Category: Teaching

Introduction

Language is a major element in the development of every human being as it enables one to enhance communication effectively without any problem. The way a child will speak and pronounce certain words mostly depends on the environment he or she is exposed to, as he/she will learn how to communicate fluently from the background he is brought up in. Speaking is a skill that brings out the element of pronunciation; it is production of sound to convey a message. Learning a second language calls for personal commitment and practice to be able to be perfect in it. Most students and pupils tend to rely mostly on the teacher who is taking them through the process of acquiring a particular language. It takes more of personal practice unlike the two Chinese students, Ling and Feng who depended mostly on their teacher to learn English (Bowen & Marks 1992).

Main body

Considering their learning habits we find that attitude is a vital thing when learning something new, Ling had a positive attitude towards English language therefore he learned it easily. Contrary, Feng had a negative one and so it was a difficult learning process for her. Wen in his book insists that a number of avenues should be established in effecting this; apart from the teacher –student relationship, we should also have peer-peer and peer-school relationships. This, and also learning from colleagues, will help a student develop his/her pronunciation and speaking skills. Despite Ling and Feng studying at the same school, but they never thought of establishing an alliance to help one another.

Perfect pronunciation is a key thing in learning to speak a given language because it helps one to speak English with more confidence, notice other people’s mistakes and learn to avoid doing the same, learn the answers to many questions, learn phonetic transcription and lastly speak more clearly and be understood by others. Every learner of English as a second language must bear in mind that the sounds which his or her vocal organs are capable of producing are the material through which language systems are actualized. Another important thing is the use of phonetic symbols in an ESL classroom.

The learner must be able to learn how to produce and discriminate given sound symbols by having increased awareness of second language features, visualization of intangible entities such as sounds and increased autonomy when trying to check for pronunciation in the dictionary. The teacher taking the learners through the process of acquiring use of phonetics must have motivation as this will increase a learner’s interest in learning more of the language. One preliminary aspect in trying to make appropriate use of phonetic notation in the classroom is deciding when to use phonetic symbols. However, an important question to ask is what can be done to use phonetic notation without neglecting any essential language skill and/or component of the language syllabus.

The best strategy is to integrate work on pronunciation features into lessons that focus on other language learning activities what is normally called “Integrated Pronunciation Teaching.” The merit of using this is that: First, it does not treat pronunciation as a separate entity from the process of communication since it does not restrict it to particular lessons; secondly, it can be carried out on a daily basis; and lastly, pronunciation can be practiced by aiming at developing three of the four basic skills of learning, which are, reading, listening and speaking.

Conclusion

Furthermore, the teacher should exploit phonetic notation in a classroom and to give introductory and post-introductory lessons (Liu, 2007). The introductory lessons is the first introduction of students to a set of phonetic symbols while the post-introductory lessons deal with the consolidation of the student’s knowledge and later used it as the basis for different activities. To stress on more acquisition of good speaking and fluent pronunciation, the learners must have thorough practice, which can be well cultured into them by using the language daily. Another approach is through co-curriculum activities such as short dramas and debates in the classroom. This highlights the notable mistakes, which are put down and then discussed by the whole class. The teacher on the other hand has to be act as a role model to develop a positive attitude towards the learning of a second language.

Reference List

Bowen, T. & Marks, J. (1992). The Pronunciation Book: Student-Centered Activities for Pronunciation Work. Burnt Mill: Longman.

Liu, J. (2007). English language teaching in China: new approaches, perspectives and standards. New York, NY: Contnuum.

Introduction

This chapter contains the findings of the survey devoted to the cultural elements of teaching English as a Foreign Language in Libya. The results of the survey’s analysis with the help of SPSS software are offered in the form of tables and graphs. The findings are arranged into five key subtopics that the study intended to explore. Please note that some of the questions allowed choosing several options, which may have led to total numbers of responses that are greater than the sample’s size.

With respect to SPSS, the following facts are noteworthy. The analysis of the surveys involved gathering the results and arranging them into datasets, which were then entered into SPSS and processed. Descriptive statistics were used for all responses; in particular, frequencies of specific answers and their percentages were employed to demonstrate the most popular viewpoints. Furthermore, for some questions, the mean, median, and mode were used to indicate the average value of a specific variable; the three terms refer to the different ways of determining the average of a dataset. In particular, the mean is the typical approach to calculating the average (one which involves adding values and dividing them by their number). The median stands for the “middle” value (one that would appear in the middle of a list of values), and the mode signifies the most frequent value in a dataset.

Moreover, two of the variables of the survey (students’ attitudes to learning cultural aspects and their inclusion in lessons) were tested for a relationship between them with the help of inferential statistical tests. The variables were chosen because the survey intended to determine the relationship between the two phenomena. Finally, most of the responses received some form of graphical representation (for instance, histograms and pie charts). Graphs made the text more illustrative as opposed to the tables which offer more details and require closer attention to decipher.

Demographic Information of the Teachers

The present section aims to describe the sample of the survey and demonstrate the ability of the participants to present expert opinions on the topics of interest. The age, gender, and expertise of the teachers are examined; the latter includes qualifications and experience. The results show that the teachers, who are mostly female and older than 35 years, have the required experience and education to be able to respond to the questions of the survey.

Age

The age of the participants was determined to describe the sample. Question 1 was used for this section; it reads as follows: what is your age?

Table 1. Age of the Teachers: Mean, Median, Mode.

To be able to read table 1, please note that the data was coded. In particular, specific numbers (1, 2, and 3) were used to denote the categories under 25, 25-35, and over 35. The missing values may include the responses that were not provided (skipped), confounding responses (for instance, those that included opposing viewpoints), and, in some cases, technical failures. Table 1 contains no missing values, but they can be found in other tables.

As shown by table 1 above, the mean age of respondents fell in the category older than 35 years (number 3 was used to denote this group). In addition to that, the median age also falls into the same category. This information allows concluding that most of the individuals who participated in the study were older than 35 years.

Table 2. Age of the Teachers: Percentages and Frequency.

From frequency table 2, it can be seen that 9% of the research respondents were under 25 years of age. In addition to that, 30% of them were between 25 and 35 years while 61% of the research participants were above 35 years. The total number of respondents was 100 (see fig. 1).

Gender

The information about gender was also used to characterize the sample. Question 2 was used to that effect, and it reads as follows: what is your gender?

Table 3. Gender of the Teachers: Mean, Median, Mode.

Table 4. Gender of the Teachers: Percentages and Frequency.

Since the majority of the participants are female, the mean and median gender fall in the same category (see table 3). As seen in table 4, 15 of the research participants were male. Therefore, men constituted 15% of the total number of people who agreed to respond to the questionnaire. The remaining 85 respondents were female, which was 85% of the total individuals who took part in the exploration (see fig. 2).

Highest Qualification

The qualifications of the participants directly demonstrate their ability to respond to the survey. Question 3 asked the participants to describe their qualifications; it reads as follows: what is your highest qualification?

Table 5. Qualifications of the Teachers: Mean, Median, Mode.

Table 6. Qualifications of the Teachers: Percentages and Frequency.

Table 5 uses coding for the categories that can be found in table 6. Most of the respondents fell in the category of those with a Bachelor of Arts degree; hence, the mean highest academic qualification was found to fall within this group (see table 5). According to the data that was obtained from the questionnaire, 17% of the participants had acquired an advanced diploma in teaching as their highest academic accomplishment. Apart from that, 64% of them had a Bachelor’s degree in Arts. In addition, two participants (2%) had a Master of Arts degree. The rest of the respondents had attained other levels of education that they did not specify (see table 6 and fig. 3).

Teaching Experience

The teaching experience of the respondents is another characteristic that proves their ability to respond to the survey. Question 4 was used in this section; it reads as follows: how long have you been teaching English?

Table 7. Experience of the Teachers: Percentages.

