Park Street Church is a historical church and is located on the Freedom Trail in Boston. It was established in 1809 in being an upholder of Trinitarian Orthodox practices as against the fast increasing Unitarian movements. The Church has always played a very significant role in the political and religious history of Boston.
What I saw upon visiting the remarkable structure of the Park Street Church in Boston would always stay in my memories as a unique and knowledgeable experience. The church is a landmark in Boston with its 217 feet steeple which was for a long period the tallest structure in Boston. I was informed that the steeple along with the different aspects of the architecture was inspired by the design of the St Pauls Cathedral in London and was designed by the architect Christopher Wren. The architecture of Park Street Church is conventionally Puritan and has an ascetic decoration with a pulpit at the center to stress the significance of preaching.
The interior of the church initially had built-in box pews which were replaced by the row pews in 1880, which exist to this day. It is quite strange for a Puritan church to have a single stained glass window which was installed in 1904. It was surprising to note that in order to hide the flamboyance of the stained glass; it was covered with a plain glass window so as to prevent the colorful design from being visible from the street. As visitors, we were permitted to have a look around the church where volunteers were present to answer any questions that we had about the church. We were also shown a five-minute film that explained the rich history of the congregation. Several photographs were displayed along the hall that gives a glimpse of the historical events associated with the church, the most remarkable being the draping of the church in black after the assassination of President Lincoln.
Palk Street Church was built by 26 conservative Christians in 1809. At the time of its founding, the Articles of Faith and Government were written in being the mission of the church. Park Street Church is known to have been built in a very short time and was consecrated within a year of its completion. In the initial years Sunday services formed an important part of the churchs business and long sermons that lasted up to three hours were quite common, so much so that children and adults alike were rapped on the hand if they were found to be dozing. The Church exercised its humanitarian responsibility by appointing two people to specifically find children wasting their time so as to chastise them.
Over the years a large number of ministries were pioneered by park Street which also included the first prison ministry and longest operating radio program in the country. The Church has immense historical significance in that during the War of 1812, gunpowder was stocked up in its basement which made the site to be nick-named Brimstone Corner. It can also be understood from such instances the kind of sermons that had resounded from the pulpit of the church over the centuries. Park Street had joined the Old South Church in 1816 and established a social service organization by the name of City Mission Society to assist the poor in Boston.
The first abolitionist sermon of William Lloyd Garrison was preached from the platform of the Park Street Church in 1829 which annoyed several members of the assemblies who said that he should be lynched. It was on July 4, 1831 that the Church assumed the honor of having the patriotic hymn My Country Tis of Thee sung from its precincts for the first time. The history of this church is equated only with that of the South Church. It was from the Park Street Church that the first missionaries departed for the Sandwich Islands. The church also became famous because of its strong oratory and according to William Comer (1911), the original pastor of the church would shower sulfur along the sidewalks on Sundays in order to draw the interest of passers-by.
Park Street Church continues to remain strong in maintaining its conservative Trinitarian mysticism and now has a brilliant and pulsating congregation that comprises mainly youngsters. The Church also arranges a fellowship meeting on a regular basis which is called Seekers. The meetings are held on Sunday afternoons whereby young adults interact in matters of theology. Other youth-oriented services are organized on Sunday evenings. The Palk Street Church is very well known for its international outreach and college programs. The Church is looking forward to celebrating two hundred years of its existence which has already been christened as Remember Rejoice Rededicate .
Even after 200 years the church continues to be engaged in social matters and in 2002 had assisted in the opening of a high school in Hyde Park in addressing the education requirements of minorities. Over 75% of students in the school are provided scholarships. The church also supports the cause of the homeless and is closely associated with the Boston Rescue Mission. The church conducts English classes for the benefit of immigrants and international students. Park Street Church is in essence an international congregation and has members belonging to over sixty nations.
References
Garth M Rosell, Bostons Historic Park Street Church: The Story of an Evangelical Landmark, 2009, Kregel Publications.
Bender Bending Rodriguez is a comic anti-hero of the animated series Futurama. Being a robot, however, he is intelligent and has absolutely free will. In the animated series, Bender was produced in a factory in Tijuana, Mexico, which makes him Mexican in origin. Before the series events and his acquaintance with the main characters, he worked in a metal processing plant bending steel beams. In most cases, Bender is a cynic, misanthrope, and egoist, who panics first in a critical situation. He also often smokes cigars, swears, and suffers from alcohol dependence. Bender is fond of cooking; however, the food prepared by him is often inedible and life-threatening. Despite his bad character, he sometimes shows sympathy and courage and values his friends.
The shrine is small in size and made from available materials. The base of the altar is made of a cardboard box with a removed top cover. It is painted a light gray, representing the metal Bender is made of. The shrine is upright, with a lower base wider than the top to ensure a stable position. Inside the shrine there is an image of Bender; his gaze is directed at the beholder. According to Darsan, eye contact is necessary to contemplate the object of worship. It is also essential to make sure that the deity can see his worshiper. In the animated series, Bender is the personification of charisma and charm, which is also reflected in his shrine. The shrines inner surface is adorned with shiny paper, glitter, and other decorations to symbolize his bright personality. The word charisma comes from the ancient Greek language, where it meant a gift from God. Bender has exceptional qualities, which he presents in the form of an altarpiece. Thus, as an offering, he can accept coins, shiny stones, pieces of foil, alcohol, furs, which reflects his preferences and nature.
