated in Roman or Greek styles. The main entrance is located at the center, with two additional passages on either side from the central axis.2 The use of volutes as well as triangular and curvilinear tympanums is present in both cases.3 In addition, the architectural layout of both churches is very similar, resembling a cross. Two rows of supportive columns go along the main axis, ending in a ceremonial chamber.4 Both churches also feature a large round dome above the intersection of the cross.
Despite the similarities, these two architectural marvels represent two different styles. Santa Marian Novella is built in the Early Renaissance style. During that time period, the main focus was on the authentic recreation of the ancient Roman architectural style. While the church is beautiful in its own right, its creation does not hold any particular message other than the expression of adoration and devotion towards God. Its appearance is not imposing; it does not attempt to shock the viewer with its grandeur. That effect is achieved by the frescoes and other artworks inside the church.
The Church of Gesu, on the other hand, is considered to be the earliest example of the Baroque architectural style. Baroque, both in art and architecture, sought to invoke emotion and transmit a powerful message. It was often used as a propaganda weapon by the Church, which, at the time, suffered a crisis of Faith due to the appearance of Protestant movements and Catholic counter-reformation. While the Church of Gesu retained many classic Roman features, like the use of a round dome and general symmetry, it also features greater attention to detail and numerous striking features about its architecture. If we observe the façade of the church, it would be possible to see how sharp and precise the lines are. The use of Tenebrism (dramatic illumination) is apparent if we look at the statues, who are placed in small chambers that are supposed to magnify the shadows around them.5 The entire appearance of the church is aimed to inspire awe, respect, and a modicum of fear in the viewers, making them feel small and insignificant next to the power of God and the Society of Jesus.6
This example illustrates the difference between Early-Renaissance architecture and Baroque. While the former was the progenitor of the majority of architectural styles that developed throughout the Renaissance period, the latter was its evolution, which employed its grander, more dramatic and dynamic style to lure the masses away from Protestantism.
Bibliography
Anderson, Christy. Renaissance Architecture. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.
Ching, Francis. Architecture: Form, Space, and Order. New York: Wiley, 2014.
Footnotes
Francis Ching, Renaissance Architecture (New York: Wiley, 2014), 28.
Christy Anderson, Architecture: Form, Space, and Order (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 89.
Christy Anderson, Architecture: Form, Space, and Order (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 89.
Anderson, Architecture: Form, Space, and Order, 91.
Francis Ching, Renaissance Architecture (New York: Wiley, 2014), 43.
The Great Mosque of Cordoba is regarded by many people as an influential artwork in the establishment and evolution of Islamic architecture. The building is also mystifying due to the nature of its features whose origin is still anonymous (Brebbia & Boquera, 2017). This discussion begins by presenting a formal description of this work of art. The paper goes further to give a detailed historical analysis of the mosque. The distinctive aspects defining the building are also described in the discussion. The essay also explains how the mosque can be used as a model for studying the development of Islamic architecture over the past fifteen centuries.
Formal Description
The Great Mosque of Cordoba is a spectacular work of art that portrays numerous features and architectural designs. The first remarkable observation about the structure is that it combines different styles. The magnificent edifice utilizes arches for decorative as well as structure aspects. The viewer observes that different designs and elements have been combined to give it a spectacular appearance. The mosque has a single minaret. It also exhibits spectacular mosaics that are combined intricately (Spahic, 2015). These exterior features make it an admirable and memorable work of architecture.
The interior of the Great Mosque of Cordoba reveals unique attributes to the viewer. The first key observation is the use of 856 columns. Such columns support numerous two-tiered arches that are designed to support the structure’s roof. This architectural style results in a hypostyle hall (Brebbia & Boquera, 2017). The building has poly-lobed, interlacing, and horseshoe arches. These are decorated using brick and stone patterns. Others appear to be covered or designed in mosaic. The structure has rectangular courtyards and prayer halls. The walls are decorated using abstract patterns, thereby making them splendid. Several parts of the mosque are redesigned into chapels. These features show conclusively why people across the globe admire the structure.
Historical Analysis
The Mosque of Cordoba is one of the greatest marvels that have fascinated many people from every corner of the world. The complexity of the mosque explains why it is quite hard to associate it with a specific architectural style. However, many scholars and historians believe strongly that the structure borrows a lot from the Islamic architecture. The technique is seen to combine new aspects from the Renaissance, Baroque, and Gothic styles. Moreover, the masterpiece combines the architectural concepts of Christianity and Islam (Brebbia & Boquera, 2017). The occupation of Roman Empire led to the inclusion of a cathedral in the temple.
Spahic (2015) observes that the Great Mosque of Cordoba was commissioned by Abd al-Rahman I in the year 784. His original design focused on a Great Mosque that would be used as a place of worship. Historians indicate clearly that the original site of this building was occupied by “a small temple called the Catholic Basilica of St. Vincent of Lerins” (Brebbia & Boquera, 2017, p. 48). Historians believe that the ruler who commissioned the mosque also founded an Islamic empire in Iberia. His reign emerged after the destruction of the Umayyad Dynasty in the year 750.
The original building borrowed a lot from various styles embraced in the west during the time such as Baroque and Gothic (Spahic, 2015). These artistic fashions informed the designs, arcs, and designs of the mosque. However, the magnificent structure would later be expanded and redesigned by future Muslim empires in the region. In the late 1230s, Cordoba and the surrounding regions were recaptured by the Roman Empire. This occupation led to the conversion of the mosque to a cathedral. In the 16th century, the Romans inserted a cathedral nave in the mosque (Brebbia & Boquera, 2017). This inclusion was informed by the architectural features of the Renaissance period.
