The purpose of Language Arts is to develop the childs oral and written language, as well as to teach the child reading and paying attention to her or his handwriting. All these activities should be perceived by the child as an adventure or an enjoyable task, not as a burden. Moreover, Language Arts classes consist of different activities that correspond to the major areas of the Montessori curriculum.
Major Areas and Teachers Role
The four major areas of the Montessori curriculum include practical life, sensorial life, culture, and mathematics (Lillard, 2016). Some teachers and educators also regard music and arts as an essential part of the Montessori curriculum. Each of the areas is focused on specific tasks and exercises for children. For example, in the Practical Life area children learn to perform such activities that they will later need on a daily basis, i.e. cooking, sweeping floors, washing hands, gardening, etc. (Machado, 2015). Language Arts can help children describe the activities they have been doing in the Practical Life area. The Sensorial Area is focused on the childs sensorial abilities; it is obligatory to engage the five senses of a child in the performance of a task. During sensorial tasks, children learn how to classify, separate, and combine things (Machado, 2015).
The Mathematics Area is linked to the Sensorial Area, as the numbers and quantities that children learn to recognize are presented not as abstract definitions, but as items that children can hold and feel (Gordon & Browne, 2016). Mathematical operations are also supported by different materials, for example, cards and tables (Gordon & Browne, 2016). Using their language skills, children learn to name and recognize mathematical symbols, as well as calculate.
The Culture Area often includes geography, history, zoology, science, and other areas that help children understand the world that surrounds them. As the founder of the Montessori schools believed that students needed to understand and be familiar with other nations traditions and beliefs to be a cultured person , the Culture Area provides children with information about other countries and what is unique about them (Montessori, 2015). Many of the materials presented in this area require the use of language skills, e.g. children learn names of the continents, cities, animals that live in different parts of the world, names of peoples and nations.
The teachers role is of extreme importance as children learn through their directress about the language and how it can be used. The teachers role is to introduce language to children by using different methods, e.g. poetry or books or conversations. When a child is trying to engage in a conversation with a teacher, the teacher is obliged to listen and help, as this conversation might be the foundation of the childs ability to understand and use language (Taylor, 2013). When a teacher is working with children who are not able to speak yet, she is allowed to talk to them, repeat words and sentences, as children absorb the language and learn to recognize its patterns.
Language Arts Materials
As decoding letters might be difficult for children, specific materials are presented to students to ensure that they are capable of linking the sound with a symbol. For example, if a childs name begins with a letter B, the child is presented with the sandpaper letter B; thus, the child can recognize the symbol that is linked to the sound. Without this activity, the child would not be capable of learning how to read because she would not know what sounds are related to these symbols (Lapp & Fisher, 2011).
When children are introduced to all sandpaper letters, exercises with the moveable alphabet can be performed. With the help of the moveable alphabet, a child will be able to compose words or phrases that she or he likes or that the directress dictates. As reading is a highly abstract activity, games with the moveable alphabet will help the child understand the rules of reading and how it is performed.
Writing and Reading in Classroom
In Montessori schools, writing is taught before reading. Sensorial classes develop the childs motor skills, whereby the child also learns how to hold and use objects similar to pens and pencils. Therefore, later, during the writing classes, the child does not experience many difficulties in writing; moreover, Montessori approach discourages any rush during these classes so that children are able to learn patiently and calmly.
Use of metal insets during classes is one of the most popular activities for children because they can also talk to their friends during it, but at the same time, they have fun tracing shapes and writing different words (usually names) with it. Another interesting combination of reading and writing is copying sentences from books. However, this activity is efficient only if the child has well-developed writing skills (Machado, 2015). Another activity that children also find interesting is writing on a chalkboard. Although this activity requires skill, children learn quickly how to hold a stylus. Some children prefer writing words themselves, while others include communication in the task and ask their friends or the directress to dictate words.
Reading activities are often performed in the form of a game or as reciting of poetry or reading a book in the reading corner. A game that can be used for reading activities requires children to use cards: one of the children can read an activity silently and then perform it to other students. The students need to understand what was the word behind this activity (e.g. jump, read, sing, etc.)
Listening and Speaking
Listening and speaking is nurtured by different actions of the directress and students during class. For example, specific topics are encouraged to be discussed, such as holidays, birthdays, cultural objects, pictures, etc. Children are also encouraged to talk about their interests, books they have read in class or at home. Moreover, special interest table can also be used to support communication. It is important to remember that the directress needs to speak to children on their eye level this method will help attract attention, but it is also used to establish an intimate eye contact rather than an intimidating one (Montessori research and development, 2013). Only if this type of contact is established, the child is ready to listen.
To nurture listening skills, the directress needs to pay attention to her tone of voice. It is necessary to speak in a quiet, respectful tone; as children are used to loud voices, a low voice might be perceived as something new and unexpected. Moreover, as children are used to listening to adults commands in a loud voice, calm tone of the directress will also help them understand that they are supported and respected (Montessori research and development, 2013).
Writing and Reading
It seems reasonable to point out that one of the unique features of the Montessori approach is that children learn writing before reading. Although it might seem odd, it is actually a more efficient way of learning, as reading follows spontaneously several months after writing has begun (Lillard, 2016). Children are taught the thumb-index finger grip that will be later used to hold a pencil. Once a child is ready to read, it is important for the teacher to be engaged in these activities as well, read to and with the child (ODonnell, 2014; Kirkham, 2010). Moreover, it is also important to introduce the child to lowercase letters, although some parents might find that writing in upper case is easier.
Direct and Indirect Aims
Like any other major area in a Montessori classroom, Language Arts also have direct and indirect aims. The direct aims of Language Arts are to teach children reading, explain them concepts of communication (oral), and teach students to express themselves through writing (Curricular report, 2012). The indirect aims include the development of students intelligence, improvement of their concentration abilities, fostering the ability to follow a process, teaching students how to solve problems, work independently, and complete full task sets.
References
Curricular report. (2012). Curricular report. Bella Mente Montessori Academy. A California public charter school. Web.
Gordon, A. M., & Browne, K. W. (2013). Beginnings & beyond: Foundations in early childhood education. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.
Kirkham, A. (2010). Helping your child in their language development. Web.
Lapp, D., & Fisher, D. (2011). Handbook of research on teaching the English language arts: Co-sponsored by the international reading association and the national council of teachers of English. London, UK: Routledge.
Lillard, A. S. (2016). Montessori: The science behind the genius. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Machado, J. M. (2015). Early childhood experiences in language arts: Early literacy. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.
Montessori research and development. (2013). Language Arts manual. Web.
Montessori, M. (2015). The Mass explained to children. Laren, Netherlands: Montessori-Pierson Publishing Company.
ODonnell, M. (2014). Maria Montessori. New York, NY: Bloomsbury Publishing.
Taylor, M. (2013). The Oxford handbook of the development of imagination. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
In this paper, the teaching of English as a foreign language (EFL) to young learners (YLs) in the Arab classroom is discussed. In particular, the task-based language teaching (TBLT) of extensive reading (ER) for EFL YLs from Oman is considered. The specific features of YLs learning styles are described and applied to the notions of TBLT and ER. The particular details of the implementation of TBLT ER for EFL YLs in Oman classroom are discussed as well. It is concluded that both TBLT and ER are applicable to the work with EFL YLs, and their integration provides EFL Omani YLs with additional English language exposure as well as the opportunity to apply their skills in a motivational and engaging way.
Young Learners
The term young learners can be defined as those who a learning a foreign or second language and who are doing so during the first six or seven years of foreign schooling (McKay, 2006, p. 1). In this work, students aged 7-10 years old are considered.
Characteristics of Children as Learners
The characteristics of young learners (YLs) can have both positive and negative effects on the learning process. For example, the positive features include their enthusiasm, creativity, readiness to work with the teacher, open-mindedness, a lack of inhibition, capacity for indirect (unconscious) learning, an instinct for interaction, and ability and willingness to take part in exercises that YL do not understand (Cameron, 2001; Halliwell, 1992). At the same time, it is more difficult to keep a child motivated, especially when a topic is difficult (Cameron, 2001).
