Category: Teaching

Welcome to the Professional Development Session, focusing on teacher evaluation system that would involve the detailed explanation of various assessment points and instruments to be used. I would like to emphasize that teacher evaluation plays an integral role in ensuring the appropriate education for students and creating adequate working conditions for staff members. The assessment of teachers’ professional knowledge and skills performed according to the regulations of the school, ethics, and fairness will lead to the proper organization of the evaluation processes and the subsequent staff satisfaction. In order to provide such an evaluation, it seems crucial to distinguish between several stages and focus on them in detail, so that each team member can understand his or her role and all the principles of teacher assessment.

First of all, I would like to ask you about any challenges encountered in the course of teacher evaluation to discuss them and try to address (here, it is possible to discuss the topic with the audience based on the issues detected). The evaluation is to be performed by the team of experts, consisting of 2-4 members, one of which would be a principal. Within the first four weeks of the new calendar year 2017-2018, all the necessary documents and team would be organized and prepared for the future assessment. It seems important here to point out that the utilization of online resources can significantly enhance the evaluation process. Therefore, Teacher Profile Summary would be completed online by the team after they clarify the instructions and apply the assessment tools. More to the point, teachers should fill self-evaluation form as a part of Teacher Performance Evaluation Document.

Once the preparation stage is completed, the preliminary data collection should be started to collect the evidence regarding a certain teacher by applying a range of tools, such as formal observation forms A or B as well as informal observations. The number of such observations may be varied, depending on the decision of the evaluation team and other aspects that may occur in the course of the procedures. In effect, teachers with some deficiencies, be it the lack of skills or insufficient understanding of the standards, are to be put on remediation to address the identified issues and be evaluated once again. As for the probationary teachers (EMT), their experience and contemporary skills are to be examined both by the principal and evaluation team members. During the first three months of work, these teachers would have at least one formal observation from the principal and fill forms A or B on Abu Dhabi Education Council (ADEC) website.

The final evaluation conference assumes that the principal and team members would review the collected data and prepare a draft of the final evaluation with reference to the evidence. After that, the team would meet with the teacher and discuss the mentioned data along with self-evaluation document. At this point, the teacher would have the opportunity to provide the additional information that was previously not stated. This meeting would ensure the fact that all the teachers would have equal opportunities to reveal their appropriateness for the suggested position (Whitaker, 2013). Furthermore, I value the direct contact with staff members as it helps to understand not only professional but also personal qualities of the teacher that is rather important while working with students. Such a meeting would also contribute to the refection of the incentives and believes of the teacher, thus leading to the most adequate evaluation outcomes.

There are several teacher evaluation standards that are essential to provide evaluation procedures in a comprehensive manner. It is suggested to assess teachers according to the following marks: foundation, established, accomplished, and mentor, where the latter only for the first standard that focuses directly on the profession, including the commitment to the school vision, personal development, and contribution to the professional learning community. The second standard is curriculum, paying attention to the implementation of the given instructions, planning of the effective learning activities, and being aware of students’ different levels. In their turn, the third and the fourth standards are associated with the classroom and community respectively.

Sergiovanni and Green (2014) distinguish between five forces of the principal that can be used to initiate successful leadership organization. Considering both third and fourth standards that were identified above, it is possible to link them with the human force. It suggests the “role of ‘human engineer’, emphasizing human relations, interpersonal competence, and instrumental motivational techniques” (Sergiovanni & Green, 2014, p. 142). The role of classroom and community is a rather important aspect that needs to be considered by teachers and also by the evaluation team for the assessment. In other words, the way the teachers interacts with class and community, engaging students, parents, and other staff members is likely to be one of the key indicators of his or her performance. The communicative competence is the quality of the teacher, providing an effective design of direct feedback to another person, the establishment of contact with students of different ages and their parents. The ability to develop a strategy, tactics, and techniques for interacting with students, organizing their teamwork activities to achieve certain significant goals by persuading and arguing the position is to be examined as well. The selection of adequate forms and methods of presentation of material may serve as one more indicator of the teacher’s performance.

As a principal, I would like to express my views regarding the very process of teacher evaluation. I believe that this process should be fair and transparent as much as possible since the assessment of the professional activity of the teacher has an impact on his or her attitude to work as well as on the motivation for his or her professional growth. The action plan presented above reflects the need to improve the mechanisms for motivating the continuity of the professional growth of teachers. In this connection, the suggested system of evaluation seems to be quite elaborate and dynamic to satisfy the needs of the school and also those of teachers.

Some teachers may feel uncomfortable while being thoroughly evaluated. In this connection, I agree with Whitaker (2013) who claims that the “effective leaders don’t waste their time or energy trying to persuade everyone that the new system will work better than the old, instead they provide a scaffolding of procedures and techniques” (75). In my point of view, successful leadership is based on precise attention to each staff member based on communication and timely feedback. Therefore, I am ready to discuss and interact with teachers and team members to achieve the best outcomes possible. In other words, the open dialogue is what is valued and appreciated here as the relationships really matter.

References

Sergiovanni, T. J., & Green, R. L. (2014). The principalship: A reflective practice perspective (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.

Whitaker, T. (2013). What great principals do differently: Eighteen things that matter most (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.

Introduction

Pre-planned lessons and the whole course in general help a teacher from wasting time unnecessarily. It also ensures that the teacher knows exactly what he is going to teach in class and therefore able to prepare himself thoroughly before class. It will be used as a way of ensuring that the teacher is on schedule and if not to look for extra time to complete on the syllabus. With the help of the template for teaching guide, (Web Institute for Teachers guide, 2000), this paper is a curriculum design of a science course for a teacher of an eighth grade. It outlines the audience of the teaching guide, the necessary skills of such a student and the contents to be covered by the course.

Audience

This teaching guide is designed for eighth-grade students. Hence, the core curricula should be designed to cater for the adolescent. “Middle school students are undergoing extensive psychological, physiological and social changes, which makes them curious, energetic and egocentric,” (State Board of Education 1985, P.79). This course, therefore, provides opportunities to further and cater to the concerns and wellbeing of adolescents and exposes them to topics of higher interests. The student must have, however, finished all the other levels of study (North Carolina Community College, 2010).

It is designed to help them see a connection between classwork theory and their daily activities in and outside the classroom arena. The investigations are conducted to help students realize who they are and they are motivated by the world. They not only learn about themselves but also about their surroundings, including the communities they live in, and the future career opportunities open to them.

Prerequisites

Science as a discipline relies heavily on the ability to reason logically and a student’s creativity. “A parallel reliance on scientific habits of mind such as intellectual honesty, tolerance of ambiguity, skepticism, and openness to new ideas is crucial to the advancement of science and technology,” (State Board of Education 1985, P. 80). The students at this level should understand that though scientific ideas are supposed to be constant and unchanging, it is at the same time very probabilistic, uncertain, and replicable. The student should have a solid conceptual base on the nature of science and the fundamental principles underlying it.

To successfully go through this course, students should be able to investigate scientific facts and principles to test their practicability. They should also be able to hypothetically come up with questions and proceed to answer those questions through scientific methods. They should think logically and critically to be able to distinguish facts from myths. They should use science to gather, arrange and provide data as well as derive explanations from that data. They should analyze experimental procedures and communicate them and their results to the teacher. A student should be able to use the available tools and equipment to collect, review and communicate data.

Also, a student should have a basic knowledge of technology design since these skills are equally important to inquiry skills in this course. He should be able to identify the various issues in technological design and develop a method of analyzing the solution. He should identify the challenges to be considered and apply safe and practical abilities to operate data, tools, and technologies. He should implement a given design, evaluate such designs and give an account of the advantages and risks associated with a particular solution.

Subject matter

The study of science at this grade adds on to the concepts and skills accumulated from kindergarten to seventh grade. The main objective of studying science is to enable a student to understand the basic scientific principles and procedures and then apply them in day-to-day life. This is facilitated by this course through the evaluation of evolution theories both geological and biological. A student will conduct investigations using technological and informational resources to form an understanding of the existing evidence on how evolution occurs in organisms and landforms. It also evaluates technological and informational advancements and that knowledge is used to study the planet from space. Further, a student should be able to develop inquiry skills necessary in science through experiments and scientific investigations.

Students will study chemicals and their importance as well as the risks associated with them and how those risks may be avoided or minimized. He should understand how chemicals occur and account for their existence in both living and non-living matters. Further, they will evaluate biotechnology and the social-economic issues associated with it. The students will gain knowledge on hydrosphere. He will learn the unique properties as well as the structural components forming the hydrosphere. He will understand the environmental health requirements for various organisms and the effects of humans on this.

This course also deals with the connection between science and technology. “current media topics, emerging technologies, and research issues provide a real-world context for understanding and applying targeted grade-level skills and concepts,” (State Board of Education 1985, P. 81). A student will learn the varied definitions of technology as well as how to apply information systems.

Conclusion

A diligent and wise teacher is required to design a study guide before entering the classroom with detailed and clearly outlined contents of the course. This ensures that the delivery of the teachings is well organized and according to a good plan. Failure to plan may lead to time wastage and incomplete syllabus coverage since there is no clear guideline as to how one is to go about the whole course. A teacher should know how to design one and once formulated, it must be followed thoroughly.

References

North Carolina Community College System. (2010). Academic and Support Services, Basic Skills Department Framework for Program Quality: NC Basic Skills Technical Web.

State of Board of Education. (1985). North Carolina Standard Course of Study: Web.

Web Institute for Teachers guide. (2000). Curriculum Terms and Concepts: Using The Teaching Guide Template to Create Your own Teaching Guide. Web.

Introduction

Professional development is the skill that an employee gains in order to improve his or her personal development and the growth of his or her job. In the education sector, professional development is best defined by Little who refers to it as “a focus on and responsibility for student learning and the formation of professional community inside and outside the school” (Little, 1996, p.1). It is the process through which teachers are able to better understand their students, as well as understand the process of learning and teaching (Darling-Hammond & McLaughlin, 1996).

Generally, professional development allows an individual to attain his/ her highest potential, both personally and professionally and ensures professional growth, through which job performance is improved, and personal satisfaction raised (Rennekamp & Nall, 2006; Zepeda, 2012).

This paper gives a project that focuses on the professional development of teachers teaching ESL students. The paper focuses on the best way through which ESL teachers can best be able to ensure best results and performance among the students in terms of, class participation, enjoyment, comprehension, and memory of content taught multi diversity and effective communication among other important aspects of English as a second language learning.

Project Aims and Objectives

This project mainly aims to ensure professional growth among ESL teachers.