The Islamic architectural style is supported by the placement of different features such as the qibla and the mihrab. It is also notable the qibla is positioned to face South. The design portrays two distinct aspects or parts. The first one is known as a portico sahn. This is the portion that carries the minaret (Spahic, 2015). The portico sahn is also used as a haram (or a prayer room). The distinctive arches and columns constitute the mosque’s bicolor. The inner space is composed of five parts. These elements depict the enlargements that have been done throughout the mosque’s history. The Great Mosque of Cordoba is, therefore, a stunning artwork that borrows a lot from different styles.
Analysis of the Work
The Great Mosque of Cordoba reveals an interesting issue that might have been ignored by many historians and architects. Although the building is described as a product of Islamic architecture, the mysteries and features associated with it cannot be disregarded. To begin with, the structure is characterized by different elements that are extremely unique and ground-breaking (Kaptan, 2013). The fact that it was constructed within the first few years of Islam explains why it is one of the first mosques in the world.
The mosque incorporates a number of deliberate features that have been added over the centuries. The structure has many Christian, Visigothic, and local architectural designs or traditions (Anderson, 2014). The mosque borrows different elements from existing structures such as domes, columns, and arches from different styles. This incorporation of various local elements and artistic styles in the structure is what informed the future of Islamic architecture.
The development of the mosque reveals how an ancient style was influenced by the structural aspects of Medieval, Byzantine, Gothic, and Renaissance architectural styles. From this analysis, it is clear that that the Great Mosque of Cordoba has revealed how human art and architecture continues to borrow numerous elements from different styles.
The incorporation of various building traditions in this mosque would later become a model for designing future Islamic buildings and mosques in different parts of the world (Anderson, 2014). Additionally, the extensive arches and columns inside the building create an illusionary hypostyle hall that appears to be much larger, spacious, and welcoming. The superb mosque can be used by people to portray the harmony existing between different religious groups and their respective architectural designs.
Conclusion
The Great Mosque of Cordoba is a timeless piece of art that represents more than a place of worship. Having been a center of contestation between Muslims and Christians for many centuries, the magnificent structure helps more people analyze the intriguing history of different regions and their relevant architectural styles (Kaptan, 2013). The building can also be used by researchers to analyze the nature and implications of cultural vandalism. Moreover, this work of art remains a significant object in contemporary society. It is agreeable that the mosque’s permutation of different artistic and religious traditions can be echoed in an attempt to promote social peace and tolerance.
References
Anderson, C. D. (2014). Integrating the medieval Iberian Peninsula and North Africa in Islamic architectural history. The Journal of North African Studies, 19(1), 83-92. Web.
Brebbia, C. A., & Boquera, A. M. (2017). Islamic heritage architecture. London, UK: WIT Press.
Kaptan, K. (2013). Early Islamic architecture and structure configurations. International Journal of Architecture and Urban Development, 3(2), 5-12. Web.
The Golden Temple, also known as Harmandir Sahib, is the central worship place for the Sikhs. It is located in Amritsar, Northern Punjab in India. The building is one of the oldest structures in the country, but one whose architectural design still amazes the current architects.
The building of the temple was started in 1574 and was completed in 1604. However, the temple suffered attacks twice and in the two attacks, the building was destroyed. It was later restructured to what it is today. The building consumed many materials, but remains one of the most attractive tourist destinations in the country. Official data from the government shows that many tourists visit the site every year. It is considered the most attractive tourist site in the country.
The Golden Temple
The Golden Temple, also known as Harmandir Sahib, is the central Gurdwara (worship place) located in Amritsar, Northern Punjab, India. The building is one of the oldest structures in the country, but its architectural design still amazes the current architects. From a far, the building resembles any ordinary temple in the city. However, as one moves closer to the building, he or she realizes the strangeness of the building.
The shape of the temple, materials used in its construction, and the color, show a work done out of skill. It is believed that this building has a strong symbolic function in the country. This is because of the historical factors that are related to it. All Sikhs consider this temple holy. The temple was built purposely to act as a worship center to all people in this land and even visitors, irrespective of their gender, race, age, and religion. The figure below shows the Golden Temple at Amritsar in India.
Figure 1
This research is focused on analyzing the Golden Temple based on its location, cultural ties, the designs used in its construction, and the labor force used.
Location of the Building
As was stated above, this temple is located in the city of Amritsar, Northern Punjab, India. The building of this holy place can be traditionally traced back in 1574 when Akbar, the monarch of Mughal, gave Bibi Bhani the site as a present when she was marring Jetha. Jetha became the fourth Guru Raam Das and immediately started developing the site.
In 1588, Guru Arjun Dev oversaw the laying of the temple’s foundation. He finally completed the construction of the temple and declared it an official worshiping center. He selected Sikh Baba Budha as the warden of the shrine. The decision to make this a central temple for worshiping in this kingdom was largely motivated by its location. The temple was located strategically in the middle of society. It was easily accessible to various communities that lived in the kingdom. All main trade routes were also passing near the temple.
Culture and Society
The Golden Temple in Amritsar in India had many cultural connotations to people who lived around the place and to the entire country. This temple, suitably known as Harmandir meaning Temple of God, was considered a central worshiping place for all people in the region. It was meant for both men and women of all religions and from any part of the world.
During this time, the Gurus had come to the realization that this society was strategically located for trade. This was because of the Indian Ocean, which was a route for many ships that were travelling to various markets around the world. The Gurus had realized that given the location of this country, many visitors would come to the country and religion was a main factor. The temple was therefore considered a general place, which was holy and could accommodate any religious grouping in society.
This temple was also a sign of defiance to external rulers who had issued a decree that buildings in this land should not go beyond three feet above the ground. Leaders of this society built a twelve feet temple to defy this decree and this has remained a clear fact among people living in this society. According to Arshi (56), this temple was a clear sign of the accommodative culture of Indians. During this time, there was a tight battle amongst various religious groupings.