Moon (2000) also highlights the instinct for interpreting the sense or meaning of a situation in YLs (p. 5), an aspect that was first emphasized in Piagets theory (Cameron, 2001, p. 4). Moon (2000) insists that despite distracting students from aspects of language (like grammar), this instinct has a positive influence on language learning by helping YLs attach meaning to the words used (p. 5). YLs are less capable of abstract thinking about the language, and when provided with rules, they may choose to disregard them and come up with their own explanations (Al Malihi, 2015). Also, children are more vulnerable to criticism and may need a greater amount of support (McKay, 2006).
These characteristics are generalized, but the possibility of such generalization suggests that YLs need a particular teaching approach that can be developed with the help of these generalizations.
The socio-cultural context of learning
Piagets theory implies that active indirect YL can be stimulated with the help of the environment (Cameron, 2001, pp. 3-5). However, this theory centers on the child and ignores the fact that the environment is filled with other actors. Vygotsky proceeds with this idea by putting the emphasis on the social environment, that is, the people who surround the YL, his or her socio-cultural context. The context contains actors who can facilitate learning, and this idea led Vygotsky to develop the concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD). ZPD suggests considering the intelligence of a child from the point of view of what he or she can do with skilled help, which can also be defined as scaffolding (Cameron, 2001, pp. 5-7). By paying attention to the settings and actors (primarily, parents) of the learning environment, the teacher offers YLs extra opportunities for learning. Moreover, the teacher is a part of this environment, and while he or she may lack the knowledge of the childs parents, he or she is most capable of providing skilled help.
Teaching EFL to Oman YLs
EFL YLs have certain specific learning features as well. EFL teaching presupposes working with the children who do not live in an English-speaking country (Cohen, 2014). EFL students are rarely in contact with the language that they are studying; because they have little exposure to the English language, they have limited opportunities for the application of knowledge, even though TV and the Internet may help in this respect (Al-Jardani, 2012). As a result, an EFL teacher in this situation would be expected to encourage YLs to both apply and be exposed to English as much as possible. Also, unlike students who learn English as a second language in an English-speaking environment and are thus motivated to learn since they need the language in everyday life, EFL students must find another source of motivation (Long, 2014). YLs enthusiasm for the learning needs to be discovered, nurtured, and maintained by the EFL teacher.
In Oman, the national language is Arabic, but English is widely used in various spheres of communication, which is why it is typical for Omani parents to want their children to take up EFL (Al-Jardani, 2012). English and Arabic are sufficiently different to cause certain problems in EFL skills development among Omani EFL children, which can lead to decreased motivation levels (Cameron, 2001). For example, Arabic-speaking EFL YLs face a number of challenges in reading, such as the differences between the alphabets, the different numbers and usages of vowels and consonants, and even the direction of writing. Similarly, Arab learners find English language consonant clusters difficult to read and discern; in Arabic, the maximum consonant cluster contains only two letters (Mourtaga, 2006, pp. 80-86). By providing skilled help, a teacher can facilitate the process of overcoming these difficulties and motivate children to proceed with their studies.
Reading and Teaching Reading to YLs
Reading is essential for a language user since it is a powerful tool in language acquisition. However, it is rather difficult for an EFL child to develop (Ahmed & Rajab, 2015), and the teacher needs to provide the children with skilled help in this process.
Extensive Reading
There are two key approaches to teaching reading: extensive and intensive. ER can be defined as reading as much as possible, for the purpose of pleasure or information rather than learning particular language features (Al-Homoud & Schmitt, 2009, p. 383). The materials are typically chosen by the readers themselves, but their teacher can assess the difficulty level to avoid the decrease of motivation and ensure the positive impact of ER (Haider & Akhter, 2012). In general, as stated by Haider and Akhter (2012), ER is likely to benefit from teacher supervision and help (p. 129).
In the long run, ER can be as effective as intensive reading with respect to comprehension, speed, and vocabulary acquisition, but it receives more positive feedback from students (Ahmed & Rajab, 2015; Al-Homoud & Schmitt, 2009, pp. 384-386; Briggs, 2016; Kuhn et al., 2006). Also pointed out by Green (2005), ER is especially important for EFL because it offers broad exposure to the target language and is second only to acquiring the language by living among its native speakers (p. 306. Despite this, learners typically do not develop their understanding and knowledge of grammar rules during ER (Haider & Akhter, 2012), but they may enjoy other positive outcomes. For instance, Al Harrasi (2012) points out that ER helps to develop a childs imagination and creativity, and Ahmed and Rajab (2015) also mention the development of good reading habits.
The fact that reading and ER have a positive effect on EFL progress has been proven by numerous studies (Al-Homoud & Schmitt, 2009, p. 384), including those focused on Arab YLs (Ahmed & Rajab, 2015; Al Harrasi, 2012). For example, Ahmed and Rajab (2015) carried out a longitudinal quantitative study with 112 primary school EFL Arab students. The study not only indicated improvements in language proficiency through the use of ER, but it also provided significant observations and implications. In particular, the authors highlighted the positive effect of extensive exposure to English in an environment that is almost devoid of it. Also, the study provided visible proof of enhanced motivation and enthusiasm, which are especially important for elementary-level classes because of the feelings of intimidation that children typically experience reading at that level of proficiency.
Ultimately, the benefits of ER from the point of view of EFL teaching to YLs are apparent: ER provides a pleasurableand thus motivatingmeans of extensively exposing a child to English. It has been discovered that ER is often supported by teachers, but it remains rather innovative for the majority of Arabian countries (Haider & Akhter, 2012; Shabani & Ghasemi, 2014). ER can be carried out in a variety of ways, and TBLT is one of them; when implemented successfully, TBLT provides a flexible and non-constricting framework for ER (Green, 2005).
Task-Based Language Teaching, ER, and YL
TBLT is a relatively mature and famous approach (Butler & Zeng, 2013; Carless, 2003; Long, 2014), which has been used in teaching for almost 40 years. It is an interesting fact that TBLT was primarily developed in Arab and Asian contexts (Thomas & Reinders, 2015, pp. 12-13), which makes it likely to be appropriate for Arab learners. TBLT is a set of principles rather than an approach to teaching, but several key points need to be preserved to keep to TBLT.
Tasks and YLs
Tasks are a suitable approach to teaching YLs (Carless, 2002; Carless, 2003), and this fact can be explained by the specifics of TBLT. Samuda and Bygate (as cited in Harmer, 2008) suggest the following definition of a task: it is a holistic activity which engages language use in order to achieve some non-linguistic outcome while meeting a linguistic challenge, with the overall aim of promoting language learning through process or product or both (p. 174).
A task is the basis of TBLT learning activities, which indicates that TBLT is an upside-down version of the PPP approach. The PPP approach suggests asking learners to apply new knowledge (Production) after receiving the teachers presentation of it and Practicing it (Hakim, 2015). In TBLT, the priorities are reversed: the application of the language becomes primary with respect to its study (Najjari, 2014), and the language (the form) is not supposed to define the meaning (the task); rather, the former may and should come after the latter (Harmer, 2008, p. 175). This approach is useful for YLs since it does not focus on the mistakes and difficulties that a beginner in a language study is going to experience, but, at the same time, it is also suitable for EFL YLs since it entails an extensive application of the language.
TBLT and ER
TBLT can be directed at ER, which allows combining the advantages of both. In particular, TBLT has the potential of providing children with the skilled help that is considered a positive addition to ER (Haider & Akhter, 2012), the lack of which is capable of rendering the method ineffective altogether (Green, 2005). TBLT has three elements: pre-task activities, the task itself, and the post-task activities (Hakim, 2015). The first allows one to provide the necessary instructions and motivation, both of which are necessary for EFL YLs. Green (2005) especially points out that a lack of clear reading purpose makes ER ineffective (p. 310). The last element presupposes the revision and evaluation of the students performance, which provides another beneficial opportunity for EFL students to use the language (Shabani & Ghasemi, 2014).