Objectives

To improve English teaching skills among ESL teachers

Such skills will include; how to ensure that students get to enjoy the class, how to ensure that students, from different cultural backgrounds, are able to effectively relate with each other, how to adapt the learning materials to ensure that they help the ESL students understand what is being taught, how to best reach out the students and how to ensure effective communication among the students and between the teacher and the students.

To ensure the best performance for both the teacher and students in terms of English teaching and learning respectively

To attain these aims and objectives, the project will entail a well-organized training of the ESL teachers and will equip them with the required skills to ensure quality and successful teaching and learning.

Standards

This project has been written in accordance with the set standards for professional development. The project falls in line with the National Staff Development Council Staff Development Standards, as well as the Ohio State Board of Education Professional Development Standards. This has been done to ensure best practice and to ensure that planning and implementation will be done in accordance with the required guidelines or principles.

In this case, the project has been prepared in such a way that, it ensures the attainment of goals and continuous improvement of students, provision of all resources necessary for effective learning and collaboration and partaking of parents as well as members of the community. It incorporates two main approaches to effective professional development.

They include; the convectional face to face process of training and the use of learning communities both in schools and the districts (Route 21, 2007). Additionally, the project has been created in line with the context (learning communities, leadership, and resources), process (data-oriented, evaluation, research-based, learning, collaboration, and design) and content (quality teaching, data-driven, and family participation) standards of the National Staff Development Council Staff Development Standards (NSDC, 2012). Below is a brief account of the project in requisites of the essential standards for professional development.

With regard to content, the professional development project will:

• Focus on ensuring that teachers are able to ensure that the teacher can deal with the needs of every student.
• Ensure effective communication skills for students.

With regard to process, it will be:

• A multi-faceted program: this will entail a five-day session that will be done on Saturdays.
• Based on research
• On-site
• Done to all ESL teachers at a go.
• Done using the lesson study model.
• Valuing every participant who voluntarily takes part in the project

With regard to context, the project will:

• Partner with various institutions or schools

The set objectives for the project have been guided by three main questions that include; what does the ESL teacher require to do and be acquainted with so as to enhance success among the students, what should the learners do and know, and what should be the focus of the staff development process to ensure success.

Model of Professional Development to use

The model to be used in carrying out the professional development project will be the lesson study model. This is a common professional development approach, and that has been used for many of the professional development sessions for teachers in various countries, and most especially Japan (Lewis, 2002). In this case, the teachers will collaboratively work together during the five-day workshop to solve their various issues and to improve their teaching skills.

The teachers will be actively involved in planning, designing, implementing, assessing as well as refining ESL lessons. The teachers will be divided into groups of six. The training will include substitutes from district communities, and who will provide support all through the learning process in different ways. The substitute will, for example, be responsible for integrating the use of the various teaching techniques and aides into the already existing ESL teaching curriculum. This will be in the presence of teachers so as to ensure that the approach is a team teaching one.

Benefits of the model

The lesson study model is an effective way through which teachers are able to create quality lesson plans as well as better understand the learning of students (Zepeda, 2012). Additionally, the use of the lesson study model allows for extra information to be obtained both for experts and the less knowledgeable and experience, as well. This is made possible, as teachers get to interact with their group members, who are mainly peers. Additionally, the method allows for both the teachers and experts to interact though an active discussion, which may entail asking and answering of questions. In this case, the model ensures that sufficient information is gained. Basically, people prefer to communicate on a one on one basis, a factor that makes this model a better preference for many professionals.

As another benefit, the lesson study model of professional development will allow for the active participation of the teachers, as well as the active interaction between the experts and those with less knowledge or experience.

The use of the model will also beneficial in such a way that, the ESL teachers will be able to share their various experiences, ideas as well as challenges, with regard to teaching ESL students. This by itself will be a rich way of gaining skills and professional growth.

The Training Process

The training process will be guided by the set objectives of the project. The training will bring out the best practices for ESL teaching and ensure that the teachers gain sufficient skills in teaching ESL students. Such skills will entail those related to; how to best identify and meet the needs of students, how to ensure an easy students’ understanding of content the taught, how to promote equal learning for all, effective and best ESL resources to use as well as the best ESL teaching approaches.

One of the most significant concepts that will be looked into is the use of collaborative teaching. This can be defined as the teaching approach whereby, two or more teachers work together to ensure students’ success. The teacher’s plan, teach and monitor the progress of every student, and works towards meeting the specific needs of each of them (Bauwens &Hourcade, 1997).

Conclusion

Professional development has been regarded as an important aspect of ensuring personal and professional growth. In education, professional growth for teachers is important in ensuring students’ success. The above professional development project was for ESL teachers and aimed at improving their English teaching skills. The project sought to ensure that there is improved performance for both the teacher and students, with consideration of the teaching and learning of English as a second language. The created project was in line with the National Staff Development Council Staff Development Standards as well as the Ohio State Board of Education Professional Development Standards.

With the successful implementation of the project, which uses a lesson study model of professional development, then the set objectives will effectively be met.

References

Bauwens, J. & Hourcade, J. (1997). Cooperative Teaching: Pictures of Possibilities. Intervention in School and Clinic, 33: 81-89.

Darling-Hammond, L. & McLaughlin M. (1996). Policies That Support Professional Development in an Era of Reform. New York: Teachers College.

Lewis, C. (2002). Lesson Study: A Handbook of TeacherLed Instructional Change. Philadelphia: Research for Better Schools.

Little, J. (1996). Organizing Schools for Teacher Learning. Berkeley: University of California.

Rennekamp, A. & Nall, M. A Guide for Professional Development. Web.

Route 21. (2007). Ohio Professional Development. Web.

The National Staff Development Council (NSDC). (2012). The National Staff Development Council’s Standards for Staff Development. Web.

Zepeda, S. (2012). Professional development: What works? Larchmont, NY: Eye on Education.

Article Critique

An alternate plan paper titled “Reading Comprehension in the Secondary Classroom” written by Rowe Novotny and Kathryn Grace seeks to address the issue of teaching comprehension strategies for secondary education. The paper explores available research related to the area of study at the secondary level to determine the most viable strategies for determining students’ comprehension skills. It is clear from the introduction to the first chapter that the issue of mastering academic content is one that requires comprehensive research. The authors start by saying that even though comprehension is an essential skill for the achievement of post-secondary goals, numerous students do not have sufficient comprehension of reading materials (Novotny & Grace, 2011). They state that all teachers have to provide their students with efficient comprehension strategies so they would become successful readers.

Another part of the paper provides a literature review focusing on the following aspects of the issue: reading comprehension and the important elements, comprehension strategies, and implementation by teachers. Taking into consideration that the problem of reading comprehension in the secondary classroom is extremely complicated and multifaceted, the authors create a clear presentation of the issue focusing on the most important strategies. They sum up the section dedicated to the process of reading comprehension and its important elements by saying that all secondary teachers have to focus on the following elements of reading: vocabulary building and vocabulary instruction, comprehension strategies, and the development of professional skills of educators (Novotny & Grace, 2011). The next part of the paper is devoted to the analysis of existing comprehension strategies. The authors review four academic papers that indicate question asking and answering, summarization, story mapping, graphic organizers, generation of questions, and monitoring comprehension as the most important methods for increasing comprehension of reading materials (Novotny & Grace, 2011). Novotny and Grace close the last section of the second chapter of the paper by providing the following strategies for implementation of comprehension techniques: prediction, questioning, summarizing, and clarifying (2011).

The third chapter of the paper discusses strategies for teaching comprehension methods. It focuses on the instruction, practice, and independent reading in class (Novotny & Grace, 2011). It should be noted that the authors recognize the importance of the use of comprehension strategies at home. Moreover, they stress the necessity to inform students’ parents about comprehension strategies to encourage the habit of reading. Furthermore, Novotny and Grace acknowledge a lack of consensus among scholars on the most important comprehension methods and argue that “several strategies should be taught in combination for the best result” (2011, p. 24). However, the authors do not provide any empirical evidence to support their claim thereby weakening the argument. They also imply that text structure plays a significant role in the comprehension process; nonetheless, they fail to explain how the overall organization of a text influences the mental action of a reader. Therefore, it could be argued that more extensive research in the subject area would have provided a more accurate view of the topic. It should be noted that the method of data selection is not appropriate for the research area. Even though the quality of all articles selected for the study has been assessed by peer review, it is clear that some of them are outdated. Nonetheless, the paper provides an objective perspective on the issue of teaching comprehension strategies for secondary education.

Reference

Novotny, R., & Grace, K. (2011). Reading Comprehension in the Secondary Classroom. Theses, Dissertations, and Other Capstone Projects, Paper 102.

Learning Assessment and Feedback

What is the difference between formative and summative assessment?

The difference between the types of assessment is the purpose of collecting information (Oermann, 2015). Formative assessments identify the existing knowledge gaps and skills to be improved, whereas summative assessments provide a summary of what has been learned. The latter take different forms (final exams, academic transcript grades, or chapter tests) and bottom-line the information on academic performance. Formative assessments are presented by peer evaluations and self-reflection assignments. Their key role is to provide recommendations and set the pace for professional growth.

What experiences/emotions as a learner could influence you to be a feedback seeker or feedback avoider?

The way that learners perceive feedback is impacted by their experiences (Fong et al., 2016). To demonstrate a feedback-seeking behavior, I would need to ensure that my instructor is interested in motivating me and encouraging my professional growth. Also, it could be related to some professional qualities of an instructor such as fairness and integrity. Conversely, the lack of these qualities and the experience of being evaluated with partiality would make me a feedback avoider.

How might grade inflation impact the authenticity and consistency of constructive feedback?

According to White and Heitzler (2018), grade inflation is related to cheating and conflict avoidance. With that in mind, it has an adverse impact on the authenticity and consistency of feedback since changing expectations encourage instructors to be less honest when sharing their opinions on the quality of works. The willingness to defuse potential conflicts changes the approach to providing feedback; as a result, many students become unable to fulfill their potential.

Teaching Strategies

How do technology-based teaching strategies fulfill the learning needs/preferences of modern nursing students?

R2D2, electronic role-plays, and flipped classroom allow meeting the needs of nursing students from across the world. The use of various activities helps learners with different degrees of digital literacy to work on real-time cases and gain valuable experience (Bonk & Zhang, 2006; Craft & Ainscough, 2015; Peisachovich, Murtha, Phillips, & Messinger, 2016). The preferences of students are also taken into account because the strategies apply various learning styles (visual, aural, etc.). They are successfully used to develop entry-to-practice competencies due to the simulation of workplace scenarios based on real clinical cases (Craft & Ainscough, 2015).

