Category: Teenagers

Introduction

In developed countries, Juvenile criminal behavior is on the increase. Numerous studies have been conducted to ascertain the causes of this behavior. Although much effort has been concentrated on the study of violent behavior, little has been done to explain the reasons behind the escalation from non-aggressive to aggressive offending (Murray & Farrington, 2005). It has been identified that peer pressure, family behavior, school performance, and environment are the key causes of the escalation of delinquent behavior amongst juveniles. The study of these causes can provide an understanding of delinquent juveniles’ behaviors. In the United States of America, the government has come up with various ways to respond to the increasing teenage crimes. The government has enhanced interventions through justice system, social awareness, biological approach, and utilization of services.

A brief overview of the article

The article studies the degree at which feelings, family units, and surrounding correlates are linked with the increase of non-aggressive to aggressive offending among the imprisoned teenagers (Dorn & Williams, 2003). In the article, data from 50 respondents were collected. The respondents comprised of 25 escalators and 25 maintainers of non-aggressive criminals from a prison facility in Midwestern USA. Ideas that associate security and an aggressive home environment were significant in the understanding escalation in criminal behavior, and prior criminal victimization was less important. Recommendations for individual and family precautionary interventions and criminal behavior theories are examined in the article. The journal’s findings suggest that individual thoughts on the relations between power and safety and violent family setting are significant correlates that can be used in distinguishing between the escalators and maintainers (Kurtz, 2002). In the findings, prior criminal victimization remains moderately significant throughout the models.

Description of the research problem

The research problem focuses on identifying whether both family and personality correlates are significant in identifying teenagers who escalate to violent criminals in contrast to those who participate in nonviolent criminal behavior. In the article, the authors acknowledge several existing studies with the aim of emphasizing on the research problem. Richard Van Dorn and James Herbert Williams argue that existing literatures support their perceptions about the escalation of delinquent behavior in incarcerated youths. Therefore, their main intention of carrying out this study was to expand on the existing knowledge. Dorn and Williams approached the research problem differently to benefit of all stakeholders and criminal justice scholars (Lodge, 2007).

Research methods

The information used in the project was collected through interviews. The authors assert that the interview sessions were conducted for about two hours. The sample was evenly shared between the youths apprehended and judged for non-violent offense and then afterward rearrested and judged for violent offenses. Thereafter, the sample was evenly shared between the youths who had been first apprehended and judged for non-violent offenses and then rearrested and judged for non-violent offenses. The court proceedings were used to settle on the selection of the participants. Each participant was paid through the prisons account. Using the existing literatures, the researchers noted that early start and conviction increases the chance of youths turning from non-aggressive to aggressive criminals (Kivivuori, 2000). In line with the existing literatures, the authors identified trivial connections between criminals and increased connection with the justice system.

Article’s results, findings, and recommendations

After the collection of data, the researchers employed orderly regression studies to scrutinize the association of thoughts towards a bunch of hooligans, perception about control and security, criminal discrimination, and aggressive home surroundings. Perceptions about the gangs and the thoughts about power and safety were fed into the regression model. Through this, the link between thoughts and beliefs about the escalation of criminal behavior were obtained. As such, the overall chi- square [x² (1, N=50) = 4.064, P< 0.05] determining the number of times a juvenile is apprehended was fairly considerable at the initial step. At the subsequent step, optimistic thoughts about the gang participation and attitudes about security and influence were fed into the model. Optimistic attitudes about the gangs were significant (p-0.06) in distinguishing between the two criminal behavior classifications. The results indicated that optimistic attitudes about the gangs were 1.84 times more likely to have spiral to an aggressive offense. Similarly, those with attitudes complimentary to control and security were 1.70 times more likely to have spiraled in their aggressive habits.

Article’s contributions to the existing literature

Dorn and Williams came up with a scholarly journal article that contributes hugely to the existing literature on the subject of the correlates associated with the escalation of delinquent behavior in imprisoned youths. The article provides a current analysis of the degree to which feelings, family units, and surrounding correlates are linked with the increase from non-aggressive to aggressive offending among the imprisoned teenagers. The authors acknowledged the existing literatures about delinquent behavior in imprisoned youths. The journal article effectively contributes to the existing literature by presenting new knowledge about 25 escalators and 25 maintainers of non-aggressive criminals from a prison facility in Midwestern USA. Similar to existing studies, the researchers found that personal thoughts on the relations between power and safety and violent family setting are significant correlates able to distinguish between the escalators and maintainers.

Article critique

The researchers carried out comprehensive studies to ensure that their final product was well within the accepted norms for statistical significance and deviation. As such, the researchers employed hierarchical regression analyses to examine the independent association of thoughts towards a bunch of hooligans, perception about power and safety, criminal discrimination in the past and violent home environment with criminal behavior classification. In this regard, the article is acknowledged as a vital source of knowledge related to the escalation of violent behavior among the youths.

Although the researchers did outstanding studies on the topic, it should be noted that all the respondents were males. It would have been better if the data had been collected from both male and respondents. Nowadays, more females are involved in violent behavior just like their male counterparts (Wei, & Stouthamer-Loeber, 2002). I believe that the reasons why women engaged in such behaviors are distinct from the reasons why males engage in the same behaviors. Therefore, if data could have been collected from both male and female respondents, comprehensive findings on delinquent behavior among the youths could have been presented.

Conclusion

Through the journal, the authors present well-researched and reliable information concerning delinquent behavior among the youths. In the USA, the majority of the teenagers are involved in some of criminal behavior prior to progressing to the late adolescent stage. The researchers assert that a number of studies have identified a trivial connection between criminals and increased relation with the judicial justice system. If law enforcers can successfully identify the correlates of escalation earlier in the youths’ lives, they can put in place measures to intervene and minimize their chances of escalating to violent individuals (Dorn & Williams, 2003). The article contributes hugely to the existing literature on the subject. In general, the article is quite effective with its findings and recommendations, its research methodology, and its contribution to the existing research.

References

Dorn, R., & Williams, J. (2003). Corelates Associated with Escalation of Delinquent Behaviour in Incarcerated Youths. Social Work Journal, 48(4), 1-9.

Fougere, A., & Potter, S. (2009). Psychopathy And Offence Severity In Sexually Aggressive And Violent Youth. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 19(4), 247-252.

Kivivuori, J. (2000). Delinquent Behaviour, Psychosomatic Symptoms And The Idea Of ‘Healthy Delinquency’. Journal of Scandinavian Studies in Criminology and Crime Prevention, 1(2), 121-139.

Kurtz, A. (2002). What Works For Delinquency? The Effectiveness Of Interventions For Teenage Offending Behaviour. The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry, 13(3), 671 692.

Lodge, G. J. (2007). Assessing Risk Of Violent Behaviour. Psychiatric Bulletin, 21(11), 703-706.

Murray, J., & Farrington, D. P. (2005). Parental Imprisonment: Effects On Boys’ Antisocial Behaviour And Delinquency Through The Life-course. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46(12), 1269-1278.

Wei, E. H., Loeber, R., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (2002). How Many Of The Offspring Born To Teenage Fathers Are Produced By Repeat Serious Delinquents?. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 12(1), 83-98.

Introduction

An increasing number of teenagers in the UK appear to be carrying knives for use on each other. We would like to ask ourselves whether this perception is correct, or is there a climate of fear created by the British media? Why do some teenagers do this and what effect is this having on UK society? What are the possible solutions to this problem? These are some of the questions that are in every Briton’s mind.

Since time immemorial knives have been in use for either killing or inflicting harm to oneself or another person through the number of crimes involving knives in Britain today is alarming especially when these crimes are committed by teenagers. The number of teenagers in the UK carrying knives for use on each other has slowly been increasing during recent years and the media is not publishing stories about knife crimes out of the blues; it is so real that this has become a national issue and is in plain view for all to see (Andrew et al).

Main body

According to the British Crime Survey, last year alone, out of all the crimes committed which totaled 129,840, violent crime involving the use of a knife accounted for 6%. According to police records in England and Wales, attempted murders, robberies, and inflicted injuries involving the use of knives amounted to 22,000. The most worrying cities in the UK are London, Greater Manchester, and the West Midlands where 50% of the 22,000 knife crimes were reported. The official figures in statistics indicated that knife crimes in London were being committed after every 4 minutes last year were and 17 teenagers have been killed by stubbing since January. The most affected age group is between the ages of 16 years and 19(Hamilton).

The survey continues to indicate that these teenagers are no respecters of age and they stab even their fathers and mothers where the latest incident was the stabbing of a 23-year-old woman in London. It has now become so much serious a crime that even the British government has introduced new legislation to deal with the offenders where it has set a jail term of 4 years as the maximum sentence for possessing a knife if a person is found possessing one and he/she is under the age of 18.