Table 8. Experience of the Teachers: Percentages and Frequency.

Table 8 uses codes once again. For categories one year or less, two-five years, 6-10 years, and more than 10 years, numbers 1, 2, 3, and 4 were used respectively. As a result, for instance, the category one year or less was labeled as 1. The median and mean of the experience parameter indicate that most participants were experienced: number 3 is used for the experience between six and ten years, and number 4 denotes more than ten years in table 7. As shown in table 8, 6% of the respondents had worked for one year or less in the teaching profession, 8% had worked for a period ranging between two and five years, and 27% of the participants had been in the teaching profession for between six and ten years. The remaining 59% had worked as teachers for more than ten years. Thus, most of the individuals who were chosen to participate in the research were experienced (see fig. 4). This way, it was possible to obtain reliable feedback as they have been staying in the field for a relatively long period of time. Therefore, they can have expert opinions on the process of teaching and, possibly, the challenges faced by both teachers and students with respect to cultural competency.

Teacher’s Perception of Culture and Teaching it

The second section focuses on the ideas, beliefs, and views of the teachers with respect to teaching cultural aspects. This part of the analysis includes multiple questions about the teachers’ perspectives on the importance of including culture in language teaching and the methods of achieving this inclusion.

What A Libyan Textbook Should Include

The first question in this section, (question 7), asks the participants to determine if Libyan textbooks need cultural elements. The question prompts the participants to finish the following sentence: Libyan English syllabus/textbooks should include (…).

Table 9. Question 7: Mean, Median, Mode.

Table 10. Question 7: Percentages and Frequency.

In table 9, number 1 is used to denote the answer which highlights the significance of introducing varied cultural elements in textbooks. It demonstrates that the average respondent views such cultural elements as important. Indeed, 76 of the respondents are of the opinion that English textbooks in Libya should include a mixture of aspects of Arabic/Islamic and English-speaking countries’ culture (see table 10). This figure amounts to 76% of the total responses obtained under this section. 12 of the research respondents suggested that the English textbooks should contain information about the culture of English-speaking countries only, accounting for 12% of the total responses. Only ten research participants felt that textbooks should include exclusively the aspects of the Arabic or Islamic culture, which is equivalent to 10% of the total responses. Notably, two of the answers indicated no reference to any of the cultures that were suggested in the questionnaire (see fig. 5).

Cultures that should be included and learned

Question 8 asks the participants which cultures should specifically be included. It names several cultures (British, American, Libyan, and so on) and offers to rate them to reflect their importance.

British Culture

Table 11. Importance of British Culture: Percentages and Frequency.

When reading table 12 and the following ones, please note that in the cases when total responses are greater than 100, some participants provided several responses, which affected relevant percentages. When asked to rate the importance of learning about British culture to the Libyan education curriculum, 40 of the respondents posited that it was an essential requirement for students and teachers in the country (39.2% of the total responses). Table 11 shows that 31 research participants suggested that it was important for the British culture to be incorporated in the Libyan English curriculum (30.4% of the total responses received).

In addition to that, 11 participants, which means 10.8% of the research respondents, felt that it was not so important to include the British culture in the learning activities of schools in Libya. Five respondents felt that it was not important to incorporate this culture, and five more were of the opinion that there was no need for the inclusion of this culture in the curriculum of the country. Fig. 6 uses numbers to denote the five described groups; number 1 is employed for the people who view the British culture as essential, and number 5 is for those who do not believe that it is needed.

Additionally, English-speaking countries were considered.

Table 12. Importance of English-Speaking Cultures: Percentages and Frequency.

Eight of the research respondents were of the opinion that it was essential for other cultures of English-speaking countries to be incorporated in the Libyan education curriculum (see table 12). This number constituted 8.6% of the responses that were obtained under this section. In addition to that, 28 respondents (30.11%) felt that it was not so important for the cultures of other English-speaking countries to be included in the Libyan curriculum. Eight of them were of the opinion that it was not important at all: in other words, they suggested that it could be included but was not of any significance. Lastly, six research participants (6.45%) noted that there was no need for the inclusion of the cultures of other English-speaking nations in the curriculum of Libya, telling that it should not be used at all. Fig. 7 graphically represents these viewpoints the way fig. 6 does.

American Culture

The American culture was also reviewed in the same section.

Table 13. Importance of American Culture: Percentages and Frequency.

Eleven of the research participants were of the opinion that it is essential to include the American culture in the learning activities of the students in Libya. This number made up 11.83% of the total responses (see table 13). A higher number of 44 (47.31%) respondents felt that it was important to include the American culture, but 24 participants (25.81%) stated that it was not so important to consider the inclusion. Additionally, nine of the teachers (9.68%) posited that it was not important to incorporate this culture, and five more respondents (5.38%) were completely against the inclusion. See fig. 8 to find that the differences between the attitudes to the British and American cultures are rather notable. Overall, the latter appears to be viewed as important while the former seems to be perceived as essential.

Libyan Culture

The same question also required rating the significance of the culture of Libya.

Table 14. Importance of Libyan Culture: Percentages and Frequency.

As shown in the frequency distribution table 14 above, 22% of the people who responded to this prompt felt that it was essential for the books and curriculum of Libya to be predominantly characterized by the Libyan culture. Moreover, 23.8% of them were of the opinion that the inclusion of the country’s culture in the education curriculum was important. Contrary to that, 2.4 % of the research participants felt that it was not so important to include Libyan culture. 1.8% of the participants posited that it was not necessary, and 3.6% felt there was no need for such inclusion (see fig. 9).

International Culture

Additionally, the same question suggested considering international culture, that is, the culture that cannot be viewed as characteristic of a particular country and appears to cross borders. An example is the marriage, which may change its forms but is still present in a variety of countries in the contexts of different beliefs and religions.

Table 15. Importance of International Culture: Percentages and Frequency.

As seen in table 15, 17.9% of the research participants posited that it was essential for the stakeholders of Libya’s education sector to ensure that international culture was included in the country’s curriculum. Another 28.6% of them thought it is important for this intervention to be implemented. On the other hand, 3.6% felt that it was not so important or that was not important to incorporate international culture in the Libyan culture. 1.8% of the respondents felt that it was not necessary. Fig. 10 illustrates these views.

Effects of Teaching the Cultures of English Speaking Countries

Question 11 is used to determine the effect that teaching various aspects of culture has on learners. The prompt was phrased as follows: do you think teaching aspects of the culture of English speaking countries may affect the students’…? Note that the question did not focus on the negative or positive effects; it simply intended to pinpoint the fact of influence.

Table 16. Teaching ESC and Students.

As shown in table 16, 8.9% of the research respondents are of the opinion that when teachers include materials about the cultures of the nations that speak English in their lessons, they impact the religious beliefs of their students. In addition to that, 21.4% of the respondents posited that teaching such cultures would have a significant effect on the learners’ customs. Besides that, 20.8% of the research participants were of the opinion that the kind of attitude that students have towards the Arabic language would be significantly affected by the discussion of the cultures of the countries in which most of the residents are English speakers. In addition to that, 24.8% of the research respondents felt that through the teaching of the cultures of English-speaking nations, the identities and the personalities of the students are affected. Lastly, only 8.3% of the research respondents felt that the teaching of English culture in Libyan classes would have no impact on students (see fig. 11).

Culturally Inappropriate Content

Question 12 prompted the discussion of the cultural appropriateness of the available textbooks. It was phrased as follows: do you feel there is any culturally “inappropriate” content in the textbook you use?

Table 17. Culturally Inappropriate Content.

To this question, 26.8% of the research respondents said that there was no material in the books which was inappropriate. In addition to that, 16.7% of the respondents felt that there was very little content in the reference materials used in classes which was culturally inappropriate (see table 17). On the contrary, 13.1% of the respondents argued that there was a little content which was against the country’s culturally accepted code of behavior. Lastly, 3% of the participants were of the opinion that there was a lot of content in the reference materials which violated what was culturally accepted (see fig. 12).