How do teaching strategies like R2D2 and Flipped Classrooms assume individuals learn?

Both R2D2 and FC assume that individuals should be offered more freedom in preparation for classes. Therefore, both approaches to teaching emphasize individual responsibility and exclude rigid control. R2D2 is based on the theories of learning styles, and it involves four types of learning activities just like VARK (Bonk & Zhang, 2006). The idea of FC is that video lectures save time, help to increase the effectiveness of offline classes, and make students feel responsible for their academic progress. Personally, I agree with these views, but it seems that the idea of learning styles can lead to evaluation challenges.

Are current teaching strategies adequately equipping undergraduate nursing students for the workplace?

Mennenga and Smyer (2010) claim that the majority of teaching strategies in nursing education are poorly structured and do not prepare nurses for work. I think that the problem is the necessity to combine different activities properly. To me, the use of only one model is unlikely to encourage well-rounded professional development. For instance, it would not be right to replace all practices with the team-based learning model since its implementation is time-consuming and requires a lot of classroom space (Mennenga & Smyer, 2010).

How can novice instructors be better supported to improve their teaching practice?

According to Scanlan (2001), many instructors are likely to use their own learning experience to teach others. To support novice teachers, it is necessary to expand their perspective on a regular basis and prevent them from using techniques ignorant of cultural diversity, individual differences, and preferred learning styles. From my experience, young instructors become successful when they rely on the clarity of explanations and establish trust-based relationships with students.

What are some of your favorite teaching methods and why do you like them?

Teaching methods that I prefer include discussions, brainstorming activities, and role plays. To me, the exchange of experience is among the most valuable sources of new knowledge, and all mentioned methods involve it. To some extent, such activities contribute to students’ future professional development. They teach future nurses to work together for a common end and feel responsible for the success of their team, and it explains their effectiveness.

References

Bonk, C. J., & Zhang, K. (2006). Introducing the R2D2 model: Online learning for the diverse learners of this world. Distance Education, 27(2), 249-264. Web.

Craft, J., & Ainscough, L. (2015). Development of an electronic role-play assessment initiative in bioscience for nursing students. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 52(2), 172-184. Web.

Fong, C. J., Warner, J. R., Williams, K. M., Schallert, D. L., Chen, L. Williamson, Z. H. & Lin, S. (2016). Deconstructing constructive criticism: The nature of academic emotions associated with constructive positive and negative feedback. Learning and Individual Difference, 49(1), 393-399. Web.

Mennenga, H., & Smyer, T. (2010). A model for easily incorporating team-based learning into nursing education. International Journal of Nursing Education Scholarship, 7(1), 1-14.

Oermann, M. H. (2015). Assessment methods. In M. H. Oermann (Ed.), Teaching in nursing and role of the educator: The complete guide to best practice in teaching, evaluation and curriculum development (pp. 191-215). New York, NY: Springer.

Peisachovich, E. H., Murtha, S., Phillips, A., & Messinger, G. (2016). Flipping the classroom: A pedagogical approach to applying clinical judgment by engaging, interacting, and collaborating with nursing students. International Journal of Higher Education, 5(4), 114-121.

Scanlan, J. M. (2001). Learning clinical teaching: Is it magic? Nursing and Health Care Perspectives, 22(5), 240-246.

White, K. A., & Heitzler, E. T. (2018). Effect of increased evaluation objectivity on grade inflation: Precise grading rubrics and rigorously developed tests. Nurse Educator, 43(2), 73-77. Web.

A teaching portfolio is a specific tool designed for documenting and communicating strengths and accomplishments of a particular teacher. It is commonly developed and used by different groups of people (involved in varying fields of education-related activities) with the aim of assessing performance during an educational program (Birks, Hartin, Woods, Emmanuel, & Hitchins, 2016; Kim & Yazdian, 2014).

From this perspective, the major objective of any teaching plan is to potentially improve the quality of teaching because it serves as the foundation for reflection on a completed teaching program as well as constructing a comprehensive plan of action for the further professional growth and development (Sinner, Wicks, & Rak, 2015). The specificity of teaching portfolios is the fact that it is commonly used in nursing education (Sidhu, 2015). More than that, it contributes to the possible significant improvement of learning outcomes due to turning the learning process into more efficient, thus making the achievement of learning objectives easier and faster (Dubé & Ducharme, 2014).

Because the main objective of the teaching portfolio is to foster personal development and the overall professional performance improvement, it can be constructed in different ways based on the aims of educational initiatives. It means that there are no specific requirements to the structure of the document. Still, in most case, teaching portfolios include such elements as the overview of teaching activities and accomplishments, description and evaluation of knowledge assessment tools, justification for selected techniques and assessment methods, and reflection on the completed work (Sidhu, 2015).

Another significant element of the teaching portfolio is a detailed plan of action due to its central objective – enhancing personal development of an individual. At the same time, the main requirement to a teaching plan is the representation of the connection between the practical steps that were taken and active theories commonly used for enhancing the learning process (Herinckx, Munkvold, Winter, & Tanner, 2014; Waltz, Jenkins, & Han, 2014).

Based on the specificities of teaching portfolios mentioned above, the document at hand will incorporate the description of different aspects of a teaching plan as well as the reflection on the completed work – practical steps taken to bring the designed teaching plan to life. In particular, it will address different learning and teaching styles, describe and justify topic selection, as well as the choice of assessment tools and teaching styles, identify learning objectives and explain ways to achieve them, assess the effectiveness of the learning and teaching processes from the perspective of cognitive theory in nursing education, and involve the reflective section developed in accordance with Gibbs’ reflective circle approach.

Session Content and Plan (Justification)

This section of the teaching portfolio aims at describing the foundations of the teaching plan and providing a rationale for selecting them. In particular, it will address the following aspects of the practical steps: the connection between the developed teaching plan and practicum, knowledge assessment methods, teaching and learning styles, topic justification, and learning objectives.

Teaching Plan and Practicum

A teaching plan is a comprehensive document that is developed keeping in mind the specificities of learners as well as the environment of learning – social factors affecting learning outcomes and contributing to achieving learning objectives (Kloh, de Lima, &Reibnitz, 2014).

In this way, the teaching plan should focus on specific learners’ needs – deploy approach centring on learners. It means that participative learning should be enhanced regardless of the specificities of the learning environment. The rationale for making this decision is the belief that the participative learning process is the best option for improving the overall learning outcomes, as well as making the achievement of learning objectives easier and faster. It can be explained by the fact that it maximises benefits for learners and helps them not only obtain new knowledge but also develop communication and critical thinking skills necessary for any professional involved in nursing (Latta, Tordoff, Manning, & Dent, 2013).

More than that, the teaching plan should clearly identify learning objectives as well as the steps necessary for achieving them. It is essential for obtaining a better understanding of the expected outcomes of lectures and discussions that are clear for both educators and learners. From this perspective, the involvement and description of learning objectives, as well as the means for achieving them, is the most critical element of the teaching plan, as it determines chances for the practical success of the educational program (Lee & Daugherty, 2016). Here, it is essential to point to the fact that the identification of learning objectives should be based on knowledge assessment tools and inseparable from steps that will be taken in future to achieve them (Fowler, 2014; Wonder & Otte, 2015).

The practice under consideration is a lecture on cerebrovascular accident. It incorporates a discussion and PowerPoint presentation in order to contribute to the potentially higher chances for achieving learning objectives and improving learning outcomes. Here, it is essential to mention that there are some budget issues, as it is necessary to print questionnaires for assessing the learners. However, they are insignificant.

During the lecture and discussions, I was the educator. As for the learners, they were both undergraduate nursing students as well as those nurses who are already practising. The lecture took slightly more than 30 minutes. Each learning objective was associated with a particular volume of theoretical information followed by an opportunity to ask questions in order to maximise the outcomes and improve the quality of presented materials.

Knowledge Assessment

Knowledge assessment is critical for obtaining a better understanding of learning outcomes and concluding whether identified learning objectives were achieved. Nevertheless, it is imperative to assure that knowledge assessment is associated with students’ needs and the specificities of the learning environment in order to guarantee that the measurement of outcomes is realistic and the potential benefits of the educational program are maximised (Fowler, 2014).

Within the framework of this educational initiative, the specific needs of learners include the necessity to have the access to the latest knowledge about stroke, develop practical skills related to diagnosing and treating it properly, and incorporating evidence-based techniques into practice in order to improve the quality of patient care and their health outcomes (You et al., 2013). It means that knowledge assessment is not only an integral part of the teaching plan but also an inseparable element of the lecture because it is directly associated with the potential changes in the plan necessary for the improved outcomes and addressing specific needs unforeseen during developing the teaching plan – unexpected knowledge gaps that should be filled during the lecture.

Within the context of this educational program, pre- and post-testing are selected as the major method for assessing learners’ knowledge (Norman, 2012). To assess the learners, printed questionnaires are used. They include 5 questions – one per each learning objective. They are analysed after the completion of the lecture. This tool was chosen because it is concise and direct. More than that, it is one of the methods that is extremely helpful for measuring the outcomes and efficiency of the lectures because the results of the post-testing can be easily compared with the results of the pre-testing, thus helping to measure gains in knowledge (Delucchi, 2014).

In this way, the chosen method is beneficial for finding out whether any knowledge gaps have been filled during the lecture and discussion (Norman, 2012). Based on the specificities of this approach, the objective of pre-testing is to identify the existing knowledge gaps. It is paramount in order to make sure that the proposed materials will be of both theoretical and practical value to the learners. As for the post-test, it will measure the effectiveness of the class (Branji, Gottesman, de Grave, Steinert,& Winer, 2012).

Topic Justification

Regardless of the fact that knowledge assessment is the central aspect of the teaching plan, it is critical to point to the significance of the selected topic. The ability to diagnose and treat cerebrovascular accident – stroke – can be explained not only by the serious health-related consequences, including death, but also the connection of the topic to the overall improvement of health outcomes (Hsieh, Lin, Hu, & Sung, 2017).

More than that, it is essential to mention that even though it is imperative to pay special attention to personal development and growth, focusing on the repetition of theoretical material is as well important, especially in the case of critical health concerns, such as stroke. From this perspective, making sure that nurses – both graduate nursing students and those already practising – are familiar with the fundamental theoretical knowledge regarding stroke and know how to address it properly is paramount for improving their overall performance. In this way, continued practice, as well as the demonstration of comprehensive theoretical knowledge and refreshing it, is the integral element of nursing education (Dubé & Ducharme, 2014).