I tend to disagree with the legislators on the issue of setting stiffer penalties. Instead, they should come up with ways of trying to reduce knife crimes and protecting the citizens from such offenders. The writing is on the wall for all of us to see, the situation is a reality and there is no point in arguing that there is a climate of fear that is being created by the media (www.insight-security.com ).

The rise in knife crimes is becoming a hard task to contain since knives are everywhere and one does not require having a license to carry one; for one to carry a gun a license is a must giving reasons for requiring it. These knives are everywhere and are capable of inflicting any sort of injury, costing little to obtain across all ages by everyone. Another cause of the increase in knife crimes is the lack of proper parenting where teenagers have no role models at home and hence they result in seeking the comfort of gangs. Most of the convicted knife crime offenders claim that they have no adult role model and they end up in trouble when they have no one to direct them.

The proper upbringing at home is lacking leading to juvenile teenagers where police cannot deal with the disaster alone without the help of the parents (www.usatfbmf.com ). The whole society is blamed for this problem; the collective responsibility by the society is a virtue that has gone to the dogs. Knife crime has become an acceptable norm and in fact, we have come to be desensitized to it.

Another cause of the rise in knife crime is the lack of proper or inadequate education. When teenagers are not in school they may resort to engaging in crimes and ‘gunships in search of protection and confidence now that they are on their own. In the process of this search for protection, the only cheap way is to buy knives as their security blanket that serve well to their needs of ‘protecting themselves. It has been argued that a society that is not morally upright lacks economic development (www.usatfbmf.com ). Our schools are lacking in the part of social education where moral and ethical lessons have been replaced with technology and information lesions.

Instead of the government coming up with good curriculums that cater to social sciences, it is finding ways in which legislation should be passed regarding licenses to carry knives. At this age of teenage-hood, a sense of identity troubles many and if there are no proper set mechanisms of fighting this on the part of our parents, then the teenagers will try to seek their identity and belongingness in the already troubled gangs (www.usatfbmf.com ).

The teenagers seek recognition and direction from the members of the gang whose opinions and ideas are a result of peer pressure and influence. These gangs come up with enough people coming up and forming a group. Such a group has its own ‘ideologies’ and as a result, rivalry may result from the various gangs; they solve their conflicts by the blade and hence one must always be prepared by carrying a knife. When such gangs meet, they want to show their might, they end up taking the laws on their hands using knives. It is easier today in the UK to find a suiting gang than to find a job. A new culture and a new fashion should also be blamed for this- this is the blade and stabbing culture where it is fashionable to have a knife. These gangs justify their use of knives for revenge (Hamilton).

The media also should carry their cross for airing some programs that are not suitable for young kids. There have been films that involve a lot of crimes and if such is watched by children, they will grow up thinking that the kind of life that they watch is the ideal one and as they grow up they try to emulate such lifestyles (Andrew et al).

The effects of these knife crimes are a concern to worry about; this is a societal problem. Revenge will always result in unending conflicts among the people involved in a situation. Revenge will only result in a vicious circle of killing and destruction spree. If these teenagers are allowed to go stabbing each other, the problem will never end because if a teenager stabs a person, revenge will direct such a person who got stabbed to go and stab the one who stabbed him/her.

It becomes an eye for an eye; stab me or my friend, I stab you or your friend in return. This as a result will involve even risking the families in trying to seek justice. One lost life is a loss to the country’s economy. Teenagers who are talented and would have become very important people in the country die of just knife stab (Hamilton).

The country has been over the recent past been incurring additional expenditures whenever there is a victim of knife crime. This money that the government spends in paying hospital bills and unending court cases could have been directed to other productive projects.

The perpetrators of knife crimes when convicted end up in jail. These jailed vagabonds are at their age should be productive but now they end up being maintained in prisons by the same government they are supposed to participate in, in the process of economic empowerment. There is also the need for additional police to keep an eye on our streets, more prisons, and more judges. Our brothers and sisters, all this cost money that could else be used to build new schools to educate the young people, hospitals, and additional homes for the aged (www.usatfbmf.com ).

This situation is instilling fear in many and especially the visitors who are potential foreign investors. If there is no security in their lives, how can they invest in such a country where people are not valuing life which is priceless. Personal safety is a prerequisite for productivity and investments. If visitors are discouraged from visiting our country, then this is lost foreign currency in the tourism industry (Hamilton).

The other effect is on the victims of such crimes. How would you feel if you lost your loved one just a few minutes after having a wonderful dinner? Imagine this is not an ordinary way of losing a life, knife stab. Stabbings that result in fatalities have detrimental effects on the victims, their friends, families, and the local community at large. The trauma that the victims undergo together with their families is enough to cause a sense of insecurity and trust for their entire lives. Studies have shown that close to 83% of the knife crime victims experience trauma with some proportion of this being serious trauma. This results in fear, anger, annoyance, loss of confidence (the feeling of ‘why me’ and not so and so), feels of vulnerability, and shock (www.insight-security.com ).

With such effects, the public has now become conscious regarding the knife crime in Britain following high media coverage on the issue. People now feel with justifiable prove that knife crimes are becoming more worrying than gun crimes and the situation is getting out of hand requiring tough measures to curb it urgently. It is, however, unrealistic to expect to withdraw all knives from circulation, especially when kitchen knives and gardening knives (which all feature in violent attacks).

Those surrendering knives are of course likely to be from the more law-abiding element of the community. This matter needs serious and far-reaching solutions. The government and police cannot be accused of inactivity or complacency. Laws have been hardened, police powers to stop and search have been extended and schools have been given new powers. Doctors will probably soon decide that they should inform the police whenever an apparent victim of a knife crime comes to a hospital to have wounds seen. These are some of the means that are geared towards curbing the menace (Andrewet al).

Police initiatives such as “Operation Blunt” or “Operation Shield” seem to be genuinely welcomed by the public, whilst initiatives such as knife amnesties are viewed with more than a little cynicism, and at best viewed as a means of publicizing the dangers of knife carrying. The results of police added power of stop and search have shown the strategy is working well. 10 areas that are hard hit by this menace resulted in the confiscation of 1,600 knives and 2,500 arrests out of 55,000 stop and search operations. On the positive side, knife amnesties have at least contributed to taking thousands of weapons out of circulation. This of course comes with public sensitization on the dangers and effects of knife crimes (www.insight-security.com ).

Home Secretary, Jacqui Smith inaugurated a campaign aimed at persuading children not to carry knives even if they are doing so to defend themselves. The campaign also is aimed at persuading parents to play a bigger role in anti-knife education. It is a common belief that the media do very little in trying to turn young people off drugs, drinking, unprotected sex, cigarettes, or whatever vice that may be a problem with the youth.

Parents should come to rescue the situation by offering better parenting. The government should also be involved in this by making it compulsory for all children to attend good schools for education. It should also invest in improving the living conditions by providing good housing and well-paying jobs to these parents (www.usatfbmf.com ).

Conclusion

Schools are implementing handheld security detectors and walk-through metal detectors. These are being implemented by the council of course at great cost but are worth the effects. There is also the introduction of violence reduction units in schools and local communities that try to suppress the violence by combating the causes of gangs (drugs, violence, and alcohol). Early childhood education in trying to break the cycle of blade culture is also necessary through youth centers. Fines should be increased and the sentencing becoming severe for any convicts to serve as a lesson to potential offenders (www.insight-security.com ).

Works Cited

Andrew, G. and Nigel, M.: “U-turn blunts PM’s strategy to cut knife crime on streets”. The Independent. 2008. Pg.15.

Hamilton, F. “Another fatal stabbing, but the police ignore demands to prosecute knife offenders”. The Times (London). 2008: Pg.9.

Those who study crime and delinquency also define crime. The definition of crime was greatly expanded when criminologists began asking people to report their own illegal or improper behaviour. It was found that in some of the early self-report studies, like Noyers and Yun, conduct that is illegal acts were as common in teens as in adults. Here the teens are considered as adults and judicial system is recommended to act accordingly.

In some self-report studies conduct was defined as delinquent even when it was so common than almost everyone could be classified as delinquent. At the other extreme, criminologists have classified some conduct as criminal that does not violate existing law. These writers believe that all forms of economic exploitation, racial discrimination, or creation of unsafe or unhealthy work environments are harmful and should be made criminal. Because they define such conduct as criminal, they argue that crime is evenly distributed across class levels or that it is linked to upper class status. Under such conditions it is only logical to consider criminal justice system as a homogeneous authority that would not discriminate between an adult and a teenager as a juvenile and treat them only on the basis of the crime committed. Thus, a teenager should always be treated as an adult and not as a juvenile as being a teen is old enough to understand the difference between right and wrong.

