To teach spelling, an educator needs to have a clear understanding of what spelling is, what its main regularities are, and how its elements are linked into a single system and others. Only a broad understanding of the general nature of spelling makes it possible for the teacher to accurately set specific tasks for the development of individual spelling topics (Fresch, 2007). It is also important to anticipate the difficulties encountered, understand the causes of various mistakes made by students, and find measures to prevent them.
What is Spelling and Why It Is Important to Reading and Writing
Spelling is a system of rules for spelling words that have developed historically and are accepted as the norm of written speech. The spelling literacy of a person is a reflection of his or her general and linguistic culture. The foundation of error-free reading, speaking, and writing is laid during the period of spelling training, which is an important component of overall speech and language development (Moats, 2020). Its success is determined not only by spelling knowledge and skills but also by success in reading, grammar, semantics, and speaking. Thus, spelling is mastered as a result of improving and enriching speech.
Spelling is important to reading and writing since it is understood as an integral part of the general language culture of a person. It relies on the ability to quickly detect spelling in the words and their combinations that are intended for writing or have already been written. The development of phonemic awareness and the ability to replace spelling with the corresponding letters lie at the center of literate writing (Templeton & Morris, 1999). Its foundations must be laid in primary school, and this circumstance requires special responsibility from a teacher to instill strong grammar and spelling skills from the first steps of teaching the language.
Spelling Instruction
First of all, spelling instruction should include the alphabetic principle, that is, the understanding of which letters or combinations of letters match which sounds. Patterns are also an important part of teaching and learning spelling. The student listens to an example of reading a specific letter and becomes familiar with a phonetic pattern, for example, CVC one to form short vowels or CVCe / CVVC ones to form long vowels. Since the words are collected in groups, by listening to and reading these groups, a student deduces the patterns of reading (Putman, 2017). For example, after listening and repeating the phonetic patterns dip-hip-lip-nip after the teacher, most students will read the word zip-tip and the like correctly.
Spelling instruction should also include variations based on the origin of a particular word. There are words in the English language in which the familiar combination “ch” conveys other sounds (Putman, 2017). For example, in the words chemistry, technology, and technician, the combination of the letters “ch” must be pronounced [k]. This phenomenon occurs primarily in terms that are derived from the Greek language. In the words that came to English from French, the combination “ch” is spelled [ʃ].
Besides, students should know morphological information, that is, which groups of letters represent which meaning, for example, the meaning of prefixes re-, un-, in-, im-, il-, ir-, a-, non-, dis-, mis-, and others. Morphology is closely related to spelling, therefore its study is associated with the spelling rules (Putman, 2017). The morphological or morphemic principle requires a uniform spelling of morphemes, that is, prefixes, roots, suffixes, and endings.
Conclusion
To develop the reading, writing, and speaking skills in students means working on pronunciation, the meaning of morphemes, words, and phraseological units. It is known that spelling skill is a necessary component of reading and writing. Naturally, spelling lessons are associated with work on the development of students’ speech. Learners must go through the stage of combining the two tasks: expressing their thoughts in writing and observing spelling norms. This combination results in solid spelling skills and general language literacy.
References
Fresch, M. J. (2007). Teachers’ concerns about spelling instruction: A national survey. Reading Psychology, 28(1), 301–330. Web.
Moats, C.L. (2020). Teaching reading is rocket science. American Foundation of Teachers, 1-32.
Putman, R. (2017). Using research to make informed decisions about the spelling curriculum. Texas Journal of Literacy Education, 5(1), 24-30.
This essay involves a discussion on the main components of language learning and teaching within the sheltered approach of language acquisition which involves the incorporation of content and language while dealing with the learners of English language. The essay can therefore act as a guide to both the English Learners as well as their instructors. It contains the various teaching and learning approaches as well as the linguists behind the approaches of language acquisition.
The components of language learning and teaching can be grouped in terms of; cognitive, affective, and linguistic principles. There are various components of language learning which include; meaningful learning, automaticity, the anticipation of reward, strategic investment, self-confidence, intrinsic motivation, language ego, risk-taking, native language effect, inter-language, Language-culture connection and communicative competence.
On the other hand, there are several main components of a language classroom: phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary development, reading fluency and reading comprehension strategies. This is the essential setup of a sheltered instruction approach.
The Main Components of a Language Classroom
Automacity
This method of sheltered language learning involves appropriate movement of some language aspects into the involuntary processing of language features. It entails analyzing language and reflecting on its form while consciously evaluating its rules. This component helps the learner to acquire the language automatically (Brown 2007).
Meaningful learning
This involves the learner- based form of learning where the learner’s interests, goals and objectives are put into consideration. Meaningful learning leads to a better content retention as it focuses on a content based approach of language acquisition. It enables the absorption of new information into the existing information. This is quite different from rote learning which involves the exposure of new knowledge that is not related to the knowledge existing in a learner’s mind, making it less likely to stick.
As a matter of fact, in language development, children acquire meaningful language because they are able to relate words, phonemes and discourse features to the relevant existing knowledge. Meaningful learning involves the aural- oral method of teaching where the learners of a language are encouraged to listen to numerous English materials and participate in guided reading (Brown 2007).
The reward Anticipation
Universally, most human beings tend to work best while expecting some form of gains, which may be in form of long term or short term rewards. Nonetheless, even though we cannot underestimate the weight of giving rewards in a sheltered language lesson, language acquisition requires a more intrinsic reward (Snow & Griffin1998).
Intrinsic Reward
This refers to the inner motivation within the learner as an individual. Intrinsic motivation arises from a learner’s strong desire to meet his/ her goals. For this reason, little or no external reward is given as the learner’s actions are self motivated (Snow & Griffin1998).
Strategic Investment
In order to be an efficient language learner, one needs to invest a lot in the process of language acquisition. This may be through investing time as well as finances to purchase the required learning materials. Indeed, the learner should take the most responsibility in developing successful communication skills in a given language (Cummins1992).
Language Ego
As one endeavors to acquire a second language, he/she develops some form of language superiority which could trigger the process of language acquisition. However if not properly handled, this ego can lead to inhibition of language acquisition (Rodriguez 1988)
Self Confidence
The efficiency in language acquisition is mostly attributed to the learner’s believe in his/her capability to acquire the language. In regards to DiPietro’s Strategic Approach of language learning, proper planning as well as positive criticism in the part of the instructors enable learners are to achieve self confidence, an important tool in language acquisition (Brown 2007).
Risk Taking
Efficient language learners must be ready to take risks in the process of language acquisition. This can be achieved through the application of an undying effort to handle language that is beyond one’s capacity. However, they should not over do this, but rather they should attempt it in the most realistic manner (Cummins1992).
Language Culture Connection
When learning a language, it is extremely important to deeply explore the culture that encompasses the language. The customs, way of thinking and values in a particular culture are crucial in understanding a second/foreign language. The language instructors should also make good use of this knowledge in order to achieve maximum benefits (Collier &Thomas1992).
Native Language Effect
In order to be efficient in their language acquisition, language learners should highly rely on their native language knowledge while determining the interconnectedness within the language features. As a matter of fact, the minds of children are trained in such a way that they can classify the phonemes in their native language.
This may however vary with the English phonemes and pose hindering effects. (Antunez 2001). Thus, it is of great importance that a second language learner identifies and understands the principles used in his/her native language.
Inter-language
In order to gain competence in a foreign language, learners should learn to appreciate feedback not only from other sources but also from themselves (Clay1993).
Communication Competence.
Efficiency in communication is the ultimate goal of every language learner. For this reason, it is important for a language learner to learn all the aspects of language which involve strategic, pragmatic, psychomotor and organizational components of a language. This may entail the understanding of the structures of a language as well as the context of language for fluency as well as accuracy within the language (Moat1999).
The Main Components of Language Teaching
Phonemic awareness
A phoneme refers to the minimum unit of a spoken language. It refers to the sounds of a language. A combination of Phonemes forms syllables while many syllables form words.
The English language has got 41 phonemes. For instance, the word shirt has three phonemes (sh-ir-t).