In paganism, it is customary to decorate shrines with candles and objects associated with the object of worship. Thus, there is a small candle in the lower part of the altar near the image. Items related to Benders personality are also presented inside. The small stone represents his passion for cooking but his inability to prepare something edible. There is also a shining foil which symbolizes his craving for luxury; the coin serves as a sign of his greed and desire for wealth. A small skull image indicates Benders mortality, which is peculiar to him and not typical for a robot. Moreover, the skull refers to the beholder of the Mexican Day of the Dead and Benders origins. Moreover, inside the altar, you can see several artificial flower buds, which also personifies the Mexican tradition. Thus, Bender Bending Rodrigezs Shrine is presented as the gratitude for the existence of such an interesting character, as well as reverence for his charisma and humor. Making offerings to the altar, one can hope for a blessing that will bring the worshipper self-confidence and increased charm.
Great emperors and rulers of the past influenced the social order of the modern life drastically. Jasaw Chan Kawiil I and Qin Shi Huang are the great historical personalities of two different civilizations. Chan Kawiil was the king of the Mayan Civilization while the latter was the first Emperor of China.
The tombs of both leaders are masterpieces that exemplify the immortalization of their power as well as the belief that a new life begins in the other world. The Tomb of Emperor Qin and the Temple of the Great Jaguar represent unrelated ancient cultures that have a common purpose to perpetuate the grandeur of their rulers and to ensure their blissful lives after death.
The detection of the Qin Emperors Terracotta Army is one of the most prominent events in the archeology and history of the 20th century. Qin, also known as Shihuangdi, was the first ruler who managed to end the continuous conflicts between lords. Qin gathered the army, defeated all of them, and declared himself the Emperor of China in 221 BC. There is no exact answer concerning the primary reason for building the Terracotta Army.
It is significant to examine the epoch to find the motives of the Emperor. Qin began his reign with major reforms. He centralized the State and united the country. The Emperor adhered to the Legalist policy, improved the educational level of the population and promoted the trade.
At the same time, Qin Shihuangdi was a tyrannical and despotic leader. He had a lot of enemies and was afraid of death. Thus, the Emperor decided to achieve immortality by any possible means. His paranoia became an impulse for building the Terracotta Army (Wolff 11).
The excavation of the Temple of the Great Jaguar started in 1955. The reasons for building the Temple of the Great Jaguar were rather different. Jasaw Chan Kawiil I, known as Lord Sky God K, built the Temple I to glorify his success. He was the king of Tikal, the major center of the Maya Civilization. In 695 AD, Lord Sky God K defeated its opponent Calakmul and made Tikal the prosperous and flourishing place (McKillop 62).
The Temple of the Great Jaguar served not only funeral but religious purposes as well. Maya believed in the existence of Xibalba the mystical world where the gods lived, and in the two twins who outwitted the gods and opened the entrance to Xibalba. Maya shared the idea that one could depart to Xibalba through the mouth of mountains. The temples embodied those mountains.
Chinese people of that time believed that the soul divided into two constituents after death. The first part stayed with the body on Earth and the second moved to Heaven. The aim of the Qin Shihuangdi was to prepare himself for the eternal life. Thus, he wanted to reduplicate his residence. The Emperor wished all his warriors came with him, but instead of their extermination, he decided to make clay copies of them.
More than half a million workers built the subterranean microcosm of the city in the enormous mound with the height of 75 meters. The tomb comprises an immense number of pits with terracotta soldiers and horses. All figures are life-sized. There are also arms and chariots made of bronze ( Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor par. 14).
The whole mausoleum is the architectural masterpiece. There were numerous pits and even the representation of the universe. Gems and pearls covered the ceiling to duplicate the sky. Different pits stand for various departments of the Qins army. Thus, the first pit is the largest and includes probably more than six thousand soldiers from the Right Army of the Emperor. The clay warriors from the Left Army comprised the second pit.
General Headquarters formed the third one. The craftsmen made all soldiers unique. All of them have individual facial expressions. Even more, they correspond to people from different ethnical groups. Initially, the workers painted every sculpture though the paint worn off in the course of time.
Besides, warriors possessed genuine weapons (Wolff 12). Archeologists have not excavated the tomb of the Qin itself due to the lack of necessary technologies. One more significant fact concerns the finding of the high level of mercury in the mound. Emperor Qin believed that breathing mercury would bring the immortality and ordered to supply his tomb with the substance.
The Temple of the Great Jaguar in Guatemala was a mortuary and sacred structure. Originally, there was only a tomb of Jasaw Chan Kawiil. Researchers argue whether Kawiil or his son planned and conducted the building of the pyramid. Average observers often confuse Temple I with Egyptian pyramids. However, the method of building this pyramid differed from that employed in Egypt. The Temple of the Great Jaguar comprises of smaller blocks.
The structure includes nine levels of blocks arranged in the form of steps, which have symbolic meaning. According to the Mayan religion, a king had to pass all these stages after death. The Temple I is almost fifty meters high. The summit of the pyramid is the sanctuary with carved lintels made of wood.
On the top of the Temple I, there is the sculpture of Jasaw Chan Kawiil I sitting on the throne and a figure of the captured jaguar (Sharer and Traxler 393). However, it is challenging to see it now due to the destructions. There are also images that represent the power and grandeur of the leader. For instance, one can notice the pictures of people who are standing on human bones. Such images meant that the king was the influential and mighty person (McKillop 62).