Aspects of Language that Can be Developed through Culture Teaching

Question 13 was phrased in the following way: which aspects of language teaching can be developed while focusing on English culture in an EFL classroom.

Table 18. Culture and Language Teaching.

Out of the 245 responses that were received from the questionnaire (see table 18), 47 (19.2%) indicated that the grammar section could be developed while focusing on English culture in an EFL classroom. In addition to that, 18% of the responses pointed out the fact that the same was applicable to the reading section. Besides, 27.8% of the feedback focused on the speaking section. In addition to that, 50 responses (20.4%) noted the listening part of the Libyan curriculum. Moreover, 13.9% of the research respondents were in support of the idea that the writing part could be developed while focusing on English culture in an EFL classroom (see fig. 13).

Teaching Cultural Activities

Question 14 inquired about the approaches to teaching culture employed by the respondents. In particular, it was phrased as follows: what do you think is most useful for teaching culture?

Table 19. Tools for Teaching Culture.

Table 19 displays the data that was gathered on teaching cultural activities; the first row indicates the number of valid responses while the mean, median, and mode demonstrate the answers themselves on a scale ranging from “least useful” (1) to “most useful” (5). The mean for Libyan English textbooks was 3.95 with a median of 5 and mode of 5. Hence, most of the respondents rated the use of English textbooks as useful (see fig. 14). The use of the Internet was also regarded as most important, followed by literature (see fig. 16) and other media (see fig. 17). Activities such as discussions (see fig. 18) and music (see fig. 19) were not described as most important. It is noteworthy that for the latter, the opinions were polarized. The graphs below illustrate the information.

Please note that the graphs do not use the means to describe the categories. Instead, the figures which indicate the general number of responses (that is, their frequencies) are employed.

Cultural Activities

Question 15 asked the participants to consider different aspects of culture. It was phrased as follows: in your opinion, what are the most important aspects of culture that should be emphasized?

Table 20. Aspects of Culture to be Emphasized.

Table 21. Aspects of Culture to be Emphasized (Continued).

Table 20 and table 21 represent an analysis of the data that was gathered on cultural aspects. Table 20 shows that the only topic which was regarded as not important was political issues. All the other aspects had a mean close to 4, a median of 4, and a mode of 4. This pattern indicates that these topics were regarded as important by all respondents. The graphs below (fig. 20-33) represent the data gathered from respondents in greater detail. Again, they use frequencies to illustrate the responses rather than the average numbers.

Statements about Cultural Education

The questionnaire intended to determine the teacher’s ideas and beliefs about English language and culture teaching. Question 16 presented the participants with multiple statements that can be seen in table 22, table 23, and table 24 below. The question reads: please tick √ the number to the right that most appropriately answers how much you agree with the following statements. The answers (from strongly disagree to strongly agree) were labelled with numbers from 1 to 5, which were used to determine the average of the responses. Also, number 6 was employed to label the missing data. The answers would not be expected to amount to 100 in all situations because of the mistakes that were encountered for some statements (cases in which participants responded to one question twice).

Table 22. Teachers’ Statements.

Table 23. Teachers’ Statements (Continued).

Table 24. Teachers’ Statements (Continued).

The three tables above represent the responses of the participants on various statements, and the graphs below (fig. 34-54) illustrate them. The scales in the graphs might change in their numbers (showing 0-40, 0-30, and 0-50 frequencies) depending on the maximum frequency of responses within a specific set. With some questions, the respondents showed substantial disagreement. Such statements included the ideas that “learning the language is enough” (fig. 34) and that “ESL teachers should only teach language, not culture” (fig. 43), the attitudes towards textbooks (fig. 35), and the knowledge of cultures (fig. 49). The teachers generally agreed and strongly agreed with all other statements.

Additionally, the teachers seem to be particularly uncertain about the motivation of their students to develop intercultural competence (fig. 45). This tendency might be connected to teachers being reluctant to make direct statements about other people’s perspectives. Also, a number of teachers (25) are not certain that they make sure to include the information about English-speaking countries in their lesson plans (fig. 50). Furthermore, a rather high variety of responses is shown for the following question: “I feel uncomfortable when a question is asked about the culture of English-speaking countries” (fig. 49). A total of 32 respondents disagree or strongly disagree, but 22 are uncertain, and 35 agree or strongly agree. These responses might indicate the need of teachers for more training on the topic or other interventions that would equip them with the necessary knowledge.

Teachers’ Experiences

This is the third section of the survey, which focuses on the experiences of teachers. The responses produced some information about the conferences that the respondents had visited, their traveling, and the integration of culture-related discussions that they managed to perform. The first and second topics can demonstrate the teachers’ competencies and opportunities for development, and the third one is important for the future statistical analysis.

Question 5 considered the teachers’ experiences of traveling. It was phrased as follows: have you ever traveled to a non- English-speaking country where you used English for communication? The pie chart seems to be an appropriate graph for this question because it is better than histograms at comparing the two groups of responses to their total number.

Table 25. Traveling Experiences.

Table 25 and fig. 55 show that most of the respondents (66 of them) did not have a chance to travel to non-English-speaking countries and practice English there. However, some of them did, and they were asked to specify the regions that they had visited.

Table 26. Detailed Traveling Experiences.

As can be seen from table 26 and fig. 56, some of the participants visited several regions, which is why their total is greater than 34; the percentages were counted with respect to the whole sample (100 people). However, many of the participants (25%) visited European countries, 12% of them traveled to Asian countries, and 8% practiced English while in Africa (see fig.).

Additionally, the participants were inquired about their experience of visiting English-speaking countries. Only 18% of the respondents confirmed visiting an English-speaking country as shown by table 27 and fig. 57. It appears that the teachers from the sample are more likely to visit non-English-speaking regions.

Furthermore, the participants specified the countries that they visited; mostly, they named the UK (10 people). Three more people came to the US, two people traveled to Canada, and Australia and Ireland were visited by one person each. Also, two people visited two countries each; one of them came to the UK and Ireland, and one traveled to the UK and US (see table 28 and fig. 58).

Question 17 was phrased as follows: have you attended any conferences, workshops, symposiums or courses on teaching English-speaking countries culture?

Table 29. Teachers and Conferences: Frequency and Percentages.

Out of the 100 responses that were obtained for this exploration, 21% indicated that respondents had attended a seminar or a symposium with a focus on improving the extent to which the culture of English-speaking countries was included in the Libyan curriculum (see table 29). The remaining 79% individuals indicated that they had never received an opportunity to attend similar meetings (see fig. 59).

Question 10 also focused on teachers’ experiences and was phrased as follows: do you discuss culture-related issues with your students?

Table 30. Teachers Discussing Culture-Related Issues with Students.

As shown in table 30, 14% of the research participants indicated that they often talk to students about issues related to culture while 60% of them gave an indication that they sometimes include cultural topics in their classroom discussions. On the other hand, 23% of the respondents posited that they rarely include issues related to the culture of the students and that of the people around them in their discussions. Lastly, 1% of the teachers said that they have not attempted to include culturally relevant materials in their lesson plans (see fig. 60).

The Attitude of the Students towards Culture and How it Affects their Learning

The fourth part of the survey analysis is focused on students. While the questions were responded to by teachers, their perceptions of learners’ motivation and attitudes towards the cultural aspects of learning can prove to be important. As a result, the previous question is also of importance to the present section, but it mostly consists of question 9, which was phrased as follows: are your students interested in learning the culture of English speaking countries?

Table 31. Students’ Interest in Learning Cultures.