That being said, the necessity of focusing on studying causes and treatment of stroke is associated with its central role in the overall wellbeing of the community and improved health outcomes of community members that are inseparable from nurses’ performance and competence.

Teaching Styles

There are different teaching techniques, and achieving the most positive outcomes of educational programs is commonly associated with developing a unique combination of different teaching styles and applying them to teaching. Still, regardless of the specificities of a teaching style, in any case, it is selected based on specific learners’ needs and the cognitive theory in nursing. The first factor is evident because it determines the necessity of identifying the most effective way of addressing specific needs of all learners belonging to a particular group. As for the connection between the teaching style and the cognitive theory, it can be explained by the differences in learning styles that are individual for all learners and may affect learning outcomes as well as the ability to achieve particular learning objectives (Blevins, 2014).

It means that some students are more efficient learners when the information is visually represented (for instance, as a PowerPoint presentation), while others give preference to the oral communication of theoretical materials (lectures and discussions).

As for discussions, they are connected to the increased efficiency of the learning process because they contribute to the active involvement of the majority of learners in the learning process, thus potentially improving their learning outcomes and helping fill in the existing knowledge gaps. This teaching style is referred to as active learning (Kroning, 2014). Nevertheless, regardless of the positive influence of the so-called active learning on the overall learning outcomes and achieving learning objectives, especially in nursing education, this style is not appropriate and efficient for all learners due to the individual preferences mentioned above (Herinckx et al., 2014).

That is why the combination of active learning and visual representation of theoretical materials (PowerPoint) was chosen as the foundation for the lecture under consideration. The motivation for this choice is the desire to satisfy the needs of all learners as well as achieve the main objective of any teaching style – maximise the expected outcomes by filling in the existing knowledge gaps. Apart from the effectiveness of combining teaching styles, incorporating the PowerPoint presentation is not only technically beneficial but also serves as a metaphorical safety net in the case of potential complications connected to the human factor, such as forgetting some critical theoretical details or getting stressed because of the atmosphere in the class (Kothari & Pingle, 2016; Kroning, 2014).

Learning Styles

Just like teaching styles, learning styles as well vary based on the individual specificities of personal development, skills, and background of the learners. That is why they should be kept in mind while communicating theoretical materials and taking steps to achieve learning objectives (D. A. Compton & C. M. Compton, 2017). The differences in learning styles are inseparable from the ability to perceive information effectively based on the apprehension of materials communicated via different information channels (for instance, visual or auditory). These preferences are connected to one’s personal experience as well as critical thinking skills (Rassin, Kurzweil, & Maoz, 2015; Nostratinia & Soleimannejad, 2016).

Based on these differences, the combination of teaching styles was selected for addressing all learning styles of the learners belonging to the group – visual, oral, and auditory. In addition, this step was taken to enhance flexibility of learners because, just like teachers can be flexible in adapting teaching styles so that they correspond with the specificities of the learning environment, the same is true for learners that can alter their learning styles in order to achieve learning objectives in accordance with the provided material (Gemmel, 2012; Li, 2014).

Learning Objectives

As mentioned earlier in this section, identifying and describing learning objectives is critical for maximising the effectiveness of the prepared educational program. Within the framework of the program, five distinct learning objectives were determined. All of them are of equal value to obtaining a better understanding of strokes as well as the way to address them properly. More than that, it is imperative to note that the representation of materials related to achieving each of the learning objectives mentioned above was limited in time in order to guarantee that the time limit for the lecture – 30 minutes – was adhered to and no unnecessary details were included.

In this case, it is essential to point to the fact that all of these goals are short-term ones because the level of obtained knowledge may be measured right after closing the lecture. Still, it is paramount to mention that they cannot be perceived as long-term ones because, even though they are directly associated with nurses’ competence, it is impossible to measure changes in professionals’ performance at the end of the educational initiative and conclude how nurses treat patients with stroke in real life.

That being said, on the completion of this session, the learners will be able to explain the definition of stroke, identify signs of a possible stroke, explain steps for general evaluation and stabilisation of patients with a stroke, demonstrate knowledge and skills to perform stroke diagnosis, and discuss treatment of patients following stroke.

Explain the definition of stroke

This step is the shortest one. It is connected to defining cerebrovascular accident and stating that it is a medical term standing for stroke. In general, the idea is to point that stroke is a health concern connected to the stop of bloodflow in one’s brain caused either by blockage or rupture of blood vessels (Kimura et al., 2017). For improving learning outcomes, this step is supported by the PowerPoint presentation. The drive is to make the learners aware of the definition of stroke as well as demonstrate its cause – by including several pictures showing blocked and ruptured blood vessels that commonly lead to this critical health condition. By achieving this objective, the learners will be able to explain what is a stroke.

Identify signs of a possible stroke

In the second question, special attention will be paid to the signs that are commonly associated with the possible stroke. This step is as well characterised by the inclusion of the PowerPoint presentation in order to address all potential differences in learning styles. The focus is made on such signs of stroke as feeling sudden weakness in one side of the body, droop in face muscles, and incoherent speech (Kent & Thaler, 2015). Achieving this objective is associated with the ability to identify these signs.

Explain steps for general evaluation and stabilisation of patients with a stroke

In this instance, the focus is made on the criticality of a timely evaluation and stabilisation of a patient with possible stroke. It is identified the special attention should be paid to signs mentioned above and prompt reaction to a pre-hospital notification. As for the evaluation, stress should be laid on the necessity of conducting a CT scan, measuring blood pressure, and essential neurologic assessment. As for stabilisation, in some cases, rapid sequence intubation is critical for guaranteeing airway protection and wellbeing of a patient (Jauch et al., 2013). The ability to explain all of these steps is the main criterion pointing to achieving this learning objective. In this case, the main activities and some pictures demonstrating technical skills (intubation) are shown in the presentation.

Demonstrate knowledge and skills to perform stroke diagnosis

During this step, the motivation was to identify procedures necessary for diagnosing stroke. As mentioned above, diagnosis is based upon the first signs, CT, blood pressure, blood tests, and neurologic assessment. In particular, abnormal levels of blood clotting, changes in blood sugar and vital blood chemicals may point to a stroke. A CT scan can show a stroke. The same is true about using MRI (Jauch et al., 2013). Here, it is vital to include all physical health determinants (for instance, blood pressure, clotting, etc.) and pictures of CT scans and MRI that show stroke for supporting words with visual information. So, demonstrating knowledge of all procedures helpful for diagnosing stroke is a success criterion.

Discuss treatment of patients following stroke

Even though the success of treatment is associated with a timely diagnosis, choosing appropriate treatment plan is as well critical. Therefore, it is paramount to point to different treatment plans that are commonly used to help patients with strokes, such as blood glucose and blood pressure control, maintaining a patient in a supine position, cardiac monitoring, and thrombolytic therapy (Jauch et al., 2013). Discussing their efficiency is a success criterion. Just like in the case of the previous question, special attention is paid to demonstrating the mentioned position as well as efficient medicaments for treating the patient.

Assessment of Learning and Teaching (Justification)

This lesson was developed based on the postulates of the cognitive theory of learning that were used for the justification of almost all choices made during developing the teaching plan and sharing knowledge with the learners.

Cognitive Theory in Nursing Education

Cognitive theory was developed on the basis of behaviourism. However, unlike behaviourism, the focus is made on one’s mind and individuality for making sense of the presented materials and achieving particular learning outcomes (Chen et al., 2016). From this perspective, specific attention is paid to learners and their needs so that it is possible to present educational materials in an effective and appropriate way and reach all of the learners (D. Chambers, Thiekotter, & L. Chambers, 2013).

Because the theory is based on the perception of information, it is essential to enhance involvement in the learning process in order to increase its effectiveness (Sousa, Formiga, Oliviera, Costa, & Soares, 2015). In this way, the most appropriate approach is that referred to as active learning because it is one inseparable from the participation in knowledge communication and acquiring more knowledge (Chen et al., 2016).

Based on the specificities of cognitive theory of learning mentioned above, it is evident that the stress during the lesson should be laid on understanding rather that repetition of the material. That is why all information was shared with the learners through different learning channels and, after communicating knowledge, the group was given an opportunity to ask questions. This initiative was necessary for maximising the understanding of the educational material as well as making sure that the learners are involved in the process thus developing new meanings and potentially improve the level of their knowledge (Sousa et al., 2015). More than that, the focus is always made on the meaningfulness of knowledge (Chambers et al., 2013). That is why different channels for sharing information were incorporated and the learner-centred approach was chosen for conducting the lecture.

Fieldwork Report (Reflection)

Reflection is an essential element of the teaching portfolio. It is the foundation for developing a comprehensive plan for the further personal and professional development as well as improving the quality of teaching – two central objectives of the portfolio (Jacobs, 2016; Sinner, Wicks, & Rak, 2015). There are different techniques for completing reflection sections. However, Gibb’s learning cycle is one of the most efficient ones (Fowler, 2014). Therefore, the reflective section of this teaching portfolio will be developed based on Gibbs’ theory. That said, the following aspects will be included: description, feelings and thought, evaluation, analysis, conclusion, and action plan (Heyler, 2015; Husebo, O’Regan, & Nestel, 2015).

Description

Description is the first stage of the learning cycle. According to the author of the theory, describing all events is the foundation for understanding and analysing them (Nicole & Dosser, 2016). The conducted lesson was a thoroughly planned educational initiative. In addition, it was developed in a way to avoid any social environment considerations. In this way, language pointing to bias (gender, ethnic or socioeconomic) was used. All materials represented during the lecture were prepared based on scholarly sources in order to make sure that they are relevant, and nursing practice is directly associated with human wellbeing.

To make the learning process focused on a learner, different teaching techniques and channels for sharing information were incorporated. In particular, knowledge was communicated orally (as lecture materials) as visually (as the PowerPoint presentation).

In addition, there were pre-tests to assess the initial knowledge of the learners and post-test to measure the effectiveness of the lecture. They were conducted in the form of printed questionnaires, addressing different theoretical aspects of stroke, such as definitions, signs, treatment plans, and diagnostic procedures. More than that, special attention was paid to a discussion so that opportunities for understanding the shared knowledge were maximised. Finally, all necessary equipment was prepared and set up before the class to make sure that no time was lost because of technical issues.

Feelings and Thoughts

Although I was well-prepared, I felt nervous at the beginning of the lecture. It can be explained by the lack of confidence in the correctness of the selected teaching style and having little knowledge of the environment I was going to work in as well as the specificities of the learners. More than that, I was slightly stressed because I was not sure whether 30 minutes would be enough for sharing the material in detail and answering learners’ questions, if any.