The works of art under consideration epitomize two unique cultures and epochs. The building of the Tomb of Emperor Qin commenced much earlier. Qin Shihuangdi was the initiator of building. What concerns the Temple I, it is not known who made it. The constructions differ severely as well.
The principal aim of both structures was to prepare the best conditions for their rulers when they would depart to the other world. Nevertheless, the Temple I was a sacred religious place while the Tomb of Emperor Qin represented his paranoiac desire to achieve immortality and live in the same grandeur after death.
At first sight, both tombs look dissimilar. It seems there is no connection between Chinese and Mayan Civilizations. In my opinion, the core meaning of both artworks renders the wisdom of the humankind. People, who built these masterpieces, aspired to immortalize their leaders and prepare them for the eternal life.
These works exemplify the way nations behaved and thought in the ancient time. They open the pages of history that have been unknown before. I have chosen these works of art because they prove that the wisdom and faith have no limitations or borders. One can find them everywhere, regardless of the cultures and territories.
Works Cited
Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor. n.d.
McKillop, Heather. The Ancient Maya: New Perspectives, Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2004. Print.
Sharer, Robert and Loa Traxler. The Ancient Maya, Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2006. Print.
Wolff, Jennifer. Emperor Qin in the Afterlife. 2007.
The Great Mosque of Cordoba is regarded by many people as an influential artwork in the establishment and evolution of Islamic architecture. The building is also mystifying due to the nature of its features whose origin is still anonymous (Brebbia & Boquera, 2017). This discussion begins by presenting a formal description of this work of art. The paper goes further to give a detailed historical analysis of the mosque. The distinctive aspects defining the building are also described in the discussion. The essay also explains how the mosque can be used as a model for studying the development of Islamic architecture over the past fifteen centuries.
Formal Description
The Great Mosque of Cordoba is a spectacular work of art that portrays numerous features and architectural designs. The first remarkable observation about the structure is that it combines different styles. The magnificent edifice utilizes arches for decorative as well as structure aspects. The viewer observes that different designs and elements have been combined to give it a spectacular appearance. The mosque has a single minaret. It also exhibits spectacular mosaics that are combined intricately (Spahic, 2015). These exterior features make it an admirable and memorable work of architecture.
The interior of the Great Mosque of Cordoba reveals unique attributes to the viewer. The first key observation is the use of 856 columns. Such columns support numerous two-tiered arches that are designed to support the structures roof. This architectural style results in a hypostyle hall (Brebbia & Boquera, 2017). The building has poly-lobed, interlacing, and horseshoe arches. These are decorated using brick and stone patterns. Others appear to be covered or designed in mosaic. The structure has rectangular courtyards and prayer halls. The walls are decorated using abstract patterns, thereby making them splendid. Several parts of the mosque are redesigned into chapels. These features show conclusively why people across the globe admire the structure.
Historical Analysis
The Mosque of Cordoba is one of the greatest marvels that have fascinated many people from every corner of the world. The complexity of the mosque explains why it is quite hard to associate it with a specific architectural style. However, many scholars and historians believe strongly that the structure borrows a lot from the Islamic architecture. The technique is seen to combine new aspects from the Renaissance, Baroque, and Gothic styles. Moreover, the masterpiece combines the architectural concepts of Christianity and Islam (Brebbia & Boquera, 2017). The occupation of Roman Empire led to the inclusion of a cathedral in the temple.
Spahic (2015) observes that the Great Mosque of Cordoba was commissioned by Abd al-Rahman I in the year 784. His original design focused on a Great Mosque that would be used as a place of worship. Historians indicate clearly that the original site of this building was occupied by a small temple called the Catholic Basilica of St. Vincent of Lerins (Brebbia & Boquera, 2017, p. 48). Historians believe that the ruler who commissioned the mosque also founded an Islamic empire in Iberia. His reign emerged after the destruction of the Umayyad Dynasty in the year 750.
The original building borrowed a lot from various styles embraced in the west during the time such as Baroque and Gothic (Spahic, 2015). These artistic fashions informed the designs, arcs, and designs of the mosque. However, the magnificent structure would later be expanded and redesigned by future Muslim empires in the region. In the late 1230s, Cordoba and the surrounding regions were recaptured by the Roman Empire. This occupation led to the conversion of the mosque to a cathedral. In the 16th century, the Romans inserted a cathedral nave in the mosque (Brebbia & Boquera, 2017). This inclusion was informed by the architectural features of the Renaissance period.
The Islamic architectural style is supported by the placement of different features such as the qibla and the mihrab. It is also notable the qibla is positioned to face South. The design portrays two distinct aspects or parts. The first one is known as a portico sahn. This is the portion that carries the minaret (Spahic, 2015). The portico sahn is also used as a haram (or a prayer room). The distinctive arches and columns constitute the mosques bicolor. The inner space is composed of five parts. These elements depict the enlargements that have been done throughout the mosques history. The Great Mosque of Cordoba is, therefore, a stunning artwork that borrows a lot from different styles.
Analysis of the Work
The Great Mosque of Cordoba reveals an interesting issue that might have been ignored by many historians and architects. Although the building is described as a product of Islamic architecture, the mysteries and features associated with it cannot be disregarded. To begin with, the structure is characterized by different elements that are extremely unique and ground-breaking (Kaptan, 2013). The fact that it was constructed within the first few years of Islam explains why it is one of the first mosques in the world.