Secondly, there are several problems and complexities associated with the mode that tries adults and teenagers differently. The reform programs in the juvenile justice system need to involve fundamental fairness for all youth who become involved in the system as because it is essential to society that person involved should grow up without any grudge against the judicial system at least in the terms of homogenous nature of justice. This extra care means the loss of extra valuable time from the part of the authority and the spending of extra tax money from the part of the tax payers. Both of these elements are to be avoided.

Thirdly, there is no guarantee that reformation systems would be beneficial for a youth and these systems would direct the offenders back into the mainstream. If the latest problem of religious fundamentalism and terrorism is taken into consideration, then the entire debate of considering teens as juveniles would fail to exist. Most of the religious terrorist activities are performed by teens as they are easily motivated. These teens commit hideous crime on the basis of fundamentalist religious beliefs and there can be no reformation system that would be capable enough to retrieve these teens. These teens are guaranteed to return to their terrorist origins once released under juvenile justice system on the basis of age. Thus, it is logical to treat these teens as adults and the judicial system should proceed in accordance to the procedure enlisted in the case of an adult.

In conclusion, it should be stated that it is essential to recognition of the developmental differences between young people and adults, as determined by sound scientific research because while handling a juvenile it is important to be more considerate than usual. Again, recognition of young offenders’ potential to be rehabilitated and to change in a way the benefits them and society as a whole because as human resource each individual is invaluable and a young offender can ultimately became a national pride or at least a good citizen if handled properly. However, scientifically speaking, the teens are not eligible to be considered as minors or juveniles as their brain functions are well adapted to make differences among black, white or grey properties of an incident unlike the juveniles who are only able to demark an incident in accordance to black or white. Thus, teens should be tried as adults and not juveniles under judicial systems.

Introduction

An evaluation of the data in N516 reveals an underlying drunk driving problem in Albuquerque. Furthermore, the data reveals that teenagers play a big role in exacerbation of DWI of offenses in Albuquerque. In the DWI report that driving people develop driving habits and etiquette from a young age, it’s prudent that teenagers especially those that seeking their driving licenses be taken through some mandatory driving program. This will ensure teenagers and young people internalize good driving habits which in the long-term will prove beneficial to efforts against drunk driving. In that regard, it’s imperative if authorities will consider early intervention requiring freshmen in high school students to have mandatory classes on drinking and driving. Through these mandatory classes will ensure every student has exposure to some education concerning DWI which in the long run will ensure a reversal of the DWI offenses trends.

Intervention and community needs

The proposed intervention requiring mandatory classes for high school freshmen is in line with community needs identified in the N516 report. According to the report, age comes out as one of the factors that play an important role in DWI trends. The report quotes Victoria of MADD who approximates the number of people under 21 years in the US who die in DWI related accidents to be 30,000. According to Victoria, more than half the deaths that involve teenagers involve crashes solely caused by drunk driving. A rough estimate from the above information reveals that teenagers account for nearly 17% of all car related accidents in the US. The same report also cites teenagers as the most affected group in DWI cases after males. Sternheimer (2006, p. 121) also agrees with the above assertion. The N516 report in its nursing intervention section cites teenagers as the most vulnerable group that can easily succumb to the effects of DWI in Albuquerque community.

Further to the above statistics, the Century Council paints a grim picture on the DWI situation among the youth in New Mexico. The problem of alcohol among teenagers is quite prevalent in the state of New Mexico and by extension Albuquerque. A study by Century Council covering years 2000-2009 concerning alcohol consumption among teenagers, indicate that 25% of all 12-20 years olds had consumed alcohol the past month (Century Council, 2010). A further 17% had engaged in binge drinking in the past month. Figure from police also indicated a lingering problem among the state’s youth concerning alcohol consumption. The police reports indicate that there were a total of 131 arrests of people under the age of 18 driving under the influence compared to a total of 11,000 for all ages. Additionally, there had been 597 arrests among teenagers relating to breakage of liquor laws compared to a total of 4488 for all ages. Those that are under 18 For instance, the organization cites 114 alcohol related fatalities in New Mexico in 2009. Of all these, 28 victims were people under the age of 21 making it 4.7% compared to 5.7% for all ages. People under the age of 18 who got arrested for drunkenness numbered 21 compared to total of 778 for all ages.

It is important to note that some of statistics given above tough on the national populace. It is therefore prudent to bear in mind that it’s the similarities drawn from generalization that inform conclusions made about young people in New Mexico and Albuquerque.

A simple and straight forward hypothesis from the above information is that there is a real problem concerning alcohol consumption and DWI among teenagers (Gerdes, 2004, p. 59). It is therefore only in order to put in place an intervention that will benefit the youth and ensure there are minimal DWI cases involving the youth especially teenagers.

Goals and Objectives Worksheet

Role of government in success plan

It is important to acknowledge the role authorities will play in implementation and success of any plan like the one outlined above (Perry, 2002, p.41). Local state and federal authorities will play an important role in ensuring freshmen high school students’ access mandatory education concerning drunk driving. Authorities will especially be crucial in providing financial, moral and legislative support. Particularly, there will be a special reference to the Healthy people 2020 objectives concerning alcohol consumption among the population and specifically among the youth.

Already, federal authorities are working with state and local authorities to achieve initiatives as outlined in the Healthy people 2020 initiatives. Some of these initiatives include a targeted 25.5% reduction in the number of teenagers exposed to people rides with drunken adults. This is from an estimated 28.3% of students in 9^th grade who authorities believe ride in the same vehicle with drivers under the influence (Healthy People 2020).

Financial, moral and legislative support from authorities will manifest itself in initiatives such as Health people 2020.

The plan will heavily rely on financial support from all levels of governments in order to set up the required curriculum and meet other costs such as teacher training and remuneration in the course of implementation. Particularly, financial resources from all these levels of government will also come handy in availing curriculum materials, hiring professionals like the police officers and advocates for dispensation of first hand information on drunk driving. The resources will also come in handy in availing information through other channels besides the primary classroom curriculum.

Authorities will also play an important role in providing legislative support to successful implementation of the plan outlined above. Particularly, the state legislature and the city council will help in passing laws and declarations requiring mandatory set up of the said cause and enrollment of student from the target group. Legislation will especially help authorities and other advocates reach private schools under their jurisdiction who in regular circumstances may shield their students from undergoing the designated course. Authorities may, through legislation may help in committing extra financial resources if need be. Additionally, all levels of governments will help through legislation in improving provisions of the laws or statutes establishing the mandatory course.

Closely related to government’s legislative role is its moral role. It is almost given that people will most likely take government sponsored programs seriously. In this case, a requirement by government that all freshman students in high school go through a mandatory DWI-related course will give credibility and impetus to the program. Sanctioning of the program by government will ensure a smooth integration into other government programs effectively ensuring wide access and success of the program. Finally, the authorities; federal, state and local are in a better position socially to influence success of the program given the numerous programs undertaken by them and the common overlapping that regularly occurs.

It is also important to note that international authorities will play a crucial role in success of such a plan. This will mainly be through comparison. Successful implementation of a similar program in a different country is likely to provide ground for proponents of such a plan to convince both authorities and society of necessity of having legislation and the plan in place.

Conclusion

The proposed plan involving “early intervention requiring freshmen in high school to have mandatory class on drinking and driving “will no doubt lead to decreased cases of DWI among teenagers’ especially in freshmen high school students in the country. The goals and objectives closely meet the community’s needs concerning drunk driving. The main aim is to caution new and young driver from falling into the DWI-related offenses that normally have grave consequences. Additionally, reasoning is that school is the best plat from through which to reach this potential group.

References

Century Council. New Mexico. Web.

Gerdes, I. L. (2004). Drunk Driving. Chicago: John Willey & Sons Inc.

Healthy People 2020. An Opportunity to Address the Social Determinants of Health in the United States. Web.

Perry, C. et al. (2002). Class ActionDrinking and DrivingCasebook. New York: Routledge.

Sternheimer, K. (2006). Kids these days: factsandfictions about today’s youth. New York: John Willey& Sons.

Introduction

In the past, the criminal justice system treated minors the same way as adults. They were subjected to penalties similar to those meted out on adult offenders (Hendricks, 2010). However, today, the laws have changed. In most jurisdictions, a juvenile is a person between the ages of ten and eighteen. As a result, infantile delinquents are not treated the same way as adult offenders. In this paper, the author will focus on juvenile and adult crimes by analyzing the case of Mrs. Ingrim’s 15-year old child.