Each religious group was fighting for supremacy and it was rare to see individuals from another religion trusting the other with issues related to religion. Over the world, there were cases of massacre against religious groupings, which was perpetuated by the group in power. In this country, however, the temple was a sign of unity. In the temple, people would feel that there is a sign of unity.
The temple is also a sign of the tough battle that the Indians fought against the invaders from the Middle East. All over the world, traders who used the Indian Ocean had known that the temple was a sign of unity and strength of this country. It became a target of inversion by world powers that were planning to rule this land.
This is what happened Jahan Khan, a general of Afghani army, invaded this land. The temple was massively destroyed by this army, but due to the spirited fight that was put up the local army led by Baba Deep Singh, they were repulsed from the temple, and therefore, this worshiping place was not completely brought down. The temple was restricted with the sponsorship from Maharaj Sign who sponsored marble inlay, gilding the temple and gold painting.
Perhaps the most memorable event about this temple was the dark history known as The Operation Blue Star of 1984, which was commissioned by Indira Gandhi. The operation led to a fight between the government soldiers led by General Kuldip Brar and the Sikhs.
This battle resulted in massive destruction of the temple, and many of the Sikhs lost their lives. Some of the soldiers also lost their lives in the battle. The soldiers did humiliating things within the temple, including smoking and destruction of the holy shrine. The Sikhs who died in the operations were given disgracing mass cremation by the government soldiers.
This temple was later restructured in 1990s. This incident has however, remained clear in the minds of the Indians. It has remained a controversial topic in this country, but it remains a fact that the incident made this temple very famous. It is still regarded by the entire nation as a center for worship, while the Sikhs still commemorate the massacre of their fellow tribesmen who were brutally murdered at this place. Besides the locals, this temple has been attracting the attention of international tourists, spiritual leaders, and designers among other professionals who always want to learn a number of issues related to the temple.
Construction of the Building
The construction of this building can be analyzed from various fronts. It is worth noting that there has been massive changes done to this building ever since it was built that one may argue that the original design is lost. The initial construction of this building begun reflected the modern housing design of the 18th century. Although the building has been renovated several times by modern architectures, it is clear that in the initial structure, erection of the building to higher heights was done using scaffolding.
The strength of the wall was ensured with the help of steel girders. This gave the walls strength and ability to withstand various forces of nature. During the construction, girders and other construction materials were lifted using a pulley system. By this time, sophisticated machines such as the cranes were not available, but construction technology was progressing and people were looking for better ways of making the construction process easier and faster.
The workforce of this building worked under a pressure to deliver quality work. They had to embrace both speed and quality of production. The frame of the Golden Temple was steel bars. This would be mixed with concrete to give the wall the strength needed for the height that was expected.
At this time, the idea of skyscrapers was not common and therefore, the workforce had to employ a lot of intelligence in order to come up with what was expected. The architectures were given the hard task of ensuring that this building would go against the forces of nature and tower high into the sky.
This had to be done having in mind that the construction workers and the final users of the temple would be safe. The building, despite its height and size, had to withstand forces of nature and be able to stand the test of time. The finishing was done using gold and gold coating in some parts of the building. It was therefore, imperative to go for the materials that would meet the expected standards.
Figure 2
Materials
According to Kapur (112), it may be a little challenging to state precisely the number of materials that were used to construct this building. As was stated previously, this building was attacked twice, first by Afghani generals and secondly by Operation Blue Star. Each of the attacks had devastating effects on the building and each time there was an attempt to make the building better than it initially was.
However, an average audit of the materials used in this building indicates that the building consumed many materials during its construction. It is estimated that the walls of this temple consumed about 37,981 tons of steel and 7,942,271 bricks. On these walls were 484 windows 28 doors (Arshi 82). The roofing consumed 743,214 tiles and 762,123 rivets.
There were about 250 flights of stairs in the entire building and half a mile of aluminum railing. The pipes used were about 40 miles in length and about 20-mile brass stripe in the floor. The electric wire used was about 920 miles, with about 15,000 bulbs. The painting was about 4,387,000 square feet and about 117,475 troy ounce of gold.
The above figures are estimation of what this temple could have consumed following the two destructive attacks. Kapur (121) says that it may be difficult to determine the exact value because when the temple was attacked for the first time, the extent of the destruction was not valued. The same was the case in the second destruction. However, basing the estimation on what exists today, the stated values are the approximation of what made the Golden Temple.
Exterior Design
The figure given below shows the exterior design of this building and its location and most of the important external component of the temple.
Figure 3
It is clear from the diagram above that the exterior design of this temple shows that motivation for the architectures came from the architectural development that was taking place in the Roman Empire.
There had been architectural developments in these earlier times from the Egyptian pyramids, the Chinese houses, and finally the modern Roman housing structure. One fact that demonstrates this is the golden color of the building. Gold was a precious commodity in society at this time and it was used as a sign of class. Houses that used gold in their exterior and interior parts were considered of higher value. Moreover, they belonged to the most powerful individuals in society.
The exterior part of this building closely resembles the palace and the temples that were common in the Roman Empire. The dome shaped towers and the flag emphasize the religion of the locals. The finishing of this house was done so perfectly that it is nearly impossible to see the bricks and steel used in construction.
It is worth noting that this fine finishing was done during its most recent renovation. The large dome-shaped windows are meant to allow light into the temple at daytime and to illuminate beautiful golden light from the internal bulbs at night. Its location in the middle of waters makes it one of the most attractive tourist attraction sites in the country.
This location also shows that this building was not only meant for worshiping, but also a place where people would come for the purpose of recreation. The design of the roofing, the windows, the doors, and the general external shape of the temple leaves no doubt that this is a place for worship
Interior Design
The interior design of this temple shows the exotic nature of this building and a clear representation of what it is. The diagram below shows a section of the interior of this temple.
