Category: Teaching

The current paper pertains to the Response to Intervention (RTI) approach and its use in the general and special education settings. The paper consists of two main parts. In the first part, some theoretical framework is provided to describe the basis of RTI. Then, a review of the literature made with respect to several important topics related to RTI is supplied. Finally, some conclusions are made, and recommendations for future research are offered. On the whole, it is demonstrated that RTI is a complex, multi-component, and somewhat cumbersome, yet apparently effective method, and that it requires solid preparation of educators to be implemented properly, as well as further scientific evidence about best practices within the RTI approach for greater simplicity and effectiveness.

On the other hand, the second part is a research proposal that offers to conduct a study among special education pre-service teachers so as to explore their concerns about RTI method. It is suggested to survey a sample of such teachers, asking them about how concerned they are about several issues, and then to compare the results to find out which problems they are most worried about. This may allow for revealing the weaker areas in the way in which special education teachers are currently prepared for the role they are to play in RTI.

The issues considered in this paper are important because RTI is a method which apparently yields highly positive results when it comes to early detection of and averting learning difficulties in children. Empirical significance of the current paper is conditioned by the fact that some evidence gathered in multiple studies is summarized, whereas its theoretical importance is related to the provided review of the literature and to the outlined directions of future research. Finally, the practical contribution of the paper pertains to the demonstration of the areas which should be improved in teacher education (general educators are discussed in Part I, whereas a proposal to study special educators is made in Part II), and to the issues which teachers implementing RTI in schools are faced with.

Theoretical Framework

Definitions of the theoretical framework differ in literature, are often vague and not always consistent (Anfara & Mertz, 2006). According to Anfara and Mertz (2006), a theoretical framework is “any empirical or quasi-empirical theory of social and/or social processes… that can be applied to the understanding of phenomena” (p. xxvii). It is derived from “the concepts, terms, definitions, models, and theories of a particular literature base and disciplinary orientation” (as cited in Anfara & Mertz, 2006, p. xxiii). Thus, the basis for the RTI method, as well as some of its key features, should be described.

RTI functions within the field formed by the implementation of the assumption that children who experience particularly serious difficulties in achieving K-12 education (due to a variety of reasons) should be provided with more specifically targeted education, which is more suited to address their needs resulting from these difficulties in achieving education than the regular education (Moats, Kukic, & Pasternak, n.d.).

One of the more specific assumptions for the RTI is that such children can and should be detected early (earlier than the previously used methods allow), and that their difficulties with education ought to be addressed quickly, either to prevent these difficulties from becoming more serious and to permit these kids to return to the normal instruction or to conclude that a particular child should be provided with special education (Moats et al., n.d.).

RTI itself is an approach to detecting children with special educational needs, identifying the problematic areas of knowledge, and addressing these needs promptly (Bineham, Shelby, Pazey, & Yates, 2014, p. 231; Fletcher & Vaughn, 2009, pp. 31-33). Its key elements include high-quality classroom instruction based on research, continuous student assessment, multi-tiered instruction, and parent involvement (Ridgeway, Price, Simpson, & Rose, 2012, p. 84; “What Is RTI?” n.d.). It is divided into 3 tiers: a) high-quality instruction in the classroom, monitoring, and group intervention; b) targeted interventions for students with learning difficulties; c) intensive interventions for learners with crucial learning difficulties, and comprehensive assessment of these students (“What Is RTI?” n.d.).

Thus, RTI is an approach of paramount importance, for it allows for identifying children needing educational assistance early, and tailoring instruction for them, probably permitting them to avoid being referred to the special education setting (Hoover & Love, 2011). In fact, according to Bineham et al. (2014), it is reported that RTI has lowered the number of referrals to special education considerably (p. 231).

General Review of Literature

The review of literature will be based on four main themes: the use of RTI in general and special education, the main concerns in RTI implementation for general education teachers, the challenges emerging while implementing RTI, and the issues that pre-service teachers face while using RTI.

The use of RTI in general and special education settings

From the review of the literature, it is apparent that RTI is not directly used in the special education setting, for it is more suitable for identifying children with educational issues and taking prompt remedying action (Kuo, 2014, p. 611) rather than constantly teaching children with the need for special education. However, it is stated that RTI has caused the borders separating special and general education to blur, for general education teachers find themselves obliged to deal with what is, in fact, special education issues (Barrio & Combes, 2015, p. 122), and special education teachers have to constantly collaborate with general educators and provide guidance (Swanson, Solis, Ciullo, & McKenna, 2012, pp. 120-121).

Also, RTI is important for special education as a method of identification of learning issues and prevention of referrals (although it should be noted that RTI is not a tool for establishing a learning disability).

Main concerns of general education teachers pertaining to the use of RTI

Numerous concerns pertaining to the use of RTI model in the general education setting have been raised and reported in the literature on the topic. Bineham et al. (2014) provide an overview of these concerns (p. 232); these include:

• The low validity of treatment procedures provided in RTI;
• The dearth of existing interventions which are based on research;
• Confusion and misunderstanding which may emerge in the process of identification of disability;
• The vagueness of the definition of RTI itself;
• The dearth of well-defined methods and criteria which should be utilized in the process of RTI implementation and children assessment;
• The lack of sufficient professional development for teachers implementing RTI;
• The overall need for additional research pertaining to the development and use of RTI methods in situations that can be described as large-scale;

Also, the concerns about fidelity of RTI implementation (Castillo et al., 2015, p. 22); the use of RTI for students whose first language is not English (Greenfield, Rinaldi, Proctor, & Cardarelli, 2010, p. 56); the overall effectiveness of the RTI method (Ridgeway et al., 2012, p. 89), and so on, are mentioned in the literature as well.

It is apparent that the named concerns originate from the fact that the method of RTI is relatively new in educational practice (although its origins have been traced back to 1982 by Bineham et al. (2014, p. 232)) and has been used widely since 2004, when Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) was reauthorized (Fletcher & Vaughn, 2009, pp. 30-31); as well as from the fact that RTI pertains to a very wide area (that is, it can be used for identifying and helping children with a wide range of educational subjects), consequently being quite broad and general rather than specific and area-related.

This means that there has not been much time to gather sufficient scientific evidence to address all the problematic areas of RTI yet. In addition, because the wide-scale implementation of RTI has only been started recently (Moats et al., n.d.), the practice-based evidence pertaining to the use of RTI in the general education setting is also quite limited.

Challenges when implementing RTI

Having taken into account what has been said in the previous subsection, one should not be surprised that there exists a wide range of challenges related to the implementation of RTI in the educational setting. For instance, as has been noted, Barrio and Combes (2015) state that RTI has blurred the borders between general and special education, in fact forcing general teachers to participate in special education (p. 122), which is a challenge for general educators who have not had sufficient training in this area. Another challenge is related to determining the quality and quantity of group, targeted, and intensive interventions for learners who have shown the need in these (Barrio & Combes, 2015, p. 122).

Swanson et al. (2012) report some more challenges directly related to the practical aspects of the use of RTI in the general education setting (pp. 120-121). For instance, it is stated that RTI strains the schedules of teachers and results in a major additional amount of paperwork to be done, adding to the volume of educators’ responsibilities. Another problem that was often mentioned by teachers is scheduling; it is difficult to coordinate interventions for multiple students who require these interventions (Swanson et al., 2012).

RTI-related issues faced by pre-service teachers

There also exist problems that pre-service teachers face in relation to RTI. According to Barrio and Combes (2015), the following concerns pertaining to pre-service teachers can be mentioned (pp. 122-123):

• Increased expectations towards pre-service teachers and the resulting need to enhance their knowledge and skills lead to the situation in which pre-service educators are concerned about the adequacy of preparation that they receive;
• Concerns about “teaching strategies, planning and organization, behavior management, collaboration, and working with diverse students and families” also exist (Barrio & Combes, 2015, p. 122);
• Pre-service educators also worry about classroom behavior and management.

On the whole, it should be stressed that pre-service teachers are very often faced with the need to receive additional instruction regarding the use of RTI (Harvey, Yssel, & Jones, 2015, p. 107), and its integration with other innovative educational techniques (Myers, Simonsen, & Sugai, 2011). Because RTI is a complicated, multi-leveled approach, because it is often defined rather vaguely, and because it is difficult to find appropriate guidelines pertaining to the practical implementation of RTI, solid preparation of pre-service teachers to the utilization of RTI in the field is of paramount importance if the issues related to RTI are to be appropriately addressed.

Conclusions and Recommendations for Future Research

All in all, it can be seen that RTI is a method that is stated to be effective in the literature, but is complex, somewhat cumbersome, and often vague, which makes its implementation difficult for teachers without solid preparation. Further research is needed to develop more concrete methods of the use of RTI in separate fields, and to supply general educators with better guidelines for RTI implementation. Also, the views of special education teachers and their concerns could be explored further to reveal some additional insights into the topic; one way to do so is suggested below. In addition, it should be stressed that pre-service teachers ought to be supplied with sufficient preparation for using RTI in schools, and to combining it with other innovative educational techniques.

Overview

The research proposal that follows offers to investigate the concerns of pre-service special education teachers pertaining to RTI (response to intervention) methods. More specifically, it is suggested to collect data about different concerns that these pre-service teachers have and compare the levels of how concerned they are about different issues.

The proposed study will contribute to the pool of knowledge in the field of special education by providing information about what the pre-service special education teachers are worried about the most when it comes to RTI. Such information may have practical implications about these teachers’ training and field practice by highlighting the areas of such training that might need improvement.

Review of Literature: Concerns of Special Education Teachers About RTI

According to the research literature, RTI usually is not directly employed in the special education setting (Kuo, 2014, p. 611). However, as has been previously noted, general education teachers using RTI are, in fact, forced to deal with issues pertaining to the sphere of special education (Barrio & Combes, 2015, p. 122), which means that they often require guidance and collaboration of their colleagues from the special education field (Swanson, Solis, Ciullo, & McKenna, 2012, pp. 120-121).