Table 31 and fig. 61 show that 44% of the respondents believe that their learners are interested in learning about cultures, and only 11 of them do not think so. However, 43% of respondents also think that the learners’ interest in various cultures is not great, and 2% of them are not sure about their view. The results of this question, as well as the previous one, were treated like as the independent and dependent variable (see table 30) in order to determine the effects that students’ interest in cultural studies can have on the frequency of discussions related to culture that are initiated by the teachers.

Table 32. Variables of the Analysis.

Table 33. Model Summary.

For the task, the analysis of variance or ANOVA was employed. It can be defined as a set of frequently used statistical models that generally target the differences and similarities in the mean values of groups, thus testing their statistical significance (Hanneman et al., 2013, 338-340; Raykov and Marcoulides, 2013, 269). In turn, regression analysis is used to “relate a continuous (quantitative) explanatory variable to a continuous response variable” (Raykov and Marcoulides, 2013, 291).

Table 32 presents the variables of the analysis, and table 33 is the summary of the model, which offers the key information about it as determined by SPSS. From the data provided in the model summary (see table 33), it can be stated that the correlation coefficient of the relationship is 0.699. Furthermore, the results of ANOVA are presented in table 34 with table 35 describing coefficients and table 36 focusing on residual statistics (which are the parameters that are used to check the model) (Raykov and Marcoulides, 2013, 244). The tables include the SPSS data about variables and predictors as well. The analysis is also displayed in fig. 62 and 63; the latter presents a scatterplot of residual statistics to determine their distribution. The results imply that there is a positive relationship between the independent and dependent variable. In other words, there is a positive correlation between the willingness of the learner to learn material which is related to the English culture and the frequency with which their teacher introduces such materials. Thus, it is prudent to conclude that the more willing the learners are, the higher are the chances that the instructor will include materials that are culturally relevant in their lessons as indicated by the analysis.

Table 34. ANOVA Results.

Table 35. Coefficients.

Table 36. Residual Statistics.

Cultural Competence

The final part of the survey analysis covers question 6, which has some sub-questions that are aimed at examining the textbooks that are available for the use of the respondents. The question itself was phrased as follows: do Libyan English textbooks contain any cultural content related to English-speaking countries?

Table 37. Cultural Content in English Textbooks.

55% of the respondents said that Libyan textbooks contained materials which addressed their culture and English-speaking ones (see table 37). However, the remaining 35.5% reported the opposite (see fig. 64).

Sections of the Textbooks which Contain Culturally Relevant Material

Question 6 also has an additional prompt aimed to gain more insights into the presence of cultural elements in textbooks. It is phrased as follows: if you answered “yes” what are they?

Table 38. Cultural Content in English Textbooks (Continued).

As can be seen from table 38 and fig. 65, 24% pointed to the fact that textbooks contained the materials which covered history and geography. In addition to that, 28% of the responses indicated that textbooks considered literature and arts. Moreover, 8.7% of the feedback suggested that there were textbooks which taught learners about values and beliefs. Notably, 0.7% of the responses indicate that there are textbooks which are dedicated to addressing cultural issues. Additionally, 2.7% of the feedback says that textbooks refer to the matters of religion. Furthermore, 24% of the responses state that textbooks contain some information about sports. Lastly, 0.7% of the feedback indicated that textbooks could include culturally relevant content from other fields.

Summary

The analysis of the survey devoted to the topic of culture in teaching was carried out with the help of statistical software SPSS, which allowed employing descriptive and inferential statistics and producing graphs to illustrate responses. Five key areas were covered, and they included demographics, teachers’ perceptions (ideas and beliefs), teachers’ experiences, students’ attitudes towards the cultural elements of teaching, and cultural competence. The final section focuses on the available textbooks and their content.

The demographics allow demonstrating that the respondents can present an expert opinion on the topic, which implies that their beliefs and experiences, as well as accounts of the available resources, are important to consider. The analysis allows determining that an average teacher tends to value the cultural components of teaching and suggests using specific strategies and tools to ensure their integration into lessons. Furthermore, the statistical analysis has found that the perceived interest of the students in culture affects teachers’ willingness to incorporate cultural elements and relevant discussions into lessons.

Bibliography

Hanneman, Robert A., et al. Basic Statistics for Social Research. John Wiley & Sons, 2013.

Raykov, Tenko, and George A. Marcoulides. Basic Statistics. Rowman & Littlefield, 2013.

According to the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, no state may “deprive a person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law.” (Alexander and Alexander, 2005, p. 435) This clause refers to public schools and does not provide sufficient procedural requirements that each public school should satisfy while dismissing a teacher.

Specifically, the due process does not explain why a teacher should be dismissed but provides the procedures that should be followed by a school to dismiss a teacher. The clause due process, therefore, is not relevant to use because it does not provide a sufficient basis for protecting teacher’s rights.

The provisions presented in the Fourteenth Amendment are not congruent with those provided by the state of Texas. In this regard, Walsh, Kemerer, and Laurie (2010) state that a teacher must at least “be advised of the cause or cause of the termination in sufficient detail to fairly enable him or her to show any error that may exist…” and “be given an opportunity for a hearing before a tribunal that both possesses some academic expertise and has an apparent impartiality toward the charges” (p. 139).

In this regard, the Texas school board plans to organize an independent hearing system for teacher’s fair dismissal, which would embrace all elements of the due process required by the courts. From the statements above, it can be explicitly seen that dismissal regulations in Texas are much more consistent and specific as compared with the Fourteenth Amendment.

Over the last century in California alone, more than 17 school shootings have been recorded between 1990 and 2018 (Lott, 2013). Although the incidences of shooting are isolated and rare, it is almost impossible to predict or prevent them from happening. Arguments supporting and against the armament of teachers in the US are examined from the functionalist, conflict, feminist, and interactionist perspectives.

Arguments for and Against Arming Teachers

Proponents of arming teachers argue that allowing staff to defend themselves would lead to protecting students. The rationale for this argument is that only an armed defender can stop an equally armed attacker (Lott, 2013). Therefore, from a functionalist perspective, teachers should be engaged in arms training and allowed to come with their concealed firearms in school. This is a precautionary measure against a potential attack. Since the American society is interconnected, arming teachers may harmonize the security needs for the benefit of the students by maintaining a social equilibrium (Proulx, 2018). In this case, teachers will have full control of the school shootings by responding in equal measure.

From a conflict perspective, proponents of arming teachers argue that it is a bad idea to stop teachers from carrying concealed guns to school. This argument is supported by the fact that the law does not prevent other executives, politicians, lawyers, and other professions from defending their lives (Lott, 2013). Disallowing teachers to carry guns to school has resulted in a conflict of interests since educators feel that the lives of all people within the educational environment are equally important. Therefore, allowing trained teachers to carry concealed weapons inside a school is an effective short-term remedy to unpredictable shooting situations.

The interactionist viewpoint presents an argument to justify legislation in place as making schools safe. This perspective confers that armed response to school shootings would improve safety and send a strong message to potential perpetrators of a quick counter-response (Proulx, 2018). Therefore, deaths from shooting incidences might be reduced by a significant number. The interactionists believe that an armed teacher is in a better position to survey a situation and quickly respond due to mastery of the school environment.

Opponents of arming teachers have argued that this action would be a distraction since the primary role of teachers is to teach. The role of protecting students in schools is not a function of the teaching staff, but the government security institutions (Lott, 2013). For instance, from the conflict perspective, arming teachers might open a door for constant conflict in role execution for the educators. Moreover, it might not be easy to track weaponry usage in the school environment. For instance, the Ohio Federation of Teachers’ president was quoted lamenting that gun training “places an unfair burden on teachers” (Proulx, 2018, par. 4).

The feminist perspective has presented mixed reactions to arming teachers in school. Despite the common view in support of regulated arming, this perspective notes that this strategy should be used only as a backup to a more secure school environment. For instance, adjusting government initiatives such as the installation of door buzzers, cameras, and hiring more guards might give better results (Lott, 2013). Moreover, the unregulated arming of teaching increases the exposure of female students to harassment by male teachers.