However, as the lecture began, all my worries faded away because it was easy to establish the contact with the group that made me feel more confident. All in all, I think that the lesson was successful because there were no difficulties in communication and technical issues. Moreover, the post-test results demonstrated that the lesson was effective that made me feel even more comfortable. To obtain results and analyse learning outcomes, the findings of pre- and post-testing questionnaires – the number of correct answers to designed questions – were compared after completing the lecture. Because after the lecture, the learners gave more correct answers than before it, the program is perceived as successful (see questionnaire form in Appendix 1).

Evaluation

Based on my feelings, as well as the results of post-testing, it is evident that the outcomes of the lesson are positive. It can be explained by knowledge gains after the lesson, as post-test results were higher compared to pre-testing. In addition, most of the learners appeared interested in the demonstrated materials, as they were attentive and actively involved in all of the discussions after reviewing each question related to the topic. I relate their interest to preparing a PowerPoint presentation and an opportunity to ask questions. As for my performance, I evaluate it as positive because of the interest in my materials and the overall positive feeling I had during the lecture.

Analysis

According to Gibbs’ learning cycle, analysis should be conducted after breaking the whole experience into several components (Nicole & Dosser, 2016). From this perspective, preparation, process, and outcomes will be analysed. The preparation was complicated due to the necessity to present materials in a concise manner, create a presentation, and select an appropriate teaching style. However, as it turned out during the lesson, efforts were not vain because the teaching style and learning objective were selected appropriately, as no significant modifications of the plan were necessary. As for the outcomes, measuring them by means of pre- and post-testing turned out to be a relevant choice because it enhanced the interest of the learners, as I was one to demonstrate my initial interest in improving their knowledge that made them more active and fostered their participation in the learning process and discussion.

Conclusion

Based on the feelings and analysis sections, I can say that I am satisfied with the outcomes of the lesson. It is true from both emotional and educational perspectives. Emotionally, it helped become more confident in my communication and teaching skills. Educationally, it pointed to my teaching talent, as the materials I prepared were helpful for refreshing or gaining knowledge, according to the results of pre- and post-testing. However, it is my subjective opinion of the situation, and I cannot say whether the learners were satisfied with my lesson and teaching style. Regardless of responsiveness to the prepared materials, there was no feedback to my teaching style.

Moreover, I believe that having more time for representing the prepared materials would be more beneficial because it is connected to a potentially more active discussion and an opportunity to answer more question, thus obtaining even more positive learning outcomes. At the same time, there were fewer questions that I expected there would be. It means that the learning process was less active than expected. Nevertheless, regardless of the mentioned weaknesses, I am satisfied with the lesson and believe that it is the combination of oral and visual materials that made it efficient.

Action Plan

Although I feel positive about lesson outcomes, there are some gaps to address. For instance, it is essential to think of the ways to collect meaningful feedback from learners in order to enhance personal development. To achieve it, the idea is to include some questions regarding expectations and perceptions of the teaching style so that there is some information that can serve as the foundation for the further growth. Moreover, I believe that it is essential to develop some initiatives for fostering student involvement in a discussion so that all of the learners are engaged in a dialogue, not only some of them.

For instance, devoting 3 minutes at the beginning of the lecture (for instance, after filling in the questionnaires) for introducing themselves, may make the learners less shy and motivate them to participate in the further dialogue. That being said, although the overall experience is positive, I plan to use the abovementioned techniques for making the future lessons even more effective.

References

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Appendix 1

Questionnaire for Pre- and Post-test

Please, answer the following by marking the correct answer with an X (there may be more than one correct answer).

A teaching portfolio is a crucial element of the process of professional development as it offers several advantages for the educator. One of its primary functions is to provide a summary of the chosen educational content, methods, materials, and approaches to teaching. In addition, the inclusion of rationale for each of the choices increases accessibility of the teaching plan it accompanies and improves understanding of the steps taken by the responsible parties (Blais, 2015).

Finally, by encouraging an argumentative approach to the choice of content and means of its implementation, it enhances self-reflection opportunities for both the educator and the controlling entity (Oermann & Gaberson, 2016). The latter is accomplished in two ways. First, in the process of supplying a rationale for the selected content and tools, the author is able to spot the elements that are either insufficiently or inadequately supported by evidence or otherwise unfitting for the purpose of the initiative. Second, a detailed reflection framework that is commonly used to develop a fieldwork report serves as a tool for progress tracking and, by extension, opens up the possibility for timely adjustment of the planned practices and interventions (Husebø, O’Regan, & Nestel, 2015).

The following paper contains a comprehensive portfolio of the teaching plan on the prevention of burnout among nurses. The portfolio consists of three parts. The session content and plan details the content covered in the session, establishes a relationship between the learning objectives identified for the event, and connects them to the cognitive theory in nursing education. The assessment section provides a description of the approach selected for measuring the efficiency of the learning outcomes as well as a rationale that connects it to the active learning theory. Finally, the reflection section presents a detailed account of the identified outcomes followed by the analysis of their achievements and shortcomings as well as an action plan based on the synthesised knowledge.

Session Content and Plan Justification

Teaching Plan

In order to ensure consistency and obtain clarity of direction both prior to and in the process of education, it is necessary to construct an appropriate teaching plan (Billings & Halstead, 2015). An important prerequisite to its successful completion is the identification of the learning objectives consistent with the overall goals of the event. The said objectives are expected to be based on the intentions of the educator, correspondent to the vision of the organisation, and exercise sufficient depth to clarify further choices made by the education facilitators (Bradshaw & Hultquist, 2016). Importantly, the plan must also contain a meaningful description of the approaches to assessment of the process as well as an overview of possible courses of action in the case of the most likely outcomes (Danielson, 2013).

Additionally, the objectives are to be accompanied by the designated practices suitable for achieving them as well as an explanation of their compatibility with overall goals (Marzano, 2015). While it is unlikely that such approach would cover the entirety of possible scenarios, it certainly decreases uncertainty that is characteristic of poorly planned educational efforts and thus provides a robust framework for field utilisation by the practitioner (Sayers, Salamonson, DiGiacomo, & Davidson, 2015). In other words, an adequate and carefully constructed teaching plan ensures the effective communication of knowledge and minimises the possibility of unforeseen deviations from the planned course of events.

Justification of Topic and Covered Content

Burnout is among the most significant determinants of employee performance in the highly stressful workplace setting. At the same time, the steadily diversifying field of nursing presents individual practitioners with a growing amount of areas of responsibility that inevitably contributes to workplace stress (Montgomery, Spânu, Băban, & Panagopoulou, 2015). Since burnout has been directly tied to stress by numerous studies, it is reasonable to expect a high likelihood of developing burnout symptoms by the nursing practitioners on a daily basis.

Importantly, the causes of burnout are not necessarily limited to the issues created by challenging working environment. Recent studies suggest that internal workplace conflicts, which are a common occurrence in the nursing field, dramatically increase both the likelihood of burnout development and the gravity of its consequences (Rezaei, Naderi, Mahmoudi, Rezaei, & Hashemian, 2015). The unresolved issue of role ambiguity further aggravates the matters, as the role conflicts influence both the amount of stress experienced by nurses and the confusion resulting from the inadequate application of resources (contributing to the sense of insignificance associated with burnout) (Olivares-Faúndez, Gil-Monte, Mena, Jélvez-Wilke, & Figueiredo-Ferraz, 2014).

Depending on the choice of variables by the researchers, the estimated proportion of nurses that are subject to burnout at any given moment is as large as 70 percent, and the number is slowly but steadily increases (Adriaenssens, De Gucht, & Maes, 2015).

In addition to the well-established link between increase n stress and a decline of employee performance, burnout introduces several critical conditions that are incompatible with the healthcare environment and severely undermines its fundamental principles. Most notably, the healthcare workers that develop the symptoms often start perceiving the patients as objects rather than individuals, which limits their capacity for delivery of individualised patient-centred care (Hall, Johnson, Watt, Tsipa, & O’Connor, 2016).

Next, the sense of detachment from work discourages them from making important decisions due to the fact that they perceive their actions as deprived of meaning (Chlan, 2013). By extension, such situation undermines the principles of accountability and disrupts the engagement of the personnel, thereby increasing employee turnover and serving as a demoralising factor (Özden, Karagözoğlu, & Yıldırım, 2013). In addition, it undermines the healthy workplace climate and restricts communication with the management as well as between the employees (You et al., 2013). Most importantly, the combined effect of burnout adversely impacts patient safety, which arguably remains among the most important metrics of the nurses’ efficiency (Kirwan, Matthews, & Scott, 2013).

Despite the numerous findings that illustrate the magnitude of the problem as well as its multiple negative effects, many nursing practitioners possess little knowledge on the matter. According to the latest inquiries, the nurses are unable to provide a coherent description of the burnout prevention practices, cannot identify even the most prominent signs and symptoms of the condition, and in some instances fail to adequately define the issue at all (Sansó et al., 2015).

Therefore, the necessity of the educational program aimed at addressing the identified gaps in understanding of the issue cannot be overestimated. In other words, it is expected that the teaching plan in question is to provide the nurses with sufficient knowledge to be able to timely detect the risk of developing burnout and invoke measures intended to decrease both its likelihood and severity. The expected proficiency is to be applicable for self-administration as well as supporting the co-workers.

Teaching Styles and Strategies

One of the critical aspects responsible for the success of the educational program is the choice of learning style and its alignment with learning theory. The said styles differ depending on the area of knowledge application and the characteristics of the identified audience (Billings & Halstead, 2015). The most common approaches used in the field of nursing education are cognitive, affective, and psychomotor varieties (Reigeluth, 2013).

Considering the orientation on nursing practitioners, whose level of professional knowledge, cultural competence, and exposure to the common workplace issues can be extrapolated from the requirements presented by the professional setting, it would be reasonable to prioritise the cognitive learning theory as a dominant approach for the program in question. First, such choice is consistent with the planned inclusion of several simple simulation scenarios intended to familiarise the participants with real-life examples of burnout. By adopting the cognitive theory, it would be possible to introduce interactive situations that are not confined to the limited choice of options (Burke & Mancuso, 2012).

Since the course is introductory in nature, the risk of overly complicated is minimised while the flexibility of the nurses’ decisions is not compromised (Aliakbari, Parvin, Heidari, & Haghani, 2015). Next, the cognitive theory contains the greatest available potential for self-assessment and self-reflection, which is beneficial for the topic in question (Karimi & Zardosht, 2015). Specifically, since burnout is highly dependent on several individual factors and is, therefore, difficult to generalise, self-diagnosis and self-reflection are among the desirable outcomes of the education program. While cognitive-based interventions are known for their high requirement for participants’ data processing capacity, it is possible to disregard this potential limitation on the grounds of a high base level of proficiency among the intended audience. In other words, cognitive learning theory is consistent with the identified goals and allows us to expect a high degree of effectiveness of the intervention.