The mosque incorporates a number of deliberate features that have been added over the centuries. The structure has many Christian, Visigothic, and local architectural designs or traditions (Anderson, 2014). The mosque borrows different elements from existing structures such as domes, columns, and arches from different styles. This incorporation of various local elements and artistic styles in the structure is what informed the future of Islamic architecture.
The development of the mosque reveals how an ancient style was influenced by the structural aspects of Medieval, Byzantine, Gothic, and Renaissance architectural styles. From this analysis, it is clear that that the Great Mosque of Cordoba has revealed how human art and architecture continues to borrow numerous elements from different styles.
The incorporation of various building traditions in this mosque would later become a model for designing future Islamic buildings and mosques in different parts of the world (Anderson, 2014). Additionally, the extensive arches and columns inside the building create an illusionary hypostyle hall that appears to be much larger, spacious, and welcoming. The superb mosque can be used by people to portray the harmony existing between different religious groups and their respective architectural designs.
Conclusion
The Great Mosque of Cordoba is a timeless piece of art that represents more than a place of worship. Having been a center of contestation between Muslims and Christians for many centuries, the magnificent structure helps more people analyze the intriguing history of different regions and their relevant architectural styles (Kaptan, 2013). The building can also be used by researchers to analyze the nature and implications of cultural vandalism. Moreover, this work of art remains a significant object in contemporary society. It is agreeable that the mosques permutation of different artistic and religious traditions can be echoed in an attempt to promote social peace and tolerance.
References
Anderson, C. D. (2014). Integrating the medieval Iberian Peninsula and North Africa in Islamic architectural history. The Journal of North African Studies, 19(1), 83-92. Web.
Brebbia, C. A., & Boquera, A. M. (2017). Islamic heritage architecture. London, UK: WIT Press.
Kaptan, K. (2013). Early Islamic architecture and structure configurations. International Journal of Architecture and Urban Development, 3(2), 5-12. Web.
The Golden Temple, also known as Harmandir Sahib, is the central worship place for the Sikhs. It is located in Amritsar, Northern Punjab in India. The building is one of the oldest structures in the country, but one whose architectural design still amazes the current architects.
The building of the temple was started in 1574 and was completed in 1604. However, the temple suffered attacks twice and in the two attacks, the building was destroyed. It was later restructured to what it is today. The building consumed many materials, but remains one of the most attractive tourist destinations in the country. Official data from the government shows that many tourists visit the site every year. It is considered the most attractive tourist site in the country.
The Golden Temple
The Golden Temple, also known as Harmandir Sahib, is the central Gurdwara (worship place) located in Amritsar, Northern Punjab, India. The building is one of the oldest structures in the country, but its architectural design still amazes the current architects. From a far, the building resembles any ordinary temple in the city. However, as one moves closer to the building, he or she realizes the strangeness of the building.
The shape of the temple, materials used in its construction, and the color, show a work done out of skill. It is believed that this building has a strong symbolic function in the country. This is because of the historical factors that are related to it. All Sikhs consider this temple holy. The temple was built purposely to act as a worship center to all people in this land and even visitors, irrespective of their gender, race, age, and religion. The figure below shows the Golden Temple at Amritsar in India.
Figure 1
This research is focused on analyzing the Golden Temple based on its location, cultural ties, the designs used in its construction, and the labor force used.
Location of the Building
As was stated above, this temple is located in the city of Amritsar, Northern Punjab, India. The building of this holy place can be traditionally traced back in 1574 when Akbar, the monarch of Mughal, gave Bibi Bhani the site as a present when she was marring Jetha. Jetha became the fourth Guru Raam Das and immediately started developing the site.
In 1588, Guru Arjun Dev oversaw the laying of the temples foundation. He finally completed the construction of the temple and declared it an official worshiping center. He selected Sikh Baba Budha as the warden of the shrine. The decision to make this a central temple for worshiping in this kingdom was largely motivated by its location. The temple was located strategically in the middle of society. It was easily accessible to various communities that lived in the kingdom. All main trade routes were also passing near the temple.
Culture and Society
The Golden Temple in Amritsar in India had many cultural connotations to people who lived around the place and to the entire country. This temple, suitably known as Harmandir meaning Temple of God, was considered a central worshiping place for all people in the region. It was meant for both men and women of all religions and from any part of the world.
During this time, the Gurus had come to the realization that this society was strategically located for trade. This was because of the Indian Ocean, which was a route for many ships that were travelling to various markets around the world. The Gurus had realized that given the location of this country, many visitors would come to the country and religion was a main factor. The temple was therefore considered a general place, which was holy and could accommodate any religious grouping in society.
This temple was also a sign of defiance to external rulers who had issued a decree that buildings in this land should not go beyond three feet above the ground. Leaders of this society built a twelve feet temple to defy this decree and this has remained a clear fact among people living in this society. According to Arshi (56), this temple was a clear sign of the accommodative culture of Indians. During this time, there was a tight battle amongst various religious groupings.
Each religious group was fighting for supremacy and it was rare to see individuals from another religion trusting the other with issues related to religion. Over the world, there were cases of massacre against religious groupings, which was perpetuated by the group in power. In this country, however, the temple was a sign of unity. In the temple, people would feel that there is a sign of unity.
The temple is also a sign of the tough battle that the Indians fought against the invaders from the Middle East. All over the world, traders who used the Indian Ocean had known that the temple was a sign of unity and strength of this country. It became a target of inversion by world powers that were planning to rule this land.