Figure 4
The temple is ornamented using gold and golden cups, jugs seats among other ornaments. The interior of this building was garlanded using expensive garments and special type of wood. The decoration also includes flowers and special colored lights. The architectural design of the interior part of this temple shows a great expertise, especially in designing the curvatures on the ceiling.
The lighting of this temple is designed to give a golden light that is just bright enough for the worshipers. The interior wall is designed to give an impression that it is made of wood. The upper part of the wall is carpeted with various materials from gold to a special type of mahogany wood and black, blue, white, and golden garments. The room is well ventilated to help maintain a clean environment for the large population that throngs the place.
Labor Force
Labor used in this project came from different fields. There were carpenters, plumbers, electricians, masons, drivers among others. The effort of building this temple took several years. In the initial construction of the temple, which ended in 1604, the locals did the work. The architects, who were involved in designing this temple, had experience in building and construction, following the Roman modern housing designs.
The masons, plumbers and other workforce that were involved in the construction were local experts. It was during this time that most construction activities were completed. According to Mohinder (119), it is worth appreciating the fact that during its construction, no serious casualties or deaths, despite the heavy activities that were involved, were witnessed.
Guru Arjan Dev is celebrated as the person who came out strongly to sponsor this project from the onset. His predecessor had only laid the foundation for this building. Guru Dev, therefore, had to hire experts who were able to construct the temple to meet the expectations of society.
Although it took several years to complete this project, there were so many employees working on this project at any one moment. Most construction materials had to be transported to the site of construction from various locations within this country. After the invasion by the Afghani generals, the temple was destroyed and had to be put under renovation.
This demanded for a labor force that would be in a position to fix the temple properly, despite the destruction. In 1984’s Operation Blue Star, the Indian soldiers destroyed the temple largely. The temple was once again put under renovation to what it is currently. This also demanded a labor force with deep understanding of how renovation would be done to retain the initial design, while still embracing some elements of modernism.
If It Were Built Today
It is a fact that it has taken several hundreds of years since the Golden Temple was first erected in Amritsar in Northern Punjab, India. Most of the architectural designs that were used in the construction of this building have also changed. When this building was to be built today, a number of changes may be made on the Temple, but most of structural designs would remain intact. The exterior part of the temple may remain unchanged because even the current temples are following this design in the contemporary world.
The interior design of this temple may need a little change. For instance, the expensive exotic ornaments that were designed to be part of the interior would be reduced or even be eliminated. The expenses used in decorating the temple with gold would be directed to other areas of need. The temple, if it were to be built today, would have taken much less time than it took for its initial construction.
This is because when it was being constructed, the level of technology was not as sophisticated as it is today. The workers at the site would have used large cranes to move heavy objects from the ground to higher heights instead of human using labor. Human labor is unreliable and ineffective because the output is always low. Machines and modern technology would speed up the construction of the building.
Works Cited
Arshi, Pardeep. The Golden Temple: History, Art, and Architecture. New Delhi: Harman Publishers, 1989. Print.
Kapur, Singh. The Golden Temple: It is Theo-Political Status. Patiala: Academy of Sikh Religion & Culture, 1984. Print.
Mohinder, Singh. The Golden Temple. New Delhi: UBS Publishers’ Distributors in association with National Institute of Punjab Studies, 2002. Print.
Seeing a contemporary statue of the Buddha in an active temple, in a museum, and in a book, each offers a different perspective. The experience is different, and seeing the same subject in these three settings allows me to realize how important context is. It also has helped me realize that the more I know about the background of art, the more I can appreciate it, even if it may seem silly or strange.
Mahayama Temple Buddha
The Temple Building
The Mahayana Temple on Canal Street in lower Manhattan is a rather colorful building from the outside. It is a relatively new building faced with yellow stucco. The walls are decorated with low-relief representations of ceremonial gates that are found in traditional Chinese communities.
The overall effect is very visually striking and drew my eye. However, it is drastically different from the way that houses of worship from some other faiths present themselves to the street and the neighborhood. Rather than being discreet in design, quiet, and blending in with the surroundings, this house of worship advertises its presence enthusiastically.
The entryway door, however, is not particularly dramatic or tall. Once inside, the room is scented and quiet for the most part. A long table is set with chairs. This suggests to me that at other times, either a ceremonial or communal meal is enjoyed, or perhaps planning meetings go on in this space. This gives me the impression of a community that worships here and perhaps does good works in the neighborhood, or in the city more widely, from here as well.
I noted a scent of something unfamiliar and sweet in the air. Several gentlemen in robes were chanting, as well. It was not crowded when I was there, but the room could have held a good-sized group.
The Room
The visual focus of the room is the large golden statue of the Buddha set on a raised platform. Before the statue, on a table and on the platform of the statue, are small oranges, pineapples, other fruits, and flowers. On the wall behind him are several sets of vertical decorative motifs that appear to be stylized buildings. These decorations are executed in gold. There is also a circular motif of what appears to be flame around his head. There is neon lighting outlining this flame design and a mirror that reflects that back of the Buddha’s head. Everything looks quite new.
Beside the Buddha on each side are conical constructions of lights. These immediately evoke the memory of Christmas trees for me. However, they must fulfill a different in purpose and meaning, except for the common use of light to honor a sacred space or time.
The Statue
Seated with one foot on the other knee, with his the ring finger of his upraised right hand touching his thumb, the Buddha rests his left hand open in his lap. His eyes are open, his mouth has a slight smile, and he wears a draped garment. His ear lobes are prominent, and his features are distinctly Chinese, or Sinitic. In fact, the modeling of the features is almost cartoon-like in its simplicity.
