Category: Teaching

Elementary students enjoy learning in a friendly social environment, where they can interact with teachers freely. The interaction is dependent on the nature of relationships that teachers and students have developed. In essence, creation of rapport between teachers and students is a critical ingredient that facilitates learning. The Bible says “a cheerful heart is good medicine, but a crushed spirit dries up the bones” (Proverbs 17:22, New International Version).

In training children, teachers should create a friendly environment for the students to be cheerful and have high spirits, which promote learning. To create moments of fun and humor, teachers should organize students to engage in learning activities such as drama, storytelling, playing games, and singing. These activities make learning interesting and amusing. By participating in these activities, teachers demonstrate that they care and love their students, and thus promote learning. Therefore, this essay compares and contrasts common core standards of Pennsylvania and Louisiana in relation to my perceptions of these standards.

Common core standards vary from one state to another in the United States depending on the extent of their adoption, amendment, and implementation. Comparative examination of the common core standards in Pennsylvania and Louisiana indicates that they have some similarities and differences. The common core standards of Pennsylvania and Louisiana focus on mathematics, English, and arts.

These are the major areas of the curriculum of the elementary school (K-8), which teachers should focus to enhance learning among elementary learners (Kellough & Jarolimek, 2008). Pennsylvania and Louisiana share the standards of mathematics such as counting, algebra, fractions, geometry, statistics, probability, ratios, proportion, measurements, data analysis, number system, numeric expressions, and equations. Moreover, Pennsylvania and Louisiana share the standards in English such as reading skills, writing skills, speaking skills, listening skills, and grammar usage.

The differences in the common core standards lie in their comprehensive coverage and implementation (Porter, McMaken, Hwang, & Yang, 2011). Although Louisiana has adopted common core standards, it does not have comprehensive details of each standard, which students in each grade have to cover (Louisiana Department of Education, 2014). In contrast, Pennsylvania has comprehensive common core standards and explicitly depicts tasks and outcomes that students should achieve in their respective grades. According to Pennsylvania Department of Education (2014), “Pennsylvania’s core standards offer a set of rigorous, high-quality academic expectations in English language, arts, and mathematics that all students should master by the end of each grade level” (para. 4).

Therefore, the comprehensiveness of the common core standards of Pennsylvania makes them rigorous and high-quality standards. Critical examination of these standards has revealed that they are not only appropriate, but they are also attainable for my students because of their content. Hence, I prefer the content and format of Pennsylvania’s common core standards for they are comprehensive, rigorous, quality, and in tabulated format.

Since the common core standards aim to standardize learning in elementary schools, they promote teaching and learning processes. According to Kellough and Jarolimek (2008), common core standards are benchmarks that guide teachers and parents in monitoring progress of students. In this view, the common core standards enhance accountability in schools because they ensure that teachers and students meet the standards of curriculum by focusing on these standards.

Accountability is an important aspect in schools because it enables teachers, parents, and students achieve expected outcomes (Parker, 2012). In the analysis of the common core standards, I have found out that school educators use these standards in formulating their curriculum and improving students’ performance. Moreover, I have noted that common core standards form the basis of teaching and learning in elementary schools. Therefore, my thoughts and opinions about these standards is that they are important benchmarks, which are indispensable in improving the processes of teaching and learning in elementary schools.

References

Kellough, D., & Jarolimek, J. (2008). Teaching and learning K–8: A guide to methods and resources (9^th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Louisiana Department of Education (2014). What are the common core state standards? Web.

Parker, D. V. (2012). Christian teachers in public schools: 13 essentials for the classroom. Kansas City, KS: Beacon Hill Press.

Pennsylvania Department of Education (2014). PA core standards implementation. Web.

Porter, A., McMaken, J., Hwang, J., & Yang, R. (2011). Common core standards: The new U.S. intended curriculum. Educational Research, 40(3), 103-116.

Research Results and Their Analysis

Challenges for students in subject–verb agreement

The test has revealed the fact that students have major issues in coordinating the subject and the verb in a sentence. Indeed, according to the responses provided by the teachers, the students in most cases demonstrate rather good knowledge of the general rule, yet fail to carry out the basic practical tasks.

Table 1. Responses of teachers to the first question.

Table 2. Responses of teachers to the first question.

Table 3. Responses of teachers to the first question.

Table 4. Responses of teachers to the first question.

Table 5. Responses of teachers to the first question.

Table 6. Responses of teachers to the first question.

Table 7. Responses of teachers to the first question.

Table 8. Responses of teachers to the first question.

Table 9. Responses of teachers to the first question.

Table 10. Responses of teachers to the first question.

Table 11. Responses of teachers to the first question.

As the research results show, the problem clearly exists, and it is not to be ignored. The test has provided the information concerning both the scale and the possible root causes of the problem. As most of the teachers have shown, a major part of the students fails to carry out the code switching process required to switch from Arabic, which is the students’ native language, to English and its exotic rules.

Why do students make mistakes in subject–verb agreement?

A closer look at the results of the evaluation carried out among the students will reveal that in most cases, students are aware of the general rule, according to which a subject and a verb are joined in a sentence.

The fact that in most cases, students have little to no background knowledge on what a subject-verb agreement is does not seem to be a problem. Indeed, building knowledge on the subject from scratch is difficult, yet it still is possible with efficient guidance of the teacher and the enthusiasm of the student. The problem emerges when the need to explain the nature of the subject–verb agreement to the student appears. According to the test results, only 70% of all students at best master the subject–verb agreement within the required amount of time.

In addition, the study has also shown that students make most mistakes when it comes to practicing the newly acquired knowledge. To be more exact, in the process of writing and speaking, most students fail to pick the correct subject–verb combination. The aforementioned fact is especially remarkable when considering the evidence of students having no problem in identifying the subject in a sentence.

The aforementioned detail shows that students might need both more practice and a specific approach towards learning the pattern. More to the point, a strategy that will make them see the pattern in the subject–verb agreement is required. Hence, it can be suggested that a range of exercises, which show the correlation between the subject and the verb in a sentence, will help the students learn the principle of a subject–verb correlation.

The answers to the open questions provide a lot of food for thoughts as well. More to the point, since this type of questions is not related to a specific set of answers, the teachers are free to formulate their answers the way that they consider to be the most appropriate. Despite the length limitation, these answers are much more informative than the responses to the multiple choice questions.

Based on the results of the test, it can be assumed that the key challenge faced by students in the process of learning the key principles of subject–verb agreement concerns understanding the mechanisms of coordination between the two. The test results show that students tend to memorize the rule instead of analyzing it, which leads to their further failure to apply the theory to a practical problem.

How to reduce these errors?

In addition to an impressive amount of information concerning the key obstacles, which students usually face when dealing with the issue of subject–verb agreement, the questionnaire filled out by teachers may also provides a range of ideas concerning the mans to improve the process of teaching students the subject–verb agreement rule. As it has been stressed above, the key complexity that students have to deal with concerns the lack of practice and the need for the teacher to prompt their intuitional understanding of the rule. Hence, two key strategies must be used to address the issue.

First and most important, a number of drills must be carried out on a daily basis. By including small exercises, in the course of which students will drill the correct subject–verb agreement, a teacher will be able to help students develop a habit of applying the rule to practice.

Secondly, a teacher must prompt the students to discover the rule on their own. It will be much more efficient if the students will come to a conclusion regarding the rule of subject–verb agreement on their own. Thus, instead of learning the rule by heart, they will develop an intuitional understanding of it, thus, being able to apply it even in the situations, which they have not dealt with yet (e.g., the use of a singular form of the verb in the sentences with a complex subject).

It should be noted, though, that the problem in question is not going to dissolve instantly. A teacher must get ready for hours of drilling exercises that students must complete until they develop the required reflexive skills, thus, making the process of coordinating the subject and the verb occur on a subconscious level. More to the point, students have to understand the mechanics of the process in order to develop the aforementioned skills. The more effort a teacher puts into developing the new strategy, the more efficient it is going to be.

Conclusion: When the Time to Make Changes Comes

Introducing ESL students to the issue of subject–verb agreement is very tricky and requires considerable patients from a teacher, along with an ability to be flexible enough. The latter quality is important for developing the strategies that will help every single student not only learn the basic rules of the subject–verb agreement by heart, but also to understand the mechanism of the subject–verb agreement, thus, being able to apply the acquired skills to practice. Therefore, as long as the teacher provides the students with the required drills and is capable of finding creative and efficient ways of explaining students the principles of the subject–verb agreement, efficient learning process is guaranteed.

Reading Summary

The Unit Diverse Learners in Paciorek’s Annual editions: Early childhood education dwells upon the early childhood development with the focus on toys and materials to play, games, behaviors, and assessment. Paciorek (2016) stresses that educators and administrators tend to focus on academic achievements and often forget about such important aspects of education as social skills and overall development (physical and mental) of children. At the same time, these are often the central skills developed during early childhood education.