Also, they often may need additional instruction about the use of RTI (Harvey, Yssel, & Jones, 2015), as well as about its integration with other educational techniques (Myers, Simonsen, & Sugai, 2011). Once again, it means that special education teachers should be able to provide such guidance and collaboration related to the implementation of RTI in the general education setting even for the most experienced general service teachers, who, however, often have little specific knowledge in the special education field (Bineham, Shelby, Pazey, & Yates, 2014).

As a result, special education teachers are required to have an in-depth understanding of the principles, methods, and nuances of RTI so as to be able to provide the above-mentioned guidance for their colleagues. Therefore, if special education teachers have concerns pertaining to RTI, these concerns should be addressed, so that these teachers would be able to offer competent assistance to their general education colleagues.

A search for literature related to the concerns of special education teachers (both pre-service and practicing) with respect to RTI showed that such concerns have been researched quite poorly. However, some studies have proposed a number of issues that pre-service general education teachers are worried about. These include: a) limited knowledge and preparedness that these teachers have, and increased expectations that they face; b) the knowledge of teaching strategies and the ability to use them; c) the ability to plan and organize; d) the ability to work with diverse students; e) the ability to collaborate (Barrio & Combes, 2015, pp. 122-123).

Given the important role of special education teachers in RTI implementation, investigating this issue further is paramount. To do so, it might be possible to assess how concerned the pre-service special education teachers are when it comes to the issues that pre-service general educators are worried about, which will be the goal of the proposed study.

Methods

In order to ensure that the research is ethically appropriate, the approval of the university’s ethics committee will be obtained prior to conducting this study. In addition, all the participants of the study will be provided with information about informed consent, and will be either asked to sign it, or it will be stated that by completing the survey they confirm that they give their informed consent about their participation in the study.

It should also be stressed that all the respondents will be surveyed anonymously and remotely; it is possible that only basic demographic and professional information (e.g., gender, age, year of study, etc.) will be gathered. It might be possible to state that other than that, only the opinions about professional issues will be collected. Therefore, the study should not cause any trouble related to ethics.

The participants for this study will be recruited from special education departments in a number of universities in such states as Washington, Idaho, and Oregon. The surveys will be sent to these departments, and it will be asked that pre-service teachers complete these surveys. Preference will be given to junior and senior students, for these have greater experience of studying at university and might be better able to assess the problems that students are faced with in the professional field.

The data will be collected from participants using surveys as the instrument. The surveys will be specifically created for this research; apart from probable demographical questions, they will comprise a number of questions asking the respondents to assess their levels of concern related to several issues pertaining to RTI that they might be worried about. The issues will be taken from the studies of pre-service general education teachers; they were named in the previous section (e.g., the limited knowledge and preparedness; the ability to collaborate; etc.). The levels of concern will be assessed using a 7-point Likert scale (1 = very concerned, 7 = very confident). However, in order to establish a better control over the adequacy of the responses, the researcher might want to formulate a number of questions in a way which would make them reversed.

The data will be collected from the participants, transferred into the electronic format, and coded; the cases will be enumerated. The data will be analyzed utilizing the IBM SPSS Statistics software (George & Mallery, 2016). The variables describing the levels of concern will be used in the analysis; because they will be measured on a Likert scale, they will be, strictly speaking, ordinal; but it is a common practice to treat Likert-based variables as ones having an interval/ratio level of measurement (Field, 2013).

Therefore, it will be possible to compare the variables using statistical tests. More specifically, a one-way analysis of variance with repeated measures will be conducted in order to compare the levels of concern of participants with respect to the issues asked about in the surveys. This statistical test was chosen because it permits for comparing the means of several variables in the same group of participants (Warner, 2013).

It should be stressed that the data will only be collected once, but the participants will answer a number of questions, each of which will correspond to a different variable in the data file. After that, it will be needed to compare the means of these variables. However, in SPSS, a one-way ANOVA compares the mean values of different groups of respondents on a single variable (Warner, 2013), which is why it is inappropriate in this case.

On the other hand, a one-way ANOVA with repeated measures (in SPSS: Analyze → General Linear Model → Repeated Measures) allows for comparing the means of several variables for a single group of participants, and the responses can be gathered at one point of time (Laerd Statistics, 2013; Warner, 2013). Even though the test contains the words “repeated measures,” it does not require that all the participants are measured on only one variable at several points of time (Laerd Statistics, 2013).

It only compares the means of several variables, and it does not matter for the test if the input variables are the same variable measured at different points of time, or if they are different variables measured simultaneously. Therefore, this test is appropriate in the given case, even though the participants will only be measured once. Thus, running a one-way ANOVA with repeated measures will permit for finding out whether there was a statistically significant difference in the levels of concern of participants about different issues, and for understanding what issues they were worried about the most.

Therefore, the research design of the proposed study will be correlational; the observational subtype of the correlational design will be used, and a cross-sectional study (a subtype of an observational research) will be conducted (Ary, Jacobs, Sorensen, & Walker, 2014, pp. 398-404). As a result, control groups, pre-test – post-test procedures, and so on, will not be employed in the proposed study.

It is also possible to carry out a pilot study prior to conducting the main study. For instance, the author of this proposal may be able to ask his colleagues from his university to participate in the pilot study. In addition, the surveys for the pilot study may also include an open question allowing the respondents to indicate other concerns pertaining to RTI implementation that they have, if any. If some additional issues are indicated multiple times, the author might consider including them into the questionnaire for the main study as well.

Planned Discussion, Limitations, and Weaknesses

The results of the proposed study might reveal which issues the pre-service special education teachers are most concerned about when it comes to the implementation of RTI methods in the general education setting. The discussion which will follow will depend on the results of the study, for the practical recommendations that will be made will be based on the gained response to the question about what concrete issues the pre-service special education teachers are most worried about.

It should be stressed that the proposed study has a number of limitations and weaknesses. One of the main weaknesses is that the concerns of pre-service special education teachers with respect to RTI are poorly researched, and, in fact, the concerns asked about in the surveys will be taken from studies of general education teachers. Therefore, it might be possible to miss several important issues that they are worried about and not include them in the surveys for the final study.

This weakness is also related to the major limitation pertaining to the use of the one-way ANOVA with repeated measures in the study; while the test can compare scores on a large number of variables, using a high quantity of variables will make the results of the test cumbersome and difficult to interpret, so the researcher will be limited to asking about 5 (or probably 6) main concerns in the surveys.

On the whole, however, it is hoped that, despite the limitations, the proposed study may be able to shed some light on the concerns of pre-service special education teachers when it comes to their roles in implementation of RTI.

References

Anfara, V. A. Jr., & Mertz, N. T. (Eds.). (2006). Theoretical frameworks in qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

Ary, D., Jacobs, L. C., Sorensen, C. K., & Walker, D. (2014). Introduction to research in education (9th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Barrio, B. L., & Combes, B. H. (2015). General education pre-service teachers’ levels of concern on Response to Intervention (RTI) implementation. Teacher Education and Special Education, 38(2), 121-137. Web.

Bineham, S. C., Shelby, L., Pazey, B. L., & Yates, J. R. (2014). Response to intervention: Perspectives of general and special education professionals. Journal of School Leadership, 24(2), 230-252.

Castillo, J. M., Dedrick, R. F., Stockslager, K. M., March, A. L., Hines, C. V., & Tan, S. Y. (2015). Development and initial validation of a scale measuring the beliefs of educators regarding Response to Intervention. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 31(1), 1-30.

Field, A. (2013). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS Statistics (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

Fletcher, J. M., & Vaughn, S. (2009). Response to intervention: Preventing and remediating academic difficulties. Child Development Perspectives, 3(1), 30-37. Web.

George, D., & Mallery, P. (2016). IBM SPSS Statistics 23 step by step: A simple guide and reference (14th ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.

Greenfield, R., Rinaldi, C., Proctor, C. P., & Cardarelli, A. (2010). Teachers’ perceptions of a response to intervention (RTI) reform effort in an urban elementary school: A consensual qualitative analysis. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 21(1), 47-63.

Harvey, M. W., Yssel, N., & Jones, R. E. (2015). Response to intervention preparation for preservice teachers: What is the status for Midwest institutions of higher education. Teacher Education and Special Education, 38(2), 105-120.

Hoover, J. J., & Love, E. (2011). Supporting school-based response to intervention: A practitioner’s model. Teaching Exceptional Children, 43(3), 40-48.

Kuo, N.-C. (2014). Why is Response to Intervention (RTI) so important that we should incorporate it into teacher education programs and how can online learning help?Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 10(4), 610-624. Web.

Laerd Statistics. (2013). ANOVA with repeated measures using SPSS Statistics. Web.

Moats, L., Kukic, S., & Pasternak, R. (n.d.). Response to Reynolds and Shaywitz: Let’s not go back to the good old days before RTI. Web.

Myers, D. M., Simonsen, B., & Sugai, G. (2011). Increasing teachers’ use of praise with a Response-to-Intervention approach. Education & Treatment of Children, 34(1), 35-59.

Ridgeway, T. R., Price, D. P., Simpson, C. G., & Rose, C. A. (2012). Reviewing the roots of response to intervention: Is there enough research to support the promise? Administrative Issues Journal: Education, Practice, and Research, 2(1), 83-95. Web.

Swanson, E., Solis, M., Ciullo, S., & McKenna, J. W. (2012). Special education teachers’ perceptions and instructional practices in response to intervention implementation. Learning Disability Quarterly, 35(2), 115-126.

Warner, R. M. (2013). Applied statistics: From bivariate through multivariate techniques (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

What is RTI? (n.d.). Web.

The primary goal of the negotiation is to support the development of teachers and encourage their professional growth by paying vehement attention to their salaries and rewards. In this case, it is essential to conduct sufficient research to gain a clear understanding of the topics that have to be discovered in the context of this discussion. This approach will assist in presenting different sides of the issue and preparing for a debate that will take place in the recent future. Consequently, the critical goal of this paper is to discover dissimilar stages of planning and discuss the main themes that will be covered to succeed in the negotiation.