In general, an individual’s ability to recognize and maneuver these phonemes in the spoken word is referred to as phonemic awareness. It can also be used to refer to the understanding that the sounds of spoken language work together to form words (Cummins1989).
When teaching ELLs in phonemic awareness, one should consider various things. For instance, some phonemes are absent in an English learner’s local language which may make it a bit complex to articulate and make a distinction of the phonemes through hearing.
This may also pose challenges to the learner while placing a given phoneme in the right context. While teaching the English language, it is crucial that the instructor links instructions to meanings, making the sounds and words obtain the required familiarity. For this reason, the English language learners should be equipped with the English vocabularies required for them to understand phonemes.
The instructors of ELLs should therefore incorporate the meanings and pronunciations of vocabularies with phonemic awareness. To be effective in creating phonemic awareness in the English language, instructors should also learn and comprehend the linguistic features of the learner’s first language. He/she should take account of the phonemes that are found in the learner’s first language as well as those that are absent (Cummins1989).
Research indicates that, significant language activities are crucial in capturing the learner’s interest in language learning. They enhance the learner’s response during this process. Such activities may include word walls as well as constant speech games which focus on exact letters and phonemes (Clay1993).
In addition, language instructors should always consider the use of poetry and songs while teaching phonemic awareness. This is because the use of poems and songs creates rhythm and repetition making it easy to memorize some aspects of language and thus enhances remembrance (Antunez 2001).This notwithstanding, the learners should always be involved in coming up with relevant rhymes that exist in their native language (Escamilla1987).
Phonics
Phonics is a term used to refer to the teaching of the relationship that exists between alphabetic letters and phonemes. While teaching the English language, the instructors put into consideration the fact that the sounds of a language corresponds to the graphemes in the language.
Here, graphemes refer to the alphabetic letters as well as spellings that correspond to sounds in written lingo. The English language learners should make use of the relationship between graphemes and sounds to identify recognizable words and to make sense of new words.
The teaching of phonics focuses on the instruction of a reading style that uses the knowledge on the correspondence of letters and sounds to achieve effective reading and spelling of words. The main objective of this teaching method is to make the learners appreciate the fact that there is a logical and conventional association between written letters and phonemes.
When teaching phonics to the English language learners, one should put several things into consideration. For instance, learners who do not know how to write in their language may have difficulties in comprehending some phonic ideas, hence the need to teach the purposes of print. In some cases, an instructor may encounter learners whose system of reading and writing in the native language may not correspond with the English language.
For example, a student ‘s first language system of reading and writing may be in such a way that, the alphabetic letters in written language match with varying sounds to those in the English language. This can be explained by the Chinese logographic writing approach where a single written character corresponds to a unit that has meaning/morpheme. On the other hand, the Spanish language contains some similar letters to those of the English language, which correspond in the same way to those in the English language.
These letters include; c, d, l, m, p and q. As a result, many Spanish learners who are learning the English language in America require minimum instruction in phonics with regards to these consonant letters. On the contrary, while most vowels in Spanish are similar to those in the English language, they are named in a different way and correspond to completely different phonemes. For this reason, the Spanish students learning the English language encounter some challenges when dealing with the vowel sounds (Antunez 2001).
Vocabulary development
Vocabulary development involves instructions on pronunciation and meanings of words needed for effective communication in a second language. When a language learner comes across a word and articulates it correctly, he/she is able to discern its meaning on the basis of his/her knowledge of the word. In case the learner does not comprehend what the word signifies, he/she may not know if the word has been used correctly in a sentence.
The learner may also not get the meaning of that particular word in a given sentence. Consequently, instruction on vocabulary development is vital in the understanding of comprehensions. It is extremely difficult to comprehend what one is reading unless he/she is aware of the meanings of most words in a passage.
When teaching English language learners on vocabulary development, there are various issues that an instructor should put into consideration. For instance, besides teaching on the various vocabularies within the English language, the context should also be a matter of great concern as it contributes greatly to one’s understanding of a text. As a matter of fact, an English learner can read a text within the correct principles of phonetics but fail to comprehend due to lack of appropriate vocabularies.
It is possible for students to read completely phonetically and not comprehend what they have read because they do not have the vocabulary. Thus, teaching vocabulary should be done in an explicit way and should also be incorporated within the curriculum in teaching the English language. This should be done in classes that specialize in teaching English Language Development (ELD) as well as English as a Second a Language (ESL) (Collier &Thomas1992).
Research on terminology development points out that, more often than not, kids acquire vocabularies indirectly through the following means; Extensive reading, conversations with grownups and by paying attention to other people as they read. As a result, it is important to note that, children’s parents and guardians may influence their fluency in the language. Instructors in the English language should identify and integrate direct ways while teaching vocabulary.
These ways should involve teaching on dictionary usage, application of context hints, and the explicit method of teaching vocabularies prior to comprehension reading as well as the use of suffixes as well as prefixes to decode the meanings of words. While dealing with literacy progress, it is important to note that an instructor can teach language proficiency for daily communication, (Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills /BICS), as well as the ability to understand and maneuver language within any context (Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency/CALP).
This indicates that, educators of the English language should be equipped with the right knowledge to instill cognitive language development which enables learners to comprehend any particular subject in any given context (August & Hakuta, 1997).
Reading fluency
Fluency refers to one’s proficiency in reading words effortlessly in terms of swiftness and precision. A good reader identifies and understands words concurrently. Fluent reading is indispensable while reading texts.
As a matter of fact, a child who is capable of reading fluently is most likely to comprehend and memorize the contents of a text as compared to one who reads with a lot of difficulties. While teaching fluency, a language instructor should bear in mind the two reading approaches.
The fist one involves aided and frequent verbal reading which persuades learners to read loudly with assistance as their instructors comment. The other approach of reading involves silent reading with minimum guidance from the instructors (Escamilla1987). When teaching fluency, various factors should be put into considerations.
Most education scholars recommend that, in order to be fluent readers, children should first be taught to read in their native language, failure to which they should be involved in frequent listening to readings. English language learners should always endeavor to read various books aloud together with the help of fluent readers (Antunez 2001).
Indisputably, learning how to speak the native language has tremendous influence on a child’s ultimate fluency in a second language. In addition, one’s proficiency in the spoken language forms a basis for successive learning of the alphabetic standards. An understanding of the principles used in forming the spoken English words leads to proficient comprehension within the written language.
Reading comprehension strategies
Reading and critical analysis of a comprehension is the ultimate objective of a language instructor. The main aim of gaining proficiency in the preceding skills is to facilitate efficient comprehension in texts. Similarly, comprehension reading enhances the proficiency in the skills above.
As a matter of fact, comprehension reading is directly linked to the awareness and growth of vocabularies. According to Norm Chomsky, a renowned linguist, the understanding of a language involves an active process that calls for a deliberate and cognitive contact between a learner and the text (Collier&Thomas1992).
When instructing English language learners, there are various things that should be put into consideration. For instance, a leaner’s ability to listen and understand spoken language is influenced by his/her oral awareness on the words that he/she can hear. This is also the case in learning written language.
For you to understand what you are reading, you ought to have an understanding of the language as well as the vocabularies within the language. Teaching figurative language should also be considered. A student learning the English language as his /her second language is likely to interpret ‘crocodile tears’ literally.
Thus, it is wise for the instructors of a language to scan a text prior to teaching. Learners should also be encouraged to analyze the stories in a text both clearly and critically. The instructors of the English language should also ensure that their students come into contact with advanced texts (Antunez 2001).
In conclusion, the English language program should incorporate English language development (ELD) within its curriculum. Undeniably, for the English language learners to achieve the desired competence in language, they should put more emphasis on the meaningful approach of language acquisition. They should also ensure fluency in their native languages and practice loud reading while using the English texts.
Similarly, it is crucial for the instructors of the English language to be equipped with the necessary facts about their students’ first language. A sheltered English language lesson should also involve several captivating learner activities. Moreover, the lesson should be well planned and taught and should employ the current communicative language teaching methodology (Collier&Thomas1992).