An important issue to pay attention to is the use of appropriate toys and materials. It has been acknowledged that Materials should encourage children to participate in various activities. Open-ended materials are specifically important which can be defined as those that “do not have predetermined purposes but instead offer many possibilities” (Shabazian & Li Soga, 2016, p. 102). It is crucial to make sure that the materials offered to children can be used in various ways depending on the child’s background, mood, and so on.

Clearly, toys and materials should be attractive and healthy as well as safe. The TIMPANI study is especially interesting in this respect as researchers have tested various toys for five years (Trawick-Smith, 2016). One of the most valuable findings is that open-ended toys contribute to the academic development more than educational toys. Educators should use these findings and observations when choosing materials for the students in their classrooms. As for choosing the right games for children, it is stressed that rough play can be beneficial for children as it helps develop children physically and be able to form social ties.

As has been mentioned above, social skills are central to early childhood education. Thus, the educator should make sure that the classroom environment is engaging and inclusive so that children irrespective of their gender or background could play and interact properly. The educator should understand that it is natural for children to segregate peers and choose only definite children to play with, but the teacher should be able to make children comfortable in other or larger groups. Furthermore, it is essential to develop proper teacher-student relationships by focusing on such aspects as belonging, self-regulation, and adaptability.

Finally, it is acknowledged that the assessment is an important issue that is often associated with various questions. As has been mentioned above, administrators and teachers often focus on academic outcomes, which are quite easy to measure through tests or other formal assessments. However, social skills and the child’s readiness to go to kindergarten or school should also be measured in terms of social and academic skills. It is stressed that the assessment should be standardized and norm-referenced.

Internet References Summary

TIMPANI Study on YouTube

This resource provides valuable insights into the way toys and materials for children can be evaluated and chosen. Researchers share the methodology they used to choose the most appropriate toys (2013 TIMPANI toy study, 2013). Parents and educators can benefit from the study (as well as the short video) as they may learn about effective toys as well as particular strategies to use when choosing toys and materials for children of particular ages.

Busy Teacher’s Café

This online resource includes various helpful materials for teachers (especially novice ones). These include plans, printables, tips, and other materials that can help teachers develop lesson plans, organize and manage the classroom. For instance, there are effective strategies to achieve proper classroom discipline (Classroom discipline plan, n.d.). Importantly, the website also contains some tips concerning the development of social skills in children. The teacher may use these tips to help children form proper relationships with their peers and adults. Parents may also benefit from reading the information provided as they will understand their children better and will get tips concerning discipline and organizing.

Preventing Challenging Behaviors

Alter and Conroy (n.d.) provide a brief account of effective practices aimed at preventing challenging behaviors. The researchers emphasize the importance of the positive attitude that contributes to the development of effective classroom environments. Alter and Conroy (n.d.) also state that rituals and routines are also instrumental in the development of the necessary environment that helps children choose the most socially appropriate behavioral patterns.

Common Core State Standards Initiative

This online resource includes comprehensive information on standards that help assess students’ academic achievement (Common core state standards initiative, 2016). The website can be helpful for educators and parents who may learn about the history of the standards and their peculiarities. This resource also addresses the myths associated with the standards. All this information may help stakeholders understand the benefits of the system and discuss its downsides. Importantly, parents and educators will learn how to see the standards positively and make the fullest use of them.

Action for Healthy Kids

This online resource includes information on healthy living policies existing in different states. The website is an appropriate platform for the development of the digital (and actual) community of people who understand the importance of adopting healthy ways of life (Action for healthy kids, 2015). The website contains data on numerous events and participation options. It can be valuable for educators and parents who will understand how to engage children and make them grasp the ideas of healthy living.

Reference List

2013 TIMPANI toy study. (2013). Web.

Action for healthy kids. (2015). Web.

Alter, P.J., & Conroy, M.A. (n.d.). Recommended practices: Preventing challenging behavior in young children: Effective practices. Web.

Classroom discipline plan. (n.d.). Web.

Common core state standards initiative. (2016). Web.

Paciorek, K.M. (2016). Annual editions: Early childhood education. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Web.

Shabazian, A.N., & Li Soga, C. (2016). Making the right choice simple: Selecting materials for infants and toddlers. In K.M. Paciorek (Ed.), Annual editions: Early childhood education (pp. 101-105). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Web.

Taking Contexts into Account

Ashwood High School is a public educational institution in Ashwood, Victoria, Australia. It suggests a variety of educational opportunities for more than four hundred students. Since 2016, Ashwood High School has been participating in an Accelerated Curriculum and Enrichment Program (ACE). The school is a modern complex located in an area of 16 hectares (About us n.d.). Its state-of-the-art facilities include playing fields, an outdoor amphitheater, and landscaped gardens. It pays equal attention to sciences and arts having both a contemporary Science Centre and a new Music, Multimedia and Performing Centre (About us n.d.).

School facilities empower the school’s model of collaborative learning and interdisciplinary education (Environment and facility n.d.). The school community is committed to the students. It is also important because the schools where “students and staff feel they belong, where there’s respect, where they support each other’s successes, and where their talents are harnessed and celebrations are enjoyed”, become the places where both students and teachers long to study and teach (Walk your school’s hallways n.d.). These schools are places with high moral principles and low staff or student turnover.

The school is vital for the area because other schools in the neighborhood suburb have exceeded the limit for the number of students they could have. Since Ashwood high school has additional funding from the government, it provides more area for learning and teaching. After a re-build, it got a new principal and new name, which contributed to the school’s “fresh academic look” (About us n.d.). Ashwood is a school with an environment that stimulates learning.

The school follows a set of values. It includes the following: a community of learning and trust; high expectations; optimism, reflection, and resilience; innovation, creativity, sustainability, and respect (Values n.d.). Ashwood High School values all the people involved in the educational process, including students, teachers, and parents. It promotes a cooperative approach to learning and problem-solving.

School activity is governed by a School Council. It develops general policy directions (School Council n.d.). The Ashwood High School Council includes the Principal, six parents who are elected at the beginning of every school year, five staff members, and four community members two of whom are students. Any member of the school community can visit the meetings of the Council. The connection with the local community makes both staff and students involved in community activities. A local community theatre company Hartwell Players is performing at Ashwood High School. Moreover, the school takes care of a community Permaculture Food Garden which is located in its state territory.

The Curriculum at Ashwood High School suggests students an opportunity to choose a course of study. At the same time, it is a challenge because a student has to select among a variety of suggestions according to his or her aspirations. This fact should be considered in planning. Since students select a course, it means that they are interested in the subject and, thus, it is appropriate to introduce material above-average level.

School keeps in touch with the Victorian Aboriginal Education Association Inc. to meet the needs of aboriginal and Torres Strait populations. The school policies consider and welcome the diversity of students, both aboriginal and from abroad.

Planning and Structuring Learning

Table 2: School Context – My Class Demographics.

2.1 Table 3: Students as learners: My Class.

Planning aims, rationale, and process

Planning is an integral component of teaching. A properly planned class that considers the curriculum, students’ interests, and peculiarities are going to be more fruitful than a class without a plan. Planning can be time-consuming but it makes grounds for an interesting and dynamic lesson (Butt 2008, p. 4).

Every lesson sequence has a definite aim. The major components of a lesson plan are objectives for student learning, teaching and learning activities, and strategies to check student understanding of the material (Milkova n.d.). A plan comprises lesson objectives, what students are going to learn, and how they can apply this knowledge (New teacher survival guide: planning n.d). The major learning aims include subject knowledge and skills, cross-curricula capabilities, application of knowledge in real life, etc. In the context of my training as a teacher of biology and science, these aims can be transformed to disclose the possibilities of the subjects. Thus, the general aims for science lessons can be: to explain the notion of power (friction, simple machine, etc.) depending on the topic of each lesson; to learn the practical implementation of this knowledge, etc. When it comes to practice in sciences, laboratory work is helpful. The experiments give a better picture of how different things work than theoretical explanations and keep most students interested and engaged.

A sequence of related lessons is usually more efficient than single classes once a week. Lessons in a sequence have similar plans and follow the same objectives. Moreover, the transition between the lessons is not so harsh it is easier for students to trace the connection between the topics of the unit. It is particularly suitable in the context of the ACE Program. The topic of the unit was Forces and Simple Machines. The topic is big and cannot be taught within a single lesson. It is important to learn since it gives information on the main forces and explains the functioning of simple machines. On the one hand, it contributes to the students’ general development and knowledge are applicable in life. on the other hand, it can define the perspective of students’ learning or influence their career choice in the case they are interested in the material.

According to the Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority, the Australian curriculum includes sciences with Physics among them (Australian Curriculum, Assessment, and Reporting Authority n.d.). It states that “Science provides opportunities for students to develop an understanding of important science concepts and processes, the practices used to develop scientific knowledge, of science’s contribution to our culture and society, and its applications in our lives” (ACARA n.d.).