Conclusion

Different perspectives support the regulated armament of school teachers to make the educational environment safe. However, this should be a backup plan for other safety regulations and policies.

References

Lott, J. R. (2013). More guns, less crime: Understanding crime and gun control laws (3rd ed.). Illinois, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Proulx, N. (2018). Should teachers be armed with guns? The New York Times. Web.

Writing that is done to complete a task or complete a purpose is known as transactional writing. This involves educating others or persuading a group of individuals to do a specific action or, at the very least, to grasp a notion or idea. Transactional writing texts are produced by reacting or attempting to start a conversation. It has become one of the most sought-after skills one may learn in school. This is because it is widely used in several fields throughout the world. Among them, the workplace and bureaucracies are foremost. In sixth grade, critical and creative thinking lessons are intended to inspire more advanced levels of transactional and non-transactional creative and critical writing. Young learners with gifted potential can also be found and developed with these teachings. Practicing transactional writing in school is crucial since children will use it naturally throughout their lives. Therefore, the essay discusses and critiques various forms of transactional writing and strategies to promote creative and critical writing among grade six children in South Africa.

Transactional writing forms include writing a formal or informal letter. The goal of informal letters is to maintain an existing relationship. They have varying structures and purposes depending on the reason they were written. This involves, among other things, catching up on the news and expressing happiness or sorrow for someone. It could also include writing that reads like a personal account. For example, a condolence letter is written far more officially than these messages, which may have some casual presentation. A formal letter may be sent for various reasons, such as a job application, complaint, or request. It includes the salutation, writer’s address, date, and recipient’s address. The purpose determines the message’s structure. A letter to the media is an excellent example. Closure and a signature are included. Regarding its linguistic characteristics, it is often formal in tone, and also different linguistic traditions are employed, such as Dear Sir, Madam, and Yours Sincerely. In general, it gets to the point and is concise and straightforward.

An obituary is a form of transactional writing in which the content memorializes the deceased or tells others of their passing. According to Rosenblatt (2018), the full name, date of death, location of death, date of birth, place of birth, names of the primary survivors like spouse and children, and the time and date of the funeral are among other contents. The reason for death, personal details, and information about memorial tributes are some more items that might be mentioned. The language has a formal feature style because of the mood at that particular moment. It is acceptable to use euphemisms, such as passed on rather than died. It is always written precisely, unbiased, concisely, and detailedly. Other linguistic standards are used, such as “In place of flowers, gifts may be donated to,” as a result of the occasion.

A transactional text can be written regarding offering guidance to someone to provide such information (Rosenblatt, 2018). In this case, a chronological sequence is crucial. There must be some approximate distance in it. The traveler may use this information to help with planning and to get an idea of what to budget for in terms of fuel costs and other incidentals. Important roadside landmarks should be included. It mainly uses the imperative form in the language feature. The sentences are concise, unambiguous, and direct from procedures that go as far as explaining and advising how something should be done utilizing a sequence of stages. Clearly stating what is to be accomplished is the aim. How to make a cake may be used as an example. The required supplies and tools must be provided in the correct order.

Posts, notifications, and advertisements make up another category of transactional writing. They try to convince the reader to make a purchase or use a particular service. They can be delivered in several ways. They employ logos and catchphrases and are often created employing a substantial amount of design and much artistic labor in visual art pieces (Rosenblatt, 2018). The advertisements are created in a way that makes them stand out, stick in one’s mind, and are unforgettable. Metaphors, figurative language, alliteration, rhyme, poetic techniques, and rhythm are the linguistic characteristics at play. The length of the adverts should not be excessive to avoid losing the reader’s interest before the actual content is delivered.

On the other hand, the following strategies are used by the advanced academic resource instructor and regular classroom instructors across all subject areas and grade levels, but notably in grade six. To promote creative and critical writing among grade six students, the instructor should use visualization as a strategy. With both spoken and written language, this strategy encourages students’ imaginations while opening up their thinking to creativity (Koutsoftas, 2018). Students may benefit from using visualization to prepare for an encounter. Students can see roadblocks and issues before they experience them. Setting goals, organizing oneself, and planning are all aided by this approach. According to research, visualization significantly improves both the level and the depth of verbal and written word knowledge. A child may create objectives, imagine the actions that need to be taken, think about options, and picture a plan to reach those goals using visualization.

Additionally, students who use mind mapping as a visual note-taking technique can organize their material in distinct ways. According to Koutsoftas, (2018), all learners should utilize it since it aids in information retention, memory, and recall. Students benefit from viewing the big picture at once and linking concepts without being distracted. Students need this crucial ability as they work with more material in the curriculum areas. Visual students who like creating connections between concepts should pay particular attention to this talent. Mind mapping with younger learners is more delightful; you may each write a word or draw a circle in the center of the sheet. Draw fresh circles and lines to thoughts, words, or images related to the first term. Consider the possibility that a learner has an interest in space. Together, one might make a mental map of all they already know regarding space, adding questions consequently.

Asking questions is a trait of active learners that induces critical and creative writing. Learners responsible for coming up with their questions are more active learners who produce more. Writing critically about our learning processes is known as metacognition. By creating, carrying out, and assessing action plans, this type of questioning aids in issue-solving while improving creativity (Laing, 2014). All students may be empowered, become more independent, and reach their full potential by being guided in developing writing skills. Grade six learners are constantly full of questions and should be encouraged to work with them to find solutions.

Consequently, students are better able to build innovative or creative connections between concepts when they can generate ideas, combine ideas in fresh ways or generate unique ideas, then classify and develop their thoughts. The ability to generate several ideas without prior judgment should become second nature to students. Suspending judgment is a crucial step in brainstorming and keeping an open mind. Generating ideas and classifying them allow students’ minds to evaluate a wide range of options while creativity and elaboration push the boundaries of their thought processes. This strategy is helpful in creative and critical writing for learners, for instance, when generating ideas for a family trip.

Teachers may help the learners connect on a more sophisticated level by using analogies. Using this strategy, students can make fresh analogies and connect the content to previously understood ideas. Students skilled at using analogies have a framework for coming up with original ideas, seeing complicated linkages, and drawing unorthodox similarities. They engage the imagination and help pupils reach deeper understandings that help them become creative in writing.

In conclusion, any transactional writing should be thoroughly prepared for by teachers, who should find the time to do so. When teachers do not have enough time to prepare a transactional writing exercise, they frequently fall back on merely handing essays in the classroom. This is one method they manage to put students at a little disadvantage in their attempt to master this crucial ability. In addition, the discussed strategies offer crucial techniques teachers may use to identify and foster creative and critical writing in all learners. To succeed wherever they go in the world, learners should be taught how to write in both social and business styles. It may occur in a classroom, a social situation, or one of their future employment. The acquired knowledge becomes a lifelong asset that aids in their intended achievement.

Reference List

Koutsoftas, A. D. (2018). Writing-process products of fourth-and sixth-grade children: A descriptive study. The Elementary School Journal, 118(4), 632-653.

Laing, H. (2014). An atmosphere of possibility: teaching creative writing. Literacy Learning: The Middle Years, 22(1), 23-30.

Rosenblatt, L. M. (2018). The transactional theory of reading and writing. In Theoretical models and processes of literacy (pp. 451-479). Routledge.

Identifying Communicative Task Criteria

The first selected activity is the creation of a list of interesting places that can be found in a city and neighborhood for a friend to visit them with a pupil. The main goal of the given activity is to use the new vocabulary that is learned regarding the particular topic, master communication skills, and promote the ability to use these words in dialogues of various communicational situations. The given activity can be used during the application and extension phase for learners to perform targeted goals and tasks. It also meets the criteria of a well-constructed communicative task as it is a meaningful and contextualized exercise (Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2013). It is focused on the improvement of skills regarding a particular context and vocabulary.