Reference List
Antunez, B. (2001).English Language Learners and the Five Essential Components of Reading Instruction. London: Cambridge Publishing Press
August, D. & Hakuta, K. (1997). Improving schooling for language-minority children: A research agenda. Washington, DC: National Research Council.
Brown, H. (2007). Teaching by Principles an Interactive Approach to Language. New York: Prentice Hall
Clay, M. (1993). Reading Recovery in English and other languages. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
Collier,V. & Thomas, W. (1992). A synthesis of studies examining long-term language minority student data on academic achievement, Bilingual Research Journal, 16(1-2), 187-212.
Cummins, J. (1989). Empowering minority students. Sacramento, CA: California Association for Bilingual Education.
Cummins, J. (1992). Language proficiency, bilingualism, and academic achievement, In The multicultural classroom: Readings for content-area teachers. White Plains: Longman.
Escamilla, K. (1987). The relationship of native language reading achievement and oral English proficiency to future achievement in reading English as a second language. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles.
Moats, L.C. (1999). Teaching reading is rocket science: What expert teachers of reading should know and be able to do. Washington, DC: American Federation of Teachers.
Rodriguez, A. (1988). Research in reading and writing in bilingual education and English as a second language: Bilingual Education and English as a Second Language. New York: Garland Pub.
Snow, C., Burns, S., & Griffin, P. (1998). Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Response to Three Texts on Teaching Writing to College Freshman
The three texts on the subject of teaching writing, especially at the beginning college level, are illuminating and encourage me to think about my writing, and learning to write better, differently. It is a little bit humbling to realize that so many people are concerned about whether a course that I took for granted is worthwhile and accomplishing what it needs to. It is also distressing to realize that those people are often not paid well or equipped with the facilities (for example, as Crowley notes, mailboxes, or offices) to do their jobs effectively.
Furthermore, it is a bit daunting to realize that this is not the last writing I will be doing in college but merely the first. I also am beginning to be a bit apprehensive at the thought that there will be not one but several ways of writing that I will be expected to master before exiting college.
Finally, I am hopeful that what I learn here will prepare me for what could be an entirely different form of writing in the working world. I do not know what the best solution to the problem of teaching writing efficiently and effectively is but I do know that these texts make me more appreciative of the effort that my writing instruction has involved thus far. I do think that students would be more excited about learning how to write if they understood from the start that it would be necessary for every field of endeavor for the rest of their lives.
Images of Women in the WWii War Effort
The photo titled “Women welders on the way to their job at the Todd Erie Basin dry dock” shows a racially diverse, well-uniformed, properly equipped, and cheerful group of women off to work for the war. This conveys the message of inclusiveness, safety consciousness, and good fellowship that women can expect if they join the war effort. It also reassures their families that they will be safe on the job. This would encourage more women to participate and reduce the objections of those who did not support the idea of women in any workplace.
This contrasts powerfully with the images of women in Good Housekeeping in the 1920s. IN that magazine, women’s role was circumscribed by the demands of the home and the needs of children and husband. The primary goals were to run an efficient household and raise healthy normal children while still attracting and fascinating one’s husband. While the unceasing demands of kids appear in at least one cartoon in the collection of war images, where a woman holds her baby while riveting a ship, for the most part, the war women are without men, without kids, and out of the home. Somehow, the frail stick figures of the 20s have grown muscles that are useful in the war effort.
Images of Anti-Japanese Racism in WWii
This cartoon depicts residents of the west coast of America who are of Japanese extraction as a fifth column or traitorous element. They are all ready to return to Japan and follow the Japanese government’s instructions. The palm tree to the left of the image and the fact that they are crossing the water from California suggests that they are heading to Hawaii or another island. They are being equipped to destroy the USA with TNT.
Although this is a distressing image today, it was not far off from the opinion of many, given the mass internment of Japanese-American citizens that was ordered. The notable features of the Japanese caricatured in this image are the round glasses, the neat suits, the buckteeth, and the neat small mustache, as well as the uniform smile. These stereotypical characteristics are often used today in negative images of Asians in the USA, so perhaps not as much has changed as might be wished.
Deciding the right feeding plan (between breastfeeding and formula-feeding) for babies is one of the critical resolutions expectant mothers can make. Presently, many health organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO), the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) and the American Dietetic Association (ADA) advocate for breastfeeding of babies up to (but not limited to) six months (Dare & O’Donovan, 2002).
Breastfeeding aids in boosting the immune system, protecting against infections, averting allergies, and building body defenses against several chronic illnesses. This paper analyzes the nutritional requirements and looks at feeding options for an infant aged below one year.
Nutritional requirements of infants
During the first few years of infancy, children have precise nutritional requirements to ensure healthy growth and bone formation. They require fats, proteins, vitamins, carbohydrates, and minerals. Human (breast) milk and infant formula contain all the nutritional requirements of a baby during the first six months of infancy.
Breast milk comprises supplementary elements such as antibodies that aid in immune defense, which cannot be obtained from formula. The fats in breast milk, formula and certain foods offer energy and fundamental fats (such as linolenic and linoleic acids), fat-soluble vitamins (such as A, D, E and K) together with other beneficial fats.
Preferred Source of Nutrition for Infants: Breastfeeding
According to the AAP, infants should feed solely on breast milk during the initial six months (Goldman, 2007). After the six months, mothers should continue breastfeeding until the baby is approximately twelve months-old, or for a longer period depending on whether the mother and baby are comfortable with the idea.
Benefits of Breastfeeding
Breast milk contains antibodies from the mother that aid in fighting infections and other conditions such as ear infections, diarrhea, meningitis, and respiratory infections.
In addition, it helps in the development of the immune system of the infants by increasing their resistance to infection and reducing their susceptibility to bacteria. Breast milk is also easily digested by the baby’s underdeveloped system since it contains easily digestible lactose, fat and protein (whey and casein). This reduces incidences of diarrhea and constipation (Lawrence & Lawrence, 2010).
Though ideal, breast milk contains insufficient amounts of vitamin D, which can be obtained from sunlight. However, due to the tender nature of the baby’s skin, mothers are advised to use supplements from the first two months until around a year when the baby has consumed sufficient vitamin D supplements.
Formula-Feeding
Although most experts hold that breastfeeding is the ideal nutritional option for infants, it may not be viable for every woman. For most women, the decision to breastfeed or formula-feed is not founded on the nutritional requirements of the baby. On the contrary, it depends on their level of comfort, way of life and certain medical concerns.
For mothers who are not able to breastfeed, infant formula provides the best alternative (Mohrbacher & Kendall-Tackett, 2010). Though some mothers feel a sense of guilt when they cannot breastfeed, this guilt is unfounded as they still have an opportunity to bond with the infant during formula feeding.
Most formulas come with mixing directions as well as the nutrient information for the mother which are often simple and easy to follow. However, when prepared ahead of feeding time, formulas should be refrigerated to prevent contamination by bacteria.
When to Introduce Solid Food
Babies under one year receive a large portion their nutrition from either formula-feeding or breastfeeding. At around six months, solid foods can be introduced gradually to supplement breast milk or formula. Solid foods should be increased gradually as the baby grows older.
Conclusion
Babies are different and have different nutritional needs. Breast milk and formula provide sufficient nutrition to meet babies’ nutritional demands at this critical age in development. Solid foods should be introduced when the baby is ready. Nevertheless breast milk remains the ideal source of nutrition for babies during this important stage of development. Though mothers have the right to choose the best feeding plan for their children, they should be properly advised on the implications of their choices.
References
Dare, A., & O’Donovan, M. (2002). A practical guide to child nutrition. United Kingdom: Nelson Thornes.
Goldman, A. S. (2007). The immune system in human milk and the developing infant. Breastfeeding Medicine, 2(4), 195-204.
Lawrence, A. R., & Lawrence, R. M. (2010). Breastfeeding: A guide for the medical profession. Missouri: Elsevier Health Sciences.
Mohrbacher, N., & Kendall-Tackett, K. (2010). Breastfeeding made simple: Seven natural laws for nursing mothers. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications.