The planning process included several stages. First of all, I have revised the material. As a teacher, I have to know every part of the unit. After that, I have studied the curriculum information on Physics. Secondly, I have made a list of the expected outcomes of this lesson sequence according to the principles of Outcomes-based Education (John 2006, p. 484). Thus, I have formulated what knowledge I expect from students afterward. Based on these expectations, I have selected teaching and learning activities, considering the peculiarities of the subject. Finally, I have thought about the possibilities to check students’ understanding (Milkova n.d.). I planned the sequence and its activities. The content was taken from the textbook. I have used some articles on lesson planning and additional literature on the topic.

Curriculum

The curriculum has to be determined during lesson planning. It is necessary to consider local, national, and age-specific curricula. Thus, the Victorian curriculum on Science provided me with a local interpretation of the rationale and aims of teaching Science (Victorian Curriculum: Science n.d.). It describes Science as a “dynamic, collaborative and creative human endeavor arising from our desire to make sense of our world by exploring the unknown, investigating universal mysteries, making predictions and solving problems” (Victorian Curriculum: Science n.d., par.1). Its structure includes physical sciences which focus on ” understanding the nature of forces and motion, and matter and energy. Students gain an understanding of how an object’s motion (direction, speed, and acceleration) is influenced by a range of contact and non-contact forces such as friction, magnetism, gravity, and electrostatic forces” (Victorian Curriculum: Science n.d., par.14). It is essential to preserve the integrity of the curriculum focusing on each of its areas (Enacting Australian Curriculum: Making connections for quality learning 2014).

The curriculum identifies the component skills which are to be taught in the unit. These skills will make the students meet the curriculum standards and outcomes. Victorian Curriculum on Science includes science inquiry skills (Victorian Curriculum: Science n.d., par.17). Science inquiry means identifying questions, planning, managing researches, and reflecting on them, studying the evidence, and discussing the results of the experiments. It is also connected with problem-solving activities, evaluating the findings, researching the ideas, making conclusions, and learning to provide confirmed arguments. The Science Inquiry Skills consist of five minor strands: questioning and predicting; planning and conducting; recording and processing; analyzing and evaluating; and communicating (Victorian Curriculum: Science n.d., par.17).

Planning the Lesson Sequence: Pedagogy, Content, Strategies, Activities, and Resources

The lesson sequence contributes to the development of students’ skills. The formation of those skills means approaching learning aims. The major activity for this sequence was whole-class teaching (Sherrington 2013, par. 3). It allowed presenting the information from the unit to all students at once. It is also useful for developing the ability to question and predicting skills. Students could ask questions in case they did not understand the material and could predict the topics of the following lessons. The sequence of lessons allowed to repeat the same learning aims from lesson to lesson changing the activities. Thus, students had an opportunity to study the topic from various aspects and form their opinions.

For example, the learning aims such as “to be able to understand what are simple machines and the different types of simple machines; to be able to understand how simple machines decrease the amount of effort to do the work; to be able to understand how a lever works to reduce the effort to the work; to be able to classify different types of the lever” (Lesson plans, Appendix 1) were repeated throughout the sequence. In one of the lessons, they were supported with the PowerPoint presentation followed by questions, another included designing students’ presentations (as a poster of PowerPoint). Other lessons included questionnaires and experiment.

One of the activities that are productive in any subject or topic is presented. It can be individual or created by a group of students. Besides, it can be spontaneous, prepared instantly in the class, or home-prepared. One of the presentations included in the lesson sequence was that in the types of simple machines. A group of students selected a machine and presented in brief its principles of work and possible application in our everyday lives.

After short presentations, students could question each other. Another activity which is popular with students was a quiz on simple machines. The class was divided into two groups. Each group was supposed to prepare ten10 questions on the topic. After that, they were asking and answering the questions in turns to find the winner. This activity is efficient due to the competitive component. It makes students go further than the textbook and search for more information. The students were engaged with the activity. Besides, multiple repetitions of the material (while preparing questions, asking, and answering them) favors a better understanding of the topic. The lesson is in Appendix 1, and the description of students’ reactions can be found in detail in the journal.

Teaching and Supporting Student Learning

Strategies to Support Students’ Learning

Teaching Science is often complicated because it does not allow the application of many creative strategies similar to Humanities. Science has many facts and concepts which have to be carefully learned and remembered. Thus, particular strategies are necessary to present the material and make it understandable for middle learners. One of the strategies of material presentation is presented ways of introducing the information, I have used the presentation on the board and oral explanation. It allows stimulating both stimulating audial perception, which improves the understanding. Moreover, a lecture-type presentation is not efficient with middle students. It may be used with seniors or at university, but middle learners will get bored.

Thus, a presentation on the board (video) combined with the teacher’s commentary is a proper choice. Speaking should not be monotonous. The use of body language (gestures) to demonstrate the material can be helpful (video 2:30). It can be efficient to involve students’ predictions, encouraging their guesses (2:46). In such a way, students are not just listeners but participants of the learning process. Answering students’ questions throughout the presentation can be also helpful because it helps to clarify some unclear issues immediately. In the case of Science lessons, it is useful to provide simple examples that can be tested immediately in the class. For example, while presenting the topic of electrostatic forces the experiment of rubbing a pen on the jumper and then touching a sheet of paper gives a picture of these forces’ actions (video 6:05).

Students’ prior learning experience is also helpful. Thus, middle students are expected to know how to work with the textbook. Thus, a task, which needs it does not demand additional explanations. The prior skill in making presentations will be also useful. Some skills of public speaking can be needed while defending the presentations. The skills of individual and group work are applied throughout the learning process.

To support this class as a group and as individuals, I have used various approaches. Thus, I have applied methods of individual work, work in groups of two or three students, and whole-class activities. Such distribution allows students to feel personal importance and demonstrate knowledge and research activity in one task and act as a significant member of the group in another.

I suppose that my organization of classroom activities was not effective. Maybe I had to choose some other activities to provide a better comprehension of the material because the results of the test on the topic were not excellent. Nevertheless, I think that I did well with the classroom environment. In corresponded the purpose of each lesson and had all the necessary materials. Besides, my directions were usually clear, and students had no problem following them.

I consider classroom management strategies a necessary component of teaching. Before the placement, I have revised a book by Bianco (2014) and found some of the suggested strategies suitable for my class. One of them is visual clues (Bianco 2014, p. 112). It focuses on the importance of eye contact since it proves that students are listening to the teacher. Another strategy that I consider useful is a private or direct appeal (Bianco 2014, p. 115). It is used to underline the importance of an individual and switch attention. Finally, the strategy of seating arrangement looks interesting (Bianco 2014, p. 119). Usually, when students have classes in the same facility, they take the same places and tend to sit near their friends. I have practiced the change of seats during some classes, thus making students move and work in other groups. The students did not eagerly accept this idea but gradually found it interesting.

Evaluation of Learning and the Aims of the Lesson

During the lesson, the students were supposed to understand the concepts of electrostatic forces, static electricity, and different daily occurring examples of electrostatic forces. The first two aims were approached in the theoretical part, which included a presentation and oral explanation. I allowed students to make guesses on the topic from their experience, which made the issues more understandable and contributed to achieving the lesson aims. In the video fragment, it can be seen that students eagerly participate in the discussion. I consider their work during the lesson can be evaluated as good. They were making sound suggestions and guesses.

I suppose the lesson was successful. It combined theoretical and practical (experimental) parts, which are important for lessons in Science. I consider the strategy of involving students in the topic presentation is a working one and I am going to apply it in the future. Besides, real-life examples are suitable when it comes to the explanation of some physical issues and thus should be also applied during the topic introduction.

Table 4: Journal Entry from the lesson.

Assessing Student Learning 1250-1500

Assessing Student Learning

I have used a combined assessment of students during the lesson sequence. Thus, during the classes, it was an informal assessment. It was used to evaluate students’ presentations, both home-prepared and made in class. The tasks connected with answering the questions were self-assessed by the students. They answered the questions on the topic and then could use the textbook to check the answers. The final assessment included a test that covered all issues studied during the lesson sequence. Thus, both formative and summative types of assessment were used (Types of classroom assessment n.d.).

For example, formative (or assessment for learning) was used throughout the classes to figure out the next steps in the learning process and define the areas that had to be cleared up additionally. It was the analysis of student’s feedback. Its objective is to improve the learning outcomes, and it is not included as a grade component. In its turn, summative assessment (or assessment of learning) helps measure the students’ knowledge at a certain moment, usually after a topic is finished Ebert et al. 2011, par. 5). It gives a quantitative evaluation since it is graded. It is often organized in a form of a test.

Table 5: Assessment Task and Criteria.

The table below presents the types of assessment used during the lesson sequence.