Responding to Mrs. Ingrim

According to the case, Mrs. Ingrim’s 15-year old child has committed the crime of grand theft auto. In addition, the kid has destroyed the automobile by crushing it into a storefront. Stealing a vehicle is a felony in most states (Lab, 2013). The punishment for the offense is imprisonment and fine. As an attorney specializing in juvenile cases, I would respond to Mrs. Ignrim by asking her to calm down and stop worrying about the possibility of her child being locked up in a county jail and harassed by other offenders. The reason for asking her to calm down is that according to the law, her kid is a minor. When a person below the age of 18 years commits a crime, they are taken through the juvenile system as opposed to the adult criminal justice procedure (Schmalleger, 2011). As a result, her teenager will be treated as a delinquent and not as a criminal. The most probable punishment would be probation, fine, restitution, or detention in a juvenile center. The child will not be taken into a county jail.

Steps to Defend Mrs. Ingrim’s Teenager in the Juvenile Justice Process

The stages involved in the juvenile justice system differ from those in the adult criminal procedure. In addition, the cases travel through the system faster compared to those dealing with grown-up offenders. The process includes intake, detention, hearing, sentencing, and appeal.

Intake

It is the first step after arrest. An intake official processes the juvenile at this stage. The detective determines whether or not there is enough evidence to file a charge against the offender (Champion, 2010). At this stage, the delinquent can be released to their parents. They can also be detained and taken to court.

Detention

If Mrs. Ingrim’s teenager is detained, a hearing has to be held within 72 hours. At the detention stage, a judge has three choices (Kratcoski, 2012). The options include dismissing the case, calling for an informal adjustment hearing, or ordering for a formal hearing. If the teenager is a first time offender, he will be taken through an informal adjustment hearing.

Hearing

At this stage, the judge listens to the case. The aim is to determine whether the juvenile is guilty or not. The determination is made after all the evidence is presented. In addition, witnesses may be called to give their testimonies (Shoemaker, 2009).

Sentencing

Based on the evidence presented, a juvenile can be assigned to boot camp, fined, referred for counseling, or placed on probation (Shoemaker, 2009). Other forms of punishment include community service and sentencing to YDC for up to 90 days.

Appeal

Appeal is the final step in the juvenile justice system (Lab, 2013). At this stage, the offender, with the help of their attorney, can appeal against the court ruling. They can petition the court to reduce the punishment or provide them with a platform to prove that the juvenile is innocent.

Steps to Take to Ensure that Every Justice System Stage is handled Properly

As an attorney, I will ensure that every step of the case is handled properly by making certain that the rights of Mrs. Ingrim’s teenager are upheld throughout the trial. For example, during evidence presentation, I will ensure that only admissible facts are brought before the court (Shoemaker, 2009).

Variations between the Juvenile and the Adult Criminal Justice Systems

There are a number of variations between the two forms of criminal justice systems. In most jurisdictions, minors are not put on trial for committing crimes or for delinquency. The offences may be termed as crimes depending on their seriousness. In such cases, the juvenile may be tried in an adult justice system (Lab, 2013).

Compared to adults, juveniles do not have a right to public prosecution by a jury (Schmalleger, 2011). The trial takes place through an adjudication process. In addition, minors do not have a right to bond (Burns, 2007). As a result, they may remain in custody throughout the trial process. They system has one major goal. The aim is a comprehensive rehabilitation of the child. On its part, the adult system’s primary aim is to punish the accused.

Sentencing Mrs. Ingrim’s Teenager as the Judge

If I were the judge, I would find Mrs. Ingrim’s teenager guilty of grand theft auto. I would sentence the child to serve probation. In addition, I would order for restitution. Car theft is a felony punishable by prison sentence and fine (Lab, 2013). However, Mrs. Ingrims’s teenager cannot be sentenced to a county jail. The reason is that he is a minor. The probation period will be between six months and one year. The reason for requesting restitution is to cover for financial losses, which include damage to the vehicle and to the storefront.

Conclusion

The juvenile criminal justice system is anchored on the fact that minors are not the same as adult offenders. There are various differences between the two groups of individuals. For example, their moral responsibilities and response to rehabilitation vary. The primary goal of the juvenile justice system is to successfully reintegrate the youth back into the society. Mrs. Ingrim’s 15-year old teenager has committed the offence of grand auto theft. His case is an example of the increasing incidences of minor offenders in the country. In the juvenile crime system, attorneys offer their services to help the defendants and their guardians understand the relevant laws.

References

Burns, R. (2007). The criminal justice system. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Champion, D. (2010). The juvenile justice system: Delinquency, processing, and the law. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Hendricks, F. (2010). A guide to the juvenile justice system. Raleigh, NC: Lulu.

Kratcoski, P. (2012). Juvenile justice administration. Boca Raton: Taylor & Francis.

Lab, S. (2013). Criminal justice: The essentials. New York: Oxford University Press.

Schmalleger, F. (2011). Criminal justice today: An introductory text for the 21^st century (12th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Shoemaker, D. (2009). Juvenile delinquency. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.

Adolescents tend to be engaged in risky behaviors, which is specifically common among vulnerable groups. Gambling among adolescents has become a growing concern as it is reported that 85% of high-school students report that they have gambled, and 8% of teenagers display pathological patterns related to gambling (Zhai et al., 2017). It has been acknowledged that gambling issues are associated with a higher risk of binge drinking, which is a serious public health concern characterized by significant comorbidity. In their study, Zhai et al. (2017) analyze the relationship between perceived family and peer gambling and binge drinking and problem gambling among adolescents. This paper includes a brief review of the article by Zhai et al. (2017) and two possible strategies that can be instrumental in decreasing problem gambling and alcohol use among teenagers.

The primary purpose of the study conducted by Zhai et al. (2017) was to explore the link between perceived family and peer gambling and binge drinking and problem gambling. The research included 2,750 high-school students of several educational facilities. The authors state that both family gambling and peer gambling contribute to binge drinking and pathological gambling in adolescents. Zhai et al. (2017) also note that prevention programs may need to include families and closely affiliated peers to prevent alcohol use and problem gambling. The study is based on sound methodology, but it has certain limitations, including comparatively small sample size and rather a homogeneous population.

The extensive research of adolescent gambling shows that several barriers to reducing problem gambling exist. One of these challenges is the stigma associated with the issue (Derevensky & Gilbeau, 2015). Teenagers are often unwilling to seek help due to their fear of being stigmatized or bringing their families into an undesirable position. Another barrier is adolescents’ non-acknowledgment of the problem as many teenagers do not think their gambling can become a considerable issue and cause many other health outcomes (Kourgiantakis, Stark, Lobo, & Tepperman, 2016). Finally, the low awareness of educators and clinicians regarding gambling and binge drinking prevalence and prevention is a potent barrier to reducing the problem (Kourgiantakis et al., 2016). These challenges are also aggregated by the lack of resources as prevention programs often receive limited funding.

Although some prevention programs have been developed, they have certain weaknesses yet to be addressed. When developing a plan to prevent the issue, one of the strategies to use is the focus on potential barriers (Nagy & Fawcett, 2018). As mentioned above, different stakeholders’ awareness of the problem is one of the central challenges in reducing the issue (Kourgiantakis et al., 2016). Therefore, an effective prevention program may entail training provided to clinicians, educators, and adolescents. The training should encompass such elements as gambling and binge drinking problem prevalence, comorbidity, risk factors, and prevention strategies. According to Nagy and Fawcett (2018), an efficient prevention plans should reach affected populations. It has been found that close family and peer members play an important role in preventing adolescents from binge drinking and problem gambling (Derevensky & Gilbeau, 2015; Zhai et al., 2017). Hence, it is critical to develop prevention plan that would involve family members and close others.

In conclusion, the study by Zhai et al. (2017) provides valuable insights into the relationship between perceived family and peer gambling and binge drinking and gambling among adolescents. It is clear that prevention programs should involve family members and peers of at-risk adolescents. Raising people’s awareness and providing training to major stakeholders are also important elements of effective prevention projects. The focus can be on such areas as the prevalence and comorbidity of problem gambling and binge drinking in teenagers, as well as risk factors and prevention strategies.

References

Derevensky, J. L., & Gilbeau, L. (2015). Adolescent gambling: Twenty-five years of research. The Canadian Journal of Addiction, 6(2), 4-12.

Kourgiantakis, T., Stark, S., Lobo, D. S. S.., & Tepperman, L. (2016). Parent problem gambling: A systematic review of prevention programs for children. Journal of Gambling Issues, 1(33), 8-29. Web.