The Buddha himself wears the draped garment that is considered an allusion to the clothing that Indian laborers used to wear. His earlobes’ length is an allusion to his having grown up wearing precious jewels as earrings. His hair seems to be curled, which refers to his life after leaving home and cutting his hair. He has a jewel in the middle of his forehead, referring to insight. His body is not heavily muscled, but he holds himself erect comfortably, as is traditional.
He sits in a lotus flower. The lotus flower is symbolic of the soul rising to perfection and enlightenment. It manages to do this out of the mud of humanity’s desires. This symbolizes the goal of Buddhist practice.
One hand is held in what seems to be the mudra for preaching. The other seems to be in the pose of meditation. There is a spiritual meaning contained in the fact that one foot is placed above the other.
Figure 1. Mahayama Temple Buddha.
My Response to the Buddha Statue
The feeling I got from the Buddha and this setting is one of quiet and serenity. The scent of what must be incense gave me a sense of being in a special place apart from the usual smells and atmosphere of my daily life. The sound of the chanting also conveyed a sense of separateness.
The Buddha statue in this setting is a very intimate companion. He is close enough to touch. He is a very big companion, however, and taller than the viewer. I felt smaller and less important as a result.
In the relatively low light of the room, the gold of the statue glowed as though it was lit from inside. It drew my eye to it and nowhere else in the room.
The fruit gave off a delicious smell that made my mouth water. If one is willing to pay a small amount of money, there are little rolled-up papers with inspirational sayings from Buddha printed on them. Thus, all my senses were touched.
However, without having prepared myself by acquiring some knowledge of the symbolism, the important details of the statue would be lost on me. There is very little to explain the symbolism to someone like me, who is not already a Buddhist. Instead, some of the distortions of the human body that the statue displays simply look silly to me. The decorative elements of the room, especially the neon-lit flame around the head, are jarring in the extreme to someone coming from a different religious tradition.
However, even having a small amount of information about the symbolism opens up all sorts of ideas and trains of thought. In fact, just knowing that every element of the statue’s appearance ( and the items around it) is significant, makes a difference to my view of it. My perception of the image changes immediately. It opens up doors in the mind to ask questions and look more closely. It encourages me to make inquiries of the worshippers there in the temple
For example, the name of the temple gives me a clue that this Buddha is a Mahayana Buddha, which is a branch of Buddhism that teaches that all people have the potential to reach enlightenment. This is contrasted with Nihayana Buddhism, which is mostly practiced in Southeast Asia today. That branch of Buddhism teaches that only a few people can attain enlightenment. The Mahayana branch is more inclusive and accessible for more people.
Overall, the statue and its surroundings need a certain minimum of knowledge of all the symbolic elements to be appreciated to the fullest. Otherwise, it is all rather bewildering and, to be very blunt, somewhat odd-looking. However, with understanding, the symbols are beautiful, poignant, and meaningful even to someone who does not share the practice or belief.
Metropolitan Museum of Art Buddha
This is very different from the experience I had seeing a Buddha image in the Metropolitan Museum. All objects there, from whatever country or era, are separated from their cultural and religious contexts. This makes any object into a work of art rather than an object of worship.
The Building and Room
The Metropolitan Museum’s Buddha entitled Vairocana Dari (meaning luminous), for example, unlike the one on the temple, is displayed in a sterile and deliberately bare space. It is consciously free of any stimulus to the senses such as smell, sound, taste, or touch (of course, I could hear other people and smell their perfume, but that is accidental, and people try to be quiet and not disturb others).
Unlike the lighting in the temple, where all the objects on the platform are lit, the ambient lighting in the Museum is very low everywhere except on the object itself on display. This focuses my attention on the object all by itself. The display helps me to look at it closely and from all angles. This is a perspective that I don’t have access to when the statue is sitting on a platform at the front of a room.
The museum statue is closer to my eye level. The temple Buddha is largely above my eye level. This changes the relationship of me to the statue. The elevated location of the temple Buddha is apparently meant to evoke for the viewer the elevated soul of the Awakened One. That relationship between the statue and me as the viewer is absent in the museum.
The Setting
There is no context for the piece, culturally, religiously, or any other way. It is treated as an art object and not an object of veneration. It is given the same value artistically as a ceramic pot or wall hanging in the same area of the museum.
The Statue
The Museum’s Buddha was sculpted in a very similar pose to that in the Mahayana Temple. It is much smaller than the temple Buddha, and it could fit inside a refrigerator. It also is seated with one foot on top of the other. The hand pose or mudra is different and both hands are raised. The eyes are less clearly looking at the viewer. Instead, they seem to be more inwardly focused. The mouth is not as smiling. The earlobes are more extreme, as is the shape of the eyes. The hair is short, as in the temple statue. The Buddha sits on a stylized lotus.
Figure 2. Buddha Vairocana (Dari) China, Tang dynasty (618–907) Gilt arsenical leaded bronze; lost-wax cast H. 8 in. (20.3 cm); Diam. (at base) 5 3/4 in. (14.6 cm).
My Response
Given that there is very little information available about the statue, I have to make my own assessment of the statue. Having seen the temple Buddha, I began to question why the pose of hands of the museum Buddha was different and why the features were arranged differently.
This is a very different feeling space and arrangement from that which I found in the temple. In the Mahayana temple, the Buddha is the whole reason for the room being there at all. Also, all the senses are reached and addressed at once.
There are smells and sounds and foods (which remind one of tastes), and there are things to touch (the rolled-up sayings of Buddha that one can purchase) in the temple. The museum, on the other hand, very carefully tries to weed out all these things.
The result is that the viewer looks at different characteristics of the statue. For example, the workmanship becomes more important to look at in the museum. This particular Buddha dates from between the 7th and 10th century CE. It is cast of bronze and gilded. It is thus of value as an example of the sophisticated technology of the Tang Dynasty.