The Use of TBLT
TBLT was found suitable for language learning in various contexts (Hakim, 2015), including YL work and reading skills development (Butler & Zeng, 2013). An important benefit of TBLT is its orientation towards practice (Najjari, 2014), which makes it especially suitable for EFL teaching since the latter is also concerned with the extensive application of language during lessons to compensate for its absence in the general environment. Also, TBLT is a learner-centered type of teaching approach (Hakim, 2015; Long, 2014), which puts it in line with the modern understanding of the role of the teacher as a facilitator (OKeeffe & McCarthy, 2016).
As a result, TBLT is viewed as an interactive, engaging, and motivating form of teaching, which is especially important for EFL YLs. However, it may also be interesting to point out another perspective on TBLT. Littlewood (2007) dwells on the motivational issues that a TBLT EFL teacher experiences in a classroom of Arab YLs (p. 244). This research shows that to make TBLT engaging, the teacher must make the effort to engage, and here a combination of TBLT and the motivational method of ER can be effective.
Implementing TBLT ER in Arab EFL Classrooms
The practice of teaching foreign languages (in particular, English compulsory education) to YLs is a relatively new but very popular trend in Arabian countries, and Arab teachers fully support this initiative (Al Malihi, 2015). The context of the country, in which the learning is implemented, has always been of significance for English teaching (Al Malihi, 2015; Carless, 2002; Hakim, 2015). In Oman, the lack of English context in everyday life is compensated by the opportunities for EFL YLs that have been introduced by globalization, which offers new channels of English exposure, and the governmental support of the EFL teaching (Al-Jardani, 2012). As for the challenges caused by the differences in languages, these are mitigated by the growing experience of Omani teachers (Al Malihi, 2015) and the integration of that of international Arab EFL teachers (Al-Homoud & Schmitt, 2009; Al Malihi, 2015; Hakim, 2015; Najjari, 2014; Shabani & Ghasemi, 2014).
The age of the selected population of students (7-10) implies that they may possess a variety of levels of proficiency. However, given that ER is appropriate starting at an elementary level (Ahmed & Rajab, 2015), it is not a problem; the concern lies in assisting students to find texts that are suitable for their personal level and interests. Here, the funding of EFL teaching should be mentioned: schools need to provide a sufficient number of books or access to electronic libraries (Haider & Akhter, 2012). Omani schools are typically provided with necessary materials (Al-Jardani, 2012), but EFL teachers should engage in the process and help their schools direct the funding and gather an appropriate library. Given the lack of natural exposure to English, such a library would ensure its compensation.
The financial aspect of TBLT ER is also significant for the use of technology-assisted techniques (Al Malihi, 2015). It has been proven that ER is likely to benefit from using computers for reading enhancement, especially for young readers and beginners, which implies that the advocacy for this approach to learning is also in order for a modern Arab EFL YL teacher (Al-Awidi & Ismail, 2012). Finally, because the Internet is one of the few environments in which Omani children are exposed to the English language (Al-Jardani, 2012), a teacher can encourage students to use the Internet for ER materials search. However, it is important to provide scaffolding and involve parents in the process of teaching children to use the Internet safely. Moreover, teaching children to use the Internet safely for educational purposes is likely to provide them with the opportunity to increase their exposure to the English language in the long term (Green, 2005).
As was mentioned earlier, TBLT provides more than enough opportunities for scaffolding, the importance of which is explained by Piagets and Vygotskys approaches. The literature choice and Internet instructions can be regarded as the scaffolding for the pre-test phase; as for the post-test one, it appears logical to develop appropriate but varied and creativity-related activities, especially with YLs who are naturally creative (Haider & Akhter, 2012).
This decision will also contribute to the childrens motivation. Also, in certain cases, these activities can integrate other skills, for example, speaking (a short performance) or writing (a written task, for instance, a short story about the future of characters from a book). Green (2005) especially favors the latter variant, motivating the choice by the opportunity to use the output (childrens works) as another level of reading. The author suggests that the existence of an audience makes writers more motivated. Moreover, because the writers level of English is comparable to that of the readers, it is easier for the readers to comprehend the texts. As a result, TBLT ER can provide both motivation and an opportunity for the additional application of the English language for Omani EFL students.
Naturally, the rest of the aspects of child involvement (for example, discipline, motivation, and the use of mother tongue) must be considered in an Arabian classroom as well (Al Harrasi, 2012; Littlewood, 2007). Here, the international experience of EFL teaching can be used to obtain ideas; for instance, the report by Garton, Copland, and Burns (2011) provides a number of interesting solutions to commonly encountered issues. For example, the authors dwell on the experience of an EFL teacher who resolves the motivation issue by providing children with a special reading space that has comfortable seats, including those atypical for a classroom (for instance, mats).
The experiences of EFL teachers appear to be a source of invaluable knowledge, but it is important to remember that individual institutions and even classrooms are likely to have specific contexts that need to be taken into account by the teacher. Similarly, it should be mentioned that our understanding of EFL teaching to YLs is still developing (Al Malihi, 2015). The specific environment, in which a teacher finds himself or herself, is likely to require creative, unusual solutions and suggestions. In the future, this experience can be used for the development of personal frameworks and to contribute to the growing bulk of research on the EFL YLs teaching.
Conclusion
The present paper regards the concepts of TBLT and ER as applied to EFL YLs teaching in Omani classrooms. The challenges that Omani children experience in EFL learning result in specific needs for such a classroom; apart from that, it also has the typical needs of EFL YLs, which includes the requirements for instructions, support, engagement, and motivation from the teacher and funding from the institution. The Omani environment provides opportunities for EFL children, which include governmental support and a growing bulk of teacher experience in overcoming challenges and offering skilled help. However, the environment lacks English language exposure, which makes the extensive work with the language in ER even more applicable to an Omani EFL classroom.
Apart from that ER is especially suitable for YLs due to its motivational nature. Similarly, TBLT is most appropriate for EFL YLs due to its student-centered and practice-based approach, and the potential for learners engagement and motivation. As a result, the effective integration of TBLT and ER combines their benefits to help in addressing the needs of an Omani YLs classroom by offering learners extensive exposure to the English language, as well as a chance to apply the English language in an engaging, motivational, and pleasurable way. It can be concluded that the application of TBLT ER in Arab EFL YL classroom is a justified decision, but its implementation requires a sufficient amount of customization and careful consideration of the learners specific and generic needs and opportunities.
Hakim, B. (2015). The Role of Learning Styles in the Success of TBLT in EFL Classrooms in Saudi Arabia. International Journal Of Applied Linguistics And English Literature, 4(3), 205-211. Web.
Halliwell, S. (1992). Teaching English in the primary classroom. London, UK: Longman.
The dissertations primary objective was to investigate two techniques for teaching English lexis vocabulary in Japanese high schools. In their verbal communications, the participants chosen for the study had hardly learned English language vocabulary. The dissertations secondary objective is to work out how these two techniques related to a participants (a) preferred learning style, (b) working memory ability, (c) vocabulary knowledge breadth, (d) passage comprehension, and (e) proficiency in English. According to its author, to successively achieve its second objective, the dissertation identifies the best predictors of vocabulary learning through oral output ( Vocabulary acquisition through, 2009).
Research questions
The first research question in the dissertation seeks to discover how the acquisition of English language vocabulary differs in three contexts. In the first context, a learner listens when they are not familiar with the new words used in the experiment. In the second context, the learner listens, and he or she can recognize target words. In the third context, the learner listens and recognizes target words, but he or she cannot define them in the English language. The second research question in the study seeks to determine the degree to which acquisition of English language vocabulary differs concerning a participants learning channel preferences. Having identified six possible predictor variables, the third research question in the study seeks to determine how well each variable predicts the acquisition of English language vocabulary among our participants (or learners) from an oral output. According to the author, these six predictor variables are working memory capacity, listening competence, grammatical competence, vocabulary size, learning styles, and passage comprehension ( Vocabulary acquisition through, 2009).