Whole class Assessment

One of the assessment types that allows evaluating the knowledge of students on the topic is a test. Usually, it is a whole-class assessment since the class completes it simultaneously. It allows us to assess the comprehension of the topic and provide quantitative results because every part of such a test is graded. The assessment task for my class was dedicated to forces in balance. It included three sections: multiple-choice questions, short answer questions, and extended response questions. The grading was designed in a way that even answering only multiple-choice or short answer questions will provide a satisfactory or even good result. This approach considers the peculiarities of all students. Some find it easier to give short answers, and some can give extended ones. On the whole, there were twenty-seven questions in the test. Some examples of the student works are included in the appendices.

Table 6: Whole Class Assessment Results.

In Table 6 there are the results of students’ tests. Every column corresponds to the type of test assignment and includes the obtained points. A final column presents a total grade. The analysis of the results allows analyzing the success of the class in the test and assessing their knowledge on the topic.

The table gives a picture of the class test results. The distribution of mistakes among the sections is almost equal throughout the class. Thus, most of the students coped well with the multiple-choice questions. It means that they have basic knowledge of the subject. Surprisingly, but many students did badly in the section of short answers. Probably they considered the task an easy one and did not do it carefully enough to get better results. The answers to the third section, which comprises an extended answer were the most diverse in students’ interpretations and points obtained (Appendix 4).

The whole-class assessment revealed the achievement between good and satisfactory levels. Probably, it was caused by the improper choice of learning activities during the lesson sequence. I suppose I should have used more practical tasks to provide deeper penetration into the topic. However, practical activities are usually more time-consuming. Thus, I could plan them only during doubled classes, which happened once a week. Moreover, I think I should pay more attention to formative assessment. It will help discover the problems in material comprehension and allow the correction of the drawbacks in the choice of activities.

The assessment task itself suited its purpose. It was constructed to check the knowledge on the topic, both practical and theoretical. I suppose that the task can be changed. Thus, the extended response section can be larger to allow students to demonstrate their ideas. In further tests, more careful consideration of the response format is needed (Edith Cowan University n.d.). A proper choice of test format influences the students’ performance. A test should not consist only of multiple-choice questions since there is a chance to guess the answer. Consequently, there should be some open-ended questions that will demonstrate the real knowledge on the subject and the ability to analyze and summarize the information.

Student Feedback

Gibbs and Simpson (2004) speak of the effectiveness of feedback. The researchers agree that it has a strong influence and is decisive for students’ achievement. Students need “a meaningful and constructive written assessment feedback” (Rae & Cochrane 2008 p. 2017). This type of feedback can be a guide for further learning. Meaningful and constructive feedback should not be only positive. It should focus on both strong and weak points in the student’s work. The positive feedback encourages students and adds to their confidence. At the same time, pointing out negative moments is expected to stimulate their further learning and progress. It is important not only to detect mistakes but suggest ways to reduce them and come up with a better result next time. On the whole, properly constructed feedback should be both evaluating and stimulating.

Appendix 4 includes three student work samples. These are examples of the students’ final test on the topic. They were checked and commented on by the teacher. The results were analyzed. All three sample tests have different results. Their prior learning need was to check the students’ comprehension of the topic. Its progress need is aimed at reflecting students’ advancement on the topic. Its structure allows evaluating students’ competence, starting from multiple-choice questions to the task demanding an extended creative answer. Its future need is in the possibilities that will be provided by the feedback for students’ further learning.

The following is a transcript of one of the feedback I gave students after the test.

Feedback: Student 1.

Dear Student, you did well during your test. The multiple-choice section is flawless. Unfortunately, I cannot say the same about your short answers. I suppose you were in a hurry and did not work properly on this section. I am sure you could do better. As for your extended answer, it is almost perfect except for some little aspects in the method part. I see you are a hardworking student, but sometimes you may need some assistance. You did a great job, and it is one of the best works in the class. Keep going this way but be more attentive to details sometimes they matter!

I suppose my feedback suits the situation. It gives a generally positive evaluation of the student’s work. The feedback provides the assessment of every part of the test with little analysis of strong and weak points. It begins with the praise of work and finishes positively to provide a generally positive impression. The negative part is in the middle. It focuses on the student’s mistakes and suggests the way-out for better results in the future. Thus, the feedback advises the student to be more attentive with the tasks that seem easy but can be challenging. Further learning goals can include the development of attention to detail and self-assessment, which are necessary for the improvement of results.

However, my feedback strategies improved. I lack the experience to indicate students’ problems and suggest ways to solve them. The feedback does not only include praising. It is of course important, but the feedback will be useless without pointing out the mistakes and developing strategies for the improvement of the results. The feedback is useful not only for learners but for teachers as well. It provides a picture of their learning peculiarities, thus giving information for the selection of teaching strategies for future learning. For example, this class’s test works showed that the learners are more efficient with simple (such as multiple-choice questions) tasks or tasks including some creativity (such as the task with the extended answer). The conclusion is that more attention should be paid to the intermediate tasks, which will teach students to give short answers, thus summarizing the knowledge and not just reproducing the material from the textbook.

Reflecting on Teaching & Learning 1250-1500

Table 7: Journal Extracts: Reflecting on Teaching & Learning.

The journal appeared to be useful for reflecting on teaching and learning. It helps to look back and analyze the activities and the behavior, both of a teacher and students.

Developing my contribution as a teacher

The contemporary Australian school education faces some challenges. It has been in the continuous process of reformation. Nevertheless, despite the attempts of change, there are still problems without solutions (Masters 2015). The issue is that the problems are not new. However, they cannot be solved from the school level and have deeper roots.

One of the challenges faced by Australian educators is raising the professional status of teaching (Masters 2015, par. 5). Teaching is not a popular career among young people. Thus, the image of this profession needs improvement to involve more talented people in teaching. I suppose I can contribute to this challenge by becoming a real professional and thus providing a live example to young learners. An image of a successful and active young teacher can stimulate their choice of teaching as a career. The second challenge includes the reduction of disparities between Australian schools (Masters 2015, par. 11).

It happens so that the advantages that a school has depends on its location and the community. However, I think I cannot contribute to reducing the discrepancies in the economic background. The third challenge is the development of a contemporary curriculum (Masters 2015, par. 17). Australian curriculum has been revised not once. Nevertheless, it still does not meet the demands of life and work in the 21st century. As a young teacher, I can join the initiative group working on the curriculum and provide some suggestions on its changes regarding the part of Sciences.

The Master of Teaching program emphasizes some points. I consider education in remote contexts and differentiation for diverse needs as the most important components. Remote education is among the typical phenomena of the Australian educational space. The problem is caused by the big territory of the country and the unequal distribution of the population. Thus, educational facilities are concentrated in big communities. As a result, detached rural areas lack access to qualitative education (Education and communities 2013, p. 4). Consequently, there is a need for equal education opportunities for all Australian children.

They should have qualified teachers able to follow the curriculum. The second issue is differentiation for diverse needs. One of its aspects is inclusive education. It means equal access to education opportunities for people with special needs (Karten 2010). The barriers such as the common belief that “including” students with learning disabilities is fundamentally a matter of ensuring that the student “fits in” does not let the broad spread of inclusive strategies (Garnet 2010, par. 12). The primary aim of a teacher in an inclusive classroom is to make sure that students with some learning disabilities are well accepted and feel comfortable. One more thing that should be considered in a differentiated classroom is the peculiarity of the assessment process (Thomlinson et al. 2015).

I suppose that the major strength I can bring to my students is my experience and knowledge. Moreover, I consider my young age to be a privilege, as well. As a young teacher, I can understand the need for young learners better and thus provide them with suitable teaching.

I suppose I am ready to move forward in teaching. During the next units, I am going to consider the mistakes of my teaching experience and demonstrate more professional approaches to teaching. After revising Australian professional standards for teachers (2011), I can conclude that different domains of teaching should be equally represented. Thus, professional knowledge presupposes the knowledge of students and peculiarities of their learning together with the awareness of the content and how to teach it. Professional practice includes planning for teaching and learning, the creation of supportive and safe learning environments, and feedback to students’ learning (Australian professional standards for teachers 2011, p. 3). Professional engagement means the involvement in professional learning and professional engagement with colleagues, parents, and the community (Australian professional standards for teachers n.d., par. 18). All the mentioned aspects contribute to the development of a professional teacher able to follow a curriculum and make students interested in learning.

Reference list

About Us n.d. Web.

Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority n.d. Web.

Australian professional standards for teachers 2011. Web.

Bianco, A 2014, One-minute discipline: classroom management strategies that work, John Willey & Sons Australia, Ltd., Milton.

Butt, G 2008, Lesson planning, 3rd ed, Bloomsbury Publishing, London.

Churchill, R,Gudinho, S, Johnson NF & Keddie, A 2016, Teaching: making a difference, John Willey & Sons Australia, Ltd., Milton.

Ebert, E, Ebert, C & Bentley, ML 2011, Types of classroom assessment. Web.

Edith Cowan University n.d., A short guide to creating good assessment task.Web.