The statue as displayed in the museum shows up as a sculpture, not just as a statue. This is because it is displayed in the same building as all sorts of other sculptures from all over the world and all eras. It is impossible for me not to evaluate it as a sculpture, apart from its sacred meaning.
For example, I wonder how the Museum Buddha reflects the aesthetics of the era of the Tang dynasty. I wonder, was it considered a good example of sculpture at the time? Since it was cast by the lost wax process, this means that all the detail, for example, the texture of the figure’s undergarment, and the folds of his drapery, must have been created in the original wax model from which the casting was taken. This represents a high level of craftsmanship.
None of these questions occurred to me in the temple. The setting of the museum, however, prompts such questions immediately.
Labeling is another way in which my temple experience of the Buddha is different from the museum. The labels very carefully make no value judgment of the piece. Most of the time, there is no one to ask.
Thus, unless I come to the museum with a knowledge of the iconography of the poses and attributes of the museum Buddha, the museum statue offers me even less insight into its spiritual or cultural significance than does the temple Buddha. At least at the temple, if I am not shy about it, I can ask other people what the iconography and symbols mean. They may not know, but some do.
Finally, when I was visiting the temple, I felt certain that many of the other people there at the same time were active Buddhists, or at least interested in the Buddha as a spiritual figure. In the museum, however, I felt sure that nearly no one looking at the statue was a Buddhist, or cared about the spiritual meaning of the statue.
Art in China Book
The Background
The Buddha statue in the textbook on page 93 is described as being one of the earliest images of the Buddha from China. It dates from the 4th century CE, which is some 400 years before the statue in the museum. This statue is also gilt bronze, like the one in the museum.
The experience of seeing a Buddha in a book is very removed from its original use. The book tells us that many images of Buddha were buried with important people. They were meant to ensure their happiness in the next world. Without reading about the image, none of this information is available.
Additionally, there is no sense of scale. The text also notes that this was a small figure. That would have made it easy to bury with other grave goods. Obviously, a buried statue would not look as it does in the picture.
My Response
The experience of seeing such an image of Buddha in a book does not give me much of any feeling, for example, a spiritual feeling, at all. It is merely a pleasant picture. This may be because it does not have the immediate appeal to the senses that the temple statue offers. It does not offer the spotlighting of its decorative beauty that the museum offers, either.
However, there is some useful information in the book. This makes it more interesting. I am interested in the fact that this is the earliest known image of the Buddha.
I ask myself, why did the artist choose these details over others at this early time of Buddhism being followed in China? Why were these details important? It is the intriguing information accompanying the picture in the book that inspires my questions about the statue.
Differences and Implications
Having looked at these three somewhat similar images of the Buddha in three very different settings, I see that my impression of a piece of religious art is affected by its setting and presentation.
In a modern setting of worship, such as the Mahayana Temple, I do not arrive there, necessarily, with any understanding of the symbolism. However, with a little bit of hint from someone in the temple, at least I know that symbolism is present. I could easily ask other people there for more details.
In the context of a worship space, the oddities of the Buddha’s image, which can seem so peculiar, but which are traditional, can make sense. It is my responsibility as a viewer to inform myself in this setting.
In the museum, I have an even greater challenge in understanding the symbolism used in images of the Buddha. There is very little to draw from. I have to be equipped ahead of time when looking at a piece of art such as the museum’s statue, Vairocana Dari, or it is somewhat meaningless except as an object of great antiquity.
When looking at a piece of religious art in a book, such as the 4th-century piece in Art in China, the piece is even farther removed from its ‘appropriate’ setting.
In the case of the piece in the book, it seems, as noted above, that it was meant to be buried in a grave. The small size of the museum piece makes me wonder whether this was also meant to go into a grave as well. I would not have made this interesting connection unless I had experienced all three settings.
After having seen similar Buddha statues in three different ways, I find that in order to understand a piece of religious art (but perhaps this applies to other types of art as well), I should view examples of it in as many different ways as possible.
Conclusion
I have learned from this exercise in viewing art that the setting and context do make a difference in how I see a piece of art. I have also learned that in order to understand and appreciate a piece of art best, I should learn as much about the background of the art as possible beforehand, no matter where I am going to see the art.
Jewish artists have real pieces of art works as history reveals. Jewish artists have created pieces of arts for at least the last 2,000 years. These are evident from paintings of “18th century, 500 years of making ritual objects and illustrated prayer books, haggadahs, megillas, ketubos and the extensive production of illuminated manuscripts between 1300 and 1500” (Sed-Rajna 237). In addition, there are several pieces of arts in Israel mainly in synagogues. These reveal arts of fourth to sixth centuries (the Common Era). The origin of such works was Dura Europos.
The Dura Europos
The Dura Europos paintings represent a great deal of the Jewish art. According to Sed-Rajna, a Jewish art scholar, Jewish art portrays an iconographical language with elements of narrative language. He notes that there are three types of narrative arts as follow:
Symbolic Narrative
This category has murals of Joshua, Messiah, Moses ascending Mount Sinai and at the Bush, Torah niche, and Abraham and the Covenant (Sed-Rajna 229).
Sequential Narrative
This area has murals of the Exodus, Elijah, Ezekiel, Triumph of Mordechai, and the Valley of the Dry Bones (Sed-Rajna 230).
Comparative Narratives
There are paintings of the Well in the Wilderness, the Ark in the Temple of Dagon, and Tabernacle (Sed-Rajna 230).
There are many categories and identifications of Dura Europos and frescos paintings. However, most of these classifications are under scholarly debates. It is only these three areas, which scholars have reached a consensus. Based on such differences, various art scholars have expressed different views on Jewish arts.
For instance, some scholars have focused on didactical and historical elements of the art. Others have considered frescos as commentary part of the official Roman art. In addition, thematic concerns usually involve Messianic elements according to Erwin. There are other different opinions on Jewish art (McBee 1). Such views only express how Jewish art can draw various meanings due to its richness.