Methods and instruments
One of the key instruments used in the dissertation is the reading span test (RST) ( Vocabulary acquisition through, 2009). Alterations to the test enabled it to give an estimate of the participants capacity of working memory. In addition to these, the alterations ensured that the RST test was not too difficult for the participants. The alterations involved applying Tom Cobbs Vocab profile to examine the lexical composition of the sentences constructed for the study. The modifications ensured that 99.1% of the first 2000 words of the passage to be read by the participants comprised proper nouns that most Japanese high school students are familiar with e.g., London and Europe. An exception, though, was made to the word economics, which means that it remained unmodified in the passage( Vocabulary acquisition through, 2009). The rationale for this is that economics is an AWL word that the participants had learned, and therefore it was safe to assume that they had not forgotten it.
In the adaptive RST test designed for the study, the author of the dissertation states that the participants listened to sets of English sentences and tried to recall the final word in each sentence and write it on the answer sheet ( Vocabulary acquisition through, 2009). In addition to these, the author also states that the participants were further asked to answer a true-false comprehension question given orally at the end of each set ( Vocabulary acquisition through, 2009). This, according to the author, ensured that the participants were processing the meaning of the sentences ( Vocabulary acquisition through, 2009). Test scores were determined using a variant of the Rasch model. The resulting scores known as Rasch logits (Bond & Fox, 2001) were considered apt estimates of an individuals working memory ability.
The second key instrument used in the dissertation is the University Entrance Examination Center Test (UEECT). In Japan, it is a requirement that all national and public university entrants undertake the UEECT test. The test includes a grammar and a listening section. In the dissertation, the UEECT test was used to estimate the listening comprehension proficiency of participants first, and second, the grammatical knowledge of participants. The listening section of the UEECT test, which comprises four parts and 25 multiple-choice questions, was used to derive an estimate of the listening comprehension proficiency of participants ( Vocabulary acquisition through, 2009). The results of this test for each participant were subjected to a Rasch analysis procedure. The outputs of this procedure were Rasch logits, which were considered apt estimates of a participants listening proficiency.
The grammar section of the UEECT test was used to derive an estimate of the participants grammatical knowledge ( Vocabulary acquisition through, 2009). At this point, the participants answered 20 questions taken from past UEECT grammar tests. The results of this test for each participant were subjected to a Rasch analysis procedure. The outputs of this procedure were Rasch logits, which were considered apt estimates of a participants grammatical knowledge.
Another key instrument used in the study is the Vocabulary Size Test (VST). According to the author of the dissertation, this instrument tested a participants breadth of vocabulary knowledge. The test involves choosing the correct definition of a vocabulary from a list of four possible choices. The VST test for the dissertation had 40 questions, and it was designed such that it measured the written receptive knowledge of the first 4,000 words of English ( Vocabulary acquisition through, 2009). The results of this test for each participant were subjected to a Rasch analysis procedure. The outputs of this procedure were Rasch logits, which were considered apt estimates of a participants breadth of vocabulary knowledge.
Another key instrument used in this study is the Learning Channel Preference Checklist (LCPC). The checklist, which was developed by Neff, is usable as a tool for measuring the learning preferences of students learning foreign languages (Neff 2006). Individuals who attain high visual scores are those that effectively learn foreign languages through visual information. Individuals who attain high auditory scores are those that effectively learn foreign languages through dialogues. Individuals who attain high haptic scores are those that effectively learn foreign languages through undertaking practical activities. In the dissertation, having obtained permission from Dr. Neff, the modification was made to item 35 on the checklist. The participants were then subjected to the checklist. The results from this stage enabled the participants to be categorized into the groups above, depending on where they scored the highest.
Another instrument used in the study is listening passages ( Vocabulary acquisition through, 2009). The participants of the study read nine passages taken from the Japanese TOEFL practice book and TOEFL tests. These passages were chosen because they contained an appropriate number of vocabulary and that they became understandable when the meaning of the vocabulary was provided. The passages had similar readability statistics, and their lexical compositions analyzed using Tom Cobbs Vocabprofile indicated that they were not too difficult. The results of this test for each participant were subjected to a Rasch analysis procedure. The outputs of this procedure were Rasch logits, which were considered apt estimates of a participants ability to comprehend passages.
Another instrument used in the study is the vocabulary checklist ( Vocabulary acquisition through, 2009). In this test, participants were asked to translate 57 words taken out nine passages from the English language into the Japanese language. Finally, the other instrument used in the study is the Immediate and Delayed Recognition and Multiple-choice Posttests test. The use of this instrument was necessitated by the realization that to test vocabulary knowledge, multiple tests have to be used. A single test only measures a single aspect of knowledge (Waring and Takaki, 2003). The results of this test for each participant were subjected to a Rasch analysis procedure. The outputs of this procedure were Rasch logits, which were considered apt estimates of a participants ability to acquire vocabulary.
Participants
The sample used in the experiment for this dissertation had 116 participants, 63 of whom were females, and the rest (53) were males ( Vocabulary acquisition through, 2009). The participants were second-year Japanese students of a privately owned senior high school located in western Japan. At the time of the study, these students had exhibited superior academic performance. These students studied English for 6 hours a week for four years. The study process comprised of reading, writing, and listening courses. At the time of the experiment, the reading and writing courses ran for 50 minutes a day and for 4 and 3 hours a week, respectively. The activities necessitated by this experiment were integrated into the students reading course ( Vocabulary acquisition through, 2009). At the time of the study, the participants of the experiment processed good listening skills compared with other Japanese high school studentsthe average score for these participants in the TOEIC exam done after this study was about 450 marks.
Main results
For the first research question, the study results revealed a significant statistical difference in vocabulary acquisition in the three investigated contexts. The contexts are discussed above in the research questions section. Vocabulary acquisition was effective in the first context than in the second context ( Vocabulary acquisition through, 2009). The third context was the least effective ( Vocabulary acquisition through, 2009). For the second research question, the study results showed no significant difference in vocabulary acquisition between the three preferred learning channels ( Vocabulary acquisition through, 2009). For the third research question, the results of the study showed that, of the six predictor variables passage comprehension, vocabulary size and grammatical competence were the better predictors of Vocabulary acquisition through, oral output ( Vocabulary acquisition through, 2009).
Conclusions
One of the main conclusions of the study is that the effective acquisition of lexical vocabulary is achievable by combining three elements. These elements as given by the author are (a) the judicious use of the native language on the teachers part, (b) a reasonably good level of lexical and grammatical knowledge on the students part, and (c) listening passages that are pitched at a level that is comprehensible to the learners ( Vocabulary acquisition through, 2009). The other conclusion made in the study is that English language vocabulary in the case of the participants studied is effectively learned through adaptive aural output, which is modified such that; vocabulary is introduced in the English language and its meaning explained using the Japanese language ( Vocabulary acquisition through, 2009). Folse (2004) also proposed this arrangement.
Sample proposed study
Title
The combination of classroom tasks that improve English lexis acquisition: An effort to improve the English language-learning curriculum in Japanese high schools.
Purpose of the study
Previous research has established that English lexis acquisition among the participants targeted in this study does not differ significantly between visual, auditory, and haptic learners. Knowing this, the purpose of this study is to investigate and determine the right combination of classroom tasks that optimize English lexis acquisition in (a) visual learners (b) auditory learners and (c) haptic learners. With its study focused on Japanese high-school students, the report further purposes of making recommendations on how to improve the current English teaching and learning curriculum.