In the first place, it is vital to discover the possibility of increasing a teacher’s salary and pension contribution. The most suitable percentage will be described and explained. It is believed that these matters, along with offering additional training, have a direct impact on the quality of the provided education while stimulating change in a positive direction (Kraft & Furlong, 2014). Discovering this topic in details will assist in providing a rationale for the need for these changes. Apart from the specific concepts that will be addressed during the negotiation, it will be vital to discover current economic (GDP, GNP, budget, and growth) and political situation in the region, as, without this information, it will be impossible to understand the possibility of budget’s and teacher’s salary increase.

Alternatively, one cannot underestimate the significance of providing a favorable learning environment to encourage learning among students. One of the aspects will be discussing the maximum number of students in the class. This feature will not only help optimize space in the classroom but also increase the quality of the provided education (Yongxin, 2014). Understanding this matter will offer a rationale for changes and also redesign the national benchmarks and standards concerning the appropriate number of students in the class (Yongxin, 2014).

Simultaneously, underlining the significance of psychological counseling for students is critical, as provisioning it can help diminish the adverse consequences such as misbehavior and help target academic excellence (Yongxin, 2014). Reviewing these factors will help develop effective argumentation and clearly present opinions and claims.

In turn, it is essential to review the current certification requirements for the teachers and discover whether an upward shift in the budget is a possibility. In the context of these cases, it is vital to review these matters since tightening the education requirements can help improve the quality of education and optimize costs. In this case, the research will cover topics such as the possibility to increase spending for teachers’ support while offering reasons for this change and the need to enhance the certification requirements and the positive consequences of this aspect. Providing these arguments will help convince the government and encourage the cultivation of the required changes.

In the end, it could be said that following the plan and discussing the topics mentioned above will be beneficial and prepare the participants for the negotiation while discovering the theme from different angles and potential arguments of the opposing party. In this case, using this strategy cannot only assist in developing effective and interesting claims to support the main points, such as the need for the salary increase but also in discovering the issues from dissimilar points and attracting the attention of the authorities to this problem. Overall, this preparation is vital since it helps review themes while assessing the political and economic environment to encourage similar changes in the recent future.

References

Kraft, M., & Furlong, S. (2014). Public policy: Politics, analysis, and alternatives. New York, NY: CQ Press.

Yongxin, Z. (2014). Observations on the education of China. New York, NY: McGraw Hill Professional.

Through the implementation of the lesson plan and the procuring of feedback, as well as practical inferences, a reflection of the “Lesson on plant life cycles” was created. The growth of students was attempted as the initial goal, providing them with all the possible chances to participate in the discussion, as well as experiment and find the process of education captivating. As identified in a paper by Waldorf (2015), “instead of following a textbook or syllabus, [teachers] should start with a clear goal — the concepts and skills that they want the students to learn” (p. 274). At the same time, this is a technique more commonly used with older students, the attempt to carry this out on a younger audience allowed focusing on students and their understanding of the material foremost. With students actively interacting with the material through practical experience and demonstration, the goals of growth and fastening of student knowledge were attempted.

Students with different learning styles were prompted to participate in the lesson in different ways, creating an opportunity for everyone to engage with the information. The different approaches of students responding to the material necessitated a fair system of evaluation, prompting the creation of a grading rubric specifically modified for this class. The allowance for failure in personal projects created an experimental approach, with students supported to explain their shortcomings using what they have learned during the lesson (Waldrop, 2015). The utilization of discussion as a lesson part with grading potential, as well as the implementation of bonus marks, allowed balancing out any possible arising inequality in grading between students.

The use of elements other than worksheets and presentations, such as brainstorm maps and laminated leaves, was a tactic in pursuit of stimulating the interest of children through the introduction of less common study materials. As stated by Davies and McGregor (2017), “children can be prompted into new patterns of play by presenting them with materials in new ways” (p. 42), which was attempted by providing hands-on experience. The reversion to familiar worksheets after the use of firsthand examples was intended to reinstitute the necessary academic concentration and facilitate the grading system based on the completion of the task.

A change in literature chosen to implement in the classroom would be beneficial to students since the grade found the selected book unable to provide them with supplementary knowledge during individual reading. While Life Cycles (2016) does administer a wide range of information on the subject and uses the appropriate terminology, its potential was realized over the course of the lesson. On the other hand, while the implementation of bonus marks was intended to equalize students and stimulate outside-of-classroom interest, it proved problematic for students to integrate the project bonus marks into their after-school routine. From those two instances arose the issue of a lack of material for self-development of students outside of school hours.

Adjustments to the plan previously provided would benefit both teachers and students, with certain aspects not realized fully in their potential. With the improvement of literature choice and provision of extra materials for students (i.e., simplified lab templated for work outside of the classroom), setbacks to individual student development could be combated. Implementing the discussed changes and taking into account the received commentary, the plan could be developed further to accomplish it as a well-rounded, even more, student-orienteered lesson.

References

Davies, D., & McGregor, D. (2017). Teaching Science Creatively (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.

Dickmann, N. (2016). Life Cycles (1st ed.). New York, NY: Cavendish Square Publishing.

Waldrop, M. (2015). The Science of teaching Science. Nature, 523(7560), 272-274. Web.

Introduction

Teaching is one of the most significant and complicated processes in the world’s educational system, as the younger generations are intended to obtain the general knowledge of their ancestors. Indeed, the teacher’s profession requires a plethora of approaches to one’s students and to help them with choosing their future occupations. The following paper will discuss and evaluate the teachers’ primary duties, responsibilities, and specific attainments.

Comprehension of Foundation Concepts

In his book Man and Superman, a noble Irish dramaturge and educator George Bernard Shaw wrote: “He who can, does: he who cannot, teaches” (Shaw, 1903, p 36). This quote can be interpreted in different ways and might be given various meanings. Nevertheless, Shaw (1903) wanted to address specifically teachers and other educators with his sapience above. The context says that those who have unique talents and abilities should be occupied in something that they can do on a professional level and with the highest quality. According to Shaw (1903), other individuals with the same knowledge, but with particular technical or mental skills, should be sharing some valuable information with others.

The aforementioned statement is not quite right because a person, who provides others with specific knowledge, is obliged to experience them in practice. Otherwise, teachers would not have any idea about their subjects. The teacher’s profession is more valuable than practitioners because the latter one is not responsible for the creditworthiness of information that people receive from him or her, whereas, a teacher is obligated to profess only credible and trustworthy material (Biesta, 2015). Another essential factor that any teacher has to follow is to give students only the main ideas of any subject because they are supposed to develop their own theories and arrive at new conclusions.

Teacher Professionalism

To summarize everything that was mentioned above, it would be proper to say that the teachers’ professionalism is the utmost important quality of any educator, which influences the students’ approaches and achievements in their future lives and careers. However, the Australian Professional Standards for Teachers (APST) declaration requires all teachers of the country to follow certain rules during their educating practice, which is intended to raise high-qualified specialists, people of good manners, and morality principles (“Australian Professional Standards for Teachers”, 2017).

The first requirement of the declaration above obligates all teachers to know their students and their relation to the educational process. Although one needs to be aware of every student’s philosophy and state of mind, it is also necessary not to establish stereotypes about him or her. This instrumental information is intended to help or to discuss particular issues that might not be clear to a person (“Australian Professional Standards for Teachers”, 2017). Besides, such factors as students’ ethnic, linguistic, and religious background should be considered in order to develop a specific manner of communication with them, show them the teacher’s respect, and avoid crucial offending phrases or actions.

Referring to the aforementioned quote by Shaw (1903), it becomes evident that any teacher is also obligated to differentiate his or her lectures or lessons from one another in order to identify and develop particular needs, abilities, and brilliance among students. Nevertheless, APST also requires an educator to profess only that discipline or subject, which this person knows and likes the most (“Australian Professional Standards for Teachers”, 2017). As it was stated above, knowing specific contents and strategies of a certain area remains one of the primary teacher’s duties because one is obliged to be competent in recommending professional literature and analyzing particular results of the educational process.

Curriculum

Any curriculum plays a significant role in the educational process because it provides teachers and students with a certain list of activities or tasks that have to be discussed and completed during the forthcoming course. This gives a teacher and students of the course an ability to prepare specific literature and gain some knowledge beforehand (McLaren, 2015). Moreover, a developed curriculum helps students understand their course’s program and professional skills that they are intended to obtain during the learning process. However, such visual help is instrumental for those who want to become successful students and reach new horizons in their lives. This method also influences and improves students’ mental abilities to become creative, informed, and active citizens.

Nevertheless, the Australian Curriculum is obligated to meet requirements established in the Melbourne Declaration, which provides all the necessary standards of any educational process in order to improve its efficiency, timeliness, and student-centered activities (“The Australian Curriculum”, 2017). These methods are not only beneficial for students, but for every resident of Australia.

The Australian Curriculum is also intended and prepared for providing useful professional information to the students of other ethnic backgrounds or social environments. Besides, it also addresses general students’ priorities, which can be beneficial for the country’s future development (“Cross-curriculum priorities”, 2017). Organizational issues are reduced to the minimum due to the long process of curriculum implementation around the country and the personal experiences of educators who happened to meet its requests during the course. The Australian Curriculum helps students socialize and get acquainted with their learning process faster.

Pedagogy

According to the document of the NSW Quality Teaching model, pedagogy is a fundamental thing in the professing occupation (“Quality teaching in NSW public schools”, 2003). Pedagogy helps teachers develop their unique approaches to every student and adjust to people who work with this educator. Besides, pedagogy skills are helpful in organizing various activities, tasks, and practices among students. It is also beneficial for constructing tasks that would not only be educational, but interesting for different students.

The aforementioned document differentiates three basic dimensions of pedagogy, which are to be stated below. “Pedagogy that is fundamentally based on promoting high levels of intellectual quality. Pedagogy that is soundly based on promoting a quality learning environment. Pedagogy that develops and makes explicit to students the significance of their work” (“Quality teaching in NSW public schools”, 2003, p. 5).