Symbolic Narrative
Torah niche is a striking part of the synagogue with various paintings, which bear different interpretations. It has murals of Jacob blessing his sons. However, much repainting has damaged the piece. This painting may depict Moses, Abraham, and Joshua at different occasions.
The Torah niche has a definite figurative representation. It represents “a closed temple, temple menorah, and a lulav and esrog on the left” (McBee 1). This was the ideal form of representation for over 300 years in synagogues. On the right, there is the Binding of Isaac. We can also observe a tied ram and Abraham with a knife. “Isaac is on the altar while a hand from heaven” (McBee 1) prevents the pending sacrifice to God.
Others argue that there is an insertion of Sarah standing outside the tent on the upper right of the painting. It shows Sarah’s reaction and comprehension of the ongoing events. According to Sed-Rajna, “the scene is the first attempt in Jewish art to transpose a literary account into visual form” (Sed-Rajna 239). As a result, it signifies the change in representation from symbolic art to narrative. This mural is important because it is among many Jewish paintings attributed to sacrifice.
Figure 1: the Akeida (Dura Europos (245 CE) Courtesy of National Museum, Damascus, Syria)
We cannot underestimate the relevance of these murals in Jewish art. This painting was among the earliest works of art in Jewish paintings.
It became a model for many synagogues for over a period of 300 years. Akeida was the pictorial narrative that focused on representing the Jewish religion in the form of painting. The painting achieved this by utilizing the local culture to reinforce the Jewish religion and the role of God and mercy in their lives. It is also interesting to note that some of the images do not represent Sarah as others do.
This painting marked the start of Jewish art. This mural is complex and many scholars agree that it has a rich history, but a thorough study of Dura Europos reveals unknown mysteries.
Figure 2: Akeida: Dura Europos (245 CE) Courtesy of National Museum, Damascus, Syria
Sequential Narrative
Most of Dura Europos paintings relied on Torah narrative in order to capture complex issues and affairs of communities. Dura Europos paintings bear the greatest representation in the Jewish art history.
It also has various aspects of Torah subjects, which are the most outstanding form of paintings in Jewish art. However, some paintings with illuminated Haggadahs from Spain took this legacy after thousands of years. We also note that the idea of “decorated synagogue only reappeared later in the 17th century due to shuls paintings of Russia, Poland, and Lithuania” (McBee 1).
Figure 3: Exodus from Egypt: Dura Europos (245 CE) Courtesy of National Museum, Damascus, Syria
Dura Europos murals in synagogues also have extensive figuration. There are images, which show followers on the walls. However, according to McBee, close examinations of these images reveal that they represent “Torah figures, Abraham, Moses, Samuel, and Elijah” (McBee 1) in Roman attires. These show that such figures were statesmen and heroes of the time. However, they lead to confusion on the difference between Gentile and Jew.
Figure 4: Rescuing Moses: Dura Europos (245 CE) Courtesy of National Museum, Damascus, Syria
These murals have also presented problems in relation to factual consistencies. For instance, murals of Exodus do not concur with the narrative sequence. The Temple of Aaron during sanctification highlights “a bull about to be killed with an ax” (McBee 1). This does represent the normal Jewish tradition of slaughtering bulls.
Still, on the Solomon’s Temple, the doors have decorations with pagan elements. Lastly, the painting on Rescuing Moses shows that Pharaoh’s daughter had no cloths. These variations in interpretations of Jewish art in synagogues represent various ideas, which scholars have attached to these paintings.
Such differences in representation of paintings may have taken place due to borrowing of non-Jewish styles for Jewish paintings. For instance, we have the application of Zodiac that highlights God’s power over the world by his worldly agents. This representation also has a chariot and sun. Artists combined both elements to reflect paintings of the time in the synagogue.
The most represented form of painting in the Dura synagogue painting is Moses at the time of the Exodus. It occupies the upper right wall with depiction that across run from left to right. Moses is conspicuous with his soldier has he leads them out of Egypt. A closer look reveals that there is an open entrance of Egypt, which has deities. These deities show paganism in Egypt, which Israelites must leave.
We also have a flat aerial view that depicts the sea. It is full of drowned Egyptian soldiers. Again, Moses leads Israelites with his rod in his stretched hand over the sea. Moses also leads Israelites across the sea as they match along 12 lanes. We also notice the ‘Hand of God’ on these paintings has it directs Moses through the Exodus event.
The artist must have been familiar with the events of the time and Jewish tradition. The Exodus painting shows Moses as he leads Israelites out of Egypt with God’s guidance. It depicts the Jewish triumph over Pharaoh’s paganism and the oppression.
Figure 5: Exodus from Egypt: Dura Europos (245 CE) Courtesy of National Museum, Damascus, Syria
The paintings of Dura Europos synagogue also have significance in the third century. Most scholars look at the importance of such murals in relation to their place in history.
They serve the purpose of encouraging modern Jewish artist and showing them possibilities from the past. Dura Europos is the only Jewish narrative art that has “Torah, midrash and individual creativity, which span a gap of 1700 years and, with imagination, finding parallels and inspiration between their worlds” (McBee 1).
A thorough review of Dura Europos paintings and frescos shows fundamental elements of early Jewish art. Torah niche employed both the use of symbols and narrative techniques in order to create meanings evident in the Temples.
Exodus paintings reveal the triumph of Israelites against Pharaoh’s paganism and slavery. Rescuing of Moses shows Pharaoh’s daughter rescue the infant. These pieces of art works use both midrashic and Biblical elements in order capture history of the time. They also use non-Jewish elements to enhance visual features of paintings.