Justification for the study
The curriculum proposed by this study is intended to form a basis for creating English learning classes in Japanese high schools in which learners are provided with equal opportunities for learning and acquiring English Lexis. Taking note that listening skills differ significantly among its targeted students, the study intends to achieve its purpose through designing a combination of tasks that optimize English lexis acquisition in a learners primary and secondary preferred learning channels. This idea is supported by Reid (1987 p. 101), who states that it is important to design flexible teaching methods that accommodate the variations in learning styles that may exist in a classroom. Kinsellas (1995) adds weight to this argument by stating that when lessons are presented visually as well as verbally, and reinforced through writing, drawing, or speaking activities, students are not only able to learn in the way best suited to their style but also to develop a full and varied repertoire of modality strengths (p. 175). Kroon (1985) and Rochford (2003) have argued that the degree to which an individual learns, among other things, depends on the extent to which the teaching method correlates with the individuals preferred learning style.
Research questions
Which tasks optimize English lexis acquisition among Japanese high school students who learn better from visual information (or who are visual learners)?
Which tasks optimize English lexis acquisition among Japanese high school students who learn better from auditory information (or who are auditory learners)?
Which tasks optimize English lexis acquisition among Japanese high school students who are haptic learners?
What combination and configuration of these tasks ensure optimal English lexis acquisition in a Japanese high school class containing a mixture of visual, auditory, and haptic learners?
How do you integrate the configuration and combination derived from the research question (4) above into the current Japanese high school English teaching and learning curriculum so that its quality is improved?
The rationale of the study
The study intends to be a pioneer research effort in improving English lexis acquisition among Japanese high school students.
Considering that good performance in English is a university requirement in Japanese national and public universities, the study also intends to build a curriculum that improves students performance in the subject.
This study can also form a basis for improving foreign language lexis acquisition in contexts where English is the target language.
Methods and instruments
The study will mainly make use of quantitative data in studying its subjects. The ultimate result of using quantitative data is that it will be possible to select the best listening skills for English lexis acquisition for visual, auditory, and haptic learners. To develop effective instruction procedures for the three categories of learners, listening tasks that trigger different learning styles will be used. The effectiveness of the instruction procedures will be measured quantitatively and qualitatively. The listening tasks will be designed in a way that they tap into the different learning styles. A quantitative measure of each listening task concerning a given learning style will reveal its effectiveness and, ultimately, its quality.
One of the key instruments in this study will be Neffs checklist. The checklist will enable the study participants to be categorized either as visual, auditory, or haptic learners (Neff 2006). The scores the participants will attain after undertaking the checklist will determine their category. A high visual score will imply that a participant is a visual learner. A high auditory score will imply that a participant is an auditory learner, and a high haptic score will imply that a participant is a haptic learner. Another key instrument in this study will be TOEFL and UEECT tests. Sets of questions will be devised from questions in previous TOEFL and UEECT tests. For each listening skill, participants will answer a particular set of questions. The average score will be taken as a fair estimate of the effectiveness of the listening task. Statistical hypothesis testing is the other key instrument in this study. The statistical hypothesis will be used to determine if there is any significant difference between the listening tasks and which tasks are better. The hypothesis will be tested at a 0.05 level of significance. After linearly combining the listening tasks, a further statistical hypothesis will reveal which combination is better.
Participants
Given that this is an addendum study, the same high school will be used. Given that one of the intentions of this study is to propose a curriculum that improves English learning in Japanese high schools, the sample chosen will contain students with different academic abilities. The study intends to retain the sample size of 116 participants with 63 females and 53 males.
Data collection and analysis procedure
The activities of this study will be integrated into the English courses of the participants. As such, the participants will not be aware that they are being studied. Data will be collected as test scores and compiled into descriptive statistics. The descriptive statistics will be used in the formulation and testing of the statistical hypothesis.
Definition of terms
Learning
According to Robinson (2001), learning is a result of the interaction between learner characteristics and the instructional contexts in which learning takes place.
Visual learners
Visual learners are individuals who get high visual scores concerning Neffs checklist. This implies that such individuals learn English lexis better through visual information (Neff 2006).
Auditory learners
Auditory learners are individuals who get high auditory scores concerning Neffs checklist. This implies that such individuals learn English lexis better through verbal information (Neff 2006).
Haptic learners
Haptic learners are individuals who get high haptic scores concerning Neffs checklist. This implies that such individuals learn English lexis better through practical activities (Neff 2006).
References
Bond, T. & Fox, C. (2001). Applying the Rasch model. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Folse, K. (2004). Vocabulary myths. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press.
Kinsella, K. (1995). Understanding and empowering diverse learners. In J. Reid (Ed.), Learning styles in the ESL/EFL classroom (pp. 170-194). Boston: Heinle & Heinle.
Kroon, D. (1985). An experimental investigation of the effects on academic achievement and the resultant administrative implications of instruction congruent and incongruent with secondary industrial arts students learning style perceptual preference. Dissertation Abstracts International, 46,11A. (UMI No. 8526100).
Neff, L. (2006). The Learning Channel Preference Checklist. Irvington, VA: Specific Diagnostics.
Reid, J. (1987). The learning style preferences of ESL students. TESOL Quarterly, 21(1), 87-111.
Robinson, P. (2001). Effects of individual differences in intelligence, aptitude and working memory on adult incidental SLA: A replication and extension of Reber, Walkenfield and Hernstadt (1991). In P. Robinson (Ed.), Individual differences and instructed language learning (pp. 211-266). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Rochford, R. (2003). Assessing learning styles to improve the quality of performance of community college students in developmental writing programs: A pilot study. Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 27, 665-677.
Vocabulary acquisition through listening and its relation to learning channel preferences. (2009).
Waring, R., & Takaki, M. (2003). At what rate do learners learn and retain new vocabulary from reading a graded reader? Reading in a Foreign Language, 15(2), 130-163.
Discourse analysis is a study that aims at discussing the relations that exist between language and the context of use (McCarthy 1991). Discourse is defined as something that people talk about. Therefore, it has to be properly analysed and understood. In this paper, the article written by Eshita Awal and Homayra Binte Bahar for the Journal of Humanities and Social Science about the significance of linguistic and communicative competences and the worth of discourse analysis will be analysed. The critique of this article helps to develop an understanding of discourse analysis that can be used by linguistic teachers and also the ways of thinking different authors introduce in their writings.
Evaluation of the Purpose, Research Questions, Rationale, and Significance of the Study
The authors of the chosen article believe that discourse analysis is a significant tool that provides teachers and learners with an opportunity to develop adequate and practical knowledge and become linguistically efficient with time (Awal & Bahar 2013). The purpose of the article is to investigate learners levels of competence and clarify how useful discourse analysis can be for learners and teachers. To achieve the goal, the authors establish several crucial objectives like the identification of how the techniques of discourse analysis may be adopted, the clarification of what the functional usage of the target language is, and the discussion of the pedagogical approach in discourse analysis.
The main research question is to check if the devices of discourse analysis can be properly used by learners and teachers to demonstrate their linguistic competence and prove their communicative competence. The rationale of the article is to favour teaching language as a linguistic phenomenon with the help of which communicative competence may be proved. The authors explain that language has to be interpreted as a psychological phenomenon and a social issue with the help of which the process of learning a language can be justified and improved from the structural and conceptual points of view.
The significance of the study is the possibility to interpret communicative competence and combine its worth with linguistic competence and discourse analysis. People should realise that there are many rules and standards that have to be considered in a particular context. It is important to remember about cultural and social norms, values, and knowledge and use discourse analysis to understand contexts and use appropriate practices. The development of linguistic, socio-linguistic, discourses, and strategic skills is integral for learners and teachers.
Taking into consideration the information obtained from the article, it is possible to say that the goals and rationale are properly introduced in the paper. Though the authors do not develop clear research questions, it is easy to find out the essence of the chosen article.
Theoretical Framework and Literature Review
Any discourse analysis is a successful employment of methods and theoretical principles. It is a strong combination of different activities in social life (Awal & Bahar 2013). In addition to the pedagogical approach in terms of which discourse analysis is discussed, the interactions of the language are discussed through Chomskys competence theory the goal of which is to prove that the primary role of language is to promote communication and convey messages.