Education and communities, November 2013, Rural and remote education: a blueprint for action. Web.

Enacting Australian Curriculum: Making connections for quality learning. 2014. Web.

Environment and facilities. n.d. Web.

Garnett, K 2010, Thinking About Inclusion and Learning Disabilities: A Teachers Guide, Division of Learning Disabilities of the Council for Exceptional Children, pp 7-12. Web.

Gibbs, G & Simpson, C 2004, ‘Conditions under which assessment supports students’ learning,’ Learning and Reaching in Higher Education, issue 1, pp. 3-31.

John, PD 2006, ‘Lesson planning and the student teacher: re-thinking the dominant model’, Journal of Curriculum Studies, vol. 38, no. 4, p. 483-498.

Karten, T 2010, ‘Inclusion strategies that work! Research-based methods for the classroom’ (2nd ed). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Learning aims and outcomes. n.d. Web.

Masters, G 2015, ‘Big five’ challenges in school education,’ Teacher Magazine. Web.

Milkova, S n.d., Strategies for effective lesson planning. Web.

New teacher survival guide: planning n.d., online video, Teaching Channel. Web.

Rae, AM & Cochrane, DK 2008, ‘Listening to students: how to make written assessment feedback useful,’ Active Learning in Higher Education, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 217-230.

School Council n.d. Web.

Sherrington, T 2013, ‘Planning a lesson sequence; observing a lesson plan.’Teacher Head. Web.

Thomlinson, CA, Moon, T & Imbeau, MB 2015, Assessment and student success in a differentiated classroom. Web.

Types of classroom assessment. n.d. Web.

Victorian Curriculum: Science. n.d. Web.

Vision and values. n.d. Web.

‘Walk your school’s hallways: Secrets to a healthy school culture‘, Teacher Magazine. Web.

Qualitative Study

The Problem Statement

While the demand for education continues to increase, recent educational research regarding teacher professionalism indicates that there continues to be a scarcity of teachers within the learning institutions. As the teaching profession continues to prove demanding, tiring, and with low motivation, most undergraduates have lost interest in this field, while teachers the profession leave the teaching profession in search of better professions (Ronfeldt, Loeb, & Wyckoff, 2013). Thus, this research provides a qualitative study of teacher turnover and learning outcomes amongst disabled students.

The Purpose Statement

The intended research would be seeking to establish the prevailing and possible relationship between teacher turnover and the performance of learners, especially among students with learning disabilities. Hence, the main purpose of this qualitative research study is to assess the high turnover rates of teachers and their supposed effects on the students’ performance, particularly those marred with learning disabilities with evidence from teachers and students of the American elementary schools.

Research Method

Qualitative studies follow the principles of qualitative research methods that draw evidence from research participants concerning their real-world experiences using questionnaires, direct observations, and interviews (Golafshani, 2013). The study will embrace the principles of qualitative research methods that include data collection, data analysis, data presentation, data interpretation, and data validation. During data collection, the researcher will use questionnaires, analyze the data qualitatively, and ensure that it follows the principles of interpreting qualitative data.

Research Design

Resign design is a pragmatic and subjective approach that describes life phenomena and give them relevant meaning. Qualitative research entails the principles of research design where social constructivism makes the most in drawing the conclusions made from the perceptions of the participants regarding a research inquiry (Golafshani, 2013). The study will adopt a case study research design where the focus will be students and teachers of elementary schools within the state of Ohio in the United States. A study of elementary schools would provide valuable information that applies to the other schools in the United States.

Variables

Variables are measurable elements of research that vary in accordance with the research subject and the objectives established by the research. Since qualitative research uses social constructivism where the opinions and ideas of participants are important, its variables remain socially constructed (Golafshani, 2013). In the case of this research, the research will have teacher turnover as the independent variable, while student performance shall be the dependent variable.

Population

The study population is the target respondents, who provide data concerning the research problem. Researchers investigate the study population and draw research inferences regarding a certain research problem, which associate with the population. Hence, the study will target teachers and students, both normal and disabled, in a number of schools in Ohio, the United States. About 20 teachers from 5 renowned elementary schools, 50 able students, and 10 students with disabilities will participate.

Geographical Location

The state of Ohio is the most populated region in the United States with reports indicating that the region is the 34^th largest American region and 7^th most populous area. Dominated by the middle-class and a majority of poor citizens, education is a critical issue and teachers are often avoiding Ohio as a workplace. The high rates of poverty and poor living standards in some areas have resulted in high numbers of unhealthy children, with a considerable number of them living with disabilities.

Quantitative Study

Problem Statement

Apart from individual abilities in learning, studies have discovered that the quality of education highly determines the competencies of graduates. Researchers have unveiled that education and learning styles are determinants of competencies among graduates in various professional fields (Candy, 2004). However, the question is whether this notion applies to students with learning disabilities. Concerning the above question, this research seeks to investigate whether education and learning style in an institution, influences the learning outcomes of disabled students.

The Purpose Statement

Learning and educational teaching techniques have worked in tandem in most institutions, but it has remained unknown whether the learning style of a particular institution influences the educational outcomes of disabled learners (Candy, 2004). With evidence from teachers and students of the American elementary schools, the main purpose of this study is to assess whether the education and learning style of a particular institution influences the learning outcomes of disabled learners, apart from influencing learning outcomes in most schools with able learners.

Research Method

The quantitative method is a pragmatic research method that uses numerical data, statistical information, computational techniques, and figures to analyze a research inquiry (Tewksbury, 2009). The research method that the study will adopt is the use of questionnaires designed in a Likert scale model to collect data from teachers and learners from different selected schools. Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) will be useful in analyzing data.

Research Design

Quantitative research design tests research problems descriptively or experimentally (Tewksbury, 2009). The intended research would confine to descriptive statistics, where the final and determining activity of the research would be testing the research hypothesis. The research would want to test hypothetically the relationship between learning styles and competency of graduates. The study hypothesizes that there is a positive relationship between the learning styles of an institution and the competency of graduates. Furthermore, the study hypothesizes that there is a positive relationship between learning styles and performance of students with learning disabilities.

Variables

Quantitative research depends on research variables, which quantify a research problem and allow quantitative analysis. According to Tewksbury (2009), people or things that provide quantitative data are units or cases and the data collected are the variables. The greatest notion here is that the competency of learners depends on the education and learning style of a particular institution. Hence, learning style in this case acts as the independent variable, while the competency of learners acts as the dependent variable in the study.

Population

Quantitative research also has a study population where the researcher collects data necessary for the assessment of the identified problem. The research has a target population of 100 participants, including 20 headteachers, 50 schoolteachers, and 30 disabled students from disability schools around the state of Ohio. From the estimated number, the study will use probability sampling to design a sample size that would be appropriate in analyzing the research problem.

Geographical Location

The state of Ohio is a densely populated area and located in the Midwestern part of the United States. The state has a mixture of households with a considerable number of families with disabled children, which have prompted the establishment of several special education centers across the towns. The Ohio Department of Education has several links to schools for disability where the researcher would be able to locate special education institutions for the assessment of teachers and willing students.

References

Candy, S. (2004). Learning styles: An overview of theories, models, and measures. Educational Psychology, 24(4), 420-444.

Golafshani, N. (2003). Understanding Reliability and Validity in Qualitative Research. The Qualitative Report, 8(4), 597-607.

Ronfeldt, M., Loeb, S., & Wyckoff, J. (2013). How Teacher Turnover Harms Student Achievement. American Educational Research Journal, 50(1), 4-36.

Tewksbury, R. (2009). Qualitative versus Quantitative Methods: Understanding Why Qualitative Methods are Superior for Criminology and Criminal Justice. Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical Criminology, 1(1), 38-58.

Process Writing Approaches

The educational professionals need to select a suitable strategy for the education of writing skills to young deaf and hard of hearing students, as teaching writing is often associated with the presence of challenges due to its dependency on the spoken language (Giddens, 2009). Firstly, the instruments such as Fitzgerald Key and Wing symbols were used to teach the word order (Marschark & Spencer, 2011). Nonetheless, these strategies did not contribute to the improvement of the complexity of the sentences and enhancement of the vocabulary. Consequently, the development of the process writing approaches was aimed at the advancement of the utilization of genres and the improvement of grammatical structures while encouraging paying attention to the content (Marschark & Spencer, 2011).

In this instance, one of the techniques is monitoring the overall writing process of the students starting from the idea generation to the final writing (Pike, 2011). Nonetheless, the deaf and hard of hearing students have to be supervised more precisely to assure the capability of the process to enhance their writing skills. In the end, this instrument tends to have a beneficial influence on the development of writing while applying an individual approach to each student.

Interactive Writing

Another approach is the implementation of the interactive writing strategy, as it implies that students with hearing issues and a teacher participate in the construction and composition of the text simultaneously (Giddens, 2009). In this instance, the study revealed that this method has a positive contribution to the social development of children, the ability to understand the language in the given context, and the capability to identify the words and sentences while determining their meaning (Giddens, 2009). It could be said that this method has to be actively implemented as an educational practice due to the capability to increase deaf children’s communication skills, which are presented in the written form.