Another activity is making arrangements for the arrival of foreign exchange students which also implies reading their messages and create a plan of action. The main goal of this task is to ensure the improved understanding of new words, to develop the ability to use them while constructing texts, cultivate working in groups, and presentation skills. It can be a part of the assimilation phase as the teacher should control some activities and monitor if the task and vocabulary are clear for learners, and they can engage in the group work. It is a contextualized sort of work with multiple options for choosing which provides students with more opportunities for the development of their language skills.

The given tasks can also be adopted to achieve various goals while working with students; however, it is critical to consider the current demands for students and classes. For instance, the second activity can be changed by eliminating the phase with reading messages; instead, students can create their presentations using the offered vocabulary or contexts. It will have to reduce the time and achieve better effectiveness while mastering a certain vocabulary.

Understanding Instructional Sequencing

Regarding the existing demands to the organization of dialogues, the following sequence can be suggested:

1. Play the dialogue on the tape.
2. Explain unknown words.
3. Read the dialogue out loud while students are listening.
4. Read each line out loud, having students to repeat each line.
5. Ask the students about words they do not understand.
6. Present comprehension questions.
7. Play the dialogue on the tape again.
8. Ask students to respond to the questions.

The given order of tasks is selected because of several reasons. First of all, playing the dialogue at the beginning of the exercise will help to create the appropriate language environment and demonstrate students how to pronounce words appropriately and sound lively. The explanation of new words is critical as it will help to achieve appropriate levels of comprehension and introduce new units that should be learned.

Reading by the teacher will help to eliminate misunderstandings or problems if some of the learners were not able to acquire information while listening. It is also critical that students should repeat the dialogue after the teacher to learn how to pronounce all words. Finally, comprehension questions should be asked for a teacher to monitor the current situation and determine if the presented material is clear for learners. Only having performed all these activities, it is possible to play the dialogue again and then ask students to answer all questions related to the dialogue. Observing this sequence, an educator will be able to achieve success while presenting new vocabulary and integrating it with various communicational situations.

Reference

Larsen-Freeman, D., & Anderson, M. (2013). Techniques and principles in language teaching (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

The research questions of the study

The study by Judith Olmsted Gary is concerned with an approach in teaching second languages that have been described by preceding research as profoundly effective. The approach is constituted by assessing the learners’ needs in terms of speaking: it is stated that they are in no need of speaking if they are not comfortable with it. The approach is dubbed “delayed oral practice” (Gary, 1976, p. 2). The author provides a rationale for this approach, argues for its efficiency as opposed to conventional audio-verbal practices, and advocates for further experiments that might adjust this approach for effective implementation. The question which the author deals with in her investigation is whether delayed oral practice and physical response positively affect children’s comprehension.

Description of the population investigated

The author asserts that no experimentation was conducted that would involve children in a delayed oral practice teaching mode. To support her point, the author investigates 50 lower elementary school children. All the participants had Spanish as their second language and were randomly allocated to be later distributed into the groups. At that, the experimental group was assigned to delayed oral practice for 14 weeks. Further, they were transitioned into a 7-week follow-up period of partially delayed practice.

Methods or research design used

To divide the subjects into groups, the random allocation method is used. The method ensures the absence of bias when distributing the participants. In her experimental study, the author uses a randomized control trial design which is believed to be a gold standard of experimental research. The participants were assigned intervention for a total period of 21 weeks.

Findings

The experimental group that was undergoing delayed oral practice were found to develop better comprehension skills than the rest of the control group. Considering that they were not speaking, the statistical group results were out of reach. Upon individual testing, however, the experimental group has shown better speaking capabilities. The more so, the control group has shown poor performance both in the mid-term tests and the final examination. At the same time, the experimental group’s results were on a steady increase.

Practical and pedagogical implications

Such an approach has been proved effective by some other studies. The possibilities of using it are plentiful. Delayed oral practice is sufficient in the adequate assessment of the learners’ needs and individualizing learning. For instance, the use of digital information sources can help the students set their own pace while being instructed. Given that they are not forced to speak instantaneously, they can play and replay the materials to ensure maximum understanding.

Response to the study

Albeit the date of publication, this study appears relevant to-date. Such an approach is useful, as the author has pointed out, with all age groups, and especially at the beginner’s stage. It can be assumed that the efficacy of delayed oral practice has to deal with logic. Indeed, drilling pronunciation at the very first stage can hardly be considered effective, given that the alternative is to give the learners the possibility to learn and comprehend without forcing an immediate response. As I recollect my own language learning experience, the forced responses in the language that was, as yet, unfamiliar were quite stressful. Thus, empirically speaking, the delayed practice method appears to be effective in terms of the learners’ psychology. The functional advantages of this method are not to be underestimated, although more precise assumptions would require more extensive reading.

References

Gary, J. O. (1976). Why Speak If You Don’t Need To? The Case for a Listening Approach to Beginning Foreign Language Learning. In Second Language Learning and Teaching: Proceedings of a conference held 16-18 July 1976 at SUNY, Oswego, New York (pp. 2-24). Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press.

Introduction

What is phonology and why is it important in communication between people?

Phonology is not the study of phonemes and articulation only.

Phonology is a successful combination of intonation studies that includes such concepts as pronunciation, rhythm, stress, key, tones, and pitches.

The purpose of this presentation is to explain why phonology is important in human communication. It is not enough to give definitions and examples. It is required to make people participate in phonology and phonetics studies and understand the importance of each concept in this field, which are Pronunciation, Rhythm, Stress and Prominence, Intonation, Tones, Key, Pitch. Native speakers and ESL speakers demonstrate different ways of speaking, and the task is to be prepared for changes and accept them in a proper way. This discourse analysis is devoted to phonology and its place in human life.

Pronunciation

• “Good morning” – “Good evening”
• Where do you hear sound “b”?
• How many sounds in words “plug”, “pie”, and “heat”.

Pronunciation is the ability to segment different sounds of language into certain discrete items, which are also known as phonemes.

It helps to determine the meaning of words or may confuse speakers and promote poor understanding of each other. People should learn how to deal with jawbreakers in order not to tie their tongues in knots.

Several simple activities to understand how important pronunciation is. In phrases “Good morning” – “Good evening”, there are no letter “b”. Still, you can hear it while pronouncing one of them. Which one? “Good morning” – when “d” precedes a bilabial “m”.

The number of letters is not always equal the number of sounds. Check this out pronouncing such words as “plug”, “pie”, and “heat” and count the number of sounds. Plug – 4 letters and 4 sounds; Pie – 3 letters and 4 sounds; Heat – 4 letters and 3 sounds.

Rhythm

Rhythm in English:

1. Rhythmicality;
2. Stress-timed language.

Rhythm is a regulation of sounds that promotes certain characteristics which differ in languages. It is a crucial element in the teaching of spoken English. There are two main factors that help to consider rhythm as a significant element of education:

1. English is characterised by rhythmicality that varies in different stretches of speech.
2. English is a stress-timed language.

To understand the presence of rhythm, try to read the following sentences and clarify where strong and weak “beats” occur and why?

Stress and prominence

Stress: Degree of force in syllable production.

Prominence: Syllables which are found out in the flow of talk due to the necessity to utter them.

Interactive choice is appropriate

Stress and prominence cannot be neglected in speaking. People should understand how to underline the importance of one letter or sound, and when it is necessary to utter something. However, theory is not enough for understanding these concepts. Stress and prominence have to be practiced a lot. Though the last element of word or phrase should usually be uttered, there are the situations when different parts may be stressed. When people investigate stress and prominence, they prefer to use interactive choice.