Therefore, communicative competence is crucial for discourse analysis, as well as the use of discourse analysis is critical for the development of communicative competence. In addition to this theory, the authors mention several theoretical perspectives which may strengthen discourse analysis, e.g. speech act theory, ethnography of communication, conversational analysis, or pragmatism (Awal & Bahar 2013).
Other authors suggest additional theories to improve discourse analysis regarding linguistics. For example, Tsui (2011) introduces an information-processing theory of learning as a means to investigate classroom discourse research. Liu and Braine (2005) and Mohamed-Sayidina (2010) rely on the ideas developed through cohesion theory and use it as the main framework for their discussion. In the article under analysis, the authors do not specify the theoretical framework and the measurements that have to be met. Their goal is to discuss and evaluate the material available on the topic and introduce the examples with the help of which discourse analysis can be developed and explained.
The review of the literature is one of the main methods of gathering information. There are 14 sources referenced in the article, and several sources used through the article. The authors use several old sources dated in 1983 and earlier to introduce the basics on which they can rely and develop their investigation of discourse analysis and communicative competence of learners. In fact, the choice of such sources can be justified because a number of authors introduced their powerful ideas and thoughts about discourse analysis between the 1980s and the 1990s.
For example, similar ideas can be found if the Wells article where discourse analysis and genres are introduced as separate semiotic tools for action (Wells 1993). Awal and Bahar (2013), as well as Walsh (2012) and Jiang (2012), believe that a thorough understanding of discourse analysis may have a strong impact on a learning process, especially when learning is defined as a social activity with the necessity of engagement and participation. Still, despite the evident strengths of the article and the approach chosen by the author, the literature review is not as strong as it could be due to a small number of up-to-date sources and comparison. The authors find it appropriate to rely on their experiences and understanding and share their visions of the matter.
Methodology
In the article, not much attention is paid to the methodology and the steps taken for the analysis of the material. The authors indicate the failure of CLT approaches as the stimulus to discover new aspects of gathering information. The peculiar feature of the article is the intentions to use past experiences to prove discourse analysis as one of the best research methods for investigations of practices, skills, and knowledge. Awareness of others and their intentions should help to succeed in discourse analysis (Crane 1994; Cook 2011). In fact, the article is based on the evaluation of the already known and proved facts about communicative competence, linguistic competence, and discourse analysis as the tool that unites these two types of competence.
Findings, Conclusions, and Recommendations in the Article
The findings of the article help to realise that linguistic knowledge and the recognition of verbal and non-verbal elements turn out to be considerable parts of discourse analysis in terms of which a learner or a teacher can stay competent during the discussions. It is concluded that the development of four different skills cannot be neglected because they aim at recognising the boundaries of communication. The only recommendation that is given in the article is to continue working in the linguistic field to discover new aspects of communicative competence and succeed in understanding language in a proper way.
Conclusion
In general, the article contains enough valuable information about discourse analysis and the role of communication in this process. People may develop their thoughts and share their experience. However, the interpretation of this information has to be logically organised and defined. This article explains how discourse analysis should be organised and developed in terms of communication using linguistic knowledge.
Reference List
Awal, E & Bahar, HB 2013, Significance of linguistic competence over communicative competence enlightened through the devices of discourse analysis, Journal of Humanities and Social Science, vol. 7, no. 5, pp. 75-80.
Cook, G 2011, Discourse analysis, in J Simpson (ed), The Routledge handbook of applied linguistics, Routledge, New York, pp. 431-444.
Crane, PA 1994, Texture in text: discourse analysis of a news article using Halliday and Hasans model of cohesion. Web.
Jiang, X 2012, A study of college English classroom discourse, Theory and Practice in Language Studies, vol. 2, no. 10, pp. 2146-2152.
Liu, M & Braine, G 2005, Cohesive features in argumentative writing produced by Chinese undergraduates, System, vol. 33, pp. 623-636.
McCarthy, M 1991, Discourse analysis for language teachers, Cambridge University Press, New York.
Mohamed-Sayidina, A 2010, Transfer of LI cohesive devices and transition words into L2 academic texts: the case of Arab studies, RELC, vol. 41, no. 3, pp. 253-266.
Tsui, ABM 2011, Classroom discourse, in J Simpson (ed), The Routledge handbook of applied linguistics, Routledge, New York, pp. 274-286.
Walsh, S 2012, Conceptualising classroom interactional competence, Novitas Royal: Research on Youth and Language, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 1-14.
Wells, G 1993, Reevaluating the IRF sequence: A proposal for the articulation of theories of activity and discourse for the analysis of teaching and learning in the classroom, Linguistics and Education, vol. 5, pp. 1-37.
Learning vocabulary can sometimes become a tricky thing, one that can make even a devoted learner step back and reconsider his or her own strengths and capabilities. Teaching vocabulary, however, can be even more complicated because the tutor always needs to strike a balance between the useful but dull information and maintaining the students interest. While grammar and sentence structure are immensely important, it is the word that carries the basic meaning, and the ability to hear, comprehend and reproduce the new words will have a great impact on further understanding and learning of the language.
There are many ways of teaching the vocabulary, but most of them are variations of the same archetypical examples that most teachers use in their practice in one way or another. In fact, it would be best to try as many approaches as possible, because students actually need to be exposed to a new word in many ways, in order to grasp its meaning and understand where and how to use it. The key points in understanding and remembering the word are listening and pronunciation, which is closely related to phonology and phonetics.
When a tutor teaches a student how to pronounce a new word, he or she has to deal with the great influence of a students mother tongue. Suzanne Irujo (n.d.), and author of the article on teachin g reading to English learners, notes that being literate in ones first language can become an advantage in learning English; moreover, when the students are already familiar with phonetics and are literate in their native language, will be able to transfer these skills to other language studies (par. 1-40).
The next step in learning new vocabulary is to learn the definition of the word. At first, the best practice would be to introduce only the basic meanings of the word, limited by two or three most common meanings, if such exist. The context, in this case, should be very helpful as it allows the students to try and guess the meaning of the word on their own, in fact, it is a well-known technique for translator training. An experienced translator might able to guess about 10% words from context, but such exercise may be useful for any level of studies.
A lucky guess may stir up the students interest and encourage another try. The use of synonyms and antonyms, for example, while playing, can give better results for material revision and redundancy. In fact, games and gaming methods during the lessons today has gained popularity even among the teachers of adult groups. The editor of Simulation & Gaming Journal, David Crookall (2007) reports on the topic:
Nowadays, the use of simulation/gaming methods in language acquisition is wide-spread and encouraged. Thousands of teaching books at all levels now include various forms of role-playing, games, simulations, and other exercises. & [it] has become a hallmark of quality and creativity and is seen as a guarantee that learners would become involved, and perhaps even learn. (7)
The next large part of the learning strategy can be combined in a group with a code name Demonstration. It includes showing or drawing illustrations for a new word, acting it out with students, when such activity is possible, creating tables, systems, and scales, using words in sentences that are able to illustrate their meaning, and other activities aimed at creating a distinguished picture in ones minds eye, as well as helping to remember the usage variation and working with context.
At this phase of training, it might also be useful to dissect the words into parts to single out the meaning of each part. Such activity is sometimes called root analysis and can be very useful for later individual work. Pupils are known to respond well to such activity because it allows them to look inside the word structure, find simple elements inside, learn their meanings, and a guess a combined meaning of a word, based on this knowledge.
When everything is said and done about the pronunciation, meaning, and illustration of a new word, a time comes for a new experience using the learned word in practice. This section will also combine various activities, such as reading and writing, both solo and with some kind of context. The shift from using a single word to usage within an expression can be subtle enough for students that they would not be confused with meaning variations, however, learning word combinations and set phrases can further expand their vocabulary without much effort.
Later this activity will naturally proceed into learning the words in context and using sentences for illustration. At this stage, depending on the learning abilities of the student or the group, a few idioms can be introduced for spiking their interest and understanding of the meaning cluster.