The main scope of my motor observation report was to monitor the process of teaching children the basic motor skills that were necessary for playing basketball. The method that teacher employed were premised on drilling and practicing simple skills to develop them into more sophisticated. At the very beginning of the lesson, the coach told children to dribble by controlling and coordinating ball movements.
Hence, children had to dribble the ball at different levels, as well overcome the barriers. In such a way, children learnt both to control ball directions and their own travelling. Concentration and coordination were also the skills that were gained through this activity because children had to distribute their attention in order not to lose the ball and balance their movements. The second exercise involved dribbling to the music.
Children had to listen to the music and control the ball movements. In such a manner, they could learn how to stabilize or speed up the ball while listening to the rhythm. It also trained children’s ability to perform two activities on the spot. The next practice focused on training object control and stabilization by exchanging balls with partners. Hence, the task of the children was to direct the ball toward his/her partner and take control of the ball addressed to him.
At the very beginning, children did not succeed in focusing on the coach’s tasks because their attention was paid on coordinating their movements so that they could both control the ball and overcome the barriers. However, further practicing allowed children to listen to the coach’s advices to improve the performance. Even though some children were not able to perform at the first time, coach constantly encouraged them.
In case a mistake was made, the coach strived to explain how to correct the situation and improve skills. Children were looking at coach to find any sign of approval and disapproval of their actions. In response, the coach was trying to react to each of the children’s actions and improvements to make them sure that they were making progress. At the same time, the coach told children to concentrate on the drilling and practicing of every movement rather than on constant seeking for his approval.
During the practice activities, both children were trying to follow teacher’s advice, but his remarks were effective only during the actual process of practicing, but not after the instructions had been given. Probably, most of the children gained a deeper understanding of the activity through personal experience.
After ten minutes of dribbling, children start improving their skills. Children successfully react to coach’s recommendations. However, the instructor did not interfere with the process frequently for children to realize their mistakes, or just get pleasure from the activities. Such an approach was efficient because it did not impose significant pressure on them because motor skills were still trained.
With regard to the observational experience, it should be stressed that children can successfully develop such motor skills as object control, stabilizing, and balance through performing simple practices such dribbling, bouncing the ball to the beat, and throwing balls to each other. While practicing, children paid attention to the instructor’s comments to make sure that they were performing the activities in the right way. Thus, they have successfully managed to develop motor behavior that can help them play basketball.
The patient is a 26-year-old white female who has recently given birth to an infant boy. The patient is due to be released from the hospital the next day, as there are no significant health concerns for her or the infant. The assessment of bonding and integration showed no issues. Both the mother and the father show evidence of behaviors that promote bonding, such as skin-to-skin contact, eye contact, response to the distress, and more (Henry et al., 2016). However, the patient demonstrates a deficient knowledge diagnosis regarding infant care. The diagnosis was based on the survey of the patient and her concerns, indicated during a conversation with a nurse.
According to Mosby (2012), the suggested interventions, in this case, include breastfeeding assistance, lactation counseling, infant nutrition, and infant safety teaching. The main learning objectives are for the patient to become familiar with the processes and requirements of safe breastfeeding and lactation, as well as to develop an understanding of the infant safety procedures.
The teaching for both objectives is provided by the nurse and includes conversation, observation, correction, and evaluation of the patient’s performance before a hospital release. The final stage of the teaching process is to provide the patient with additional knowledge resources that she can access from home. Ward (2011) states that demonstration, provision of written material with pictures, and discharge instructions are all effective patient teaching methods, so they should be utilized in this case. All information provided to the patient is evidence-based, from both individual clinical expertise and credible medical sources. For instance, the use of WHO’s (2009) Infant and Young Child Feeding can be used to provide data on child nutrition and breastfeeding, whereas individual clinical expertise will be effectively used in demonstrations. Similarly, lactation information should be provided from reliable sources.
For instance, Witt, Bolman, Kredit, and Vanic (2015) show that therapeutic breast massage may decrease the pain resulting from engorgement, plugged ducts, or mastitis, as well as prevent these complications, resulting in healthier lactation and more comfortable breastfeeding. This information is to be communicated to the patient along with the information on where to obtain therapeutic breast massage and a demonstration of how to perform mild breast self-massage at home in-between visits. Instructions regarding infant safety should be given along with the information on the risks of injuries and their prevention, obtained from previous clinical experience. It is also useful to give the patient a handout containing a checklist of practices for home safety, such as an official brochure, providing information on the safety of the baby in a car, bath, and at home. For instance, the State of Victoria (2016) Better Health brochure emphasizes the importance of infant restraints in cars, controlled home environment, and constant parent supervision in preventing injuries.
The teaching is to be performed in a friendly manner with a lot of interaction, both between the nurse and the patient and between the mother and the infant. The appropriate use of eye contact, clear speech, and calm body language helps the mother to focus on the learning objectives. Evaluation of the learning results is mainly self-assessed, as the patient shows a lot of initiative and is prepared to ask questions or clarify certain concepts.
Overall, I believe that this teaching plan is appropriate for the patient. It is evidence-based and takes into account the individual characteristics of the learner, such as her enthusiasm for asking questions and reflecting on the learned information. By the end of the teaching process, the patient will possess the necessary knowledge regarding child nutrition, lactation, and infant safety, and provided with information about additional resources in case of any further questions, thus achieving her learning objectives.
References
Henry, N. J., McMichael, M., Johnson, J., SiStasi, A., Roland, P., Wilford, K. L., & Barlow, M. S. (2016). RN maternal newborn nursing: Review module (10th ed.). Leawood, KS: Assessment Technologies Institute, LLC.
Witt, A. M., Bolman, M., Kredit, S., & Vanic, A. (2015). Therapeutic breast massage in lactation for the management of engorgement, plugged ducts, and mastitis. Journal of Human Lactation, 32(1), 123-131.
World Health Organization (WHO). (2009). Infant and young child feeding: Model chapter for textbooks for medical students and allied health professionals. Web.
Teaching beliefs are a very important and interesting subject to explore, especially in the scope of nursing education. Education is a teacher-focused industry, where the contents, techniques, and methods of teaching are largely defined by the curriculum and educators conducting classes (Findlow, 2011). The students are molded and made into professionals not only through their own work and studying but also through their teachers’ influence. Education in itself is an intervention; therefore it must be based on evidence and not revolve around a teacher’s beliefs regarding particular areas of teaching, however right or misguided these beliefs are (Johnson, 2004). Nevertheless, every teacher has certain views about education that have been with him or her for a very long time without being examined from an evidence-based perspective. The purpose of this self-reflective paper is to examine one of my most important beliefs about teaching and provide a better perspective on it based on professional advice from other experienced educators as well as my own academic research.
Personal Beliefs
I was brought up in a traditional learning environment, which I disliked a great deal. I did not agree with my teachers’ methods of utilizing repetitive tasks in order to drill skills into our heads, collectivist approach to education without paying attention to the individual, and the overall focus on the curriculum rather than helping me grow as a person. My beliefs towards education in nursing or in any other field of education and research are that every student is an individual and requires a personalized approach. Although I have never been the recipient of such actions in education, I believe that it would be more efficient and yield greater results in the long run. Education should be focused on the student, not on the teacher or even the subject at hand. I draw parallels between nursing practice, which is focused on the patient, and educational practice, which should be student-based. A situation that can be used to demonstrate the correctness of my beliefs involves one of my former classmates. He had an excellent understanding of the subjects at school, but could not stand homework due to problems at home. As a result, his grades went down because of incomplete homework and not because of incomplete knowledge.
Conversation with the Teacher
In order to test my beliefs about education and be challenged by an opposing theoretical and philosophical view, I decided to locate and meet an old school teacher of mine. He was a staunch traditionalist in terms of the purpose of education, the role of the teacher in it, and the effectiveness of drills and other methods of teaching. Another reason why I chose him was that he was a teacher in mathematics, geometry, and algebra, which are in many ways similar to nursing.