However, high levels of intellectual activity are beneficial for students, regardless of their previous achievements and approaches to their learning processes. Besides, a quality learning environment is also an essential factor in teaching because students have to feel comfortable and open to other people in their schools. “The public has a distorted view of science because children are taught in school that science is a collection of firmly established truths. In fact, science is not a collection of truths. It is a continuing exploration of mysteries” (McLaren, 2015, p 78).

The environment is not only intended to create a favorable atmosphere in the educational institution but is also developed for the purposes of the utmost efficiency of the professed subjects (“Quality teaching in NSW public schools”, 2003). As it was mentioned above, all students need to realize the significance of teaching and gaining new knowledge, which will improve their discipline during the lessons they take and their attention to the given information. It is important for any student to have set goals, the vision of one’s future career, and some passion for learning particular subjects.

In order to understand how students learn, it would be proper to look at their previous works, compare them, and identify if there are any improvements or changes. Such actions are essential for any teacher to be aware of because his or her students’ achievements or mistakes appraise the teacher’s efficiency and professional skills. Moreover, a good teacher has to listen and consider the students’ wishes or expectations of the educational process.

Assessment

Many psychologists claim that assessment is a factor that encourages students to learn and reach new heights in their careers (Klenowski & Wyatt-Smith, 2014). Unfortunately, there is another side of the coin, which discourages students due to their previous low results. It is essential to give such learners an understanding of the aforementioned testing system, which is intended to show them their mistakes and improve their knowledge qualities (Klenowski & Wyatt-Smith, 2014). Nevertheless, some people might get upset and have no desire to receive good marks anymore. In order to avoid such situations, it would be proper to explain students the purposes of assessments and expectations from them.

The National Assessment Program – Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN) was developed for testing students in their third, fifth, seventh, and ninth years (“NAPLAN”, 2016). This program was established by the country’s government in the year 2008. The primary purpose of NAPLAN is to identify specific skills and abilities that students have in order to divide them into small groups to meet their personal needs.

There are four examinations for students to pass in order to show their level in such practices as writing, reading, numeracy, and language conventions (“NAPLAN”, 2016). The latter examination is the most essential because all students are expected to speak fluently and correctly. This factor is usually addressed during multiple job interviews and forms one’s image in front of colleagues, generals, and auxiliaries. Therefore, the children’s language skills have to be developed since school.

Example of Application of the Foundation Concepts

Gifted and Talented Students

All the students of this category need more attention to be turned to their unique or advanced abilities and brilliance. If the requirements above were not met, some specific talents of these students might be lost, and they may have no desire to develop and become creative people anymore. For instance, if a student’s musical talent was not addressed enough or one was not given an opportunity to practice his or her skills, this will be considered a teacher’s omission because this particular student was dreaming of adopting the musician’s career.

The teacher is obliged to design curriculum appropriately in order for the student to have enough time for learning general subjects and for him or her to be involved in the school’s musical activity (“Australian Professional Standards for Teachers”, 2017). Nevertheless, the general assessment cannot be disregarded in the case above because any student might have a desire to change one’s educational specialization. Therefore, he or she has to pass the NAPLAN tests along with other students, which might open even more talents of this person.

Indigenous Students

The primary teacher’s role is to provide indigenous students with basic knowledge of the country’s language, which will help them socialize and be more confident in their daily activities (“Australian Professional Standards for Teachers”, 2017). Otherwise, they might be antisocial and have no motivation for their future education. Besides, it is proper to give them some extra knowledge about the country’s culture.

For instance, a student, whose parents do not know English and are not educated at the primary level, has to obtain more help and support from an educator. Moreover, the teacher’s role is to design a curriculum, which will provide an indigenous student with humanitarian laws, morality standards, and behavioral norms of the country’s society. As a pedagogue, one is obliged to discuss and understand all things that might be difficult to grasp for a particular student. In turn, any assessment is instrumental for getting acquainted with general education, especially, with language conventions, which remains a tremendous problem in some cases.

Students from a Non-English Speaking Background

The teacher’s role is to demonstrate specific knowledge and strategies, which will help the aforementioned group to learn English (“Australian Professional Standards for Teachers”, 2017). Otherwise, these people will not have any opportunity to receive high education in Australia. For instance, there are many students from European countries and Latin America who have a goal to undergo a school course in Australia because of the country’s advanced educational system.

A teacher has to design a specific curriculum, according to the language weaknesses of the groups above. As a pedagogue, one has to motivate students and consider informal educational practices for them to grasp the material better and faster. As to the assessment, the teacher has to prepare foreign students for the NAPLAN tests because they require advanced knowledge in general subjects.

Conclusion

Every student deserves an individual approach to him or her, regardless of one’s abilities, educational, linguistic, religious, and any other background. All teachers in Australia are supposed to support their students and make everything for them to obtain benefits from received education. It is essential for Australian teachers to be highly adjustable to any possible circumstances that might appear at their workplaces.

References

Australian Professional Standards for Teachers. (2017). Web.

Biesta, G. (2015). What is education for? On good education, teacher judgment, and educational professionalism. European Journal of Education, 50(1), 75-87. Web.

Cross-curriculum priorities. (2017). Web.

Klenowski, V., & Wyatt-Smith, C. (2014). Assessment for education: Standards, judgement and moderation. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

McLaren, P. (2015). Life in schools: An introduction to critical pedagogy in the foundations of education. Boulder, CO: Paradigm.

NAPLAN. (2016). Web.

Quality teaching in NSW public schools. (2003). Web.

Shaw, B. G. (1903). Man and superman. Cambridge, MA: The University Press.

The Australian Curriculum. (2017). Web.

What help did the student request?

Assisting the student in understanding the task and locating the resources that can be used to handle it are some of the basic responsibilities of a teacher. In a case in point, a student clearly has difficulties with the instructions for the assignment. According to the information represented in the scenario, the learner is incapable of locating the video that she must watch in order to complete the task. Furthermore, the learner has difficulties retrieving the referencing material.

Why do you think the student is seeking assistance?

The student is clearly seeking assistance because she needs further clarification about the task. To be more accurate, the learner needs to locate the video that she will have to use as the basis for her response.

You will need to clarify if the student has made a start on her research task.

However, it should be noted that the learner has already started doing her research. Specifically, she managed to write the second part of the assignment, i.e., 300 words of The Lost. However, she has clearly had problems with The Search and The Found sections.

What sources has she used?

As far as the sources issue is concerned, as stressed above, the main concern about the assignment was that there was little to no data on The Search and The Found sections. In other words, the student has been having issues with not only retrieving the instructions but also determining the resources that could be useful in writing the task. Therefore, she needs further guidance to identify the required information; however, the student seems to be very independent in her studies, which means that she will not require consistent supervision in order to handle the writing process.

To watch the video, the student may need to revisit the instructions. Additionally, the learner may need to check the software used to watch the video since there might be an issue with the digital tools used to process the data. Particularly, the student might want to check the software for updates and for the codec packs that may help view the short movie required to complete the task.

Advise the student of other available resources to extend her research

The problem concerning the identification of the necessary sources is, unfortunately, a very common one (South Dakota School of Mines & Technology par. 2). Locating the books and the journal articles that can be deemed as credible scholarly resources and, at the same time, be related to the topic of the paper directly is admittedly challenging.

Encourage the student to use spell/grammar checks before submitting them.

To make sure that the instructions are met and that the sources are relevant to the paper, the learner may check the books and articles that not merely render the same information but support the statements that she considers in her writing (Bernis 224). Therefore, apart from searching for the exact references to the Miracle in the Desert, the learner may consider seeking the studies that address the themes raised in the suggested readings (Yagelski 698). In other words, it is recommended that the student should start by writing out the keywords that can be used to identify the relevant resources. Afterward, the search process may begin (Boise State University 3).

Remind student of plagiarism and copyright guidelines

Furthermore, it should be borne in mind that writing down the key ideas and connecting them to make a cohesive piece of writing is not enough to get a passing grade. The resources used in the process need to be referenced accordingly. For these purposes, online software such as Cite This for Me (Cite This for Me par. 1) can be suggested. It is essential that every idea taken from an external resource should be referenced accordingly; otherwise, the paper will be considered plagiarized. The use of paraphrasing is advised as the means of avoiding plagiarism (Whitaker, Ramsey, and Smith 67).

Finally, it is strongly recommended that the paper should be checked for grammatical or spelling issues. Although software can also be used for this purpose, a manual check is preferable. Thus, the learner will be able to not only maintain the quality standards high but also identify the recurrent grammatical and vocabulary issues to address them later. Thus, a manual analysis of the writing is suggested.

I am sure that the student will be capable of managing the task. I would like to emphasize that I am open to any further questions and will be happy to provide any further consultations. I wish the best of luck to the student in dealing with their assignment.

Works Cited

Bernis, Michael. Library and Information Science: A Guide to Key Literature and Sources. Chicago, IL: American Library Association, 2013. Print.

Boise State University. Assessment of First-Year Students’ Information Literacy Skills & Knowledge. n.d. Web.

Cite This for Me. Create Harvard, APA, & MLA Citations for Your Bibliography. n.d. Web.

South Dakota School of Mines & Technology. Academic Problems and Skills. n.d. Web.

Whitaker, Richard W., Janet E. Ramsey, and Ronald D. Smith. Media Writing: Print, Broadcast, and Public Relations. New York, NY: Routledge, 2013. Print.

Yagelski, Robert P. Writing: Ten Core Concepts. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning, 2014. Print.

Ways of Experiencing Diversity

The term “diversity” is used within the educational community to denote the array of ethnic, gender, linguistic, ability, and cultural differences that can affect the way a student learns. More often than not, students are subject to biased attitudes on the classmates’ and teachers’ part because of the misperception of their differences as either weaknesses or strengths (Groundwater-Smith, Ewing, & Le Cornu, 2011). Educators must recognize the differences as such and confront their prejudice because it can exacerbate the way they teach. In other words, the task of the teacher is to be prepared to stretch their boundaries and step out of their comfort zone; by embracing diversity, teachers treat all students equitably as persons with unique sets of strengths, weaknesses, and learning requirements, not as a fixed collection of ethnically-, culturally-, linguistically-, and gender-determined attributes.