To revise the material, homework exercises might be advisable in cases when the students individual work permits them. It might also be very important to remember that actually, students should have a voice in the selection of the appropriate vocabulary to learn. This can be a perfect way to emphasize the mutual respect between the teacher and the student, as well as maintain the latters interest and encourage him or her in studies. While it might be difficult to decide which is better, a special lesson devoted completely to new vocabulary or short but numerous introductions to vocabulary, for example, during each lesson, it should be noted that such issues are highly individual, and every teacher makes his or her own decision about the course of studies.
LEARNING THE VOCABULARY
Phonetics
Definition
Demonstration
Practice
Listening
Basic Meanings
Illustrations
Reading and Writing
Guessing From Context
Acting
Use in Expressions
Pronunciation
Synonyms/Antonyms
Root Analysis
Use in Context
To draw a conclusion, it might be fair to extrapolate the previous statement to the work of the teacher as a whole. Of course, the methods and techniques among tutors may vary significantly, and their curriculum always depends on the level of students, their learning abilities, their age, and a great deal of other factors, which probably every teacher of English as a second language is familiar with. However, one thing remains unchanging for every lesson, every study, and every piece of knowledge that has ever been passed from one person to another: it is the interest.
The most important thing for the tutor is to keep the students motivated and interested, for without sufficient motivation, teaching becomes nearly impossible, and it may do harm to the teacher as well as the student. It might be appropriate to end this article with a quotation from Noam Chomsky (1988), who stated this in his lectures:
As any good teacher knows, the methods of instruction and the range of material covered are matters of small importance as compared with the success in arousing the natural curiosity of the students and stimulating their interest in exploring on their own. What the student learns passively will quickly be forgotten. What students discover for themselves when their natural curiosity and creative impulses are aroused not only will be remembered but will be the basis for further exploration and inquiry and perhaps significant contributions. (p. 135).
References
Chomsky, N. (1988). Language and Problems of Knowledge: The Managua Lectures. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
English has become the primary language of communication in the world, promoting the demand for language teachers, specifically in developing countries. Currently, English is widely used in media, scientific researches, and scholarly publications; its universal utilization offers access to a vast variety of data and knowledge (Flowerdew & Peacock, 2001). The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) is one of the countries that show high interest in the language; in its schools, English had officially developed into a separate school subject by 1958 (Al-Subahi, 2001). It proves that the demand for teachers and innovative approaches to education are very high.
Mainbody
It is necessary to point out that learning outcomes in students of Saudi Arabia are at a low level despite the current demand for English. The challenging aspects of learning include the lack of students motivation to study, poor educators performance, an ill-conceived learning environment, and deficiency of training programs for teachers (Al-Subahi, 2001). Indeed, individuals learning outcomes do not show promising results.
According to the research by Alabdualkarem (2007) that involved visits to Saudi public schools, children experience difficulties with listening tests and understanding simple sentences. Moreover, their scores in final examinations in English are lower than in other subjects.
The Saudi Ministry of Education has developed a teaching reform to improve the learning outcomes of students. For example, the textbooks for teaching English as a foreign language in KSA are adjusted according to the TEFL curriculum document to meet childrens needs for acquiring basic skills, including speaking, listening, writing, and reading, and improve their communicative competencies (Al-Hajailan, 2006).
The new learning materials are based on the communicative language teaching method. However, educators primarily rely on obsolete teaching systems that concentrate on memorialization, teaching grammar, and examination preparation (Al-Hajailan, 2006). Students results prove that such an approach to teaching does not improve their language skills. Liton and Ali (2011) also consider such practices as ineffective and insist that it is necessary to improve students communicative competencies. Saudi teachers perspectives on English lessons do not correspond with the efforts of the Ministry of Education, which aims to develop effective methods of teaching English as a foreign language.
This incompatibility suggests that educators may have personal reasons for eliminating the communicative approach and are resistant to implement more effective methods. It is crucial to study the aspects that prevent them from using the communicative language teaching method to improve education in Saudi Arabia.
Conclusion
The discussed problems explain the significance and applicability of the research. The study aims to identify the beliefs and attitudes of Saudi English teachers towards the communicative language teaching approach that prevent them from improving students communicative competencies. It will study the challenges they may encounter in their teaching practice and consider possible barriers to the implementation of more effective methods.
References
Alabdualkarem, M. (2007). Teaching English as a foreign language in Saudi Arabia. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Obekan Press.
Al-Hajailan, T. (2006). Teaching English in Saudi Arabia. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Aldar Alsawlatiah.
Al-Subahi, A. (2001). Evaluation of the English programme (ESA) at Saudi intermediate school. Journal of King Abdulaziz University, Educational & Sciences, 14, 3-86.
Flowerdew, J., & Peacock, M. (2001). Research perspectives on English for academic purposes. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.
Liton, H. A., & Ali, M. M. (2011). A diagnostic study of EFL courses at the community college of Jazan University. Language in India, 11(12), 108-128.
The particular topic that I decided to study within the frame of the project is the usage of such expressions as to make an appointment andto make an appointment in the English language. The reason why this very topic has been chosen is closely interconnected with the fact that English is not my mother tongue. There was a situation that happened to me and encouraged me to search for additional sources to extend my knowledge related to English grammar. One fine day, I needed to arrange to see a doctor, and I gave a call to specialists from one dental hospital. A lady in the reception answered the phone, I said, Hello, can I make an appointment? The lady replied, You mean that you would like to make an appointment? Frankly speaking, this case encouraged me to think more about the peculiarities of the usage of some words in English.
To solve this problem and find the information that would provide me and other non-native speakers with a substantial explanation related to the usage of these expressions in English, I decided to use the corpus tools we have learned during the exercise. To be more precise, I was using Google Ngram Viewer as it appeared to be the most appropriate tool to help me with my question. This tool allows users to track the popularity of a certain word or expression, they are supposed to lay down necessary parameters such as time-lapse, insert the particular word or expression to search for, and choose a corpus. After that, the system provides users with a graph showing the frequency of occurrence of the word or expression in texts from the chosen corpus, and these results can be analyzed and used in research papers as a justification of a certain point. Another important fact related to the given tool is that the user can insert two expressions together and compare word frequency results in different variants of the English language. In this case, my search inquiry would look like make an appointment, make an appointment . Due to the tool, students who learn English as a foreign language can collect a lot of interesting information and choose the most appropriate variant to express a certain idea.
Speaking about the information on these expressions that I retrieved with the help of the discussed tool, it can be stated that they were used in different ways. To begin with, as it is clear from the graph showing the tendencies for modern American English, make an appointment is used a few times more often than make an appointment and this fact remains a clue encouraging non-native speakers like me to choose the first variant. The same tendency can be noticed in British English. Nevertheless, it is known that some people can make an appointment but this expression can be used only about specialists who confirm the planned visit. To check it, I used two more search inquiries: patient takes an appointment and patient makes an appointment . The results helped me to make a decision: there were no cases when the first expression was used whereas the second one was used extensively and its frequency has increased recently. I suppose that all English learners should be explained how to work with this tool as it can be important during making research in linguistics. Besides, this tool allows students like me to analyze common situations and choose appropriate expressions to avoid misunderstanding.
The discussed example of the exercise remains effective because of several reasons. First of all, in the majority of Indo-European languages, there are several similarities in the meanings of words and their pronunciation which makes the understanding of the context easier for a learner. The given task utilizes this fact and encourages students to read the whole text to find hints that can help them to understand the main idea of the given message, the central actors, their names, and occupation.
For this reason, the majority of the assignments that do not presuppose the additional explanation of new words rest on the idea of certain similarity between languages belonging to the same group (Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2013). At the same time, scanning texts, students can acquire an improved understanding of how learned languages are connected and what common features can be used to master skills.