Some of the most important paintings in Duran Europos painting are those of Elijah and Ezekiel. These paintings also attack paganism at the time. Scholars draw this conclusion by performing comparative narratives.
Figure 6: Elijah on Carmel: Dura Europos (245 CE) Courtesy of National Museum, Damascus, Syria
Scholars have used continuous narrative in order to explain paintings depicting Elijah. Such paintings depict divine intervention for the community and for himself. There is also the unsuccessful struggle that involves Elijah and Prophet of Baal on Mount Carmel. We can see eight priests in their Roman attires next to the altar with the god’s sacrifice. Below the altar, there is also a small animal ambush by a snake.
It represents the evil, Hiel of Ahab. He wanted to light the fire. However, the serpent from God consumed him before he could light the fire. We can also see Elijah’s sacrifice on fire. He is evoking the heavenly fire and calling for drenching of the sacrifice because of the interference by evil forces. These paintings depict a war against paganism in which God comes to the rescue of true believers.
In the paintings of Ezekiel, the presence of God is eminent through the visible hands on the top of the paintings. This reflects the important prophetic role of Ezekiel among the Jews. He stands for the redemption of the entire community. The first image reveals how “Ezekiel ended up in the valley of the dry bones” (McBee 1).
In the valley, we have features that represent feet, hands, and heads. Ezekiel must provide his prophecy about the importance of these features. The meaning represents coming back to life because this is the interpretation from God. Further, we also see the three angels and another one on the ground as they perform miracles.
Figure 7: Ezekiel Valley of Dry Bones: Dura Europos (245 CE) Courtesy of National Museum, Damascus, Syria
We also notice Ezekiel adorned in Roman attire in another part of the painting. This represents the return of ten tribes that disappeared. These are the ten men with Ezekiel. It also shows resurrection of Israelites during the period of Ezekiel. The presence of the ‘Hand of God’ is also conspicuous in this painting. Scholars claim that these paintings highlight the role of God in resurrection of Israelites as a nation and individuals after their deaths.
According to Elsner, “one fundamental theme to the Dura murals is something called Cultural Resistance (Elsner 269). Elsner argue that Jewish paintings rebuked cult religion that was in Dura. Therefore, these paintings aimed to eliminate paganism and restore the Jewish monotheism among people who were losing their cultural identity.
Figure 8: Aaron’s Temple: Dura Europos (245 CE) Courtesy of National Museum, Damascus, Syria
Such paintings in the synagogue dispel the claims that Jewish did not allow visual images in the synagogue. Scholars consider this prohibition has the most misunderstood part commandment in relation to arts. They point out that it refers to the creation of idols and not artistic representations in arts.
However, the interpretation this command often varied with time. This because others followed it strictly while others gave a loose interpretation. In this context, we can argue that earliest works of Jewish celebrated art works and used visual arts as ways of honoring God. This was the purpose of paintings in the Dura Europos synagogue. Therefore, we can see how religion influenced lives of Jewish through arts.
Comparative Narrative
From the comparative, we look at the Aaron’s Temple and the Miraculous Well. The paintings depict variations in Jewish arts. We have the Ark and the Dagon Temple in which we interpret a message of victory. Other paintings depict rigid systems with no human beings present. Such paintings represent broad ideas and schematic representation.
Scholars consider such images as non-Jewish because of the pagan elements on the closed door. Therefore, it is a wasteland in which no religion or life can thrive. The comparative narrative aimed to depict that paganism did not stand a chance in the Jewish land because of the destruction of the idols.
Conclusion
The Dura Europos has demonstrated the three interpretations of the paintings in the synagogue. These are various narratives like symbolic, continuous, and comparative. These paintings are complex, and we can only understand them through classification. This is because the paintings involve a number of elements from both the Bible and the midrash. In addition, we also have to deal with the artist’s point of view.
The artists have depicted ‘Hands of God’ to mark his presence in most of the events of the Jewish. Such Jewish arts show possibilities that paintings can capture with imaginative approaches. We have to understand various figures, attires, and motifs of the paintings, which give us rich imageries and depictions of Jewish art.
The Dura Europos represents the earliest work of arts by Jewish. Scholars and artists have to start from this foundation in order to understand contemporary works of Jewish arts. Therefore, Dura Europos paintings shaped the way for future arts of Jewish.
Works Cited
Elsner, Jas. “Cultural Resistance and the Visual Image: The Case of Dura Europos.” Classical Philology, 96.3 (2001): 269-304. Print.
The 600-year-old Bergen dice is one of thirty that have been discovered in Norway but has a special quality. It is likely that it was used for cheating; the dice is missing its sides with one and two dots and instead has two sides with four and five dots, respectively (Jarus, 2018). There is a possibility that the dice was designed for a particular game that needed those specific attributes. Most researchers agree that its primary goal was most likely to give the gambler an advantage in a game where scoring high translated into success while scoring low was eliminated for the user. The artifact also reflects the betting situation in Bergen at the time. Though it was outlawed in 1276, it hardly stopped people from gambling. The street where the dice was found used to facilitate pubs and was, therefore, a likely place to bet games.
The Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel varies from the dice in a myriad of ways as an artifact. Primarily, Michelangelo’s work has religious purposes and is completely different in scale. The piece was also commissioned in a legal manner (Cartwright, 2020). The fresco itself exhibited bright colors in large areas, with contrasting tones side by side. Michelangelo had made decisions that took into consideration the viewing of the Chapel from below by reducing dark and light shades, perspective techniques, and foreshortening. Though both artifacts have their origins within a century of each other, their purposes divide them. After all, the Sistine Chapel is an astounding work of art; it is first and foremost a religious statement while the dice is a reflection of entertaining pastimes. Contemporary human creative expression elevates humanity by depicting it through the perspective of individuals that perceive it whether it is for philosophical, entertainment, financial, or other intention.