There is a multitude of ways teachers can experience diversity in their classrooms. One of them is the difference in language use, which is a sequent of the family atmosphere and cultural background that is different for every child. Different families can use coded messages and vocabulary perfectly understandable within the family but indecipherable to an outsider. The usage of words can diversify as well: A child can utilize vulgarly and swear words without knowing their meaning. Overall, this variety of discourses constitutes one of the aspects of the diversity of knowing; indeed, a child knows the language (and the world as reflected by the language) differently than every other child. Recognizing the diversity of knowing and molding the children’s language into what is currently accepted as a societal norm without devaluating their difference can be a challenge (Groundwater-Smith, Ewing, & Le Cornu, 2011).

Another way of experiencing diversity is by having children from diverse socio-economic backgrounds in class. There is a whole spectrum of poverty issues currently experienced in Australia, and education is one of the sectors poverty affects the most. The equitability of access stands the strain of unleveraged economic status, remoteness of the students’ places of residence, and whether their families are intact. Although all these factors can shape the children’s educational experience and sometimes disadvantage them in commodity, resource, and motivation terms, regarding them as a group whose behavior is determined by a “culture” of poverty or any status-related “deficits” is a common mistake teachers make (Groundwater-Smith, Ewing, & Le Cornu, 2011, p. 52).

Perhaps the most significant way diversity can be experienced is the difference in the students’ ethnic backgrounds. Ethnic diversity is referred to as the geographical differences of people’s ancestors’ places of origin. Ethnic competence obliges teachers to be aware of every ethnicity and its culture; moreover, teachers have to realize how the ethnic identity of the students correlates and manifests itself about gender, social status, and other variables. Competent teachers successfully eliminate their own biases and encourage students to regard each other holistically. They are aware of and able to successfully handle the issues arising from ethnic diversity, namely, the linguistic and cultural barriers. Those that do not struggle with English may experience cultural clash because they are already accustomed to perceiving the world in concepts different from that of the teacher and other students. The expectations may also differ, which adds to the difficulties they experience while adjusting to the new environment.

In the context of Australia, the issues related to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students are particularly relevant. Approximately 2.3% of the total population of Australia can be identified as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander or both, with 38% of them being under the age of 15 (Groundwater-Smith, Ewing, & Le Cornu, 2011). The education-related problems Indigenous people have to face include the difficulty of access and various misperceptions on the part of the public. While such children are brought up in the atmosphere representing the traditional way of upbringing and thus may have different ideas of communication and socialization, it does not justify any occasions of bullying or ostracism that they might experience at school. The teachers’ awareness of the possibility of having indigenous students in class and the necessity to adhere to their learning needs is the key to a successful diversity experience here.

Apart from and in addition to everything said above, a teacher can find they have to manage a gender diverse classroom or one where children differ by their talent/giftedness and abilities. Although some research indicates gender as a factor impacting children’s learning capacities, it is (along with race and class) a socially constructed category (McInerney & McInerney, 2006). This fact stipulates the need to optimize the assessment of and compliance with the needs of every person and calls for sensitivity in teachers. The same applies to the perceptions of giftedness, which may vary from person to person, with disabilities often being regarded as weaknesses. While it is true that inclusive schooling is the preferred approach for most Australian schools, the individual diversity experiences are to a great extent determined by the teachers’ and students’ misconceptions. To optimize these experiences, biases should be avoided whenever possible.

Strategies for Outcome Equality

Approaches to inclusive learning change in line with the shifting demographics, and, logically, some strategies that used to be effective are now dismissed as not complying with the diverse learners’ needs. The attitude of color-blindness, for instance, is not recommended in a diverse context, because instead of facilitating inclusivity and every individual’s empowerment, it endorses a singular approach to all students regardless of their requirements.

Appreciating the individuality of every student and communicating the commitment to comply with everyone’s needs is the key tip to the outcome equality. Another valuable tip is to research the cultures a teacher can encounter in the class and acknowledge the manifestations of culture-specific behaviors. For instance, such action as avoiding eye contact can create a negative impression about a student—unless the teacher is aware that in this student’s culture, a cast-down gaze is a sign of respect.

Some of the strategies about the same goal include:

1. Providing multiple examples accounting for all perspectives to illustrate the point when transferring the instruction.
2. Assessing the students’ learning needs and using multiple teaching methods to meet them.

Applying diversity pedagogy theory in terms of:

1. connecting culture and cognition; and
2. identifying individual and group learning competencies about culture and using this knowledge to guide decisions (Charteris, 2016).

Creating and maintaining a safe and supportive environment in terms of:

1. establishing the doable rules;
2. communicating the commitment and clear expectations to the students and parents;
3. ensuring these expectations are culturally inclusive; and
4. ensuring that the students are comfortable in class, both physically and emotionally.

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget maintained that change was an essential process of reality, which was itself a system in perpetual motion. Knowledge, the psychologist argued, is most actively obtained in childhood when human beings learn to attain it, categorize it, and later utilize it (Love & Guthrie, 2011). A person’s cognitive development is how a person learns to reorganize their mental processes as they biologically grow and mentally mature by acquiring experience within their environment. Piaget maintained that seeing the difference between what a person already knows and a new phenomenon this person discovers is a skill essential to cognitive development, and this skill is only gained during childhood. In other words, it is during childhood that a human being learns to learn.

According to Piaget’s theory, there are four stages of cognitive development, namely:

1. Sensorimotor (from the moment of birth to 2 years old);
2. Preoperational (2–7 years old);
3. Concrete Operational (7–11 years old); and
4. Formal Operational (adolescence to adulthood).

In the first stage of development, children’s reflexive behaviors help them learn to coordinate what they sense and how they act. By physically interacting with objects, children acquire knowledge of the world and start to develop symbolic thinking (attribute certain phenomena with some meaning) towards the end of this stage (Love & Guthrie, 2011). In the second stage, although they have not developed their logical thinking yet and thus are unable to solve complex problems mentally, they acquire speaking skills and use symbolic thinking when playing.

The third stage can be characterized by the use of logic when the children’s reasoning becomes more adequate to particular situations and when they are capable of making inductive conclusions and solving problems verbally. At the last stage, children demonstrate their competence in all domains of cognitive ability, including symbolic, logical, and abstract. They acquire the ability to think through all possible solutions to particular problems and reflect on how they think, which is a metacognitive skill (Armstrong, 2009). Thus, according to Piaget, every person’s cognitive development is a march from a simplistic understanding of reality to more complex, scientific thinking (Love & Guthrie, 2011).

Discussion Learning and Cognitive Development

As the name implies, discussion-based learning is characterized by engaging students in multisided dialogs guided by the teacher’s questions and based on the subject, which is usually chosen by the teacher. At that, the teacher is expected to derive the subjects for discussions from the curricular requirements and the students’ needs, on an equal basis. Such learning is effective in the context of a diverse classroom as it can make the students’ experiences deeply engaging and enhance their cognition appropriately to their developmental stage. The students make their contributions to discussions and can get to know one another, share their opinions, collaborate, and learn.

To organize a lesson with discussion-based learning in view, the teacher develops a plan considering:

1. The learning goals and desired outcomes;
2. The discussion subject within the curriculum and the students’ needs;
3. Questions to open the lesson, transition from one aspect to the other, and close it;
4. Time management;
5. Student perspectives assessment before the discussion starts;
6. Specific examples and subtopics to include to account for each perspective; and
7. Outcomes assessment (formative and summative, if applicable).

Having outlined a comprehensive lesson plan, the teacher can get creative with extra materials and supplies to keep the discussion moving (Killen, 2016). They can incorporate various media, such as visuals and effective problems (e.g., case studies) to keep it focused and illustrative at the same time. A discussion requires certain experiences because it can be difficult to control at times (Hammond, n.d.). Still, it facilitates maximum engagement when organized properly, which makes it an excellent instructional tool, especially in the context of diversity.

Leading a discussion in a diverse classroom can be complex because it subsumes the recognition and usage of varying perspectives to facilitate maximum heterogeneity and all-round inclusion. A teacher’s role here is multisided: They plan lessons with an emphasis on effective problem-solving and creating an inclusive environment to maximize the learning benefit for each student. A teacher managing a diverse classroom assesses every student’s input to the discussion, the challenges that every one of them might encounter as stipulated by their diversity factors, what behaviors can be expected from them, and which ones can be challenging (Facilitating Effective Group Discussions: Tips, 2016).

Some tips for discussions pertaining specifically to inclusive learning are:

1. Using inclusive language, which should be not only politically correct and non-offensive but also understandable to every student;
2. Communicating expectations clearly and distinctly;
3. Ensuring the students are comfortable with sharing their thoughts by giving them enough time to concentrate and think;
4. Establishing and communicating a set of rules to encourage respectful listening (e.g., one person speaking at a time, raise your hand if you want to speak out your opinion, no name-calling, no shouting, no backtalk, etc.); and
5. Asking the dominant speakers to give the others a chance, etc. (Handelsman, Miller, & Pfund, 2006).

Depending on the age group and the cognitive processes a teacher witnesses in their students, the teacher can choose whichever discussion methods apply to the students’ developmental stage while at the same time accounting for their differing strengths as members of a diverse learning community.

There are several practical implications of discussion-based learning that are consistent with Piaget’s cognitive development theory. As discussion subsumes some logical thinking skills possessed by its participants, some of the ways to optimize the discussion based on the needs of the students in a diverse context can be described.

For instance, as diversity subsumes the diversity of language, some students can be expected to operate the terms that are unknown or undecipherable to others; in a respectful discussion atmosphere, they should be given a chance to explain themselves. Similarly, the students should not be expected to have a unified opinion on a particular subject; every viewpoint matters provided it is articulated by the established discussion rules. Asking a student to explain why they think so or how exactly they solved a problem helps keep the discussion dynamic and allows them to demonstrate their metacognitive skills (Finley, 2016).

Another way of implementing discussion-based learning consistent with cognitive development is by using various media and activities to encourage participation. It means that discussions should be focused on the subject of interest to the students, the material should be delivered through multiple media, and a discussion about similar issues should be encouraged. Some of the most efficient tools for this are effective problems or questions to encourage self-thinking and self-discovery.