Nagy, J., & Fawcett, S. B. (2018). Section 4: Developing successful strategies: Planning to win. Web.

Zhai, Z. W., Yip, S. W., Steinberg, M. A., Wampler, J., Hoff, R. A., Krishnan-Sarin, S., & Potenza, M. N. (2017). Relationships between perceived family gambling and peer gambling and adolescent problem gambling and binge-drinking. Journal of Gambling Studies, 33(4), 1169-1185. Web.

Introduction

Placebo is a mechanism adopted in a clinical setup to conduct treatment. It is the form of treatment whose appearance seems real. However, it is designed to have comparatively zero therapeutic benefits for the patients. The major reason for using a placebo is to assess the effectiveness of the treatment administered to the patients. It is associated with grouping individuals into two different categories where the first category receives the actual drug. In contrast, the second receives an inactive drug known as a placebo. On the other side placebo effect is the physical improvement in recovery or appearance of a patient’s mental health following administration of placebo treatment. Several effects have been associated with placebos. This paper will mainly analyze how the placebo effect impacts mentally ill teenagers.

Research Question: What effects does placebo have on mentally ill teenagers?

Placebo in Depressed Teenagers

Placebo strongly affects depressed teenagers; it positively correlates with brain changes. Arguably, administration entails shots or pills with no medicinal values (Scott et al., 2022). Therefore, individuals under this form of medication have been perceived to indicate significant changes in how they respond to the subsequent treatment. For instance, scientists’ use of placebo has been categorized as a control mechanism adapted to evaluate teenagers’ perceptions and treatment expectations. Studying placebo has enhanced patients’ recovery, especially from highly critical mental illnesses. A study by Olson et al. (2021) identified key attributes and benefits of promoting placebo trials within the health sector. It was observed to have a positive impact on eth patient’s ability to cope with the disorder while enhancing the process of recovery. Furthermore, placebo has attained significant uses in most health matters concerning teenagers. Its use among depressed teens has improved symptoms even after being fully aware of the dummy elements associated with the treatment.

Similarly, analysis by highly capable researchers adopted a 35 sample population comprising individuals with major cases of depression. In this study, participants were assigned randomized placebo pills with a description of fast-acting antidepressants after a weekly observation (Kessing et al., 2021). Later, participants were swapped. At the halt of the medication, individuals were subjected to a PET Brain scan where the group was offered doses of saline. The inactive placebo group did not receive any infusion during the experiment. Purposefully, the test aimed at monitoring respective acute impacts associated with an active placebo towards an individual’s brain functionality.

The study’s second phase entailed the subjection of all participants to ten-week antidepressant doses, after which depression symptoms were observed (Schmitz et al., 2019). According to the findings, a comparable reduction in depression was observed on the selected sample that formed the study’s target population (Schmitz et al., 2019). However, a considerate decline in depression was mainly manifested by individuals who were too active placebo. Additionally, there exists a difference for the participants who took an inactive placebo. Considerably, an active placebo was highly linked to a reduction in depression (Peciña et al., 2021).

Moreover, the reduction in depression was highly attributed to enhancement within the receptor brain activity. This resulted from an increase in the brain’s ability to effectively manage emotions and stress, which was a vital function of the brain. Hence, an increase in the u-opioid was highly relatable to the positive response to the antidepressant medication administered. Therefore, a conclusion was drawn that mentally ill teenagers were responsive to the intentions to treat their underlying depression and could often perform better in the event of administration of psychotherapies during the medication process. As a result, a manifestation of effectiveness associated with placebo distinguished its importance.

Placebo and Anxiety

Anxiety is a form of psychological distress disorder; it acts as a major contributor to mental illness among teenagers. Adopting a placebo has significantly resulted in the effect associated with a decline in anxiety symptoms. Nevertheless, placebo has positively been associated with improving teenage anxiety disorder. For instance, a study was conducted to evaluate the predictors of pills and characterize the impacts of placebo in response to the anxiety amongst the teenagers (Strawn et al., 2018). The study adopted a multimodal and randomized controlled trial, which was mainly used to examine the importance of cognitive-behavioural therapy. Additionally, vital aspects such as sertraline and placebo for the medication of separation were evaluated within the study.

Moreover, generalized and socialized concepts of anxiety disorders were evaluated. The study findings revealed a positive relationship between the anxiety symptoms, medication expectations, separation of anxiety disorders, and the placebo pill response (Gosch & Norris, 2021). For instance, a higher probability of placebo-related response during the treatment was observed. Such indications implied that placebo treatment was highly effective in addressing major elements of existence. As a result, a conclusion implied that a pill placebo contributed to reducing the teenager’s anxiety during the early stages of treatment. Correspondingly, teenagers’ expectations and clinical elements adopted during the administration of placebo treatment were instrumental predictors of anxiety reduction. Thus, the adoption of probabilistic mechanisms highly enhanced the perception and prediction of pill placebo response among mentally ill teenagers.

Placebo in Stress Management

Recently, the healthcare system has been overburdened by the challenges aligned with mental illness. Over the past few years’ healthcare has struggled to check related mental ailments. Fortunately, introducing a placebo trial test has resulted in reasonable improvement in stress handling within hospitals. However, a placebo has significantly facilitated reducing stress on mentally ill teenagers. Placebo research aimed to instigate using a dummy as a mechanism to check the response to the health-related condition. Several developments have prompted the emergence of take-home placebo.

Take-home placebo entails the trial testing performed on individuals who are non-patients. This procedure targets the non-patient population and is often administered in personal homes. For instance, a study by (Eskandarzadeh et al., 2021) focused on evaluating the attributes of take-home placebo treatment, which was adopted to relieve stress on a short-term basis. The study adopted a unique population that encompassed non-patient individuals. Selectively, a sample size of 77 respondents was randomly adopted. It was identifiable as individuals under either oxytocin medication or serotonin.

In this study, the variables included two treatment groups, each of which was rendered with an anti-stress prescription which also formed the placebo. Additionally, the sample took into consideration the wait-list control group. Arguably, the place ably required individuals to self-administer for three consecutive days and later perform an online measure Kwon as a perceived stress scale. Non-patient individuals were required to give their views before administering a placebo and after the three-day treatment and control period.

The study revealed that both serotine and oxytocin management was highly effective in reducing stress amongst participants. Comparatively, oxytocin was more effective in managing stress than serotine (Menna et al., 2019). However, both elements were evaluated to be instrumental in depression management. Being a component of stress management of depression was critical for reducing stress. Considerably, the repercussion attributed to stress was mainly associated with the occurrence of depression. Hence, the control home-placebo revealed the efficacy of the controls. Following the analysis of the findings, a conclusion was drawn that the placebo setting was highly applicable in an individual’s real-life setting to facilitate managing stress and depression. As earlier discussed, depression is a profound element that highly contributes to mental illness; effective management contributes to a patient’s recovery. Furthermore, the study postulated that a home-based placebo was an instrumental mechanism that initiated controlling of psychological distress among individuals. As a result, the study provided recommendations to the health practitioners to adopt a take-home placebo as a system to handle mental disorders in outpatients.

Placebo Effects on Legal and Ethical Aspects

Furthermore, another diverging study focused on analyzing placebo effects on mentally ill teenagers, particularly with across on unique factors such as legal and ethical limitations that majorly hindered students’ ability to be included in experimental trials. This study aimed to analyze teenagers’ responses to the assent of the intensity of placebo responses between teenagers and assessment of the moderators and mediators of placebo responses (Enck & Klosterhalfen, 2019). Purposefully, the study focused on a wider view of critical concepts which impacted the relationship between teenagers and placebo. Considerably, the effects associated with the implication of the existing relationship in the manner placebo was administered highly motivated occurrence of this study. Legal aspects were evaluated to establish their existence and contributions to the placebo effects amongst mentally ill teenagers (Weik et al., 2021). For instance, the findings revealed that existing rules that control placebo trials lacked clarity. Such aspects resulted in uncertainties, particularly in the teenager’s perception and responses to the placebo treatment.

The legalities in place were found not to conform to medical standards, which advocated for adopting a highly competitive population segment for a clinical trial. The findings identified a lack of ethical consideration, particularly in the event of teenagers’ participation in trials without their consent (Enck & Klosterhalfen, 2019). Furthermore, considering the attached privacy issues, a study found a desire to maintain participants’ privacy. The study suggested that physical contact was instrumental in enhancing the sustainable occurrence of placebo tests and stimulating positive outcomes.