Strategic and Interactive Writing Instruction

It remains apparent that different forms of interactive writing tend to be present due to the dissimilar emphasis and attention to the particular learning principles. Strategic and Interactive Writing Instruction (SIWI) implies a combination of interactive and strategic doctrines to encourage learning among children with hard of hearing (Dostal & Wolbers, 2014). In this case, SIWI contributes to having an explicit and implicit learning practice for the individuals while focusing on balanced tasks, a substantial level of independence, visual support, and authenticity (Dostal & Wolbers, 2014). It could be said that this approach also contributes to the advancement of the level of expression and improvement of written English skills.

In turn, SIWI principles can be implemented in different forms of activities. The most supported one is groups guided learning, as it focuses on the high participation of the teacher in the group writing tasks (The University of Tennessee, 2016). In turn, the small group or paired-writing is also often used for the implementation of SIWI features (The University of Tennessee, 2016). Nonetheless, it is not preferred due to the vitality of independence for the completion of these tasks and activities. Lastly, the individual writing assignments also take place but are regarded as high complexity and not appropriate for young children’s education (The University of Tennessee, 2016).

Balanced and Interactive Language Instruction

Alternatively, the balanced and interactive language instructions imply the development of the written skills while associating it with the spoken language (Farris, Fuhler, & Walther, 2004). It could be said that it is beneficial for deaf students, as they have an opportunity to improve their communication skills while collaborating with the different members of society. In turn, the combination of writing with the interactivity eases the learning process for the students with hard of hearing.

In this case, one of the activities related to a well-adjusted and interactive language approach is the morning message, which is a short balanced and interactive assessment (Wolbers, 2008). It implies selecting one person as a leader and a topic selector while others actively participate in the creation of the text (Wolbers, 2008). It could be said that it is advantageous for the socialization and written expression simultaneously.

American Sign Language and Writing Skills

Lastly, the application of sign language cannot be underestimated, as it can be actively utilized to advance the writing skills. In this instance, the expansion of the vocabulary and lexical and grammatical structures while building associations with the sign language will contribute to the development of the writing skills among students with hard of hearing (Nussbaum, Waddy-Smith, & Doyle, 2012). In this case, it assists in the establishment of correlations between written words and sign language while determining the definition of words.

The strategies such as brainstorming, the introduction of the vocabulary charts, and other visual tactics critically affect the establishment and understanding of the link between sign language and written words (Brocop & Persall, 2009). In this instance, it could be said that the strategies have compliance with the principles mentioned in the description of the other techniques. Nevertheless, the primary difference is the essentiality of American Sign Language as a basis for the development of writing skills.

References

Brocop, F., & Persall, B. (2009). Writing strategies for learners who are deaf. Web.

Dostal, H., & Wolbers, K. (2014). Developing language and writing skills of deaf and hard of hearing students: A simultaneous approach. Literacy Research and Instruction, 53, 245-268. Web.

Farris, P., Fuhler, C., & Walther, M. (2004).Teaching reading a balanced approach to today’s classrooms. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education. Web.

Giddens, E. (2009). Teaching written language to students who are deaf or hard of hearing. Web.

Marschark, M., & Spencer, P. (2011). The Oxford handbook of deaf studies, language, and education. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Web.

Nussbaum, D., Waddy-Smith, B., & Doyle, J. (2012). Students who are deaf and hard of hearing and use sign language: Considerations and strategies for developing spoken language and literacy skills. Seminars in Speech and Language, 33(4), 310-321. Web.

Pike, G. (2011). Assessing generic outcomes of college: Selections from assessment measures. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. Web.

The University of Tennessee: Principles of Strategic and Interactive Writing Instruction. (2016). Web.

Wolbers, K. (2008). Using balanced and interactive writing instruction to improve the higher order and lower order writing skills of deaf students. The Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 13(2), 257-277. Web.

Riding a bike is both a physical and psychological activity because it requires the coordination of various systems of the body. The human brain is fundamental to learning the process. According to behavioral scientists, the brain influences the ability to balance and peddle a bike. A person intending to ride a bike should learn the basic procedures of riding before he or she can accomplish the process. A leaner should instruct his brain for him to grasp the procedure. The basic concepts include steering, balancing, and peddling (Mauer, 2010). People learn to ride bikes for different reasons. For example, several persons use bikes for transport while the rest use it as a sporting activity.

Operational conditioning

Operational conditioning entails realigning learner’s behavior using threats and rewards. In the process, a learner acknowledges fundamental concepts pertaining to riding bikes. For example, learners should respond to a given situation in a given way when coordinating body movements and behavior. According to Mauer (2010), riding a bike requires that one acknowledges the concepts of balancing. A professional trainer should guide the learner during the process. Consequently, the learner should try several before they can understand the concept. Peddling, balancing, and steering are the activities associated with operational conditioning that learners practice. Mauer (2010) further adds that riding should focus on moving forward.

Reinforcement

There are two types of reinforcements with the most common, including positive reinforcement. During the process, a learner is encouraged to adopt behaviors that enhance performance. This helps in developing a positive response needed to accomplish the process. Trainers combine the learning practice with activities that riders enjoy doing. However, negative reinforcement eliminates fun processes. The trainer limits the challenges that face the rider. According to Wallack & Katovsky (2005), the trainer motivates the learner by introducing enticing activities to riding. In both reinforcements, learners adjust behaviors to adapt to the conditions of riding. Negative reinforcement instills precaution, like putting on helmets.

Reward and punishment

Rewards and punishment target behaviors that influence performance. According to Wallack & Katovsky (2005), punishment discourages undesired behaviors while rewards encourage behaviors that are beneficial to the learning process. Additionally, rewards pose several advantages during its application. For example, a rider is motivated when he receives a reward for having peddled on his own. The application of reward and punishment in learning to ride a bike helps when training teenagers how to brake. According to Wallack & Katovsky (2005), trainers should limit punishment for learners. This encourages the learner to undertake initiatives in learning the process of riding. For example, learners will dedicate most of the time to riding bikes.

Instrumental conditioning

A valuable aspect of instrumental conditioning that enhances the education process is positive reinforcement. According to Gagnon & Collay (2006), trainers use the method when training adults because it is effective. Motivated learners grasp ideas faster. However, discouraged learners easily forget the concepts of riding. This is because attitude plays a fundamental role in influencing activities involving the coordination of the brain and the body. Negative reinforcement can also facilitate the training process for children who neglect the basic steps of riding.

Riding is a societal and sporting activity that is dependent on the physical and psychological process. It is essential for the learner to comprehend these concepts. The instructor should employ reinforcement to facilitate learning.

References

Gagnon, G. W., & Collay, M. (2006). Constructivist learning design: Key questions for teaching to standards. Thousand Oaks, Calif: Corwin Press.

Mauer, T. (2010). Bicycle Riding. New York, NY: Rourke Pub Llc

Wallack, R. M., & Katovsky, B. (2005). Bike for life: How to ride to 100. New York, NY: Marlowe & Co.

Just Draw Exhibition

It is imperative to note that numerous galleries are present in this area, and it is not an easy task to select the one that would be liked by children because every single one has art that is unique and worth seeing. Just Draw is an exhibition that is focused on various aspects of paintings. Fifteen Australian artists were selected, and they have an opportunity to demonstrate their works (Woolfe par. 3.). Most of them come from different backgrounds, but an aspect that unites them is devoted to art. Artists utilize numerous techniques to create works that are truly unique and can be easily differentiated from others. Each one has a different style, and it can be seen that they are quite experienced in this area.

The primary goal of this exhibition is to draw attention to Australian artists that have enormous potential. Understandably, some of these names are not yet widely known, but the works that are shown are quite impressive and deserve appreciation. Works by Matilda Michell are worth noting because the works that are presented at an exhibition will be focused on practice and children may get a better understanding of the process of drawing. For instance, one of the pieces can be viewed as an example of how to draw people without any difficulties (“Head of a Man”).

Paintings by Paul White also should be highlighted. The artist is interested in particular pieces of the popular culture and focuses on such aspects as decay and impact of time (“Paul White.” par. 1.). The one that is shown here is especially fascinating and maybe analyzed (“Roadside Car Stack”).

One of the biggest benefits of this exhibition is that it is incredibly versatile, and particular limitations are not present. Individuals that have visited it already have voiced their approval and it was praised by critics. It is possible to state that there is no particular unifying theme in this exhibit as a whole, but every artist has provided works that are quite similar and in the same style.