References

Armstrong, T. (2009). Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom (3rd ed.). Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Charteris, J. (2016). EDLT 116 MODULE 4: Diversity, Course notes. Web.

Facilitating Effective Group Discussions: Tips. (2016). Web.

Finley, T. (2016). Dialogue Defibrillators: Jump-Start Classroom Discussions!Web.

Groundwater-Smith, S., Ewing, R., & Le Cornu, R. (2011). Teaching: Challenges and dilemmas (4th ed.). Southbank, Victoria: Thomson.

Hammond, K. (n.d.). The disadvantages of classroom discussions. Web.

Handelsman, J., Miller, S., & Pfund, C. (2006) Scientific Teaching: Diversity, Assessment, Active Learning. New York, NY: W.H. Freeman & Co.

Killen, R. (2016). Effective teaching strategies: Lessons from research and practice (7th Ed.). South Melbourne, Victoria: Cengage.

Love, P. G., & Guthrie, V. L. (2011). Understanding and Applying Cognitive Development Theory: New Directions for Student Services. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons.

McInerney, D. & McInerney, V. (2006). Educational psychology: constructing learning (4th ed.). Frenchs Forest, New South Wales: Pearson Education.

The chapter “Grounded in the community: The fight for the soul of public education” discusses pressing issues in the sphere of educational policies ranging from school closings to the professional development of teachers. The work of the Chicago Teachers Union is used as an illustration of the consistent efforts many communities make to change the status quo and improve the quality of education in general. Chicago has witnessed a series of drastic changes in public education in the form of school closings in diverse neighborhoods. Thus, the people of color were burdened by the lack of the local government’s attention to the future of new generations.

The ‘school-to-jail track’ is another crucial revelation of the case. As mentioned by the author “mass incarceration and youth criminalization are primary forms of racial oppression and control in the United States” (Jobin-Leeds, 2016, p. 84). Therefore, instead of allocating funds to provide high-quality education for minority students, policymakers focus on interventional and punitive policies to discipline the youth of color and “feed the school to prison pipeline” (Jobin-Leeds, 2016, p. 84). This issue suggests that the government does not understand that the loss of educated citizens leads to financial burdens for the rest of the taxpayers who are forced to pay for sustaining the prison system.

The case teaches the public about the need for significant transformation in public education and building a movement using the example of the Chicago Teachers Union. The unification of the federal efforts in the movement against the limiting of the access and quality of education is needed not only in Chicago but also nationwide. Even though many may view strikes as an inconvenience to the process of education, getting one’s opinion heard is the first step toward showing support for public education. In any case, education is a right that all US citizens possess, and limiting this right is the same as preventing society from developing.

In regards to the integration of the information from the chapter into the social work practice, it is imperative to mention the attention and the support for students from underserved groups. As mentioned by Sen in the foreword, much of the success of public policies depend on the strategy and strength of those involved in them (as cited in Jobin-Leeds, 2016). Racial oppression occurs not only in words but through the limitation of opportunities, and being an advocate for those who do not receive the necessary level of support is essential. This is possible through spreading the information among communities, analyzing the state of public education access and quality, and being vocal about the identified disparities. Also, creating a platform with the help of which the community can communicate and share experiences is essential for the successful work of a social advocate and supporter.

Social policies on the quality of education and equal access should be addressing the problems reflected in the case. At the moment, there is a lack of governmental regulations that guarantee equal access of minority students to public education. The structural oppression and marginalization of students of color make it possible for schools to close without any explanation, thus increasing the likelihood of misdemeanors, petty crimes, and subsequent incarceration. The expansion of expenditures for police, prison, and the military at the cost of quality of education, healthcare, child care, and affordable housing shows that the government does not understand the true cost of education. As mentioned in the chapter, there are multiple benefits of investing in education instead of incarceration, which points to the need for a significant shift in social policies.

The permanent structure enhances the power and privilege of some communities over others by limiting opportunities based on race, status, or income levels. Policies that close schools or punish those facilities that do not reach the desired level of achievement are discriminatory and perpetuate the stereotype that people of color are more likely to be uneducated and unable to reach success in life. The needs of the communities are undermined and overlooked by favoring those who have enough resources for successful integration into the school system. The example of closing schools and education with charters in Chicago shows that the government does not want to challenge corporate school reform but rather use the resources that the sphere of education needs elsewhere.

The chapter furthered the understanding of the forms and mechanisms of oppression by presenting examples of how the resources meant to improve the lives of minority communities are used for other purposes. Thus, there is a significant limitation in the range of opportunities that diverse or low-income individuals have when it comes to getting the expected level of education. For example, mass incarceration and criminalization of youth are used as replacements for high-quality education despite the latter bringing much more positive outcomes. It is evident that present policymakers fail to understand the adverse consequences that the prison system has on society not only for minority groups but for the nation in general. Had there been more initiatives and policies that addressed the disparities in the access and quality of education, communities would thrive and give back to society with their work and knowledge.

The continuous cycle of resources being taken from education, healthcare, child support, and other public services perpetuates oppression and injustice. These resources are reallocated to be used in such spheres as a military force or the prison system, undermining the well-being of communities that want to live in peace. The present policies should change, and the people should work together to create a support system that will make it easier to deal with arising issues. The forming of the Chicago Teachers Union shows that policymakers will respond better to organizations that have a strong mission and goals. According to the statement on the organization’s website, the union aims to “protect and improve the services of the public schools as a social agency for developing the capacities of the young and promoting adult education” (Chicago Teachers Union, 2019, para. 2). The positive outlook on the future of generations and the courage to make a change can reshape the political and social climate, leading to significant improvements (Jobin-Leeds, 2016). Similar unions and public organizations can be developed in any area where there is substantial evidence of public education being overlooked.

To conclude, the case provided insights into the limitations of the system of education in the United States. Policymakers have shown an increased interest in limiting the quality and access to education in favor of using resources in such areas as the military or the prison system. Thus, consistent efforts of communities are needed for overcoming the disparities and pushing the agenda of introducing policies that will open opportunities for minorities instead of limiting them.

References

Chicago Teachers Union. (2019).About us. Web.

Jobin-Leeds, G. (2016). When we fight we win: Twenty-first-century social movements and the activists that are transforming our world. New York, NY: The New Press.

Teaching and Learning Explained via Metaphors

Learning is a complex process that takes much time and effort, but its positive outcomes are worth the investment. Although it remains impossible to determine how our neurons create the picture of the world we get, we already have some hints regarding the process of attaining new knowledge. For instance, it is clear that any new information one gets needs to be tied to the already existing knowledge or experience; otherwise, it would be just alien nonsense to the learner. This process can quite precisely be described by a metaphor of sorting a pile of stuff onto shelves where it belongs. On the other hand, teaching can be compared to helping the students solve a puzzle. These two metaphors turn out to be rather complementary if we consider them carefully.

Teaching, as we mentioned, can be compared to helping a student build a puzzle picture. The students already possess some general framework that the teacher is going to use to give the learners new information, assist them with understanding it, and help them built the new data into the already existent structure of knowledge. This is similar to helping to solve a puzzle, one that already has a few pieces attached. A teacher needs to give students matching pieces so that they can attach them to the existing pattern, and help them identify these pieces and see where they would fit best. The teacher does not just transfer knowledge to their students but helps them build the knowledge and make it their own instead.

On the other hand, learning can be compared to approaching a big, often shapeless pile of stuff and starting to sort this stuff out and put it into labeled drawers or shelves of your brain. When you approach some data that is to a certain degree unfamiliar to you, it can be at first hard to understand what it is all about. (This is especially clear when you see a new, unfamiliar mathematical formula). But then you start to recover familiar pieces of the “stuff”, identify them, and put them into the proper “drawers” or on the right “shelves” of your mind.

You can only make use of the data that you can attach to your already existing knowledge in some way; 100% new information would look like nonsense to you. This is why you always have at least some sort of shelves you can put the “stuff” onto, otherwise, you can’t learn it; it will be leftover in the “pile” until you are ready.

These two metaphors fit together rather well. Indeed, when a teacher explains new materials, they offer some knowledge that would look like a big formless pile to a student, but then the teacher begins to drawing some puzzles from the pile and give them to the student in the proper order so that the learner could identify them and attach them to the attached pieces which the student already has in their possession. Matching the new pieces of the puzzle to the already existing ones is similar to sorting out the “stuff” and putting it onto proper labeled “shelves” that the learner already has in their head.

As we have seen, the process of teaching can be described by a metaphor of helping build a puzzle; the teacher gives students pieces and helps them see where they fit. On the other hand, a good metaphor for the process of learning is sorting out a big pile of stuff and putting it onto properly labeled shelves (or into properly labeled drawers). The two metaphors fit each other well, for the “pile of stuff” can be compared to the “set of puzzles”, and the teacher helps learners draw the proper piece of “stuff” / “puzzle” and put it into the proper “drawer” / “place in the puzzle” to attach this piece of data to the already existing knowledge.

While working abroad, education volunteers have a unique opportunity to learn more about educational systems and practices used in other countries. As a result of the give and take process occurring in classrooms, they can also contribute to the improvement of the teaching capacity of their host country’s colleagues. However, it is also essential to ensure that any suggestions provided to teachers are respectful and take into account their previous experience of teaching. The present text will offer three strategies for improving the teaching capacity of host country counterparts.

First of all, I believe that volunteers should gather information about local teachers’ methods before making any suggestion. For example, planning lessons together or talking about preferred teaching styles would be a useful way of learning more about education in the assigned institution. These strategies will also help me to know more about other teachers, which is vital to ensure that any suggestions made in the future do not contradict their values and beliefs about teaching and learning. While learning more about local teachers and their approach, it is also important to point out and complement any beneficial practices they use. This can assist in developing a positive relationship with my teaching partners, which will make it easier to introduce changes in the future.