Conclusion

Finally, a placebo trial plays a major role in imitating the treatment and handling of patients, respectively. Based on the analysis provided, Placebo effects have significantly been found to be correlated with positive clinical outcomes. As a result, the promotion of the administrative mechanism of placebo trials stands out as a key requirement for the health sector. However, consideration should be taken to minimize uncertainties resulting from the adoption, particularly in protecting teenagers’ privacy, as seen in the final study. For instance, teenage individuals are comparatively underage with consent-related challenges. To effectively promote their safety, measures should be implemented within health care. Lastly, effective oversight should be conducted on best practices to optimize the entire process of placebo in terms of health-related outcomes such as patient recovery. Placebo effects among teenagers should be treated as a matter of urgent concern.

References

Enck, P., & Klosterhalfen, S. (2019). Placebos and the Placebo Effect in Drug Trials.Concepts and Principles of Pharmacology, 399–431. Web.

Eskandarzadeh, S., Effatpanah, M., Khosravi-Darani, K., Askari, R., Hosseini, A. F., Reisian, M., & Jazayeri, S. (2019). Efficacy of a multispecies probiotic as adjunctive therapy in generalized anxiety disorder: a double blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial.Nutritional Neuroscience, 24(2), 102–108. Web.

Gosch, E. A., & Norris, L. A. (2021). An Empirically Supported Treatment for Anxiety in Youth. Flexibility within Fidelity: Breathing Life into a Psychological Treatment Manual, 175.

Kessing, L. V., González-Pinto, A., Fagiolini, A., Bechdolf, A., Reif, A., Yildiz, A., Etain, B., Henry, C., Severus, E., Reininghaus, E. Z., Morken, G., Goodwin, G. M., Scott, J., Geddes, J. R., Rietschel, M., Landén, M., Manchia, M., Bauer, M., Martinez-Cengotitabengoa, M., Vieta, E. (2021). DSM-5 and ICD-11 criteria for bipolar disorder: Implications for the prevalence of bipolar disorder and validity of the diagnosis – A narrative review from the ECNP bipolar disorders network. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 47, 54–61. Web.

Olson, J. A., Lifshitz, M., Raz, A., & Veissière, S. P. L. (2021). Super Placebos: A Feasibility Study Combining Contextual Factors to Promote Placebo Effects.Frontiers in Psychiatry, 12. Web.

Peciña, M., Dombrovski, Y., Price, R., & Karim, T.H. (2021). Understanding the Neurocomputational Mechanisms of Antidepressant Placebo Effects.Journal of Psychiatry and Brain Science. Web.

Schmitz, J., Müller, M., Stork, J., Eichler, I., Zöllner, C., Flor, H., & Klinger, R. (2019). Positive Treatment Expectancies Reduce Clinical Pain and Perceived Limitations in Movement Ability Despite Increased Experimental Pain: A Randomized Controlled Trial on Sham Opioid Infusion in Patients with Chronic Back Pain. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 88(4), 203–214. Web.

Scott, J., Etain, B., Grierson, A., Naismith, S., Scott, E., & Hickie, I. (2022). A network analysis of rest-activity rhythms in young people with emerging bipolar disorders.Journal of Affective Disorders, 305, 220–226. Web.

Strawn, J. R., Mills, J. A., Sauley, B. A., & Welge, J. A. (2018). The Impact of Antidepressant Dose and Class on Treatment Response in Pediatric Anxiety Disorders: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 57(4), 235–244.e2. Web.

Weik, E., Neuenschwander, R., Jensen, K., Oberlander, T. F., & Tipper, C. (2021). Placebo and nocebo effects in youth: Subjective thermal discomfort can be modulated by a conditioning paradigm utilizing mental states of low and high self-efficacy. British Journal of Pain, 16(1), 60–70. Web.

Nowadays, more and more teenagers suffer from eating disorders brought about, in the majority of cases, by their desire to look sportive and physically attractive. Eating disorders develop as a type of mental condition characterized by overeating or starvation and related thoughts and emotions. Among these disorders, bulimia stands separately as it is characterized by interchanging periods of overeating and fasting. Teenagers suffering from bulimia worry about the consequences of overeating and take measures that can reduce these consequences. It results in malnutrition and may provoke serious health complications. This paper hypothesizes that to make a change a complex of psychological measures should be taken that includes the use of cognitive-behavioral psychotherapy, formation of the right attitude to food and body weight, and building trusting relations within a family.

The main manifestation of bulimia is the loss of control over eating behavior, and bouts of gluttony, followed by attempts to get rid of their consequences through vomiting, taking laxatives, diuretics, and drugs for weight loss. The food consumed is high-calorie, a teenager eats it in a hurry, more often in the evening, usually without chewing. In general, the attack lasts about an hour and the frequency of attacks ranges from several attacks a day to 1-2 a week (Lecomte et al., 2019). The energy value of a portion eaten at a time reaches 5000 kcal (Lecomte et al., 2019). Gradually, the constant desire to eat increases; at the same time, a fear of obesity becomes obsessive and a psychopathological syndrome is formed — dysmorphic phobia. A dysmorphic phobia is a mental disorder in which a person is overly concerned about some defect or feature of his or her body and is sure that it is a deformity (Lecomte et al., 2019). The next stage of the disease is the appearance of depression. The teenager strives to correct the “flaw” in any way; suicidal thoughts may occur.

To successfully overcome this pathological condition, the joint work of a psychiatrist, a pediatrician, a family doctor, a medical psychologist, and parents is necessary. In advanced cases of the disease, treatment in a specialized clinic is recommended. Outpatient, as well as hospital treatment, consists of several stages such as improvement of somatic and psychological state, normalization of diet and physical activity, and changing eating behavior. To get rid of bouts of overeating, both medication, and psychotherapy are used. The methods are selected individually depending on the characteristics of the patient.

The specialists use cognitive-behavioral psychotherapy that helps to alleviate worries about excess weight from a teenager’s new eating habits. Individual, group and family psychotherapy helps to increase self-esteem and eliminate personal problems, working through all aspects of life. Medical therapy includes the prescription of antiemetics, antidepressants, and sedatives to fight the consequences of the disease (Lecomte et al., 2019). Treatment of bulimia in adolescents has a favorable prognosis and ends in complete recovery when the right specialists are consulted.

Prevention plays a major role in combatting bulimia through forming healthy eating habits. Different prevention techniques should be adopted to avert the development of the disease. Together with parents, a teenager should form the right attitude to food and learn to adequately perceive his or her appearance and body weight. Parents should not choose food as a way of reward; instead, they are advised to form a relationship of trust and support with a teenager to increase his or her self-esteem and self-confidence. Moreover, a teenager should learn to respond to stress without turning to food to quench it. Bulimia is a serious disease and only through the right attitude to a teenager’s personality within a family it can be prevented and successfully treated.

Reference

Lecomte, A., Zerrouk, A., Sibeoni, J., Khan, S., Revah-Levy, A., & Lachal, J. (2019). The role of food in family relationships amongst adolescents with bulimia nervosa: A qualitative study using photo-elicitation. Appetite, 141, 104305.

Since the sexual revolution in the twentieth century, teenagers have been participating in sexual intercourse outside marriage and with multiple partners. The emerged sexual freedom and consistently decreasing level of parents’ involvement in the private life of young people contributed to the increased sexual activity among the youth. Various measures for preventing negative consequences of such behavior were invented. Although contraception is relatively available in the U.S., teenagers tend to disregard these safety tools. Hence, sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), like gonorrhea or chlamydia, became common among youth. This research project aims to study the lack of examination for gonorrhea and chlamydia among high school students in the U.S. Unfortunately, not every teenager with these illnesses knows about these infections because they do not often get tested.

Research Questions

Students that participate in sexual intercourse and potentially have STDs can belong to various categories and yet not visit clinicians for this cause. Numerous factors might affect the decision not to take tests for chlamydia or gonorrhea. The first question is, does age affect the lack of testing? The second question is, does gender affect the lack of testing? The third question is, does the race of the teenagers affect the lack of testing?

Study Rationale

Studying the lack of visiting clinicians for testing for STDs like chlamydia or gonorrhea is helpful for further study of the reason for this phenomenon. Moreover, it can be insightful about the ways of popularizing the screening. The methods for testing are numerous; some of them are brief and effective, like the Point-of-Care test (Pol et al., 2020). Therefore, it is helpful to determine the population ignoring the testing to prevent the spread of the diseases and enhance their treatment.

Annotated Bibliography

Dretler, A. W., Trolard, A., Bergquist, E. P., Cooper, B., Liang, S. Y., Stoner, B. P., & Reno, H. (2020). The influence of race and sex on gonorrhea and chlamydia treatment in the emergency department.The American Journal of Emergency Medicine, 38(3), 566-570. Web.