As expected, we did not agree on many issues surrounding my beliefs and practices. One of the major points of contention was the use of drills and practical tasks in teaching. In my opinion, such an approach limits a student’s creativity and prevents deeper understanding, as the majority would be satisfied with just “passing” rather than inquire further, as their will and desire to learn would be already spent on grueling, repetitive, and pointless exercises.
My teacher understood that these beliefs of mine were partially the result of the shortcomings of the educational process at school. However, he stated that the role of creativity is overrated in certain matters and specializations. According to him, before a student can get creative using a tool or a method, they must learn how to use it appropriately. Repetitive practice, in his opinion, provides the students with reflexive skills, ensures accuracy, and supports long-term memorization. Our second point of contention came from our conflicting views regarding individualized vs. standardized approaches to teaching. My teacher said that although it would have been nice to be able to take an individualized approach to every student, he reaffirmed that his position is that of a schoolteacher and not a tutor. He stated he has at least five classes a day, during which he teaches roughly 150 students. If five classes are multiplied by 45 minutes and divided by 150 students, the teacher would have exactly one and a half minute per every student a day. The interviewee stressed out that an individualized approach is necessary only in students who are completely incapable of following the standardized class procedures due to mental limitations of some kind, such as ADHD, dyslexia, dysgraphia, and others.
Lastly, we conversed about the role of the teacher in shaping students and helping them become better people. Although my teacher agreed that school and university plays an important role in the formation of a student’s personality, it is not the end goal of these institutions. As he said, is job is not to become a surrogate father to every child passing through his classroom. His job is to ensure that when they leave the doors of his school, they have a complete assortment of mathematical knowledge in order to advance further into the academic field. He alluded that the purpose of nursing schools is to teach nurses and promote health through education. While it would be beneficial to help young nurses grow as people, it is not a prerequisite for their practice.
The conversation came to a conclusion soon after. My teacher said that the state of educational research is far from perfect. Articles are written by people who have not stepped into a classroom in years. Many educational researchers are becoming pure theorists rather than practitioners. He made a prediction that in ten years or less, I will see the world his way.
Comparison of Beliefs and Evidence
Naturally, much of what I learned from interviewing my old teacher were opinions and beliefs rather than facts. In order to test both of our claims, I started to research academic literature in order to find support or controversy to the statements made in the course of this self-reflective study. Based on our conversation, I split conflicting views into three pairs, which are as follows:
Individualized learning styles vs. standardized approach.
Rote drills and exercises vs. deeper learning.
The necessity for a rigid structure vs. flexibility in teaching methods.
The results of my investigation and literature research varied from one source to another. I discovered that the roots of my belief could be traced to American history and practices of democracy and individualism. According to Scott (2010), various teaching styles have emerged as a result of western individualistic culture, which contributes to their enduring survival by playing on cultural predispositions of the population, researchers, and students. However, at the same time, there is evidence stating that tailoring learning patterns to students may not as efficient as initially thought. Husmann and O’Loughlin (2018) claim that while students may prefer particular teaching styles, it does not necessarily impair their capabilities of receiving information in any other way.
My view on education correlates with Goodman (2014), who states that modern views on pedagogy often see the student as a co-creator of knowledge, whereas traditional methods treat them as newbies to be taught whatever the teacher feels necessary to teach. According to Davies (2000), constructivists view education not as a series of responses to stimuli or memorization of numbers, motions, and symbols, but through understanding and constructing new knowledge. Constructivism has been one of the prevalent frameworks in education ever since the early 2000s. However, there is a surprising amount of criticism of the progressive constructivist frameworks, especially when it comes to high-stakes disciplines such as nursing.
It has been established that nursing is an evidence-based practice. According to Mackey and Bassendowski (2017), evidence-based practices and the use of technology is critical to success and evolution of nursing. At the same time, current beliefs enforced in the nursing education community could not be farther from that goal. Tanner (2004) states that education in nursing as well as in other fields operates largely on ideology and consensus achieved between different factions within the nursing community. They practice a multitude of approaches towards teaching without a solid evidence base to support these practices. Many pedagogues expect students to share their teacher’s beliefs about education and willingly participate in whatever activities necessary, be it unorthodox learning methods or research (Comer, 2009).
Based on the evidence provided, it can be concluded that neither mine nor my teacher’s beliefs were completely wrong or completely right. It is possible to see that preferences towards individualism and flexibility are dictated by experiences and cultural background rather than educational efficiency supported by evidence.
Barriers in Enacting My Beliefs
Some of the barriers to enacting my beliefs were outlined during my conversation with the teacher. His words regarding the lack of time to focus on individual capabilities of students are supported by data. Shen et al. (2015) find a distinct correlation between overworking and burnout in teachers, which leads to high rates of turnover. Thus, paying extra time to individual students in large classes can result in premature burnout and emotional exhaustion. In addition, Mooney and Nolan (2006) state that overly independent and alternative means of education in the nursing sphere are not entirely applicable because of the necessity for the understanding of structure and history of the nursing process.
Another barrier is my prejudice towards drill practices. As evidenced by Heward (2003), these exercises are necessary for developing fluency in the subject, while measured addition and subtraction of information make the students understand what they are doing. These words mirror my old teacher’s position regarding math and could potentially be applied to nursing as well.
Lastly, nursing is a standardized science. It is highly structured and requires adherence to a multitude of high standards in order to ensure the safety of patients and effectiveness of health promotion (Ranchal et al., 2015). As such, the flexibility of teaching methods in regards to individual student capabilities will cause further complications further down the road. If a student is incapable of following the curriculum on nursing and adhere to the strenuous demands of the program, the program should not be altered to accommodate that student at the expense of the quality of teaching (Caroleo, 2014).
The Implications of Holding onto Beliefs
Belief is characterized by confidence in something to be efficient, correct, and true, without enough proof to label a particular statement or practice as knowledge (Baronett, 2016). Since nursing and nursing education are evidence-based practices, holding on to beliefs without enough evidence to back them up can be detrimental to the educational effort (Fives & Gill 2014). The experience of conducting research on my own beliefs and beliefs of my old math teacher has proven that neither of them was right. Both held bits and pieces of true knowledge, while the rest stemmed from biased perceptions, experiences, and past teachings.
Therefore, I concur that nursing education specialists should focus on identifying and examining beliefs while at the same time developing their own teaching philosophies based on evidence (Yeom, Miller, & Delp, 2018). It requires constant conscientious analysis of subconscious and automatic responses to certain challenges, opinions, and factors. The question every educator must ask oneself is whether any notion they teach is objectively right (Kurtz, Draper, & Silverman, 2016).
Lastly, an educator must evaluate not only the knowledge he or she teaches, but also the sources of that knowledge. As stated by Zyga (2016), it is possible to find information to support almost any practice or point of view. The key lies in the dissemination and accurate evaluation of that information.
Conclusion
To conclude, belief is the death of knowledge. As an educator, I cannot allow my personal beliefs to sway me from utilizing objectively effective techniques and practices, even if I do not agree with them. Education is an intervention and must be based on evidence, not on individual experiences and beliefs.
References
Baronett, S. (2016). Journey into philosophy: An introduction with classic and contemporary readings. New York, NY: Taylor & Francis.
Caroleo, M. (2014). An examination of the risks and benefits of alternative education. Relational Child & Youth Care Practice, 27(1), 35-46.
Comer, S. (2009). The ethics of conducting educational research on your own students. Journal of Nursing Law, 13(4), 100-105.
Davies, P. (2000). Approaches to evidence-based teaching. Medical Teacher, 22(1) 14-21.
Findlow, S. (2011). Higher education change and professional-academic identity in newly “academic” disciplines: The case of nurse education. Higher Education 63(1), 117– 133.
Fives, H., & Gill, M. G. (2014). International handbook of research on teacher’s beliefs. New York, NY: Routledge.
Goodman, B. (2014). Paulo Friere and the pedogogy of the oppressed. Nurse Education Today, 34(7), 1055–1056.
Heward, M. L. (2003). The ten faulty notions about teaching and learning that hinder the effectiveness of special education. The Journal of Special Education, 36(4), 186-205.