• Stress: Occasional. Pedestrian. Electronic.
• Prominence: Mediterranean climate, Satisfactory results, Independent girl.

Intonation

• Intonation determines the meaning of a message.
• It helps to differentiate sarcasm, teasing, or surprise.

Intonation is a useful tool for communication because it helps to determine the message and comprehend its quality and possible impact. People know that the way they speak to each other may change the direction in a short period of time and establish a new attitude. People’s phrases may be full of sarcasm, surprise, or teasing. Intonation aims at identifying those.

There are many intonational units, which are also known as tone units or tone groups. These groups create a strong basis for the analysis of conversation.

Look at the phrases and try to develop the situations when the same words may gain different meanings:

• Finally, you’ve come! – expectation, disappointment, hope.
• I cannot understand you at all. – ask for help, frustration, anger.
• Just observe what he is doing! – admiration, wonder, surprise.

Tones

Tone is a type of intonation with a certain grammatical function.

Types of tones:

• Where can I find Tom?
• Do you see him?
• Would you like to date him?
• Are you angry?
• I like to have it.

Tones are used to express emotions, attitudes, moods alongside with non-verbal behaviuor, lexis, and intonation/

Tone is the way people say something. It is possible to sound neutral and stick to a level tone where no emotions or attitudes are express. In interrogative or exclamatory sentences, tone may gain different directions from fall or fall-rise to rise or rise-fall. The choice of tone is the possibility to share a mood or an attitude to something. In other words, intonation gains a grammatical function. Though certain pedagogical complications occur while studying and explaining tones, the role of emotions in such interactive approach cannot be neglected.

Key

A relative level of pitch that can move from one utterance to another and jump upwards to provide a phrase with a meaning.

Types of keys:

• HIGH – Do you trust that man in here?
• LOW – I do not trust that man but myself.
• MID – That is a good answer.

Key is a significant phonological unit that helps to create strong sentences and exchange thoughts in a clear way. They can be changed and be interchangeable in regards to the intentions of speakers. There are three types of key that may be used in speeches:

• High keys promote initiation, expectation, or surprise that cannot be predicted or causes wonder.
• Low keys show an ending of thought, a statement of fact, or a clarification of an idea.
• Mid keys are used in the middle of the average of pitch range and prove that a process is ongoing.

Pitch

Four Rules of Pitch in Speaking:

1. Pitch-level choices matter in communication.
2. Concord in pitch is the phenomenon in phonology.
3. Speaker’s choice cannot be neglected.
4. Participants may change roles in communication.

There are four main rules about pitch and its levels that have to be remembered by speakers:

1. Pitch-level choices matter in communication – Speakers can deliver their messages faster in case they choose an appropriate level of pitch.
2. Concord in pitch is the phenomenon in phonology – In one phrase, there can be one-level pitch or several levels to prove the intentions of a speaker.
3. Speaker’s choice cannot be neglected – There are no specific rules on how to make a choice of a pitch level. A speaker is the one who makes this decision.
4. Participants may change roles in communication – There is no person who should follow speeches and determine mistakes. Speakers are independent participants who are free to change their roles and improve communication.

Language testing stands for the identification of the level of a learner’s preparation to use their language skills and knowledge in real life situations and environments. Testing is an essential part of teaching a language and should not be viewed as a separate activity.

Since the result is crucial in teaching, an educator is to be able to measure the performance of the learners, their improvements, strengths and weaknesses and this is where testing is necessary. Testing and teaching can be seen as two sides of one coin (Widyantoro, 2013). The relationship between teaching and testing can be described as mutual support because neither of the two processes can exist without the other.

Test results determine whether teaching actually happened and how well the learners have processed and mastered the new knowledge and skills. Testing is a very important aspect of any foreign language teaching program that has an impact on other program components. This paper aims to demonstrate this impact and how it should be considered by test makers in designing and developing their tests.

Purpose and Objectives Factor

Teaching is an activity that can be viewed as a process with only one direction – positive. This means that negative teaching does not exist simply because negative teaching is absence of teaching and knowledge acquisition by the learner. In other words, teaching as an activity implies the presence of positive results.

Testing is a part of teaching that helps to determine whether or not the results are present and whether or not they match the teacher’s expectations. This way, testing can be viewed as a marker that serves as the basis for a variety of important decisions of a teacher (Widyantoro, 2013). Test results are not only designed to help the teacher evaluate the progress of their learners, but also to evaluate their own performance.

For example, based on testing results a teacher makes decisions about the materials they employ, methods and techniques they implement, the way they interact with the learners. A large variety of tests is available to the modern teachers, tests of different types can be held during the learning process in order to address different needs of a teacher and their students.

A teacher selects particular types of tests based on the aspects they need to evaluate for the further decision-making. For example, diagnostic tests are held when a teacher needs to determine progress made by their students over a certain period of time. Tests of this type are normally performed in the end of a unit to test how well the students mastered the material.

Another example is the use of placement tests which represent a category of diagnostic tests. These tests are conducted when a teacher needs to make a decision concerning the placement of the students in terms of the materials studied within a particular curriculum. The purpose of these tests is to save effort and time to both learners and educators and avoid going through the same material twice.

The choice of the types of tests conducted by an educator is determined by the learning objectives of their program and can be characterised by the outcomes an educator expects to achieve.

Learning outcomes are divided into three categories or domains – cognitive (includes intellectual skills), affective (incorporates motivation, values, attitudes, desire to participate), and psychomotor (focuses on smoothly and accurately performed motor activities) (Vinson, n. d.).

Tests covering cognitive domain are to be oriented at the evaluation of intellectual skills such as memorising, self-check, synthesis and analysis, summarising and discussion. Such tests may be held in forms of essays, summaries, presentation of personal opinions, tabulating.

Affective domain is rarely covered directly as it is rather abstract. It is tested based on the attitudes the learners show during the class, their level of involvement. Psychomotor domain in language learning can be referred to phonetics, pronunciation, writing skills testing.

Content Factor

In teaching, language is viewed as a unity composed of several skills and components. The educators differentiate between such language skills as reading, writing, speaking, and listening. The language components are its structure, vocabulary, and sound. Language skills are built of language components.

For example, reading and writing skills consist of such components are structure and vocabulary, while speaking consists of sound plus the other two components, and listening contains just vocabulary and structure. Testing and test design rely on these skills and components. Teaching a language educators often need to check their learners’ progress on particular skills and test them separately from others.

At the same time, there are tests designed to evaluate the learner’s language skills using integrative approach. When a teacher targets particular skills, they carefully select the assignments for the class in order to develop the skills. This way, the content of a lesson alters based on the objective of a teacher.

For example, when reading assignments prevail during a lesson, this means that a teacher targets reading skills of the learners particularly. As a result, this will influence the content of the future testing because it will be likely to address reading separately from other language components. In other words, test tasks are selected based on the skills an educator needs to evaluate.

Tests oriented at the evaluation of certain language skills separately normally contain only the tasks of one type. Such tests are referred to as discrete-item tests, their main objective is to provide an educator with information concerning the difficulties their learners may experience within a particular language skill. When a teacher intends to test several language skills in a complex, they apply integrative or global tests.

These tests address language as a whole without separating it into elements and skills. Such tests check the learners’ ability to use a variety of different skills in a combination. For example, to test reading and writing language skills a teacher may conduct close tests where learners are to fill in missing parts of sentences based on the context.

Another way to test reading and writing skills using integrative approach is written translation. An integrative test for listening and speaking skills may include an oral interview or audition followed by an oral summary or discussion. Generally, integrative tests provide an educator with a broader understanding of the progress of their learners, while discrete-item tests offer a more precise view on the difficulties the students face.

Teacher Factor

During the teaching process, an educator is the one to compile tests for their learners. An educator is responsible for the objectives of their lessons and for the ways they choose to test the progress of the students and their own professional performance. Preparing a test an educator faces an important task of balancing out several crucial qualities of a test, which are practicality, validity, reliability, authenticity and wash back.