Learning Objectives

Formulation and acknowledgement of learning objectives is a necessary component of the teaching process. For the educator, a clear definition and description of objectives ensure the presence of guidelines supporting a certain aspect of the intended event. Objectives decrease ambiguity of goals and serve as a core around which the event is designed (Tyler, 2013). In addition, a clearly formulated objective enhances the understanding of the required resources (e.g. printed materials necessary for information delivery) and allows an approximate estimation of the time frame necessary for the intervention (Cropley & Dave, 2014).

Finally, the objectives clarify the areas of knowledge evaluation and may improve the choice of means of assessment (O’Connor, 2014). For the learners, objectives give the sense of direction the course is expected to take and outline the areas of assessment planned by the educator (Beetham & Sharpe, 2013).

In other words, they improve the focus on the goals both at the planning stage and throughout the educational event. In this specific case, the objectives ensure that the learners improve their understanding of burnout in workplace setting as well as in the field of nursing, are able to identify the signs and symptoms associated with it, are familiar with the effective practices of burnout prevention, and can assist their co-workers in coping with the issue. The objectives were systematised in a successive order to build up a gradual and systematic understanding of the matter and stimulate critical thinking while at the same time retain accessibility of the materials (Benishek et al., 2015). By the end of the program, participants are expected to be able to:

• Explain the meaning of nurse burnout;
• Evaluate and give the real life examples of signs and symptoms of nurse burnout;
• State, explain and demonstrate best practices for prevention of nurse burnout;
• Explain how to help workmates to deal with nurse burnout.

The following section details the activities used for achieving each of the objectives.

Explain the meaning of nurse burnout

At the beginning of the meeting, I asked the participants to explain their understanding of burnout. Based on the voiced information, the audience formulated the definition of the phenomenon which was then matched to several definitions provided by me. Next, I outlined the current academic consensus regarding the mechanisms responsible for its occurrence and the psychological implications associated with the condition based on several studies (Lumb, 2016; Sullivan, 2016; Tzu, Bannerman, & Hill, 2016).

Finally, I explained the main concerns associated with the effects of burnout in a workplace setting and asked the nurses to apply the received information to the nursing field. According to the plan, the missed statements were then to be provided by me, but the participants were able to identify all risks posed by burnout for nursing. Finally, I suggested a discussion regarding the reasons for the relevance of the subject based on the specificities of the nursing profession. Thus, by the end of the introductory part, a thorough understanding of the issue was demonstrated by the participants.

Evaluate and give the real life examples of signs and symptoms of nurse burnout

Once the understanding of the concept was established, the group proceeded to the identification and evaluation of its manifestations. First, I gave them the opportunity to demonstrate their knowledge on the subject. The signs named by the nurses included tiredness, physical exhaustion, anxiety, loss of motivation, disruption of sleeping habits, and dissatisfaction, all of which are consistent with the symptoms identified in the literature (Maslach & Leiter, 2017).

The missed signs, such as detachment, self-doubt, progressing cynicism and negative attitude, and helplessness were provided by me to complete the picture. I then pointed out to the involvement of indirect effects of the condition, usually grouped under the behavioural category (Smoktunowicz et al., 2015). After my explanation, the group was able to identify all the possible outcomes, including procrastination, a decline of responsibility, frustration, aggressive behaviour, and risk of substance abuse, among others (Young, 2015).

It is worth noting that none of the secondary effects was identified by the nurses initially and surfaced only after the possibility was pointed out by me. In addition, all of the symptoms named by the participants were aligned with those of stress, which is consistent with my expectations. Closer to the end of the discussion, I pointed it out as evidence that burnout is often misunderstood and frequently misidentified with stress (Gilbert, 2014). This move was expected to contribute to the memorization of the information and motivate the critical approach to the question.

State, explain and demonstrate best practices for prevention of nurse burnout

Based on the drawn parallel between stress and burnout, I asked which practices and techniques could be effective in decreasing the likelihood of developing a condition and coping with its effects. As was expected, the participants demonstrated high proficiency in the question, generating a comprehensive list of strategies and individual pieces of advice, all of which were equally relevant for stress and burnout. These strategies included avoidance of stressful situations, preference of tasks with lower responsibility, reaching out to close friends and trustworthy co-workers, and seeking professional counselling (Rupert, Miller, & Dorociak, 2015).

By this time, the participants were expected to become familiar with the procedure and attempted to cover all the possible variants, which increased their involvement in accordance with the plan. I then pointed to the missed options, such as a focus on the effort rather than the outcome, attempts to communicate the emotional state to peers and the management, and delegation of tasks to co-workers (Riisgaard, Nexøe, Le, Søndergaard, & Ledderer, 2016). Closer to the end of the session, the nurses were handed the basic tests on burnout diagnosis and were asked to conduct a self-diagnosis. After the results had been ready, they were submitted through a mobile platform, and the prevalence of predisposition to burnout was calculated for illustrative purposes.

Explain how to help workmates to deal with nurse burnout

Directly after the survey results were ready, the group was asked to develop an intervention intended to help the selected participants with burnout prevention. The knowledge obtained during the previous part of the session was sufficient for the activity, and the attention of the group was directed towards the specific needs of individuals and the suitability of the selected methods for the workplace setting. After this, several real-life scenarios were proposed to the audience that that contained conditions meant to limit the choice of strategies, such as the inability to delegate the tasks or transfer to the unfamiliar environment. The exercise was expected to actualize the knowledge obtained in the course of the event, familiarise the learners with the areas of its application, and promote critical thinking in real-world situations.

Assessment of Learning and Teaching

Description

Knowledge assessment is traditionally associated with control of the received information, in which case it is performed during and after the learning program. In addition, assessment is a necessary component of event planning, in which case it provides an overview of learners’ prior knowledge and, by extension, points to the elements that should be prioritised by the educator (Billings & Halstead, 2015).

A thorough understanding of the topic by the planner ensures the presence of the relevant material as well as a rational distribution of time and resources during the event. A well-planned assessment of learners’ knowledge, on the other hand, provides an opportunity to confirm the success of the learning event and detect the possible gaps in understanding of the matter to improve the future ones (Danielson, 2013).

Rationale

To estimate the nurses’ prior knowledge on the subject, I relied mostly on the data from studies that outline the most common gaps and misconceptions and adjusted the information according to my observations. While such approach is understandably less reliable and precise than direct inquiry, it eliminated the need for time-consuming tests. Besides, it was shown to yield sufficient accuracy judging from the responses of nurses throughout the event.

The measurement of learning outcomes was done by tracking nurses’ responses throughout the event and matching the percentage of correct answers to the planned results. At each stage throughout the event, the questions and prompts for learner participation were based on the information presented to them during the previous segment. In this way, the information was consistently actualised and applied to practice. In other words, the measurements relied on observational learning and reproduction, both of which are essential components of cognitive learning theory (Burke & Mancuso, 2012).

In this regard, the final exercise was the most representative of the applicability of the received knowledge since it required the entirety of the material from the event. According to the cognitive learning theory, it also required the ability to generalise the received knowledge and incorporate the material into the broader picture of thoughts, beliefs, and a multitude of external stimuli (Karimi & Zardosht, 2015). Thus, the assessment was brief, consistent with the used active theory, and produced results of an acceptable degree of accuracy.

Fieldwork Report (Reflection)

Reflection is one of the necessary elements of the learning process. It gives an educator the means to examine the chosen solutions in a systematic manner, isolate the components responsible for the success of the program, and detect inconsistencies and gaps. The following section contains a fieldwork report based on Gibbs’ framework for reflection.

Event Description

The event in question was an educational event conducted in a GP setting. The event covered the topic of burnout among nurses and aimed to improve the knowledge of basic concepts such as its signs and symptoms, and outline essential means of coping with and prevention of the phenomenon in the field of nursing. The audience consisted entirely of nursing practitioners. I was a teacher and instructor in the event.

The predominant focus was on the use of interactive technologies, discussions, and simulation of the real-life scenarios, with lectures and presentations serving as supplementary strategies. The structure of the exercise stimulated was intended to increase participant involvement and actualise the received information through application to the workplace setting. According to the observations and responses provided by the nurses, the nurses obtained sufficient knowledge for identification and diagnosis of the condition and were able to provide basic advice on ways to cope with the situation. The observed outcome was consistent with my expectations.

Self Awareness

At the beginning of the event, I was concentrated on the formal part of the plan. I was concerned with fitting within the planned time frame and paid close attention to the consistency between the predicted and the actual responses of nurses in order to be able to adjust the material whenever necessary. Such concentration made me nervous and distracted me from the learning process. However, the level of engagement demonstrated by the participants improved my self-confidence over time, and by the middle of the event, I was able to incorporate a more encompassing view of the process, which also improved the feeling of control. Once the participants got familiarised with the structure, the pace of the event became more consistent, further improving the output of participating nurses and my perception of the project. Thus, I consider the event successful both as an academic achievement and a contribution to employee efficiency.

Evaluation

From the formal perspective, all of the planned measurements corresponded to the optimistic predictions. In other words, the observations confirmed the fact that all of the objectives were met by the end of the exercise. As an afterthought, however, I admit that I failed to ensure even participation of the audience and it is possible that the stated positive outcome was uneven, which can be considered the event’s biggest flaw.

Analysis

The event was consistent with the schedule and the formulated learning objectives. I was responsible for the creation of a successful and accurate teaching plan as well as its implementation. All estimates of learners’ prior knowledge, information reception rate, its utilisation, and the increase in learner involvement went in accordance with the plan. I was also able to establish and maintain contact with the audience. The participants were successful in providing the necessary information and actively facilitate discussion. Their knowledge and ability to process information was consistent with the expectations and thus ensured a proper execution of the plan.

On one occasion, their proficiency on the matter exceeded the expected threshold. At the time, no inconsistencies and shortcomings were observed. In hindsight, however, the possibility of the improper evaluation was detected, which suggests the possibility of uneven distribution of knowledge. The said gap is entirely my fault as I did not point out such possibility. The overall success of the exercise, on the other hand, can be attributed both to me (as an educator and author of the teaching plan) and the audience (as both knowledgeable on the subject and receptive to new information).