Husmann, P. R., & O’Loughlin, V. D. (2018). Another nail in the coffin for learning styles? Disparities among undergraduate anatomy students’ study strategies, class performance, and reported VARK learning styles. Anatomical Sciences Education, 0(0), 1-14.
Johnson, M. (2004). What’s wrong with nursing education research? Nurse Education Today, 24(8), 585-588.
Kurtz, S., Draper, J., & Silverman, J. (2016). Teaching and learning communication skills in medicine (2nd ed.). London, UK: CRC Press.
Mackey, A., & Bassendowski, S. (2017). The history of evidence-based practice in nursing. Education and Practice. Journal of Professional Nursing, 33(1), 51–55.
Mooney, M., & Nolan, L. (2006) A critique of Freire’s perspective on critical social theory in nursing education. Nurse Education Today, 26(3), 240-224.
Ranchal, A., Jolley, M. J., Keogh, J., Lepiesova, M., Rasku, T., & Zeller, S. (2015). The challenge of the standardization of nursing specializations in Europe. International Nursing Review, 62(4), 445-452.
Scott, C. (2010). The enduring appeal of ‘learning styles.’ Australian Journal of Education, 2010(54), 5.
Shen, B., McCaughtry, N., Martin, J., Garn, A., Kulik, N., & Fahlman, M. (2015). The relationship between teacher burnout and student motivation. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 85(4), 519-532.
Tanner, C. (2004). Nursing education research: Investing in our future. Journal of Nursing Education, 43(3), 99-100.
Yeom, Y., Miller, M. A., & Delp, R. (2018). Constructing a teaching philosophy: Aligning beliefs, theories, and practice. Teaching and Learning in Nursing, 13(3), 131-134.
Striving for success is impossible without a well-structured strategy, and in the field of education, a corresponding curriculum plays an essential role. Despite different approaches to the organisation of the educational process, all existing methodologies, as a rule, have an identical goal – to convey this or that material as accurately and clearly as possible. In the field of medicine, teaching strategies may vary depending on topics and student profiles.
Nevertheless, the principles underlying work programs provide for the learning of specific materials with their subsequent practising, and this mechanism is universal. To establish the effective process of interaction with students and organise a good study course, it is necessary to consider such aspects as a personal teaching philosophy, a curriculum development course, an activity assessment strategy, and the analysis of the work performed. These criteria are important for the design of a curriculum and influence students’ performance outcomes.
Teaching Philosophy
The individual perception of the learning process features is an integral part of work in the field of education. Based on constantly replenished experience and increasing knowledge, new approaches are honed, innovative techniques are developed, and fundamentally distinctive techniques are introduced. According to Vizeshfar and Torabizadeh (2018), “currently, the old routine approaches have been replaced with a wide range of new activities and methods to improve students’ learning” (p. 106).
Moreover, for each of the existing models, there is a rationale for use in specific areas, which simplifies working with such systems and allows applying appropriate concepts in particular fields. It gives an opportunity to form individual ideas regarding the principles of education and develop a personal teaching philosophy.
My personal teaching philosophy implies variability in the presentation models with an emphasis on active learning. Traditional lectures and routine practical exercises cannot interest students to a proper degree, which forces teaching staff to resort to new forms of work. Today when computer technologies develop rapidly, and wide opportunities are open for digital learning, fundamentally new approaches may be introduced.
As Lavoie et al. (2018) argue, “active learning involves engaging students in meaningful learning activities and in reflection about what they are doing” (p. 244). This concept coincides with my ideas about the quality of the educational process when students not only study certain materials but also learn to think, thereby developing cognitive functions. An educational need for this method is that the target audience gains new knowledge through the continuous work process that is crucial for the medical field. The constructiveness of this approach is due to a large number of materials, and if students learn and train valuable skills quickly and effectively, the outcomes of studying will be positive, and productivity results will be high. Therefore, I consider that this form of teaching is valuable and optimal.
In addition to the aforementioned advantages, active learning has other valuable properties. According to Waltz, Jenkins, and Han (2014), this type of education allows students to develop cooperative skills through group work. This opportunity, in my opinion, is one of the essential attainments, which contributes to finding rational solutions to emerging problems and using possible resources to achieve certain goals.
For medical students, the search for the right decisions should not be limited by any obstacles, and this principle supports the philosophy of care as a humane approach involving work on patient care. “Adults need to know why they need to learn something before undertaking to learn it” (Palis & Quiros, 2014, p. 115). This rule is a priority in my personal teaching philosophy that implies introducing modern technological aids and practices. I believe that it is pointless to try to clarify a particular topic if the audience does not understand the purpose of this work and the scope of its application. Therefore, I adhere to the method of active learning as a mechanism to assess the need for a particular material and its relevance to the specialisation of students.
Program Development
The program aimed at improving the professional knowledge of medical students is designed to stimulate work in relation to active learning. The target audience is the nursing staff of intensive care units (ICU). In order to carry out the training of specialists successfully, it is significant to define the goal of the course, learning objectives, anticipated difficulties, as well as assumed learner background, prior knowledge, and experience. Using this strategy will allow reviewing the program in detail and describing its key features in relation to the educational process.
Program Goal
The goal of the program is to provide the ICU nursing staff with new valuable knowledge regarding the necessary aspects of their work by engaging in joint activities and working in groups. According to Han et al. (2016), learning sessions in small groups contribute to studying educational material better and simplify the teaching process. Consequently, the aim of the course is to not only encourage individual work, for example, testing but also joint problem-solving assignments. In an ICU setting, this perspective is relevant, and appropriate interventions may help to establish a continuous and effective working environment.
Program Learning Objectives
The objectives of the entire course are numerous since each lesson has an individual theme and is considered in accordance with the planned tasks. In general, the program’s purpose is to teach the nursing staff of ICU to recognise a range of problems, discuss them in a team to obtain comprehensive data, identify the methods of potential interventions, calculate the possible outcomes of specific actions, and assess the challenges that may arise during work. As Harden and Laidlaw (2016) note, it is essential to “make the learning relevant to the students in terms of their career objectives” (p. 15). Therefore, it is crucial to take into account the specifics of a certain topic and the preparedness of all participants in the educational process.
Assumed Learner Background, Prior Knowledge, and Experience
Due to the fact that the target audience has a rather good professional background, in particular, work in ICUs, the teaching strategy will be based on the study of the deep foundations of nursing science. Prior knowledge gained due to previous activities in this area can be valuable for further immersion in junior personnel’s practice. Moreover, according to Oleson and Hora (2014), preexisting experience helps to shape cognition functions, behaviour, and professional identity. Therefore, the activity vector will focus on honing current skills and acquiring new useful knowledge.
Anticipated Challenges/Difficulties
Throughout the educational program, some difficulties causing work slowdown may arise. In particular, Lum, Dowedoff, Bradley, Kerekes, and Valeo (2015) remark that “learning new terminology” can be associated with challenges when studying complex topics (p. 83). Nevertheless, this complexity may be overcome, for instance, by grouping professional vocabulary into categories and memorising it gradually. Another difficulty lies “in adapting to a new working environment” (Lum et al., 2015, p. 85). However, this challenge is also not critical, and stimulating group activity by encouraging ongoing achievements can help to relieve students of their discomfort.
Program Evaluation Strategy
In order to assess the success of the learning process, it is necessary to develop an appropriate evaluation strategy. The purpose of this mechanism is to determine how effectively nurses memorise the material studied, and how the educational course affects the professional growth of students. In addition, it is significant to understand whether teaching sessions have practical benefits within a specific medical setting (ICU). As resources needed for the assessment, pre and post-tests may be useful to determine the degree of material memorisation.
Also, some variables will be used, for example, nursing attendance, average marks for intermediate tests, as well as student satisfaction with the course of work performed. The results of the program will be reported to the management of the clinic as a progress report and an opportunity to discuss potential changes that may be carried out in the clinical environment.