This is what happened Jahan Khan, a general of Afghani army, invaded this land. The temple was massively destroyed by this army, but due to the spirited fight that was put up the local army led by Baba Deep Singh, they were repulsed from the temple, and therefore, this worshiping place was not completely brought down. The temple was restricted with the sponsorship from Maharaj Sign who sponsored marble inlay, gilding the temple and gold painting.
Perhaps the most memorable event about this temple was the dark history known as The Operation Blue Star of 1984, which was commissioned by Indira Gandhi. The operation led to a fight between the government soldiers led by General Kuldip Brar and the Sikhs.
This battle resulted in massive destruction of the temple, and many of the Sikhs lost their lives. Some of the soldiers also lost their lives in the battle. The soldiers did humiliating things within the temple, including smoking and destruction of the holy shrine. The Sikhs who died in the operations were given disgracing mass cremation by the government soldiers.
This temple was later restructured in 1990s. This incident has however, remained clear in the minds of the Indians. It has remained a controversial topic in this country, but it remains a fact that the incident made this temple very famous. It is still regarded by the entire nation as a center for worship, while the Sikhs still commemorate the massacre of their fellow tribesmen who were brutally murdered at this place. Besides the locals, this temple has been attracting the attention of international tourists, spiritual leaders, and designers among other professionals who always want to learn a number of issues related to the temple.
Construction of the Building
The construction of this building can be analyzed from various fronts. It is worth noting that there has been massive changes done to this building ever since it was built that one may argue that the original design is lost. The initial construction of this building begun reflected the modern housing design of the 18th century. Although the building has been renovated several times by modern architectures, it is clear that in the initial structure, erection of the building to higher heights was done using scaffolding.
The strength of the wall was ensured with the help of steel girders. This gave the walls strength and ability to withstand various forces of nature. During the construction, girders and other construction materials were lifted using a pulley system. By this time, sophisticated machines such as the cranes were not available, but construction technology was progressing and people were looking for better ways of making the construction process easier and faster.
The workforce of this building worked under a pressure to deliver quality work. They had to embrace both speed and quality of production. The frame of the Golden Temple was steel bars. This would be mixed with concrete to give the wall the strength needed for the height that was expected.
At this time, the idea of skyscrapers was not common and therefore, the workforce had to employ a lot of intelligence in order to come up with what was expected. The architectures were given the hard task of ensuring that this building would go against the forces of nature and tower high into the sky.
This had to be done having in mind that the construction workers and the final users of the temple would be safe. The building, despite its height and size, had to withstand forces of nature and be able to stand the test of time. The finishing was done using gold and gold coating in some parts of the building. It was therefore, imperative to go for the materials that would meet the expected standards.
Figure 2
Materials
According to Kapur (112), it may be a little challenging to state precisely the number of materials that were used to construct this building. As was stated previously, this building was attacked twice, first by Afghani generals and secondly by Operation Blue Star. Each of the attacks had devastating effects on the building and each time there was an attempt to make the building better than it initially was.
However, an average audit of the materials used in this building indicates that the building consumed many materials during its construction. It is estimated that the walls of this temple consumed about 37,981 tons of steel and 7,942,271 bricks. On these walls were 484 windows 28 doors (Arshi 82). The roofing consumed 743,214 tiles and 762,123 rivets.
There were about 250 flights of stairs in the entire building and half a mile of aluminum railing. The pipes used were about 40 miles in length and about 20-mile brass stripe in the floor. The electric wire used was about 920 miles, with about 15,000 bulbs. The painting was about 4,387,000 square feet and about 117,475 troy ounce of gold.
The above figures are estimation of what this temple could have consumed following the two destructive attacks. Kapur (121) says that it may be difficult to determine the exact value because when the temple was attacked for the first time, the extent of the destruction was not valued. The same was the case in the second destruction. However, basing the estimation on what exists today, the stated values are the approximation of what made the Golden Temple.
Exterior Design
The figure given below shows the exterior design of this building and its location and most of the important external component of the temple.
Figure 3
It is clear from the diagram above that the exterior design of this temple shows that motivation for the architectures came from the architectural development that was taking place in the Roman Empire.
There had been architectural developments in these earlier times from the Egyptian pyramids, the Chinese houses, and finally the modern Roman housing structure. One fact that demonstrates this is the golden color of the building. Gold was a precious commodity in society at this time and it was used as a sign of class. Houses that used gold in their exterior and interior parts were considered of higher value. Moreover, they belonged to the most powerful individuals in society.
The exterior part of this building closely resembles the palace and the temples that were common in the Roman Empire. The dome shaped towers and the flag emphasize the religion of the locals. The finishing of this house was done so perfectly that it is nearly impossible to see the bricks and steel used in construction.
It is worth noting that this fine finishing was done during its most recent renovation. The large dome-shaped windows are meant to allow light into the temple at daytime and to illuminate beautiful golden light from the internal bulbs at night. Its location in the middle of waters makes it one of the most attractive tourist attraction sites in the country.
This location also shows that this building was not only meant for worshiping, but also a place where people would come for the purpose of recreation. The design of the roofing, the windows, the doors, and the general external shape of the temple leaves no doubt that this is a place for worship
Interior Design
The interior design of this temple shows the exotic nature of this building and a clear representation of what it is. The diagram below shows a section of the interior of this temple.
Figure 4
The temple is ornamented using gold and golden cups, jugs seats among other ornaments. The interior of this building was garlanded using expensive garments and special type of wood. The decoration also includes flowers and special colored lights. The architectural design of the interior part of this temple shows a great expertise, especially in designing the curvatures on the ceiling.