Secondly, it is critical to set an excellent example for other professionals working in the same classroom. In my teaching, I rely on contemporary strategies for creating a positive learning environment, planning lessons, and developing exciting activities for students. In order to enable local teachers to use my example in their practice, it would be useful to explain the rationale for specific actions and activities. For instance, when presenting a lesson plan, I could elucidate why some activities would be more engaging than the ones currently used in the classroom. The explanations should be based on scholarly evidence, such as research studies or best practice guidelines. In this way, it would be possible to encourage local teachers to use the same methods without interfering with their teaching strategies or arguing with them. Moreover, I could suggest resources that could be used for continuing education. For example, scholarly journals publishing research on education could be a good source of knowledge on contemporary teaching methods. These sources can be used by local teachers as they are available online.

Finally, making suggestions in an appropriate and respectful manner is a strategy that can yield great results. Upon seeing an opportunity for improvement, I would ask the local teacher for clarification about why this particular method or activity is used. I could then suggest a viable alternative and support it with evidence from research or guidelines. Nevertheless, it is also essential to assure that suggestions are relevant and specific, so that they could easily be implemented. In case significant changes are required, it would be better to speak to school leaders and present ideas to them. If the suggestions are indeed useful and needed for improvement, school leaders can make a large-scale change, thus enhancing the approach to teaching throughout the school.

Overall, I believe that education volunteers could contribute to improving education practices used in host countries, thus fulfilling their purpose as educators. However, developing appropriate strategies for introducing changes is essential as it helps to facilitate local teachers’ interest in new approaches. The suggestions presented in this text would help to improve teaching practices of local partners while maintaining positive relationships and respecting their knowledge and experience.

It is a commonly accepted fact that the retention of teachers in their positions is a crucial area for research; however, the retention of special education teachers is of primary concern in the majority of schools across the country. Prior to the development of teachers’ shortage, key educational stakeholders expressed concern about the attrition rates of special education teachers that are subjected to the increased amount of stress and pressure in their professional practice. Therefore, special education teachers experience high rates of turnover, which is attributed to the peculiarities of their job description (Mastrantuono, 2015, p. 3).

Studying the effect burnout has on special education teachers when they teach students with intellectual disabilities is important for ensuring a high level of teacher satisfaction and maintaining the best quality of special education (Johnson, 2010, p. 4). This paper will focus on exploring this effect as well as finding correlations between the earned degree and burnout, gender and burnout, years of experience, the level of teaching, and burnout on the basis of available literature on the topic. Reviewing the already existing literature will allow for a better understanding of problems special education teachers face in their practice and identifying whether there have been some innovative methods created for resolving the identified problems.

Literature Review

Before exploring the existing literature on the topic of special education teachers’ burnout, it is important to give a definition of this term. According to the explanation given by Hakanen, Bakker, and Schaufeli (2006), burnout is a syndrome of exhaustion, cynicism, and reduced professional efficacy (p. 498). Therefore, burnout is comprised of three dimensions that contribute to its emergence. Exhaustion is a feeling of fatigue that results from extensive work; cynicism is a feeling of distance and the lack of interest towards work; professional efficacy is the lack of professional competence and inability to successfully perform in the workplace (Hakanen et al., 2006, p. 498).

Emotional exhaustion is a factor that should be taken into consideration when exploring the notion of burnout as a contributor to special education teachers’ job satisfaction and retention in their positions. According to the research conducted by Shyman (2010), between thirty and forty percent of special education teachers leave the field of their practice within five years of experience and identify emotional exhaustion as the main factor for making their final decision (p. 829). Furthermore, emotional exhaustion has a deleterious effect on the mental and physical health of an individual. Thus, when looking for the correlations between burnout and other factors such as gender or degree earned, it is important to take into account emotional exhaustion, which prevents special education teachers from successfully doing their job and offering students an adequate level of education based on their specific needs.

Overall, burnout among special education teachers is associated with psychological distress that occurs in cases of students’ lack of compliance with the educational process, the absence of support on the part of the principal management, as well as the increased workload that is very hard to manage. It is important to distinguish the study by Hinds, Jones, Gau, Forrester, and Biglan (2015) for exploring the role of experiential avoidance related to the practice of special education teachers (p. 284). Researchers defined experiential avoidance as an attempt to disregard specific feelings associated with various psychological problems. Moreover, the study found that 26.8% of special education teachers were mildly depressed, 8.9% were moderately, and 2.8% were severely depressed (Hinds et al., 2015, p. 284). Such figures indicate that teachers are highly subjected to stress and exhaustion, which subsequently turns into experiential avoidance and causes teachers to think about leaving their job.

Correlation Between the Degree Earned and Burnout

There have been some connections made between the level of special education teachers’ burnout and their degree earned in the university. Therefore, it is important to study actual data to see whether this correlation exists. According to the research conducted by Zabel and Zabel (1983), a larger percentage of study participants with Master’s degrees experienced lower depersonalization rates compared with participants with Bachelor’s degrees (p. 258). The results of this study were further supported by Zabel’s and Zabel’s (2001) research, which found that special education teachers with Master’s degrees showed higher indicators of Personal Achievement, although there was no statistically significant difference in Depersonalization and Emotional Exhaustion rates between teachers with Bachelor’s and Master’s (p. 133). Research conducted by Saddler (2014) showed a negative correlation between the earned degree of special education teachers and their level of burnout (p. 60). The higher level of education a teacher received, the lower the level of burnout was. For example, when comparing the level of burnout between teachers with Bachelor’s degrees and Master’s degrees, those with a higher level of education exhibited lower burnout. Similarly, teachers with Doctoral degrees were even more prepared to withstand burnout compared to those with Master’s (Saddler, 2014, p. 61).

Results as to the correlation of degree earned and burnout are reported differently across various studies. For example, Williams and Dikes (2011) concluded that teachers holding Specialist degrees showed a higher percentage (75%) of emotional exhaustion when they were working with students with special education needs (p. 342). On the other hand, the same group of participants with Specialist degrees experienced low depersonalization rates (100%) (Williams & Dikes, 2011, p. 342). Teachers with Master’s degrees showed a higher level (75%) of personal accomplishment in comparison to those with Specialist degrees (Williams & Dikes, 2011, p. 343).

To be accepted in an educational institution, special education teachers must have disability-specific training as well as degrees (Martin, 2010, p. 20). Moreover, as mentioned by Zabel and Zabel (2001), many special education teachers feel that their college programs did not prepare them enough to be proficient in handling students with behavioral problems and different degrees of disabilities (p. 135). This means that special education teachers are expected to have expert knowledge about a wide variety of disabilities children may have, although the training they experience in college does not provide enough tools and materials to acquire such knowledge (Martin, 2010, p. 21).

Therefore, the correlation between burnout and earned degree may not be an adequate criterion for evaluating special education teachers’ effectiveness since even those professionals holding Master’s degrees acknowledge the lack of training they had when studying to become teachers although the acquired degree may be a factor in determining burnout since it can indicate the level of professional experience or the desire to pursue a career in special education. Personal achievement in the sphere of special education is often related to the earned degree or the awarded certification; therefore, it is a “more tangible, external construct that special educators have control over” (Martin, 2010, p. 85). While, for example, emotional exhaustion or self-efficacy are psychological constructs managed by teachers internally and therefore are harder to deal with; the earned degree is something that falls into the “high control” category and can be modified in order to adapt to a high strain job (Martin, 2010, p. 85).

Gender and the Level of Burnout

Exploring the correlation between the gender of special education teachers and the level of their burnout is important for identifying gender-specific programs that will facilitate teacher satisfaction and decrease attrition rates. The research conducted by Küçüksüleymanoğlu (2011) concluded that men showed higher scores of depersonalization and emotional exhaustion compared to women (p. 57). The author explained this difference by women being able to typically find a balance between home duties and career responsibilities.

Also, since there is a bigger number of female teachers working in schools, they share their problems with each other and thus manage to relax (Küçüksüleymanoğlu, 2011, p. 58). However, these results were contradicted by the research conducted by Williams and Dikes (2011), who concluded that females (49%) are far more likely to experience emotional exhaustion in their professional practice compared to males (33%) (p. 341). As to the depersonalization subscale, males showed higher indicators (33%) compared to female teachers (12%). It was also reported that male and female special education teachers show similar indicators as to personal accomplishments in the workplace (Williams & Dikes, 2011, p. 341).

According to the research conducted by Bataineh and Alsagheer (2012), when it comes to gender differences and burnout, male special education teachers predominantly experience higher levels of burnout compared with female teachers (p. 8). These findings support the results of the previously mentioned studies that concluded that women manage pressure in the teaching setting much better than men. Research by Bataineh and Alsagheer (2012) also aimed to analyze the impact social support has on burnout experienced by special education teachers (p. 9).

The sources of social support for teachers were associated with various social dimensions such as gender, age, teaching experience, and marital status (Bataineh & Alsagheer, 2012, p. 10). One of the most interesting findings of the research apart from the correlation between gender and burnout was the positive relationship between the positive accomplishment dimension and family support, as well as between the support of the colleagues and personal accomplishment (Bataineh & Alsagheer, 2012, p. 10). When speaking about colleagues’ support, female teachers manage to withstand burnout because the majority of teachers in schools are female, and they are able to support each other, share experiences, and offer help.

Years of Experience and Burnout

Years of experience can be considered an important aspect for determining teachers’ burnout since it can say a lot about what the professionals can do in his or her practice. For example, according to the study by Hoffman, Palladino, and Barnett (2007), inexperienced teachers can often deal with the loss of control in specific situations (p. 18). The study gave an example of an emerging teacher taking up a class of four-graders with cognitive impairments. The teacher reported that despite her preservice training, without experience, she felt like she had no control over the situation (Hoffman et al., 2007, p. 19). Therefore, experience in a field, especially when it comes to special education, can be regarded as a strong point for withstanding stress and eliminating burnout.

As mentioned by the study conducted by Zabel and Zabel (1983), more experienced and highly trained special education teachers are at a lower risk of experiencing burnout in their positions compared with less experienced and younger teachers that are at the start of their careers (p. 258). Therefore, to reduce burnout among special education teachers, it is advised for the educational stakeholders to hire more experienced and highly trained teachers. A study by Küçüksüleymanoğlu (2011) showed that teachers with one to ten years of experience in the special education sphere tend to experience more burnout in comparison with others (p. 59). When it comes to the depersonalization subscale, teachers with 1-15 years of experience show the highest indicators (Küçüksüleymanoğlu, 2011, p. 59).