To ensure proper monitoring of nurses’ progress and their learning outcomes, intermediate tests will be applied. This assessment mechanism will include a short list of questions covering the material studied. In case all the members of the group without exception are able to give comprehensive answers, it will confirm the effectiveness of the curriculum and its relevance within the framework of the ICU. According to Kalb, O’Conner-Von, Brockway, Rierson, and Sendelbach (2015), it is crucial to “implement evidence-based assessment and evaluation strategies that are appropriate to the learner and to learning goals” (p. 212).
Therefore, it is essential to select appropriate questions aimed at controlling the literacy of the nursing staff in relation to their immediate responsibilities, namely care for patients in intensive care units. Also, the attendance rates will be taken into account as a factor demonstrating the interest of group members in the program. Finally, nurses’ reflection will be encouraged, and each student will be able to express an opinion regarding the perception of the material and the characteristics of the working atmosphere.
All assessment results may be used as a valuable means of improving each individual session and, as a result, the performance of nurses. Based on the outcomes of intermediate tests, relevant conclusions can be made regarding students’ perception of the material studied. This indicator, in turn, may help to focus particular attention on specific topics in order to strengthen the knowledge of group members.
The evaluation of attendance is a necessary criterion that contributes to determining the degree of the nursing staff’s satisfaction with educational activities and finding out how many students are ready to increase their professional potential. The data obtained may be transferred to the managers of the medical institution so that they could have an idea of their subordinates’ interest in the possibility of improving personal skills and knowledge. Another valuable aspect of the work performed is a reflection stage and, as Shin, Sok, Hyun, and Kim (2015) note, it “is the most commonly used form of competence evaluation” (p. 596). All these steps can help to assess the effectiveness of the course program, as well as its strengths and weaknesses.
Teaching Practicum Reflection
In order to consider the implemented program critically, it is required to resort to a special reflection model. Paterson and Chapman (2013) cite Gibbs’ pattern, which is a cycle consisting of six stages – a description, feelings, evaluation, analysis, conclusion, and an action plan. This algorithm may help to examine the features of the teaching course in detail and evaluate its effectiveness from different points of view.
Description
The introduction of a teaching program is conducted with an emphasis on training the nursing staff of the intensive care unit. Each of the lessons has individual objectives aimed at increasing knowledge in a particular area. Intermediate tests are applied, and the attendance rate is considered. The data may be useful to the management of the medical institution for obtaining the comprehensive picture of personnel qualification.
Feelings
The prospect of working with professionals who have a good experience is responsible and exciting. Nevertheless, due to the friendly attitude of nurses and the help of colleagues, the implementation of the program can be considered successful. Moreover, based on personal practice, it is easy for the representatives of the healthcare sector to find a common language, and this factor certainly contributes to productive joint activities.
Evaluation
In accordance with the results of work, the program strategy is successful, and high-performance indicators are proof of good student activity. Pre and post-tests and joint group tasks used for the assessment of current knowledge have justified their relevance and can be used in the future. As Duane and Satre (2014) remark, “students frequently cite collaborative testing as a positive part of their learning experience” (p. 34). Therefore, this method is suitable for the medical setting under consideration.
Analysis
When analysing the results of the work done, it can be noted that its outcomes correspond to the stated goals and allow using the described strategy within ICUs. The challenges arising in the process of interaction may be overcome by appropriate practices and techniques for studying the proposed material. The variables used to analyse the success of the program implementation of the program help to determine all the necessary indicators and find out whether the course meets the expectations of nurses.
Conclusion
Consultations with colleagues will help to determine the quality of the work done and the effectiveness of the teaching strategy. Based on the results of the program, feedback from course participants may be obtained, which can bring additional benefits and develop new educational techniques designed to improve the performance of learning and nurses’ satisfaction. Updating the strategy is permissible, and relevant measures will be taken if necessary.
Action Plan
Further activities may be aimed at finding the alternative ways of working with the nursing staff in emergency departments. Information about the program can be disseminated among colleagues and other stakeholders, which will make it possible to popularise this course of teaching. New resources may be found, for instance, practical manuals on specific topics. Also, a similar program can be drawn up for medical professionals of another profile.
Conclusion
All the aforementioned work steps help to determine an optimal plan for implementing an appropriate teaching strategy for working with the nursing staff in the intensive care unit. Personal philosophy allows determining the course of activities regarding the implementation program. The analysis of the strategy and reflection steps provides an opportunity to study the features of the project comprehensively and draw conclusions regarding its outcomes based on student performance indicators.
References
Duane, B. T., & Satre, M. E. (2014). Utilizing constructivism learning theory in collaborative testing as a creative strategy to promote essential nursing skills. Nurse Education Today, 34(1), 31-34. Web.
Han, P. K., Piccirillo, J., Gutheil, C., Williams, D., Wartak, M. M., Dufault, C.,… Joekes, K. (2016). Development and evaluation of an online risk communication teaching program for medical students. Medical Science Educator, 26(4), 557-567. Web.
Harden, R. M., & Laidlaw, J. M. (2016). Essential skills for a medical teacher: An introduction to teaching and learning in medicine (2nd ed.). St. Louis, MO: Elsevier.
Kalb, K. A., O’Conner-Von, S. K., Brockway, C., Rierson, C. L., & Sendelbach, S. (2015). Evidence-based teaching practice in nursing education: Faculty perspectives and practices. Nursing Education Perspectives, 36(4), 212-219. Web.
Lavoie, P., Michaud, C., Bélisle, M., Boyer, L., Gosselin, É., Grondin, M.,… Pepin, J. (2018). Learning theories and tools for the assessment of core nursing competencies in simulation: A theoretical review. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 74(2), 239-250. Web.
Lum, L., Dowedoff, P., Bradley, P., Kerekes, J., & Valeo, A. (2015). Challenges in oral communication for internationally educated nurses. Journal of Transcultural Nursing, 26(1), 83-91. Web.
Oleson, A., & Hora, M. T. (2014). Teaching the way they were taught? Revisiting the sources of teaching knowledge and the role of prior experience in shaping faculty teaching practices. Higher Education, 68(1), 29-45. Web.
Palis, A. G., & Quiros, P. A. (2014). Adult learning principles and presentation pearls. Middle East African Journal of Ophthalmology, 21(2), 114-122. Web.
Paterson, C., & Chapman, J. (2013). Enhancing skills of critical reflection to evidence learning in professional practice. Physical Therapy in Sport, 14(3), 133-138. Web.
Shin, H., Sok, S., Hyun, K. S., & Kim, M. J. (2015). Competency and an active learning program in undergraduate nursing education. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 71(3), 591-598. Web.
Vizeshfar, F., & Torabizadeh, C. (2018). The effect of teaching based on dominant learning style on nursing students’ academic achievement. Nurse Education in Practice, 28, 103-108. Web.
Waltz, C. F., Jenkins, L. S., & Han, N. (2014). The use and effectiveness of active learning methods in nursing and health professions education: A literature review. Nursing Education Perspectives, 35(6), 392-400. Web.
Teaching special procedural skills like Nasogastric (NG) tube insertion through a lecture/discussion model with practical session is expected to groom advanced providers in intubation. Any health care provider authorized to perform the skill of nasogastric tube insertion will be fully trained in intubation procedure after undergoing this training program, and can groom others as well.
Teaching Objective
“Clinical education is a term denoting the practice of assisting a student to acquire the required knowledge, skills and attitude in practice settings” and “the traditional model and likely the most common technique for procedural instruction is the “see one, do one, teach one” method.” (Rose & Best, 2005. p.3; & Saem medical student educators handbook, (n.d), p.3). It implies that the supervising tutor demonstrates the procedure using proper technique, which is followed and performed by the student under supervision, and finally the student takes on the role of teacher for the next learner. The objective of this teaching module is training nasogastric (NG) tube insertion through a lecture/discussion model with practical session.
Student emergency medical technicians (EMT) certified to perform endotracheal intubation are enrolled in this teaching plan of pre-hospital nasogastric tube insertion. A lecture/discussion model with practical skill session, open question and answer session, and testing of the teaching outcome using a manikin is narrated here. The teaching intention is that on completion of the intubation training program the providers are able to understand the indications and contraindications of placing a NG tube, describe procedure of placing it, and demonstrate their skill using an intubation manikin.