The authors of this paper state that urban areas of St. Louis, Missouri, have the highest rates of chlamydia and gonorrhea. They explore different causes that affect high infection and low treatment rates among people admitted to the emergency department (ED). The authors developed their claim based on previous reports about the prevalence of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) among the asymptomatic young population. In this study, data was extracted from ED visits, where a rapid test for these infections was done to patients of different ages, gender, and race from 2012 to 2014 (Dretler et al., 2020). They found that women were at greater risk of not receiving testing and treatment. This manuscript is related to my topic because I plan to examine the effect of age, gender, and race on the lack of testing for STDs.

Francisco-Natanauan, P., Leatherman-Arkus, N., & Pantell, R. H. (2021). Chlamydia and gonorrhea prevalence and treatment in detained youths: Strategies for improvement.Journal of Adolescent Health, 68(1), 65-70. Web.

This article claims that gonorrhea and chlamydia infections have the highest prevalence among adolescents compared to other illnesses. The authors base their theory on the recent statistics from the state of Hawaii. The study reviewed charts of young people in correctional facilities of Hawaii and who were tested for STIs from 2014 to 2018 (Francisco-Natanauan et al., 2021). The authors reported that 62% of adolescents refused to be tested for chlamydia and gonorrhea (Francisco-Natanauan et al., 2021). This paper is relevant to my project because it explores factors associated with the lack of testing and treatment of STDs among adolescents.

Marotta, P. (2017). Assessing spatial relationships between race, inequality, crime, and gonorrhea and chlamydia in the United States.Journal of Urban Health, 94(5), 683-698. Web.

The author of this manuscript claims that the rates of gonorrhea and chlamydia are unequally distributed across the U.S. The main reasons for such nonuniformity are the difference in socioeconomic status, urban environment, and race (Marotta, 2017). The data for this study was obtained from public sources of the southern states. This study found that African Americans were at greater risk of testing positive for STIs. This article pertains to my topic because I also want to explore if race contributes to the risk of not being tested.

Pol, B., Taylor, S. N., Mena, L., Lebed, J., McNeil, C. J., Crane, L., Ermel, A., Sukhija-Cohen, A., & Gaydos, C. A. (2020). Evaluation of the performance of a point-of-care test for chlamydia and gonorrhea.JAMA Network Open, 3(5), 1-10. Web.

The authors state that the point-of-care test is needed for early diagnosis and timely treatment of gonococcal infections. They built this theory on the fact that the STI rate is growing despite the development of molecular diagnostic techniques. The study compared the rapid point-of-care assay and three other commercial tests for detecting gonorrhea and chlamydia. The results showed higher than 90% sensitivity and specificity for the new detection method of these infections (Pol et al., 2020). This article pertains to my topic because I also want to suggest a solution for patients to receive rapid at-home testing for STIs.

U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. (2021). Screening for chlamydia and gonorrhea: U.S. preventive services task force recommendation statement.JAMA, 326(10), 949–956. Web.

The authors suggest that screening young women for chlamydia and gonorrhea is beneficial for preventing further complications. Their theory was developed because more than 50% of these infections in 2018-2019 were found in individuals aged 15-24 (U.S. Preventive Services Task Force, 2021). The group conducted a systematic review on this issue to update existing recommendations. They found that screening of this cohort has a moderate benefit. This article pertains to my project because my central claim is that young people do not go for STD testing frequently; hence, screening is a better approach.

Literature Review

STDs are an enormous burden for the healthcare system because it affects many young people. Despite the availability of contraception methods, the rates of chlamydia and gonorrhea infections are increasing among youth (Pol et al., 2020). Notably, young people often refuse to get tested for STI and are usually diagnosed accidentally when admitted to EDs for different reasons. Therefore, this study explores if such factors as age, gender, and race influence the probability of not being tested for these infections. This literature review will discuss aspects that cause low referral for these STIs and potential solutions for this problem.

Youth is at greater risk for acquiring such STIs as chlamydia and gonorrhea. Indeed, U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (2021) reports that more than half of all gonococcal infections were revealed in females aged 15-24. This data may be subjective because women tend to go to hospitals more often than men, and males are usually asymptomatic. Still, Dretler et al. (2020) also found that women are less likely to get checked. Moreover, Francisco-Natanauan et al. (2021) claim that youth refuse to test for STIs. Therefore, screening recommendations may be applicable for both genders among young population.

Race and socioeconomic status seem to play a crucial role in the incidence of STDs. Marotta (2017) found that most infections are clustered in the southern states, poor urban areas, and regions where African Americans prevail. It appears that race and income level play a significant role in the propensity to get infected. However, this paper does not discuss if these factors influence the testing rate. Dretler et al. (2020) confirmed that the black population has a greater chance of being infected. The study is limited because it was conducted only in one emergency department. Lastly, since many young people refuse testing in hospitals, alternative methods should be suggested. For example, Pol et al. (2020) proposed a rapid assay to detect gonococcal infections. In fact, this point-of-care test demonstrated high sensitivity and specificity.

In summary, gonorrhea and chlamydia infections became increasingly prevalent among youth because they refused contraception use and testing. Adolescents and young African Americans living in poor urban regions of the southern states are more prone to get these STIs. However, many reviewed studies collected data from one hospital or did not adjust for confounding factors. Therefore, future research should focus on adjusting for these variables.

Present Study

• Hypothesis 1: Youth is less likely to get tested for gonorrhea and chlamydia.
• Hypothesis 2: Females are more likely to be tested and diagnosed with these infections than males.
• Hypothesis 3: African Americans are at greater risk of not being tested for these STIs.

Methods

Data and Sample

The participants of the survey will be high-school students across the United States. Data collection among adolescents aged 15-19 will be done with parental consent. This survey is a computer-based one-hour-long questionnaire that will be conducted anonymously.

Measures

Dependent Variables (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2019):

Which of the following best describes you?

1. Heterosexual (straight),
2. gay or lesbian,
3. bisexual, or
4. not sure

During your life, with whom have you had sexual contact?

1. I have never had sexual contact,
2. females,
3. males, or
4. females and males

What is your sex?

1. Male or
2. female

What is your race?

1. White,
2. African American,
3. Asian American,
4. American Indian, or
5. Native Hawaiian

Independent Variables:

What is your age range?

1. 15-16
2. 17-18
3. 19-20

Have you ever been tested positive for STIs?

1. Yes,
2. No

How many times did you go for a check for STIs in the last two years?

1. Never,
2. 1-4,
3. 5-9,
4. more than 10

If checked, how many times were you tested positive?

1. None,
2. 1-4,
3. 5-9,
4. more than 10

References

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2019). Youth risk behavior survey questionnaire. Web.

Dretler, A. W., Trolard, A., Bergquist, E. P., Cooper, B., Liang, S. Y., Stoner, B. P., & Reno, H. (2020). The influence of race and sex on gonorrhea and chlamydia treatment in the emergency department.The American Journal of Emergency Medicine, 38(3), 566-570. Web.

Francisco-Natanauan, P., Leatherman-Arkus, N., & Pantell, R. H. (2021). Chlamydia and gonorrhea prevalence and treatment in detained youths: Strategies for improvement.Journal of Adolescent Health, 68(1), 65-70. Web.

Marotta, P. (2017). Assessing spatial relationships between race, inequality, crime, and gonorrhea and chlamydia in the United States.Journal of Urban Health, 94(5), 683-698. Web.

Pol, B., Taylor, S. N., Mena, L., Lebed, J., McNeil, C. J., Crane, L., Ermel, A., Sukhija-Cohen, A., & Gaydos, C. A. (2020). Evaluation of the performance of a point-of-care test for chlamydia and gonorrhea.JAMA Network Open, 3(5), 1-10. Web.

U.S. Preventive Services Task Force, Davidson, K. W., Barry, M. J., Mangione, C. M., Cabana, M., Caughey, A. B., Davis, E. M., Donahue, K. E., Doubeni, C. A., Krist, A. H., Kubik, M., Li, L., Ogedegbe, G., Pbert, L., Silverstein, M., Simon, M. A., Stevermer, J., Tseng, C. W., & Wong, J. B. (2021). Screening for chlamydia and gonorrhea: U.S. preventive services task force recommendation statement.JAMA, 326(10), 949–956. Web.

Introduction

The rate at which adolescents in both developed and developing countries quit school is on the rise, which can be witnessed around the globe. The primary factor that has contributed to this problem is childbearing among adolescents. This is not always the case; even though many parents continue to hold onto the idea that they will eventually be able to stop their children from engaging in sexual activity, the reality is that this is not always possible. There is no way to exert authority over an adolescent; no amount of close monitoring can ever show what adolescents are thinking or what they are capable of accomplishing. If adolescents have an intense need for anything, they will figure out how to get their hands on it. One can put them in a room and talk to them, but if they have a goal in mind, they will eventually find a way to accomplish what they desire.