Conclusion

Considering the information presented above, it is possible to detect several weak points that could be improved in the future. First, teaching plan did not recognise the possibility that some nurses could be more familiar with the topic of burnout than others. As a result, no respective actions were included in the event that would allow mitigating the effects of such situation. Instead, statements from nurses were immediately considered a confirmation of success.

While this situation did not necessarily result in compromised efficiency, it introduced such possibility. The situation could be accounted for by proper acknowledgement and supplementary actions. Second, my inability to control the process at the beginning of the event could have resulted in diluted focus and loss of direction. I attribute it to the lack of experience in the field and expect the situation to improve over time. The involvement demonstrated by the participants, on the other hand, was a major contribution to the success of the outcomes and should be retained in future projects.

Action Plan

Despite several weak points, the described course of actions can be adapted to similar projects in the future without major changes. The most significant adjustments I will likely do will target the uniformity of knowledge acquisitions. Specifically, I will include even participation to the list of success criteria and incorporate several subtle supplementary activities to encourage less active learners to participate. Since the focus on misconceptions and false parallels yielded a significant increase in participation and motivation of learners, I will include such information in the exercises wherever appropriate.

Besides, I will ensure that the exercises follow a recognisable pattern as such approach improved the sense of direction and clarity among the participants. My reported confusion at the beginning of the exercise can probably be safely disregarded – I expect it to decrease over time as I gain more experience. Overall, the teaching plan in question can be considered a reliable template for similar events in the future.

References

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Discussed Problem

The problem that is discussed in this research article concerns the challenges that teachers in China face in the course of their work. The article notes that “college teachers in China are confronted with a lot of pressure from teaching, researching, and living” (Liu, Wang, Shen, Li, & Wang, 2015).

Consequently, most of these teachers have to contend with deteriorating mental and physical health. There are a myriad of stress issues that are connected with the teaching profession in China and they have since formed a popular perception regarding the essence of this practice. Furthermore, the article notes that college teachers’ quality of life (QOL) is lower than the national average among the general population. The college teachers’ QOL is the main problem in this article. The researchers seek to identify methods of improving college teachers QOL and health-related quality of life (HRQOL).

Study’s Hypothesis

The study hypothesizes that there is a relationship between variables of organizational behavior (group identification, PsyCap, psychological empowerment, and organizational justice) and college teachers’ health related quality of life. Furthermore, the researchers sought to observe if there are any resources that can improve teachers’ HRQOL positively. It is important to know that any the improvement of teachers; QOL and HRQOL is a top priority for colleges, especially in their quest to improve organizational effectiveness. Organizational behavior (OB) is a relevant field of study because it seeks to improve the wellbeing of an individual, organization, and interrelationships. The article’s focuses on various aspects of OB including PsyCap (psychological capital), organizational justice, group identification, psychological empowerment, and organizational support. All these aspects of OB have a varied level of impact on the wellbeing of college teachers.

Need for the Study

Other research studies have focused on the factors that influence QOL among individuals in the teaching profession. The authors of this article take note of the fact that previous studies have addressed important QOL factors such as demographics, level of physical activity, chronic diseases, and stress. This research was conducted with the view of concentrating on organizational factors as opposed to individual factors. Stress in teaching is often blamed on individual factors as opposed to organizational behavior factors. The authors of this article have realized that “studies conducted to explore the effects of these organizational behavior variables on college teacher’s health related quality of life are rarely found” (Liu et al., 2015, p. 88). Therefore, there is need to investigate the significance of the relationships between selected OBs and teachers’ HRQOL.

Study’s Methodology

The design for this study is cross-sectional and it includes samples from various colleges across China’s Liaoning Province. The sample size consisted of 965 teachers from 5 random colleges. Data for the research was collected with the assistance of Shenyang Science-Education-Culture-Health Union through self-administered questionnaires by teachers from the selected colleges. The initial targeted sample size was 1500 but useful responses were obtained from 965 teachers only.

The constituents of the study were also pre-approved by the relevant authorities. The pre-qualifiers for the sampled demographics included age, gender, marital status, chronic diseases, educational level, and life events. The study’s design also involved a thorough assessment of QOL using measures such as vitality, general health, mental health, physical functioning, and role limitations. All of the identified OBs were also assessed using various instruments of measurement. Consequently, average scores for all OBs were coded so as to differentiate between levels of construct.

Summary of Literature Review

The article reviews literature on the “influences of demographic variables (age, gender, marital status, and education), work-related factors (role overload, job rank, role boundary, and number of SCI papers), and chronic disease on college teachers’ QOL (Liu et al., 2015). The review of this literature provides an overview of the variables that relate to OB. In another review, the authors of this article sample a study that was conducted on how physical activity affects the QOL among teachers. In this study, the study found that there was also a negative correlation between weight, QOL, and the level of activity among those in the teaching profession. This study also touches on the interpersonal aspects of stressors among teachers and not on the OB.

Another one of the reviewed studies indicated that the high levels of stress among teachers as a result of overworking, and negative organizational climate, all contribute to QOL. This study also focuses on the factors that influence teachers’ QOL from personal perspectives and not on the organizational level. In relation to OB, the article reviews literature on how this aspect can affect the essence of QOL and HRQOL among teachers.

Consequently, the literature reviewed in this article provides a long list of variables for considering OB. For example, the article explores Luthans views on the “positive psychological state of an individual in the process of growth and development and is a higher-order core construct drawn from positive organizational behavior” (Liu et al., 2015, p. 85). In this study, the authors identified that there is a connection between the psychological constructs of PsyCap and the amount of confidence that teachers have when they want to succeed. In regards to organizational justice, the reviewed literature indicates that there are four different types of this form of justice including distributive, procedural, information, and interpersonal.

Study’s Assumptions, Limitations, and Potential for Future

One of the assumptions that were made in regards to this study is that Chinese college teachers are less likely to encounter factors that lead to diminished QOL as compared to the rest of the population. On the other hand, it is assumed that the mental QOL of college teachers was worse that their physical QOL.

There are several limitations in this study. First, the use of a cross-sectional research design makes it difficult for the researchers to utilize causal statements concerning OBs and QOL. Another limitation is that using common method variance can potentially inflate the connection between variables. Furthermore, all the sampled participants in this study were from Shenyang and this is another limitation to the study. There is potential for future research studies in specific OBs such as psychological empowerment and group identification as methods of improving HRQOL.

Conclusion of the Research Findings

According to the article, the findings of this study are that “college teachers experienced relatively low level of HRQOL and their mental QOL was more impaired more seriously than physical QOL” (Liu et al., 2015, p. 94). The research findings also indicate that some of the sampled OB factors (such as Pos, PsyCap, group identification, and psychological empowerment) had more significance than others. Consequently, these factors had the potential to be strong predictors of teacher’s mental and physical QOL. The article finds it necessary for some of the outlined OB factors to be included within any strategy that aims to improve college teachers’ HRQOL.

Article Critique

This article provides an insightful look into the connection between OB factors and QOL or HRQOL. Most of the previous research on the subject has mostly focused on the connection between individual factors and stressors in teachers. Although the research for the study is centered on the situation in one province in China, the components of this study are applicable to a wide variety of teaching scenarios. For example, the pressure that comes with teaching, research, and living among college tutors is a universal matter. This scenario makes the hypothesis of this study applicable to a universal problem that touches on the subject of teachers QOL.

One of the insightful aspects of this article is that it addresses the common problem of teachers’ QOL from the perspective of organizational behaviors. In recent times, most organizations are concerned with improving their overall functionality by harnessing their levels of organizational management. However, the researchers in this article introduce a relatively fresh outlook by handing teachers control when it comes to OB factors. On the other hand, this means that teachers have a relative level of control when it comes to their HRQOL but in the context of their interaction with organizational factors as opposed to individual situations.

The methodology that is employed in this article is quite simplistic. However, this approach is subject to both weaknesses and strengths. First, the use of cross-sectional research design is effective for a small and simple study such as the one in this article. This research design covers a sample size of 965 and this makes it necessary for the researchers to use a study that covers the basic components of the hypothesis.

Using a more comprehensive research methodology would have translated into a more complex study that would have potentially deviated from the study’s main hypothesis. However, using a simplistic research design also means that the study loses some a great deal of credibility. For example, the cross-sectional design that is used in this study tends to simplify the data analysis by ignoring important correlations between factors. These correlations can also be used as basis for future research if they are harnessed.

One of the most interesting aspects of this study’s findings is the fact that OB factors have been found to have a greater impact on mental QOL than they have on general health QOL. This is an interesting development given that teaching is mostly associated with physical strain including overworking, fatigue, and lack of physical exercises. Most of the previous studies on this topic have concentrated on the physical aspects of teaching stressors. However, this article introduces a new dimension by introducing the relevance of diverse psychological OBs such as group identification and PsyCap. These insights are particularly important to future research directions in regards to teachers’ QOL.

This article is a great effort in the demystification of the connection between OB factors and teachers QOL. The article can be mostly recommended to scholars and other academic stakeholders when it comes to teachers’ QOL. It is important to note that the research that is utilized in this article is quite balanced. Nevertheless, the article has some analytical gaps that are mostly related to its research design. Overall, the article offers a pioneering research direction and it is up to other researchers to continue exploring this topic.

Reference

Liu, C., Wang, S., Shen, X., Li, M., & Wang, L. (2015). The association between organizational behavior factors and health-related quality of life among college teachers: a cross-sectional study. Health and Quality of Life outcomes, 13(1), 85-97.

Problem Identification

The problem discussed in the article “Teachers’ Organizational Behavior in Public and Private Funded Schools” seems nested on the blurring of boundaries between publicly funded schools and privately funded schools in the Dutch context and its effects on teachers’ organizational behavior. Honingh and Oort (2009) used the Dutch vocational educational training (VET) sector as the study context to evaluate if the organizational behavior of teachers in publicly funded and privately funded Dutch VET schools has converged as a result of the market-oriented reforms in the education sector.

The market-oriented reforms are embedded in the Dutch government’s adoption of a more entrepreneurial approach to managing publicly funded schools, which in turn has resulted in the blurring of boundaries between publicly funded and privately funded schools. The main issue, therefore, was to examine how the different types of funding arrangements (private and public) affect the organizational behavior of teachers.

Hypotheses

The article used research questions rather than hypotheses, with the main research question being to investigate the level to which different funding arrangements (publicly funded and privately funded) affect or influence the organizational behavior of teachers in the selected study context (Dutch VET sector). A secondary research question, according to Honingh and Oort (2009), “was to investigate to what extent teacher characteristics and appointment characteristics account for differences in the organizational behavior of the teachers” (p. 173). Based on the main research question, it is evident that different funding arrangements (publicly funded and privately funded) formed the independent variables of the study, while teacher organizational behavior formed the dependent variable.