An introduction to nasogastric tube
“A nasogastric tube is a thin, pliable plastic tube that can be inserted into a client’s nose and advanced into the stomach.” Nasogastric intubation is ordered when there is “gastric decompression, gastric lavage, or gastric feeding” (Craven & Himle, 2006, p.1139). Gastric decompression is indicated for a bowel obstruction, and when surgery is performed on the stomach or intestine. Gastric lavage means irrigation of the stomach for swift removal of accidental poisoning or drug overdose. Nasogastric tube insertion helps access stomach, and enables to “drain gastric contents, decompress the stomach, obtain a specimen of the gastric content, or introduce a passage into the GI tract” (Nasogastric tube insertion, removing). Most common types of enteral feeding tubes are wide bore gastric tube like ‘Salem Sump’ tube, fine bore gastric tubes, fine bore jejunal feeding tube, double lumen tubes, and gastrostomy tubes.
Contra indications and complications
“Nasogastric tubes are contraindicated in patients with a fractured base of skull because of the risk of intracranial penetration.” (Types of enteral feeding tubes: Wide bore gastric tubes, 2004). Primary complications of nasogastric insertions include “aspiration and tissue trauma” and can induce gagging or vomiting.” (Nasogastric tube insertion, 2003). Precautions to be taken while NG tube insertion includes: never clamp tube for longer periods; use normal saline for lavage procedures; do not use the vent tube (blue pigtail) for installation or removal of solutions.
The procedure
First assemble all the supplies and equipments required for the procedure, such as: personal protective equipments, appropriate nasogastric tube; water-soluble lubricant, preferably 2% Xylocaine jelly, low powered suction device, clean gloves, stethoscope, adhesive tape, safety pin, pH indicator strips, and glass of water. Wash hands and wear gloves before tube insertion. Identify client and explain the purpose and procedure, for reducing anxiety and to enable therapy acceptance. Help the patient into high Fowler’s position, position the patient upright, with head tilted forward for optimal neck/stomach alignment. Examine nostrils for deformity or obstructions to determine best side for insertion. Inspect NG tube for defects, and determine length of nasogastric tube to be inserted. By measuring the distance of the tube from bridge of nose to the earlobe, then to the xiphistenum total length of the tube can be determined. Mark tube with tape or note the black marking on the tube. Curve end of the tube and lubricate first 2-4 inches of tip (distal tip of tube) with a water soluble lubricant, such as 2% Xylocaine jelly. Vaseline should not be used to lubricate the tube. Gently insert tube along the floor of the nose advancing towards nasopharynx. Once tube is in the nasopharynx the client should be encouraged to swallow the tube, and advance the tube as patient swallows. Care must be taken to ensure that the tube has not passed through the windpipe and down into the lungs. Patient should also be encouraged to breath through mouth while inserting the tube. If the patient shows respiratory changes or coughs, or the tube coils in the mouth the tube should be withdrawn immediately.
On successful passage of tube to the predetermined length, confirm its position inside the stomach. Methods used are by listening to air introduction over the stomach with a stethoscope and checking the aspirate for pH level. By attaching a syringe to the free end of the tube and aspirating sample draw aspirate and check with pH paper to ensure that the contents are acidic. The pH level below 6 confirms that the tube has reached its intended position. The second method is injecting air into the tube and listening over the stomach with a stethoscope. Universal body fluid precaution should be observed to ensure that aspirate does not exceed intake. When difficulty is encountered while aspirating, inject 10cc of air into the blue air inlet to clear it. In case of any doubt about the tube placement, obtain an x-ray before instilling any feeding or medications. Secure the tube with tape to bridge of the nose and anchor it to the client’s gown with tape and a safety pin. Now the patient is ready to introduce medications as needed, and it is essential to occasionally reassess placement. Using a checklist of procedures being performed and documenting the reasons for insertion and allied details ensure that all the insertion parameters have been met. After the lecture session, clear written instruction about suction, aspiration, and recording of observations will be given to the trainees.
Testing skills to assess teaching outcome
Using askillsical airway manikin students’ skill are tested. The examiner shall allow candidates to familiarize with the equipment and clear any doubts before examination. Immediately after narrating examination instructions candidates shall begin the test. Record start time and test time should be five minutes. The grading criteria is based on important stages of tube insertion, like: preparing and assembling of equipments; explaining procedure to the patient; raising head of bed and positioning patients, selecting appropriate tube size; lubricating and curving of tube; caution in inserting the tube; verifying tube placement; applying suction at lowest possible setting; stomach content removal; introducing medication; and securing the tube in place. Standard assessment form containing all these parameters, along with student information and space for documenting comments of examiner will monitor proficiency in inserting nasogastric tube. This module can prepare, train, and test skills of new entrants and make health care delivery more quality oriented and error free.
Many people living in Alamosa, Colorado have prioritized a healthy lifestyle to avoid getting diseases, such as obesity. They live under a special diet and carry out exercises to stay fit. The community needs to be informed and updated on how to avoid getting diseases such as obesity that come with various risk factors, such as heart diseases, osteoarthritis, type 2 diabetes, stroke, cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and sleep apnea. The community should be empowered with knowledge on the causes and effects of obesity on the human body. They should be advised on how to live a healthy lifestyle. This is the only way in which they can stay healthy and avoid getting various diseases that come with obesity. Obesity is also an expensive disease to treat. According to 2008 health statistics conducted in Alamosa, Colorado, an estimated cost of $ 29 billion was spent on medical costs to treat obese people. One-third of the population is obese with the majority being adults (Maurer & Smith 2009). These harsh statistics of those diagnosed with obesity in Alamosa County encourage many people to take control of the situation by teaching people how to live a healthy lifestyle to avoid being obese.
Planned Evaluation of Objectives
To evaluate effectiveness, the people of Alamosa County have to keep track of what they consume daily and ensure that they exercise daily to burn all the unnecessary fats in the body and maintain fitness. They should reduce the consumption of food high in sugars and fats but increase the consumption level of food with fiber (Levy-Navarro 2008). Follow-up calls should be conducted on the clients to ensure that they live a healthy life every single day. They will discuss how important physical exercise and proper dieting are to their health. The client should have excellent knowledge about diet quality and how it can help to reduce cholesterol levels in the body. After every month, the cholesterol level of the clients will be redrawn to check with the previous cholesterol readings. This will show whether the clients are following instructions by maintaining a healthy lifestyle. The clients should keep a record of their daily activities to enable them to save time and be organized. After one month, the activities and the effects that they have on the client’s health and wellness will be discussed (Fumento 1997).
Planned Evaluation of Goal
When the goals have been set, the evaluation process can be conducted to ensure positive results and effectiveness. The Alamosa community should own the program if they want the teaching plan to be successful for the entire society. They should determine how the members of the program can be involved in the lesson. Follow-up calls should be done daily, weekly, monthly, and yearly to evaluate whether the program is successful and to ensure that the clients maintain a healthy lifestyle. The clients should be given a chance to come back to the gyms to exercise after the program ends.
Planned Evaluation of Lesson and Teacher
Self-evaluation is important both for the teacher and the lesson. The evaluation mainly entails an understanding of the lesson. Self-evaluation will enable the teacher to know whether the program is successful or not. Educators will be able to know whether the clients clearly understand the learning objectives, whether they identify the major concepts taught during the lesson, especially physical exercise, and lastly whether their verbal information supplements the visual models by checking on their weight and cholesterol level in the body (Kolata 2007). At the end of the program, the clients can be offered a written evaluation.
References
Fumento, M. (1997). The Fat of the Land: Our Health Crises and How Overweight Americans Can Help Themselves. New York: Penguin Books.
Kolata, G. (2007). Rethinking Thin: The new science of weight loss and the myths and realities of dieting. California: Sage Publications Inc.
Levy-Navarro, E. (2008). The Culture of Obesity in Early and Late Modernity. Palgrave: Macmillan Publishers.
Maurer, F. & Smith, C. (2009). Community/Public health nursing practice: Health for families and populations. St. Louis: Saunders/Elsevier.