The lighting of this temple is designed to give a golden light that is just bright enough for the worshipers. The interior wall is designed to give an impression that it is made of wood. The upper part of the wall is carpeted with various materials from gold to a special type of mahogany wood and black, blue, white, and golden garments. The room is well ventilated to help maintain a clean environment for the large population that throngs the place.
Labor Force
Labor used in this project came from different fields. There were carpenters, plumbers, electricians, masons, drivers among others. The effort of building this temple took several years. In the initial construction of the temple, which ended in 1604, the locals did the work. The architects, who were involved in designing this temple, had experience in building and construction, following the Roman modern housing designs.
The masons, plumbers and other workforce that were involved in the construction were local experts. It was during this time that most construction activities were completed. According to Mohinder (119), it is worth appreciating the fact that during its construction, no serious casualties or deaths, despite the heavy activities that were involved, were witnessed.
Guru Arjan Dev is celebrated as the person who came out strongly to sponsor this project from the onset. His predecessor had only laid the foundation for this building. Guru Dev, therefore, had to hire experts who were able to construct the temple to meet the expectations of society.
Although it took several years to complete this project, there were so many employees working on this project at any one moment. Most construction materials had to be transported to the site of construction from various locations within this country. After the invasion by the Afghani generals, the temple was destroyed and had to be put under renovation.
This demanded for a labor force that would be in a position to fix the temple properly, despite the destruction. In 1984s Operation Blue Star, the Indian soldiers destroyed the temple largely. The temple was once again put under renovation to what it is currently. This also demanded a labor force with deep understanding of how renovation would be done to retain the initial design, while still embracing some elements of modernism.
If It Were Built Today
It is a fact that it has taken several hundreds of years since the Golden Temple was first erected in Amritsar in Northern Punjab, India. Most of the architectural designs that were used in the construction of this building have also changed. When this building was to be built today, a number of changes may be made on the Temple, but most of structural designs would remain intact. The exterior part of the temple may remain unchanged because even the current temples are following this design in the contemporary world.
The interior design of this temple may need a little change. For instance, the expensive exotic ornaments that were designed to be part of the interior would be reduced or even be eliminated. The expenses used in decorating the temple with gold would be directed to other areas of need. The temple, if it were to be built today, would have taken much less time than it took for its initial construction.
This is because when it was being constructed, the level of technology was not as sophisticated as it is today. The workers at the site would have used large cranes to move heavy objects from the ground to higher heights instead of human using labor. Human labor is unreliable and ineffective because the output is always low. Machines and modern technology would speed up the construction of the building.
Works Cited
Arshi, Pardeep. The Golden Temple: History, Art, and Architecture. New Delhi: Harman Publishers, 1989. Print.
Kapur, Singh. The Golden Temple: It is Theo-Political Status. Patiala: Academy of Sikh Religion & Culture, 1984. Print.
Mohinder, Singh. The Golden Temple. New Delhi: UBS Publishers Distributors in association with National Institute of Punjab Studies, 2002. Print.
The nature of African shrines serves as places whereby the spirits and gods live or manifest themselves, or their holy objects, symbols, statues, and relics, are consecrated. In addition, they are more than places of worship or spiritual vessels (Microsoft Bing, 2022). Therefore, African shrines are physical manifestations of presence and ownership, influential symbols of cohesion and solidarity, identity markers, and cultural signposts. People believed their ancestors could interact with the physical world.
The first type of African shrine involves places containing relics. For example, Ugandas Namugongo martyrs shrine is one of the largest Christian pilgrimage destinations dedicated to massacred saints between 1885 to 1887 (Microsoft Bing, 2022). Through it, Africans honor their pre-Cristian heritage of ancestry and spirituality. Lastly, the shrine is special as people remember their tortured and dead heroes and pray for their faith renewal.
Another type of shrine is the personal hut, containing sculptures dedicated to an individuals aggressiveness, capability, and authority. For example, Iphris shrines are mainly widespread in Nigeria and practiced by the Ijo people (Microsoft Bing, 2022). The place of worship contains artifacts, such as leopards, elephants, and human figures, which symbolize an individuals power, wealth, and status. Such shrines protect a person against violence while being a menacing reminder of their destructive potential and achievements.
The places of deceased people serve as a unique form of African shrines. For example, the Baule shrine acted as a holy place whereby people could pray to their spirits, who were diviners between the living world and their ancestors (Microsoft Bing, 2022). Individuals perform incantations, make sacrifices, and give offerings to succeed in life. The other substantial type of African shrine includes the natural-phenomena. For example, the Dogon shrine was used for spirit communication, ancestry worship, and agricultural sacrifices. When there was drought and famine, flooding killed people and destroyed properties; the older citizens visited the place to calm issues.
In African religious symbolization, another kind of shrine is a village altar. For instance, the new Afrika shrine is an open entertainment center for societal members. The temple helps people to worship spirits and gods to enable them to revive their talents in music (Microsoft Bing, 2022). Different activities taking place in shrines include praying, religious ceremonies, and cultural practices. All the African shrines help preserve diverse peoples cultural heritage and history.
Ancient architecture has always been famous for its unusual shapes and beauty, and when it comes to Greece, which is the cradle of European civilization, it is possible to find unique art objects of antiquity almost everywhere. By today, not so many buildings and structures have survived, but those that remained intact amaze true connoisseurs of art with their beauty and design. Also, ancient Greek architecture had a significant impact on modernity, and today, many objects are built in the likeness of those structures. The well-known to the whole world preserved marble column from the Temple of Artemis at Sardis, which is the reflection of the brilliant ideas of that epoch, is unique and extraordinary in its way ( Marble column from the Temple of Artemis at Sardis, 2003).