The ability to answer true/false (T/F) questions also comes from this very idea. The fact is that the given type of task does not presuppose that a learner should understand and know the meaning of all words presented in the text. However, to provide correct answers, he or she should grasp the main idea conveyed by a particular message, the central discussed topics, and issues needed for the contexts analysis. In this regard, they will be able to predict the meaning of other words and answer T/F questions correctly. These exercises can be considered an effective approach to teach learners to understand the meaning of unknown words due to the increased attention to the context in which they are presented and analysis of the central idea of the discussed unit which is critical for real-life communication.
Scenario 2
The use of the exclusive knowledge of the target language (TL) can also be a potent tool in teaching students new vocabulary and mastering their skills. The fact is that the existence of a certain knowledge base among learners helps to achieve better results while discussing new words and analyzing their use in a particular context. However, this approach can be effective only if there is the appropriate level of the knowledge of TL and students can understand various linguistic situations regardless of the existence of unknown words in them.
Under these conditions, exercises that presuppose reading authentic documents and deciphering the meanings of the new words can help to achieve the new level of TLs understanding. First of all, an explanation of new words and their use in the context are always more effective than simple translation (Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2013). It helps not just to find the corresponding word in the native language but to achieve an improved understanding of how TL works and in what contexts or situations the new vocabulary can be used.
Finally, the use of the exclusive knowledge of the learned language helps to assess the overall level of students, as this sort of tasks presupposes that the current competence is enough to analyze texts without the complete understanding of all words that can be found in it. For this reason, only if a learner has a solid background, the goal can be achieved, and the meaning of new units will be explained using the already known words studied during the previous classes. The given sort of assignment should be provided only to advanced level learners; otherwise, it will have decreased effectiveness because of the absence of the TLs improved knowledge.
Reference
Larsen-Freeman, D., & Anderson, M. (2013). Techniques and principles in language teaching (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
In the article Teaching Standard English: Whose Standard? Linda Christensen raised questions about why children are taught language in one particular way and not the other. During standard English courses at schools and colleges, students are often confronted by large lists of new words, grammar and punctuation rules, irregular verbs, and so on. However, it is important to question why language is taught through rules as well as why students are forced to believe that they will be valued in the society because of their correct pronunciation and the use of cash language. Therefore, the most significant problem that the author found in teaching students English language was that they rarely knew where they could find help in their learning while teachers had no idea how to adequately correct mistakes.
It was interesting to read the article because the author had a unique approach towards language. When reflecting on her personal experiences with language teaching, Linda Christensen mentioned Fred, a student who was extremely scared of taking risks in his learning and only followed strict grammar rules that he had memorized. The author wrote: the biggest problem with Freds writing was that he didnt make mistakes (Christensen, 1990, p. 37). This meant that the student felt extreme discomfort when using a new language and experimenting with it; he would write with a purpose of avoiding mistakes instead of genuinely expressing his thoughts and opinions in a paper. Therefore, Christensen underlined the problem of valuing the way something in said instead of what is said in language teaching. It became evident that the author did not hold a view that students had to be limited in their own opinions and thoughts for the purpose of getting to learn a language based on strict rules. When learners are frowned upon for experimenting with language and are ridiculed for making mistakes, they usually lose interest and confidence in learning, which are huge barriers to education.
The issue of alienation played a significant role in the authors discussion because educational facilities tend to make students feel alone in their learning. Thus, it is the role of teachers to encourage students not to be afraid of making mistakes and sharing their thoughts, especially in language learning. Because the primary purpose of languages is to express opinions for communication, teachers should not put an emphasis on grammatical rules since they may often restrict communication. To make language learning a creative and liberating process, Christensen offered such strategies as writing stories, poems, letters, and essays to share them during lessons. In this way, learning becomes an interactive process where every student has opportunities to share his or her writing and be heard by others. In such a welcoming environment where students are equal in their language learning, the problem of alienation fades away as it is replaced by creativity and the freedom to express ones thoughts.
To conclude, Teaching Standard English: Whose Standard? is an excellent article that spread the message of rethinking the way students are taught language to encourage engagement, creativity, and freedom from alienation. Schools and teachers have done enough to intimidate students and make them feel less successful in learning when they make mistakes. Errors should be embraced and celebrated as ways to improve ones language learning; only in this way will students learn and become liberated and confident in their knowledge.
Work Cited
Christensen, Linda. Teaching Standard English: Whose Standard? English Journal, vol. 79, no. 2, 1990, pp. 36-40.
Foreign language study is a long-term and challenging process that demands many skills from both educators and learners to succeed and achieve appropriate results. At the same time, there are numerous aspects impacting all participants and showing the emergence of particular outcomes. That is why much attention is devoted to the development of tools, models, and methods of language teaching that are used in modern educational establishments to achieve success and ensure a high level of language skills.
The assigned reading also delves into this aspect and revolves around the nature of approaches and methods that can be used by skilled specialists depending on the situation and current needs of learners. Understanding this area is critical for the appropriate selection of models and their implementation into practice.
Describing the methods, the chapter assumes that the difference between a philosophy of language teaching regarding theory and principles becomes critical. That is why there are the three suggested levels of conceptualization which are defined as approach, method, and technique. They form a particular bond and remain in hierarchical relations that determine their further use and implementation. Thus, an approach is described as a set of assumptions describing the nature of language teaching and learning.
The method is outlined as the plan needed to present the language material in terms of the selected approach. One approach might include many methods used by educators to achieve their goals. Finally, the technique is a set of actions that take place in classrooms and are used to accomplish the objective. These three terms become central while speaking about language teaching and final success.
Continuing cogitation about the outlined basic elements, the reading delves into the critical peculiarities of the approach, design, and techniques to avoid misunderstandings and reveal essential features. For instance, the existence of multiple theoretical concepts of language is emphasized as they impact teaching and results significantly. That is why there is a detailed description of models influencing the effectiveness of methods and tools such as the cognitive, structural, functional, interactional, sociocultural, genre, and lexical ones.
The necessity of their detailed discussion comes from the idea that language is an extremely complex phenomenon that can be studied using various perspectives determining its understanding. For instance, the cognitive model presupposes that the way a person speaks reflects the central properties of his/her mind. In accordance with this theory, our mind contains specific grammar and principles universal to all languages, which is critical for learning. For this reason, it is fundamental to take into account all existing models.
Speaking about language, one should also consider the existence of theories that are designed to explain how second languages are learned by individuals and what peculiarities impact outcomes. There is a wide array of frameworks such as behaviorism, cognitive-code learning, the creative-construction hypothesis, constructivism, sociocultural learning theory, and skill learning. All of them try to describe the main stages of language acquisition and factors that impact individuals during the educational process. At the same time, the reading emphasizes the existence of the direct correlation between language and learning theory. It means that all teachers should be ready to take them into account while trying to select the most appropriate methods.
The design is also discussed in the assigned chapter. Being determined as the level of method analysis helps to understand what are the main objectives, reasons for the selection, types of tasks, roles of learners, teachers, and instructions of various approaches. In other words, analyzing the nature of a certain methodology, one should remember the reason for certain topics, texts, and word inclusion. Finally, the procedure also plays a critical role as it involves the choice of appropriate techniques that can be applied within the language theories discussed above.
Altogether, the reading can be considered an important source that provides information about the nature of language teaching. From the text, I can understand the existence of the direct correlation between the theory that describes the way learners get new data, master their language, acquire new information, and selection of appropriate approaches that can help to achieve success. Another idea is that the effectiveness of techniques used in the class and methods come from the utilized approach that should consider the most relevant learning theory peculiar to certain learners.
In other words, language teaching is situational and should be planned in terms of existing demands, characteristics of learners, and dominant theoretical frameworks. There are also certain learning style preferences that come from the personal characteristics of students that should be considered while selecting the style to increase the effectiveness of language learning.
In such a way, the analyzed reading contributes to the improved understanding of the nature of language teaching approaches, methods, and techniques and how they should be used in various situations depending on the existing tasks, peculiarities of learners, and their needs. Moreover, the chapter outlines the need for an effective selection to ensure that preferred learning styles are utilized and applied to achieve the best possible results and help students to master their language.