I think that children will be engaged in this case and would have an enormous interest in this exhibition because many kinds of art are shown and every individual may select a work that he or she likes. The fact that some of the works are moving is also worth noting, and it would help students to keep their attention and not get distracted. Children like unique works and they will be able to see many in this case. Moreover, the fact all of the pieces were created by Australian authors is also beneficial and would make them much more motivated. They will be able to appreciate all kinds of artwork and may start to think about the meaning behind such pieces (Russell-Bowie 148).

Also, many children prefer works that were created with tools other than a brush and paint, and it would be interesting to see their reaction in some cases. It may be useful to ask students about techniques that authors utilized, and it may lead to discussions (Aland and Darby 31). Furthermore, I think that it is critical to ask their opinions about the exhibition to get a better understanding of which aspects they liked and which ones they did not (Dinham 55). The fact that a worksheet has been developed and will be provided is also worth mentioning, and it would make students much more interested in the process.

Worksheetfor students visiting the exhibition

Find this piece by Jane Theau. It is rather interesting, and it may not be an easy task to understand what the author wanted to express. It is possible to state that this work is rather abstract, but it is possible to identify a hidden meaning. The author is known for criticizing particular aspects of society that can be quite problematic in some cases. The artist can see beautiful things in various aspects of our lives, and it makes her pieces rather unique and worthy of a discussion (“Tethered”).

• Try to explain what is so special about this work. Did you see anything similar before?
• Select a character that you like the most and describe him or her. What they are doing in this situation and what they are thinking about.
• The author utilized many approaches during the process of creation of this piece. Try to explain why it is visually appealing and list colours that you think draw the most attention.

Find this piece by Todd Fuller. The author utilizes animation to ensure that the audience has a better understanding of stories of these characters (“Todd Fuller” par. 1). Try to ask other people in the gallery if they know anything about the background of this work, and why it is so important. It can be seen that the author thinks that small details are critical, and they make the piece much more comprehensive and impressive at the same time (“Little Star”).

• Which dog do you like the most and why?
• What do you think about animation, and do you think that it helps to enhance the story?
• Would you like to see a continuation? What adventures await these dogs in your opinion?
• Try to draw the one which you like more on a separate piece of paper.

Find this piece by John Bokor. The author has received numerous awards, and many of his works were met with acclaim (“John Bokor” par. 1). He utilizes many techniques to ensure that every single of his paintings is unique and can be differentiated from others. It can be seen that he is not focused on such aspects as perfection and prefers to devote more attention to other factors that would help to make his works intriguing (“Morning Interior”).

• What do you think about the room? What has happened recently? Please provide a list of objects that you are able to identify in this case. Which one is the most interesting?
• How many members do you think are in this family? Are there any children?
• Try to draw a similar chair on a separate piece of paper and try to keep the proportions. Ask other people around you what they think about this picture. List words mentioned by other individuals the most.
• Many types of art can be seen throughout the whole exhibition. Artists are very devoted to their craft and want to ensure that others will be able to see them. Please write about the one that you liked the most and explain what you liked about it. What techniques did the author utilize to make it? What would you paint if you had an opportunity to show your work at this exhibition?

Lesson Plans

An artwork based upon the artmaking activity covered in the lessons

This piece is titled «A Rare Vase» and it is rather straightforward. I have used a lead pencil, a ruler, A4 paper, and an eraser. I thought that this is an appropriate work in this case because it is relatively simple, and it is not likely that children will have any significant difficulties when drawing similar objects. Moreover, individuals may add details to make the piece as unique as it is possible and they will be able to demonstrate their creativity.

However, it may not be an easy task to make both sides proportional, and it is imperative to focus on this aspect when explaining the technique to students. Also, some may struggle when drawing edges, and it is paramount to show children how it can be done much easier. SSome will likelywill have issues with some perspectives, and it would be beneficial to explain how objects should be drawn in volume. Drawing of shadows is an aspect that can be quite problematic most of the time, and it may be necessary to provide other examples to show how it can be done. It is possible to identify that the work is not yet finished, and it needs to be refined (“A Rare Vase: Middle of the Development”).

It can be seen that this piece can be simple to draw but it has many details that make it visually appealing, and it will be able to attract the audience (“A Rare Vase: Completed Version”).

Works Cited

Aland, Jenny, and Max Darby. Art Connections. Melbourne, AU: Heinemann, 1991. Print.

Clements, Robert D., and Frank Wachowiak. Emphasis Art: A Qualitative Art Program for Elementary and Middle Schools. 9th ed. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon, 2010. Print.

Dinham, Judith. Delivering Authentic Arts Education: Visual Arts, Drama, Music, Dance, Media. South Melbourne, AU: Cengage Learning, 2011. Print.

“Head of a Man” n.d. Web.

“John Bokor.” Just-Draw. Just-Draw, n.d. Web.

“Little Star” n.d. Web.

“Morning Interior” n.d. Web.

“Paul White.” Just-Draw. Just-Draw, n.d. Web.

“Roadside Car Stack” n.d. Web.

Russell-Bowie, Deirdre. MMADD About the Arts: An Introduction to Primary Arts Education. Frenchs Forest, AU: Prentice Hall, 2005. Print.

“Tethered” n.d. Web.

“Todd Fuller.” Just-Draw. Just-Draw, n.d. Web.

Woolfe, Lisa. “Just Draw: An Exhibition of Contemporary Australian Drawing.” NAVA. 2016. Web.

The First Teaching Observation

Title of Observed Session

Scaffolding as a Teaching Strategy

The instructor introduces students to the concept of scaffolding using a PowerPoint presentation. The lesson is buoyed by real-life learning examples that demonstrate how scaffolding works.

Instructor’s Strengths

The instructor has high levels of patience, and this means that she can reach a wider range of students. The instructor has also taken the time to organize a well-thought-out presentation that grasps the attention of the learners. For instance, on the third slide, the teacher finds no need to explain anything as the material is easy to understand. The professionalism of the teacher also adds to her accolades as a star instructor.

Instructor’s Areas for Improvement

The instructor is not lively enough, and this means that some learners can easily lose interest in the course of the lesson. The instructor should also work on other means of emphasizing her points other than hand gestures. For example, she could have used props to enhance her lesson.

The Second Teaching Observation

Title of Observed Session

Teaching with style, Mechanical Energy Conservation

The instructor is teaching the class about the potential and practical applications of mechanical energy. The instructor uses props and live demonstrations to prove his point.

Instructor’s Strengths

The instructor is able to captivate the attention of the class by using well-thought-out demonstrations. The instructor is also able to deliver a much-needed shock-effect to the class, and this helps the students to investigate the subject matter in detail. The instructor obviously has a great grasp of the subject matter, and this makes his teaching methods more effective.

Instructor’s Areas for Improvement

The instructor needs to concentrate more on involving the student in the lesson because, at one point, it appears as if they are bored. It would have been more effective if the students took part in some of the demonstrations that the instructor carried out.

Comparison of the Lessons

The instructors in both lessons use completely different approaches to teach their students. The physics lesson is heavy on demonstration but lacks visualizations to back up the theoretical concepts of the subject matter. On the other hand, the instructor who is teaching the scaffolding concept could use props and demonstrations to ensure that the students are able to understand. Both instructors have good levels of enthusiasm, although none of them is perfect in that area.

For example, the physics instructor is too overzealous, and he could benefit from stopping to gauge the attentiveness of the students while the Scaffolding instructor uses too many hand gestures. Overall, both instructors complement one another, and they could benefit from an exchange of skills.

Concepts Learnt

One concept that can be picked up from the two scholars is that no one teaching method is effective on its own. Consequently, there is a need for instructors to use as many approaches when teaching as possible. For example, while one of the instructors in this video is good at demonstrations, he lacks the ability to layout visuals like the other teacher. Another concept that can be learned from this assignment is the role played by enthusiasm when teaching. While both teachers are not perfect in their teaching methodologies, they both makeup for their shortcomings with their enthusiasm.

Remarks

The “Teaching Observation Form” does a good job in covering most aspects of good teaching practices. The form addresses how one-sided teaching approaches often fall short in their delivery. However, the form should have addressed the pace of the teacher’s delivery because it can influence the outcome of a lesson. For example, some teachers move too fast while others take too long to explain a point. Eventually, both types of instructors end up losing the concentration of their students.

Introduction

Mathematics is a special subject that requires a strategic teaching practice, which should be used to ensure effective delivery. To understand and apply the required teaching strategy, many factors have been raised as to the suitability of certain effective ways of teaching. Therefore, it is very important to outline the best practices in teaching and learning mathematics, especially how to approach the topics of space geometry, manipulative and technology.

Sometimes, understanding of the subject becomes difficult for the students, even though the teacher can handle several concepts. It is in this regard that there is a call for doing this research to come up with alternative ways of handling geometry. The students in most instances need to relate what is contained in the book and the practical approaches to this subject matter.

The teaching and learning strategies need to be fabricated towards the achievement of both immediate and long term goals in mathematics. This becomes the basis of discussion for this work because it will reveal how geometry helps in the understanding environment while in class or any other place.