Marble Column from the Temple of Artemis at Sardis: Origins and Context
Figure 1. Marble column from the Temple of Artemis at Sardis.
The found elements of the column, as it is proved by scientists, was the part of an ancient temple built in honor of the Greek goddess Artemis. The carving that is difficult from the standpoint of design is a distinctive feature of this construction. As Sayre (2013) notes, Greek architects used a particular technique for creating columns, and many of them had a convex base form that narrowed upward. Among the other elements of the column found at a particular site, this part is substantially smaller; consequently, it was the element of the top of the Temples column. The exposed sample is partially reconstructed as by today it has not been preserved completely. Nevertheless, its parts of the fluted shaft have the original structure, which was just slightly restored.
Continuation of Traditions: The Influence on Contemporary Cultural Patterns
Even though the architecture of the ancient Greeks dates back to the times of antiquity, many echoes of their work can be found in contemporary art. For example, the National Bank of Greece in Thessaloniki built-in 1928. This building has preserved by today in a rather good condition. According to Kyriakopoulos (2016), this design mainly conveys the images typical of the ancient Hellenes. It is a clear imitation of the architecture of that time. The facade of the bank is decorated with columns, which were almost everywhere in ancient buildings. The construction of gray color reminds the works of ancient builders in many respects, and the influence of classical Greek architecture is felt strongly enough.
In general, the columns are rather a standard element of many buildings of the past era. If it is about Greek ancient temples, it will be rather difficult to find some examples among them that do not have such structural details. In most buildings, columns were arranged in a row, forming a supporting structure (Sayre, 2013). Therefore, in the contemporary art of creating beautiful houses, many builders often turn to such projects, where large supporting elements of the construction are often located on facades.
Thus, the marble column from the Temple of Artemis at Sardis, which has preserved quite well, is an accurate reflection of classical Greek architecture and emphasizes the typical features of the buildings of that time. Some peculiarities of ancient buildings can be traced in modern constructions, where designers borrow high load-bearing structures and a general monumental style from their ancient descendants. Although some parts of the found column have undergone restoration, the art object is unique regarding decoration and the historical and cultural value.
References
Kyriakopoulos, K. (2016). The Bauhaus movement and its influence in graphic design, visual communication and architecture in Greece. Acta Graphica Znanstveni asopis za Tiskarstvo i Grafi
ke Komunikacije, 27(2), 33-44.
Without a doubt, Ancient Greece had a great influence on architecture in different parts of the world. Its calm and majestic beauty, harmony, and clarity continue to impress people today. The main distinguishing factor of Greek building art was the temple. Greeks liked building temples devoted to various gods. The oldest ruins of temples belong to the era of archaism when instead of wood as a building material, yellowish limestone and white marble began to be used. In this essay, I will discuss a marble column from the Temple of Artemis at Sardis.
This image illustrates a reconstructed column, which initially was five times bigger in the temple of the Greek goddess of hunting and childbirth Artemis, located on the territory of modern Western Turkey. At the beginning of the twentieth century, this column was found during excavations in Sardis ( Marble column from the Temple of Artemis at Sardis, 2017). In 1926 it was given as a gift to the Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Sardis, the capital of Lydia, was a strategic city that connected Anatolia and the Aegean coast. As reported by Yegül (n.d.), the Temple of Artemis at Sardis is a creative experiment in Greco-Roman architecture. Above all, it reflects the Empires successful attempt at the amalgamation of its cherished dual cultural and artistic heritage, combining Greek models and inspiration with new ideas in shaping structure and space (para. 20). According to Violatti (2014), the last Lydian king paid for the construction of the temple of Artemis to Greek craftsmen. Later this temple was recognized as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The temple is also the fourth largest Ionic temple in the ancient world. The remains of the temple preserved well- two columns are still intact.
Analysis
Greek architecture favored and often utilized white marble. This column is also made from marble in the Hellenistic period when Greek culture and elements of design were interwoven into the cultural traditions of many other states. As reported by the Met Museum, this column is not very tall, so it does not belong to the outer colonnade ( Marble column from the Temple of Artemis at Sardis, 2017). The ancient Greeks paid the primary attention to the beauty and harmony of the external appearance of the temple. For instance, this column is decorated with volutes on the top of the column, and beautiful carvings in between. This column is also typical of the Ionic order of architecture. Supported by the base, Ionic columns have more vertical flutes, narrow abacus, and carved frieze.
Influence on Contemporary Architecture
The architecture of Greece had an immense impact on all world architectural trends, including the Renaissance and the Neoclassical style. Many of the architectural masterpieces of the world emerged under the influence of Greek architecture and with the use of some of the elements of Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian styles. In fact, the imprint of Greek architecture can be seen in modern public buildings such as major libraries, and churches. For instance, the White House in Washington DC also has majestic marble columns.
Greeks mostly built temples using beautiful materials, like marble and limestone, and decorated columns with nice carvings and volutes. Many of these buildings became pieces of global cultural heritage. Thus, Greek architecture has impacted the aesthetics of architecture up to modern days.