It is possible that the least complicated solution would be to grant teenagers some form of birth control to use. Because some parents are uneasy with the idea that their children could use birth control, this technique is not always practicable. According to Holman & Koenig Kellas (2018), the primary factor contributing to this is the parents’ erroneous notion that their children would not engage in sexual activity if they were not given birth control for themselves and their partners. In light of the fact that birth control has a physiological effect on young people’s bodies, it is only fair that adolescents be given the option to choose whether or not to use it. Without a parent or other legal guardian’s consent, minors should be able to get birth control methods.

Case Overview

Birth control is used to prevent unwanted births, unintentional pregnancies, pregnancies that occur at an early or teenage age, and occasionally even accidental pregnancies that result from rape or assault. Humans have used birth control methods since the beginning of recorded history (Bertotti et al., 2021). However, the safest and most efficient techniques of preventing conception did not become generally accessible until the 20th century due to advancements in medicine and health care. According to OECD Education Working Papers, it is common for teenagers to participate in sexual activity in the 21st century due to technological advancement and influence from social media, which can result in unwanted and untimely births. This is a problem that has to be addressed. Because the pregnant teen may still be enrolled in school, the pregnancy may make it challenging for the teenager to accomplish the normal schoolwork expected of them.

Teenagers should avoid pregnancy because it can have several adverse effects on their lives. They may drop out of school to take care of the newborn baby, increasing the number of cases of malnutrition and the population because giving birth at a young age can influence a teenager’s decision to marry at a young age and have many more children. For the reasons above, society frowns upon the practice of enabling teenagers to carry children. Yang (2020) argues adolescents who engage in sexual activity at an extraordinarily high rate in the twenty-first century are advised to utilize birth control techniques.

• What is the significance of providing birth control to adolescents without a prescription?
• What are the repercussions of not administering birth control to adolescents?
• Is it vital to provide birth control on prescription to adolescents?

Answering these questions clarifies the issue of whether birth control should be accessible without a prescription to adolescents.

According to studies conducted by the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, adolescents are capable of learning and mastering the art of preventing unintended pregnancies through the utilization of birth control techniques (Manzer & Bell, 2021). It is one of the reasons why a prescription is not required. In the vast majority of instances, adolescents are always hesitant to approach a health professional or a physician to get birth control prescriptions. Since sexual activity throughout adolescence is often regarded as deviant behavior that should be avoided, they would rather conceive and either carry the pregnancy to term or terminate it through abortion than be in the process of acquiring birth control by prescription. Birth control that is only accessible with a doctor’s prescription will lead to an increase in the number of pregnancies experienced by adolescents (Kościańska, 2018). In contrast, birth control that is only available without a prescription will decrease the number of pregnancies experienced by adolescents.

To help reduce the number of births among adolescents, which is something that every society strives to do, birth control and other methods of contraception should be available without a prescription. Birth control typically comes with a lower risk of adverse effects that may be comprehended more readily. There is no requirement for a user to have a prescription for birth control because pharmacists can deliver a few instructions to any user. The practice of birth control among adolescents has the goal of preventing and reducing the number of instances of early pregnancy that are encountered all over the world. By making birth control available to teens without needing a doctor’s prescription, one can help lower the number of teen pregnancies and, in turn, control the population. If birth control is made available to minors with instructions, there will be an increase in the number of cases of teen pregnancy (Elizabeth, 2022). As a result, the aim of reducing teenage pregnancies will not be achieved.

Arguments Against Contraceptives

When a person uses contraception, they significantly boost the likelihood of having more than one sexual partner at any given time. Contraception reduces the time that a person’s ovaries are available to fertilize since using birth control suppresses ovulation, which is the process that must occur before a woman may get pregnant. This, in turn, significantly heightens the danger they pose to their health and the health of others around them (Kościańska, 2018). As a direct consequence of this, the possibility that individuals within the community will get infected with sexually transmitted diseases and the risk that people will pass these infections on to one another will increase in society.

Contrary to the prevalent notion held by many people, most birth control methods, except condoms, do not offer any protection against illnesses that can be passed on via sexual interaction. Imagine a scenario in which young individuals are permitted access to birth control at such a tender age. If this is the case, they are more likely to participate in sexual activity, which puts them at risk of misjudging the value of sexual intimacy in their future marriages (Mbadu et al.,2018). It is essential to keep in mind that a person’s cultural or religious beliefs may lead them to feel uncomfortable using particular birth control methods. Both the Catholic Church and Islam are opposed to the use of birth control methods and have taken action to combat their use.

On the other hand, infertility may be a valuable weapon for controlling the number of people living in a particular area by preventing them from having children (Le Guen et al., 2021). As a consequence of this, parents must have an understanding of the means of contraception that are recommended for their children. It is essential to urge parents to have in-depth talks with their teenagers so that they may assist their children in making informed decisions regarding birth control even when the parents are not there physically.

The Consequences of Not Prescribing Birth Control to Adolescents

Typically, a prescription is issued by an expert authorized to offer directions for the specific therapy or health care being provided. Contraception is among the numerous subjects that medical experts in the health industry discuss. Incorrect usage of birth control techniques such as tablets and injectable contraceptives such as Implanon can potentially result in unpleasant side effects (Yang, 2020). In specific individuals, the detrimental effects may result in serious health issues, such as infertility. Teenagers must speak with medical specialists to obtain suggestions on the contraceptives they should take and instructions on how to employ these methods correctly.

Due to the potential for hormonal disruption caused by contraceptives, clearance from a physician is required prior to initiating therapy. Teenagers who use birth control without a doctor’s prescription face the danger of developing health problems if they fail to use it as directed. Professionals in the medical area encourage adolescents to obtain prescriptions before using any method of birth control to protect themselves from the potential health concerns associated with the improper use of contraceptives.

The Significance of Making Birth Control Available to Teens on Prescription

According to the Integrated General Guide on Self-Care Interventions for Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights published by the World Health Organization (WHO), prescriptions play a very significant role in giving birth control, treatment, and mediation. Adolescents must have access to birth control by prescription for several reasons, including hormonal imbalances produced by the contraceptive (Bertotti et al., 2021). Prescription guarantees that birth control is done appropriately and thus does not have any adverse effects that may result from incorrect usage of the contraceptive. The contraception methods have basic instructions to be read and understood before use, but Some adolescents are always ignorant and may not read the instructions before using the birth control technique if it is made available without a prescription.

Conclusion

According to the findings that were shown earlier, the usage of contraceptives has impacts on young people that can have positive and negative implications. Even though there are arguments in favor of this practice, I am firmly against using contraceptives on minors because of the various hazards it brings to teenagers’ reproductive and mental health. I think it is the parent’s responsibility to make sure that their children are aware of the need to maintain sexual abstinence until they have reached the age at which it is socially acceptable for them to begin engaging in sexual activities.

References

Bertotti, A. M., Mann, E. S., & Miner, S. A. (2021). Efficacy as safety: Dominant cultural assumptions and the assessment of Contraceptive Risk.Social Science & Medicine, 270, 113547. Web.

Elizabeth, H. J. (2022). ‘If it hadn’t been for the doctor, I think I would have killed myself’: Ensuring adolescent knowledge and access to healthcare in the age of Gillick. In Posters, protests, and prescriptions (pp. 255-280). Manchester University Press.

Holman, A., & Koenig Kellas, J. (2018). “Say something instead of nothing”: Adolescents’ perceptions of memorable conversations about sex-related topics with their parents.Communication Monographs, 85(3), 357–379. Web.

Le Guen, M., Schantz, C., Régnier-Loilier, A., & de La Rochebrochard, E. (2021). Reasons for rejecting hormonal contraception in western countries: A systematic review.Social Science & Medicine, 284, 114247. Web.

Kościańska, A. (2018). Humanae Vitae, birth control and the forgotten history of the Catholic Church in Poland.The Schism of ’68, 187–208. Web.

Manzer, J. L., & Bell, A. V. (2021). “we’re a little biased”: Medicine and the management of bias through the case of contraception.Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 62(2), 120–135. Web.

OECD Education Working Papers. (n.d.). Web.

Yang, C. (2020). The inequity of conscientious objection: Refusal of emergency contraception.Nursing Ethics, 27(6), 1408–1417. Web.

Mbadu Muanda, F., Gahungu, N. P., Wood, F., & Bertrand, J. T. (2018). Attitudes toward sexual and reproductive health among adolescents and young people in urban and rural DR Congo. Reproductive health, 15(1), 1-14.