Need for the Study

The study was needed by virtue of serving as a benchmark to understand if the Dutch government’s efforts of shifting the management of public schools to a more entrepreneurial approach were paying off in terms of improving the organizational behavior of teachers in public institutions. Additionally, it is clear that the findings of this study were instrumental in enabling education stakeholders to have a clear understanding on whether the organizational behavior of teachers within the Dutch VET context had converged as a direct result of the market-oriented reforms initiated by the Dutch government towards the education sector (Honingh & Oort, 2009).

A secondary need is that the findings of this study could be used by education stakeholders and the Dutch government to understand whether funding arrangements (private or public) has any effect on the organizational behavior of teachers, particularly in terms of having a student-oriented attitude and developing a positive perception of the school climate.

Methodology

The study used a quantitative research approach and a descriptive (survey) research design to investigate the level to which different funding arrangements (publicly funded and privately funded) affect or influence the organizational behavior of teachers in the Dutch VET sector. A purposive sampling technique (participants were directly recruited into the study by their respective managers) was used to come up with a sample of 730 teachers (705 from 35 publicly funded institutions and 25 from privately funded institutions) for participation in the study.

Primary data for the study were collected by means of several sets of questionnaires that were oriented toward measuring different variables of organizational behavior. The Cronbach alphas reported in the study (e.g., 0.91, 0.85, 0.70-0.88) show that the questionnaire sets had the expected internal consistency and the various scales used in the data collection tools were reliable to measure what they were expected to measure (expected range is from 0.75 to 0.90).

Summary of Review of Literature

Honingh and Oort (2009) undertook a comprehensive review of the literature concerning the aspects that are known to influence or shape organizational behavior, namely teacher attitudes, teacher identification, and perceptions of school climate. In attitudes, the focus was oriented towards reviewing seminal literature and policy documents that emphasized how the thinking of teachers should be changed by the introduction of market-oriented mechanisms in schooling.

The researchers also relied on sources that demonstrate how the management of schools using the economic model shifts the thinking of teachers toward becoming more autonomous and professional in their own practice. Another stream of literature sources utilized by Honingh and Oort (2009) revolved around showing the perceptions, views, beliefs, and attitudes of teachers toward recent educational reforms carried in the Dutch education sector. Finally, the researcher explored several literature sources to develop a comprehensive understanding of how teachers’ curriculum-oriented attitudes and a student-oriented attitude interrelate with a more economical approach to education.

In the variable of identification, Honingh and Oort (2009) consulted literature sources showing the relationship between an employee’s affective involvement in the organization and shifts in behavior, with most of the cited sources showing that employees with a strong affective involvement are usually more satisfied, better motivated and more productive in work-related settings.

The sources consulted also showed that individuals who identify strongly with an organization or department are influenced more by that particular setting in terms of demonstrating pro-social behavior, strong focus on group performance and achievements, higher job satisfaction, low turnover intentions, and strong job involvement and motivation. Lastly, in the variable of school climate, Honingh and Oort (2009) consulted literature sources underscoring how the aspect of school climate is important in understanding the employee’s organizational behavior in terms of teachers’ interactions with colleagues and school administrators, the managerial support they perceive, as well as their participation in the decision making process.

Assumptions, Limitations, and Potential for Future Research

Although not expressly stated in the article, it is clear that Honingh and Oort (2009) assumed that teachers’ organizational behavior could not be affected by diverse moderating or confounding variables (e.g., personal characteristics) other than funding arrangements. In limitations, it is evident the uneven sampling characteristics between teachers in publicly funded schools and those in privately funded schools could have affected the validity and generalizability of the results. The multilevel regression model used to analyze the findings also served as a limitation as it does not take such sampling design effects into account.

Additionally, the statistical analysis tools and methodological deficiencies noted in the study made it difficult for the researchers “to decide whether it is state funding or personal characteristics that underlie differences between teachers in publicly and privately funded schools” (Honingh & Oort, 2009, p. 181). A potential future area revolves around attempting to understand the origin of existing variations in the organizational behavior of teachers despite the blurring of boundaries between publicly funded schools and privately funded schools.

Conclusion

The main conclusion is that there are clear variations in teachers’ organizational behavior between the two study settings (publicly funded schools and privately funded schools), as demonstrated by the fact that teachers in publicly funded school settings showed a diminished curriculum-oriented attitude, a poorer sense of identification, and perceived a less supportive school climate compared to their counterparts in privately funded school settings (Honingh & Oort, 2009). Contrary to popular beliefs, therefore, the institutional context (publicly funded versus privately funded) does not in any way have an effect on the level to which teachers demonstrate or exhibit a student-oriented attitude.

Article Critique

The article under critique is well written and laid out using the established protocols for conducting a scholarly research paper. The two authors are affiliated with institutions of higher learning, meaning that they are qualified and competent in the domain of organizational behavior and educational development. The title of the study is clear, precise, and unambiguous, while the abstract provides a clear and coherent overview of the study to enable readers to understand the research problem, sample, methodology, main findings as well as implications of the study.

Moving on, it is evident that the purpose of the study is clearly identifiable, and the two aims stated in the article are not only concise but also reflect the information presented in the literature review. However, although the review of related literature is logically organized, it does not provide a balanced critical analysis of the literature bearing in mind the study is set in a Dutch setting. Additionally, many of the literature sources used are not of recent origin though they are empirical in nature.

Another weakness noted in the literature review (theoretical background) is that the literature sources reviewed do not appear to identify any gaps that the study needs to fill. Coughlan, Cronin, and Ryan (2007) acknowledge that a good literature review section should not only describe or develop the research question while identifying a suitable methodology of data collection but also highlight any gaps in the literature relating to the problem under investigation. This appears not to be the case in the critiqued research article.

In methodology, Honingh and Oort (2009) make a good effort in identifying the target population and demonstrating how the sample was selected; however, they do not mention the sampling strategy used to come up with the final sample and end up recruiting an unbalanced sample that can affect how the findings could be generalized to a wider setting. A sample of 730 teachers (705 from publicly funded institutions and 25 from privately funded institutions) can be termed as largely unbalanced in favor of teachers in publicly funded schools.

The researchers also perform well in describing the data collection instruments and the measures to be taken together with their reliability scores. However, the research approach and design are not clearly identified and discussed. Wester, Borders, Boul, and Hurton (2013) underscore the importance of clearly describing the research approach and design as these two elements impact how the data collection and data analysis stages of a research study are undertaken.

In data analysis and presentation, it is clear that Honingh and Oort (2009) have used conventional statistical tools and techniques to analyze quantitative data and present them in a clear and coherent manner. However, the multilevel regression model used is not appropriate for this type of study since it fails to illuminate the strength of the relationship between funding arrangements and teachers’ organizational behavior.

As such, it becomes difficult to make a determination on whether there are other variables or teacher characteristics involved in assessing organizational behavior. Lastly, in the conclusions and discussion section, Honingh and Oort (2009) perform well in linking the findings back to the literature review and responding to the two main research questions guiding the study. Additionally, the authors perform well in identifying several limitations to the study and providing a recommendation for further research in terms of understanding the origin of existing variations in the organizational behavior of teachers despite the blurring of boundaries between publicly funded schools and privately funded schools.

References

Coughlan, M., Cronin, P., & Ryan, F. (2007). Step-by-step guide to critiquing research. Part 1: Quantitative research. British Journal of Nursing, 16(11), 658-663. Web.

Honingh, M.E., & Oort, F.J. (2009). Teachers’ organizational behavior in public and private funded schools. International Journal of Educational Management, 23(2), 172-184. Web.

Wester, K.L., Borders, D., Boul, S., & Hurton, E. (2013). Research quality: Critique of quantitative articles in the journal of counseling and development. Journal of Counseling & Development, 91(3), 280-290. Web.

Individualized Family Service Plan

Working with children with special needs requires making individual development plans, and the example of 2-year-old Maria with Down syndrome is no exception. Since the girl has sufficiently developed cognitive skills, particular attention should be paid to verbal skills because, when interacting with peers and adults, she experiences difficulty. Gargiulo and Kilgo offer a special technique called an individualized family service plan (IFSP) and propose a range of interventions that can be applied to children with special needs (138).

Based on Maria’s problems, I would offer to include the girl in the program of work with the professionals of speech-language pathologies, as well as to involve family training and counseling specialists. If properly implemented, these goals may have positive outcomes on the health and development of the girl.

Since the level of Maria’s communication skills is not high enough, it requires engaging specialists involved in speech pathologies. The development of the girl with Down syndrome should be controlled by medical employees. Therefore, one of the goals is to help her in adapting to society and teach the right communication methods. I believe that this intervention will help Mary to interact with both her family and peers better and will reduce the consequences of developmental delay.

Another relevant goal is attracting family training and counseling specialists. As Gargiulo and Kilgo note, this practice eliminates the development of abnormal habits in a child and helps relatives to understand the specific problems that they have to face and solve (139). Qualified professionals’ visits will help facilitate the process of educating Maria and give her parents clear action algorithms. Therefore, both interventions may be valuable for the girl with Down syndrome.

Principles of Cooperative Teaching

The method of combining the two principles of teaching, including standard and special techniques, opens up new perspectives for children with disabilities and influences teaching practice. According to Gargiulo and Kilgo, “cooperative teaching is about a true partnership and parity in the instructional process” (134). This statement is due to the fact that different students who are in the same environment influence one another, and in the case of correct correctional work, effective collaboration may be maintained.

Children without any disorders can support and help their peers who have learning challenges. Students with special needs, in turn, can follow the example of their classmates and develop essential communication and cognitive skills. I am sure that working in a cooperative classroom can be a daunting task if a teacher is not familiar with specific approaches to children with various forms of developmental delay. However, this practice can be a rewarding experience, and when applying this knowledge in a real working environment, it is possible to gain valuable attainments.

My individual co-teaching experience is limited to practical exercises with a group of children in the process of an art master class where both students with the manifestations of developmental delays and ordinary pupils participated. I can note that in the process of interaction, a common task rallied the members of one group, and no signs of bias or misunderstanding arose. As Gargiulo and Kilgo remark, a qualified teacher is able to establish such a mode of work in which team members help and support one another (134). Accordingly, in order to practice cooperative teaching, it is required to set clear and interesting goals so that all children are ready to achieve them.

Work Cited

Gargiulo, Richard M., and Jennifer L. Kilgo. An Introduction to Young Children with Special Needs: Birth Through Age Eight. 4th ed., Cengage Learning, 2013.