The artifact that was selected for this reflection is the marble column from the Temple of Artemis at Sardis which can be found at the following link. It is originated from the Hellenistic period (300 B.C.). It is an iconic example of the Ionic order column which graced the Ancient Greek buildings. At its full height, the column would have been around fifty-eight feet high. The measurements suggest that this was a column from the porches or inner rooms of the famed temple (The Met, 2017).
The Temple of Artemis was constructed by the architect Hermogenes which emphasized the rules of symmetry and proportionality in the columns. Anionic order column stands on a base that allows its circumference to be more slender than other styles. Most have a standard of 24 flutes in the shaft. The entablature which the columns support is split into an architrave with three bands, a cornice, and a frieze.
The capital is specifically distinctive on the Ionic order. It features symmetrical volutes protruding on each side. In between, there is three-dimensional molding with an egg-and-dart design done in bas-relief. It is suggested that Ionic order columns take their aesthetic inspiration from female physical attributes compared to a more stout and plain structure of the male-inspired Doric columns. They became popular in Ancient Greece during a given period, as they provided a middle ground between the simplicity of Doric columns and the complexity of the Corinthian order. ( Ionic Order, n.d.).
The Longworth House Office building built in the first half of the 20th century is an example of the ongoing influence of Hellenistic architecture. It can be found at the following link. It was constructed for the use of the United States House of Representatives and is just one of several structures in Washington D.C. that efficiently uses marble columns for its façade.
The iconic public government buildings were constructed based on the revival of the Neoclassical architecture style heavily influenced by Greek architecture. The most prominent features include the use of symmetry, tall columns, and triangular pediments. Eight marble iconic order columns decorate the face of the Longworth Building while providing support for the entablature which holds the pediment on top of five porticoes. The Neoclassical architecture continues to borrow interior and exterior design elements such as trims and moldings on columns to create a sense of gravitas. (Architect of the Capitol, 2017).
The influence of Ancient Greek architecture is perceived in the contemporary era both for ideological and practical reasons. Scholars consider Ancient Greece culture to be the foundation of Western thought and civilization. Democracy became a symbol of Ancient Greece along with ruins of temples featuring the massive columns. Architects and planners of government structures like the Longworth Building attempt to portray the strong and time-tested roots of Democracy that governed one of the greatest historical civilizations and has now become a cornerstone of modern politics. On a more practical level, Hellenistic elements, columns, in particular, are a fusion of architectural efficiency and art.
Greek architecture was an innovational achievement as the mathematical progress of the time to construct perfectly symmetrical and proportional buildings. The interconnectedness of the column with other elements of the building allows for unparalleled structural integrity that has withstood through the millennia. The ideological nostalgia combined with excellent architectural design makes columns of the Hellenistic era a continuous influence on modern-day architecture.
The Metropolitan Museum features many significant exhibitions. One of the exponents in the Ancient Greece display is the Marble column from the Temple of Artemis at Sardis. It is an excellent illustration of the architecture of the era, which to this day remains an inspiration for many. Figure 1 is the image of the piece.
Figure 1. Marble column from the Temple of Artemis at Sardis. (n.d.).
Marble column from the Temple of Artemis at Sardis and its Origins
Marble column from the Temple of Artemis at Sardis is one of the remains of the architecture of ancient Greece, presented in the exhibition. The piece used to be more than fifty-eight feet in height when it was initially built. It is classified as a stone sculpture, and the material of the column is marble. As the description states, the design of its features foliate carving on the capital is unique among extant capitals from the temple, and the torus (foliated base), with its vegetal scale-like pattern, is also exceptionally elaborate ( Marble column from, n.d., para. 1). It is considered to be an ionic column in style because of how it was constructed.
The column was a part of the Temple of Artemis and was presented to the Metropolitan Museum by The American Society for the Excavation of Sardis in 1926 ( Marble column from, n.d.). It used to be a part of the interior, as it is is slightly smaller than others found at the site, which is an implication that it did not belong to the outside colonnade of the temple ( Marble column from, n.d., para. 1). The museum features two other columns; each can possibly be a pair for this one. However, it is not known for sure where exactly it stood in the temple. It is stated that the fluted shaft and the base are not original ( Marble column from, n.d.). The first one is a restored part, and the latter is a copy. This column is a good representation of the ancient Greek architecture as it features the design elements typical for the era. Many other examples that display the architecture of ancient Greece can be viewed today. In particular, the remains of the Temple of Allopo and the Parthenon (Sacks, 2005). Both buildings feature a similar symmetric design of the columns with the one, exhibited in the Metropolitan Museum.
Modern Architecture Inspired by Ancient Greece
The Museum of Modern Literature in Germany is an example of a contemporary building that was constructed using the principles from the ancient Greek culture. David Chipperfield designed it in 2002, and it was built in 2006 ( Museum of Modern, n.d.). While it looks modern and features a clean look without any specific decorations, the elements used here can be traced back to those in the ancient temples. Most notably, this building features columns and symmetry, which are reminiscent of those pieces displayed in the Metropolitan Museum. The architect utilized the same materials for the inside and the outside, to unify the building. He has successfully merged both the modern and ancients design techniques in this museum.
Overall, the presented column in the Metropolitan Museum is a display of the ancient Greek architecture. The Marble column from the Temple of Artemis at Sardis is a representation of the design and art of that time. The other examples that one can see today are the Temple of Allopo or the Parthenon. Both have the same column style, typical for the era. One of the examples of the influence that ancient Greece had on modern culture is The Museum of Modern Literature. In its structure, both contemporary and antique elements were used for construction.