Similar to the above-mentioned studies, Williams and Dikes (2011) also found that teachers with less experience than twenty-two years showed higher rates of emotional exhaustion (55%) (p. 343). Teachers working for five to ten years in the sphere of special education reported the largest percentage of low emotional exhaustions (36%) (Williams & Dikes, 2011, p. 343). Special teachers with one to four years of working in the field did not experience depersonalization while their peers with five to ten years of experience reported the largest percentage (23%) in the depersonalization subscale (Williams & Dikes, 2011, p. 343).

With regard to years of experience, the study conducted by Platsidou (2010) explores employee satisfaction inventory designed to measure the level of satisfaction of special education teachers (p. 63). The inventory is not only linked to the years of experience a teacher has but also includes the quality of such experiences. For example, if a teacher agreed that his or her experience working in special education was worthwhile and that he or she was provided with an appropriate level of principal support, the likelihood of high job satisfaction increased. What is interesting is that according to the experiment conducted by Platsidou (2010), years of experience did not have a significant impact on the factors of emotional intelligence, such as burnout (p. 65).

Level of Teaching and Special Education Teachers Burnout

The level of teaching in the sphere of special education is one of the most important components for providing students with a high quality of education. When teachers are provided with appropriate tools and materials for teaching, they are able to better organize the learning process and ensure that all students are included in the process of learning. According to the research conducted by Kaufhold, Alverez, and Arnold (2003), fifty percent of teachers participating in the experiment “strongly agreed” that the lack of adequate school supplies and resources majorly impacted their performance in the position (p. 160). Forty percent of teachers “agreed” that they lacked enough sufficient resources and materials; while six percent of special education teachers were neutral as to the availability of necessary teaching materials, nobody indicated that they had enough resources to efficiently teach their students (Kaufhold et al., 2003, p. 160).

When exploring the level of teaching, it is important to pay attention to teacher certification as an indicator that shows the effectiveness of the teacher when educating students with special needs. The study conducted by Thornton, Peltier, and Medina (2007) mentioned specific factors that influence the level of teaching and help children achieve success; such factors include professional development, teacher induction, working conditions, mentoring, administrative support, and teachers programs (p. 235). It was concluded that the availability of the mentioned factors could significantly improve the level of teaching and facilitate effective interactions between students and their educators. Therefore, there is some correlation between the level of teacher’s burnout and the level of teaching they offer. According to the same study, schools can attract and retain skilled teachers when treating them as valuable professionals that require respect and attention, as well as the efforts to reduce burnout associated with their job (Thornton et al., 2007, p. 237).

The level of teaching is also associated with the differentiation of burnout levels that occur as a result of behavioral problems exhibited by children in the classroom. Thus, the examination of teachers’ burnout as related to the level of teaching should also be conducted within the context of behavioral issues educators have to withstand in order to teach their students. According to the research conducted by Bibou-Nakou, Stogiannidou, and Kiosseoglou (1999), the majority of teachers did not have a clear strategy within their personal levels of teaching to deal with student’s problem behavior (p. 213). It has also been identified that teachers usually exhibit lower levels of depersonalization in the context of external student-related attributions (Bibou-Nakou et al., 1999, p. 214). On the other hand, teachers show high levels of emotional exhaustion in cases of internal student-related causes when children create disruption in the classroom. The study by Bibou-Nakou et al. (1999) suggested that teachers are prone to having similar perceptions as to the correlation between their burnout, disciplinary issues, and the level of their teaching (p. 214).

It is important to mention the research conducted by McCarty (2013), which aimed to explore the relationship between the special education teachers’ sense of teacher efficacy on the intent to leave their job (p. 89). This study found no significant correlation between the sense of teacher efficacy and their intention to leave the position, despite the fact that the previously conducted research did found such a correlation. On the other hand, the research by McCarty (2013) found that special educators’ perceptions about the engagement of their students had a positive effect on the intent to leave (p. 90). Because special education teachers work with students that have specific learning needs, teachers who see that their students are engaged in the learning process are far more likely to remain in their position and improve their teaching levels. Apart from students’ engagement, the level of teachers’ sense of efficacy can also be influenced by the principal support. Job satisfaction among special education teachers requires support from the outside; as evidenced by the findings of the study by McCarty (2013). Furthermore, such findings were consistent with the ones from previous studies that also explored how the principal management of the educational facilities can facilitate job satisfaction of special education teachers.

As to the special education teachers’ self-efficacy when educating students with special needs, the study by Egyed and Short (2006), who hypothesized that the characteristics of teachers would be directly related to their intentions to refer children with special education needs (p. 470). For example, teachers that experienced difficulties with referring a child tended to have increased levels of burnout. On the contrary, teachers that reported lower levels of burnout were dedicated to their practice and were eager to help students with special education needs (Egyed & Short, 2006, p. 470). Therefore, those special education professionals who believed that their classrooms were the most productive alternatives for children to improve were much more likely to show higher levels of self-efficacy and higher levels of teaching.

Solutions to Teachers’ Burnout

The literature review on the topic of burnout among special education teachers revealed that there are some correlations between the degree earned by teachers, years of experience, the level of teaching, gender, and professional burnout. It has been identified that more experienced and skilled special education teachers tend to better withstand stress and deal with burnout associated with their profession. Furthermore, male teachers are much more likely to experience burnout in their teaching practice since they do not have as much college support compared to female teachers. It is also worth to mention that principal support and the provision of adequate teaching resources and materials improves the level of teaching and subsequently decreases burnout.

Burnout among special education teachers is a problem that requires not only identification but also a solution. Teachers’ burnout and stress can subsequently cause absenteeism as well as diminish the educators’ capacity to effectively interact with students. Furthermore, burnout can directly affect students’ engagement and negatively impact the effectiveness of the educational program (Roeser et al., 2013, p. 789). The research conducted by Roeser et al. (2013) explored the mindfulness training program, targeted at using different pedagogical approaches for fostering mindfulness and compassion among special education teachers and providing them with mechanism beneficial for effectively dealing with stress (p. 790).

Such programs can be particularly useful within the context of special education since teachers should be aware of the importance of self-compassion and compassion to others as well as be able to deal with stressful situations regarding children with special needs. According to the experiment by Roeser et al. (2013), mindfulness training was a feasible method of stress reduction for teachers and also facilitated the development of a compassionate mindset that helps them manage job-related stress as well as better “attend to the interpersonal and instructional complexities of teaching and learning” (p. 799).

When discussing teacher’s burnout in the sphere of special education, it is important to take into consideration student behavior patterns as another contributor. Regardless of teachers’ experience, degree, or gender, external factors such as student behavior can significantly increase stress and contribute to teachers’ burnout. According to the research conducted by Hastings and Bham (2003), students’ disrespect contributes to teachers’ emotional exhaustion and depersonalization while the lack or absence of sociability between students and teachers contributed to depersonalization and decreased personal accomplishment (p. 115). Challenging behavior in the classroom is a component that will always be present in the profession of special education teachers, so it is important to learn how to deal with it. As mentioned by Zwijsen et al. (2015) in the study concerning nursing homes and patients with dementia, misbehavior is one of the key contributing factors to job dissatisfaction and burnout among the staff members (p. 69). Therefore, it is important to include misbehavior as an influencing factor to burnout and educate special education professionals how to diminish it and facilitate effective interactions in the classroom.

The topic of job satisfaction among special education schools has already been discussed in the literature review; however, life satisfaction as a contributor to burnout should also be mentioned. The research conducted by Hamama, Ronen, Schachar, and Rosenbaum (2013) identified that while the stress of teaching students with special needs impacts the increase of negative effect among educators, it did not contribute to the decrease of the positive effect (p. 744), which is quite paradoxical. This means that despite the fact that special education teachers experience pressure, stress, as well as other negative feelings, they still manage to proceed with their teaching and maintain positive feelings such as satisfaction and inspiration. Such a paradox can be used as a foundation for further improvements in the practice of special education and inspiring teachers of all ages, genders, experiences, and the levels of teaching to continue doing their job and help children with special needs.

Conclusion

Special education teachers’ burnout has been identified as one of the key issues contributing to job dissatisfaction, absenteeism, and resentment. Despite this, it is noteworthy to mention that inclusion is a key component of a fair society, where people can interact with each other and facilitate an equal distribution of resources (Walker & Musti-Rao, 2016, p. 28). Special education is important for making sure that children are developing within a safe environment, interact with their peers, and act upon the educational requirements posed by key educational stakeholders (Gersten, Fuchs, Williams, & Baker, 2001, p. 286).

The review of the relevant literature on the topic shed light on some important aspects educational researchers should further study and assess. First, the research concluded that there is a negative correlation between the degree earned and burnout. Therefore, the higher the degree earned by a teacher, the lower the possibility of burnout. Second, years of experience in the field of special education are also negatively correlated with burnout. Thus, the lower the number of years of experience, higher is the likelihood of burnout in the special education profession. A conclusion can be made that both earned degree and years of experience help teachers withstand stress, see a positive side in their practice, and are able to facilitate effective interactions with students that have special needs when it comes to education.

Third, when it comes to gender differences and their correlation with teachers’ burnout, the literature review presented some interesting findings. Despite the expected results, the research showed that female teachers are far more likely to withstand stress in their workplace and have lower levels of burnout. What is noteworthy is that the teaching environment facilitates such ‘immunity’ towards burnout. Since it is a common trend that the majority of teachers in any school setting are female, and since women tend to share their experience and show support for one another on a regular basis, the burnout levels are higher among men. Psychologically, it is much easier for female special education teachers to deal with burnout since they are open to supporting others and can ask for help when necessary. Lastly, the level of teaching is another factor that is negatively correlated with burnout. The higher the level of teaching and the higher the number of resources provided for special education teachers, the lower is the possibility of burnout.

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