Main body

Mathematics is a subject that involves measurements and relationships of the numbers, symbols, and figures, which help in the interpretation of any given value (Carpenter, Hebert, Murray, Wearne, Fuson & Fennena, 1997). Mathematics alone is a wide concept and it involves sub-branches like geometry, algebra and other space manipulative. It involves reasoning and understanding of the values and shapes depending on the circumstances of the presentation. Mathematics is important because it helps us in analysis, understanding of the figures and ratios. All adult persons and children appreciate mathematics. It is applicable in administration, business, teaching and understanding the values of finance.

Geometrical mathematics, for instance, our families and children need to understand the shapes involved in their daily living. For instance, they need to know why some things like paper and walls are rectangular. Researchers have previously brought out geometric situations that emphasized shape and space as very important in helping children solve problems in mathematics. These applications of geometry include visualizing spatial arrangements, communicating orally, drawing and making of models, having logical thinking and general application of geometric concepts and knowledge. Mathematics is generally supported by the curriculum and in particular, geometric mathematics is very useful in the primary syllabus because it is at that point that recognition of shapes and lines is realized.

According to the National Research Council and the committee on early childhood mathematics (2009), they had proposed development on the use of geometrical mathematics to teach younger children on the construction of shapes in a classroom setting by use of free materials which included the use of clay, boxes, and cartons. Construction with papers through folding, drawing shapes and patterns. These were very practical in enabling the children to understand the shapes and apply them most appropriately.

Geometry, for instance, enables the children to understand real objects that reflect shapes of objects. These include polygons and other patterns, which are useful in the child’s learning process. The other major use and application of geometry and shapes include location and associated representations. The location and movement describe directions, distance, and position. This observation enables the children to describe their world and understand the surrounding. Also, the students can build mathematical concepts like positive and negative numbers plus skills relating to other subjects. Geometry also enables the understanding of patterns and transformations

How Children Learn Mathematics

The knowledge of how children learn mathematics is vital because it enables better understanding, which makes the teacher know their behavior and generally allows for efficient and appropriate ways of teaching. In the mathematical learning process, there is an outline for the development of spatial concepts, which create five levels of understanding during the learning of the process.

According to Van Hiele’s theory, the five levels are grouped as “analysis, visualization, rigor, formal deduction, and informal deduction” (Booker, Bond, Sparrow & Swan, 2010). According to Van Hiele, no child can miss these levels because they are all sequential. Each level has got its unique characteristics and contains useful interconnections with one another. These levels are useful in accounting for the effective development of geometric thinking and also in the organization of teaching and learning activities.

The first level is recognition or visualization. This level emphasizes that children normally operate based on the appearance of items without reference to properties. They describe a shape as a whole but never identify its uniqueness (Reys, Lindquist, Lambdin & Smith, 2009). They relate the object to what it is familiar with. Problems are solved through trial and error or by visual means. They still do not have precise language for description generally. The second level is analysis. This is where the children start to notice and acknowledge the attributes and properties of shapes (Muschla & Gary, 2006). For example, the children begin to identify certain triangles through the properties of their shapes. However, they do not understand that some properties at this stage are a necessary consequence of others. At this time, the teacher imposed definitions may not be interpreted well nor applied.

The next level is level three. This involves ordering or informal deductions in learning mathematics. The children begin to note the relationships between properties and shapes. For instance, parallel lines must just form equal angles. There is a reflection on the concrete experiences on the provided information. The children are then able to see the relationship between various geometrical concepts and give properties of a shape that defines it. The major example here is that an equilateral triangle can be identified as having three equal angles, three equal sides and that the angles are adding up to 180 degrees. This is only applicable to some children because the learning process varies accordingly.

The fourth level is the formal deduction. The children can reason abstractly and logically to come up with proof. The children can develop their proofs instead of just remembering. The last stage is the fifth level known as rigor or meta-mathematical. There is analytic reasoning of the students that deals with the relationship between formal constructs.

From the experience of learning mathematics, there is a better understanding and application of mathematical ideas by the children. This is shown in the presentation of the annotated maps drawn by the children at various stages. Their ability to draw and locate the places indicate distances, labeling of trees and general presentation of drawing is made in such a way that it reflects their understanding of geometry. The children have various capabilities depending on the level to show the distances, roads and relevant symbols capturing the real picture of the environment. Their sample annotated maps are clearer depending on the understanding of geometrical shapes, use of scale in the estimation of distances and ability to use three-dimensional presentations. All these are possible because of the mathematical knowledge that the children have.

Strategies for Teaching Mathematics

There are various strategies for teaching mathematics, which enable the children to have a full understanding of the concepts and get knowledge accordingly. The first strategy is the constructivist strategy. This approach enables the student to understand any given mathematical concept and apply it reasonably. They can create the necessary mental image of the topic of learning given is by teaching the children from the perspective of known shapes or issues to the unknown (Deborah, 2009).

This is because by presenting three-dimensional shapes first, it was quite possible to explore their knowledge from familiar three-dimensional shapes such as a ball and blocks. When this strategy is used, then the children will have the opportunity to develop knowledge accordingly. The children away from learning from known to unknown will be able to understand the concepts effectively. This enables the gradual development of skills and learning processes (Willis, 2010).

The other strategy involves the use of intermediate activities. The intermediate activities involve making students form small groups and solve some problems in the form of riddles. When they are learning through a riddle, it is very easy to understand what is taught by the teacher. Another strategy is by involving the students in certain advanced activities. The activities will majorly focus on the topic of discussion like describing and sorting shapes. The children should be able to describe and identify three-dimensional objects.

Resources that Can Support Children’s Mathematics Learning

Mathematics requires certain resources that guide the proper learning process. The resources, for instance, depending on the topic that the students are learning at a particular time (Joanne & Martin, 2007). In this case, it is crucial to note that learning of geometry and space is guided by the use of lines, shapes and building up of pyramids. Children can learn from models in understanding mathematics. This resource model may include prisms, boxes, truncated prisms and development of edge models. Also, the models are made from straws, pipes, cleaners or sticks that could be connected with tape or clay (Wilder & Mason, 2005). These enable understanding of the mathematical concepts, and the children can draw some useful information from the figures. Plain drawing papers are also useful especially when they are introduced in drawing of shapes.

The children can draw something they know from circles, triangles, and rectangles (National Library of Virtual Manipulative, 2010). They will be able to identify the number of sides that each figure has. The learning resources should be present at all times when teaching geometry in mathematics. The children will have a better understanding of the concepts and be able to apply the knowledge relatively based on the provided circumstances in life.

Conclusion

Learning geometry and shapes provide a good opportunity for the children to understand their surrounding. Mathematics is useful in such analysis apart from being able to evaluate, calculate and make a clear presentation of the facts in any given condition. It is important to note that children learn mathematics in states or levels of developing special concepts. According to the above discussion, Van Hiele’s theory highlights the five levels, which include, but not limited to analysis, visualization, rigor, formal deduction, and informal deduction. Each level means there is a certain concept that becomes known by the children. This enables the professional teachers to understand the levels and present relevant ideas that the students can master effectively.

The strategies for teaching mathematics, especially geometry is also important and includes learning the known to unknown and having intermediate teaching methods among others. This helps in good understanding. Also, there should be good resources that guide in the teaching process, which include models of various shapes for the practical approach in handling geometry. Finally, mathematics is generally applied in various areas of operation in our daily life and it is important when incorporated in the syllabus especially geometry for the young children to give better foundation and skills in appreciating figures.

References

Booker, G., Bond, D., Sparrow, L., & Swan, P. (2010). Teaching Primary Mathematics (4th edition). Frenchs Forest, NSW: Pearson Australia.

Carpenter, P., Hebert, J., Murray H., Wearne, D., Fuson, C. & Fennena, E. (1997). Making Sense: Teaching and Learning Mathematics. Portsmouth: Heinemann Publishers.

Deborah, M. (2009). Strategies for Teaching Mathematics. Huntington Beach: Shell Education Publisher.

Joanne, P. & Martin, K. (2007). Supporting Mathematical Learning: Effective Instruction, Assessment, and Student Activities. San Francisco: Jossey- Bass.

Muschla, A. & Gary, R. (2006). Hands-Onn Math Projects with Real-Life Applications. San Francisco: Jossey- Bass.

National Library of Virtual Manipulatives (2012). Web.

National Research Council & Committee on Early Childhood Mathematics (2009). Mathematics Learning in Early Childhood. Washington DC: National Academies Press.

Reys, R., Lindquist, M., Lambdin, D., & Smith, N. (2009). Helping Children Learn Mathematics (9th Ed.). New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.

Wilder, J. & Mason, J. (2005). Developing Thinking in Geometry. California: Sage Publications Ltd.

Willis, J. (2010). Learning to Love Mathematics: Teaching Strategies that Change Student Attitudes and Get Results. Alexandria: Association for Supervision& Curriculum Development.