Only when a test matches this requirement it can be considered well-designed. A teacher’s competence and professionalism are the determinants of their success at test design. Preparing a test, a teacher is to identify its main objective because it will determine the balance between its qualities.

For example, when a language test is conducted with a purpose of professional selection, reliability and validity are the qualities the test designer is to prioritise; at the same time, for the classroom assessment practicality and wash back need to be emphasised (Milanovic, 2002). In a classroom assessment practicality comes in combination with transferability of a test.

This means that a test is to carefully reflect the materials studied previously and also be transferable to real life communication skills and needs of the students. A teacher needs to be competent to organise a versatile teaching process and then address its objectives in a test. Besides, a teacher is to know their learners and identify their needs which will determine the need for a test. This also requires pedagogical qualification.

Among all test qualities reliability and validity have been the most common focuses of scholarly discussions. Validity has been recognised as the most vital quality which defines to what extent the results of particular tests can be used as bases for conclusions; it can be divided into construct, content and predictive validity (Liao, 2004). The first type focuses on the performance of the examinee.

The second type involves coverage and relevance of test content. The third type of validity involves a test’s ability to predict how an examinee would do in a non-testing environment. Test reliability stands for a test’s ability to provide consistent data that is replicable after retest. Reliability is evaluated based on such markers as consistency of the test results and simulation of tasks in a test (Liao, 2004).

To design valid and reliable tests a teacher is to have a sufficient professional experience providing statistical base for reference concerning the correlation between testing and non-testing performance of the learners and the sustainability of test results and impacts. Wash back is another quality a teacher is to be properly qualified to use. Wash back refers to the influence a test has on learning and teaching processes and aligned curriculum.

In other words, educators tend to adjust their teaching and curriculum to the contents and requirements of tests. Only reliable and valid tests can integrate into the curriculum and influence it.

Authenticity is another vital feature of a test; it refers to a test’s ability to replicate the real life situation it targets. It is important because the main goal of language testing is to identify the level of a learner’s preparation to use a language in real life environment.

Learner Factor

Testing is only successful when it addresses the students’ academic needs. Among these needs there are a need for motivation, a need for practice and transferability, a need for personal development and a need for optimal feedback. Designing a test a teacher is to address all of these needs in order to facilitate active learning. Timing of a test is a crucial aspect for addressing all of the learners’ needs.

The success of a test depends on the right timing. For example, motivation is to be regular and systematic in order to maintain the learners’ interest towards the language. Practice is very important for language learners. The time for practice needs to be selected is repetitive manner because frequent practice provides tighter connection between the learners and the additional language they study.

Tests fulfill these needs keeping the learners challenged and motivating for improvement. Therefore, test of different types are to be placed within a program in a way that provides ongoing feedback, practice, monitoring and motivation. Feedback is a crucial aspect of teaching and testing. For the students, feedback is a part of motivation; this is why it needs to be provided in time to maintain the student’s desire to improve.

Moreover, feedback is the learners’ basis for self-assessment. Through the teacher’s feedback direct or indirect, the students learn about their strengths and weaknesses, identify the areas which need to be improved or require particular focus.

Feedback provided to the students is important for the teacher as well, because it follows the analysis of the learners’ strengths and weaknesses which helps the educator to determine the future needs of the students. This is why the timing of feedback has to be particularly accurate. Timely feedback facilitates timely improvement and helps both learners and teachers to keep track of their progress.

One of the best ways to provide ongoing and accurate feedback is formative assessment.

The main objectives of formative assessment are to provide the learners with valid information about their progress and weaknesses, identifying the areas that require better focus, and to help the educators find out which aspect of teaching make the learners experience struggle to address them right away (What is the difference between formative and summative assessment?, n. d.).

Summative assessments are conducted frequently within a curriculum and their point value is rather low compared to that of summative assessments. Examples of summative assessments include performing summaries or schemes of the new materials in class, identification of main ideas of a text or a lecture.

To compare, the examples of summative assessments are final papers, and course exams. Formative assessment can be viewed as an ongoing flow of testing and feedback for the constant monitoring of the learners’ progress and teachers’ performance.

Setting and Aids Factor

In the contemporary world technologies have penetrated every aspect of people’s life. Education is one of spheres where technologies have been used for many years already. Teaching and testing languages has benefited from the employment of technologies and their addition to the day-to-day life of the individuals.

For example, English, as the main language of the internet has become much more available for the users of computers. Besides, the development of technologies and their application in education facilitated that appearance of different types of educational software which allows faster and more efficient learning and testing. The technologies have made a large contribution into the test design and implementation.

Today, multiple tests can be conducted online or vie different computer programs, and the calculation of results is computerised and helps to save a lot of teachers’ time and effort. Besides, computerised adaptive testing (also known as CAT) is a recent innovation in the sphere of education software that helps to make testing more differentiated and flexible to be suitable for the learners with different academic performance.

CAT operates by means of adjusting the number and difficulty of test items for each particular student and stops when a targeted criterion is met (Advantages of Computerised Adaptive Testing, n. d.). The main advantages of CAT are its precision, flexibility, positive experience for the examinees (due to the adjustment of task difficulty), and an ability of retesting without repeating the tasks.

CAT is also highly accessible because it only requires software and basic computer knowledge for an examinee to be able to get tested. In general, computer assisted language testing (or CALT) has changed the nature of language testing making it more individual, and also making logistics and administration of the assessment easier and more effortless.

Conclusion

To conclude, testing has a very complex and multidimensional nature and a variety of objectives in every case. In order to design a valid and transferable test an educator is to have a range of professional competencies and have the knowledge of pedagogy. Besides, the planning and design of a test depend on its purpose and the content of knowledge that is being evaluated.

Moreover, testing is equally important for students and teachers. The latter need testing to identify the challenges of the program for the learners and adjust it where necessary.

The purpose of testing is to provide motivation though timely and accurate feedback and keep the learners challenged and interested in improvement. Testing is designed to motivate learning experiences, but not cause anxieties and low self-esteem for the learners. This is why, designing a test a teacher is approach this process professionally and carefully.

Reference List

Advantages of Computerised Adaptive Testing. Fastestweb. Web.

Liao, Y. (2004). Issues of Validity and Reliability in Second Language Performance Assessment. Columbia University Working Papers in TESOL & Applied Linguistics, 4(2), 1-4. Web.

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What is the difference between formative and summative assessment?Carnegie Mellon. Web.

Widyantoro, A. (2013). Transferability: A Missing Link Between Language Testing and Language Teaching. In 3^rd International Conference in Foreign Language Teaching and Learning held 15-16 March 2013 at The Ambassador Hotel (pp. 795-801). Bangkok, Thailand: LITU. Web.

Introduction

Listening can be viewed as one of the most important skills that need to be acquired by learners in any language. It is one of the four skills that language learners acquire, and out of the four, it is one of the skills that are most frequently used by the individuals.

Most instructors teach listening and speaking simultaneously. However, it is noted that beginners in any language, and specifically those that are considered to be non-literate, need to be exposed to more listening than speaking processes, again making listening a vital part of learning any language (Bygate 2001).

Rost (2002b) is of the view that instructors use many types of techniques and activities as they teach listening. These activities are more often than not informed by the needs and traits of their students.

There are those activities where the learner is expected to produce a language and others where this production is not necessary. For example, a learner may be expected to physically react to commands that are given by the instructors (Rost 2002a). This is for example commands such as “please come here”.

Just like there are many techniques that are used by the instructor in the teaching of listening skills, there are many forms of materials that the instructor can use to instil these skills on their learners. These materials are divided into two major categories; authentic and non-authentic materials (Hughes 2002). The latter are also referred to as scripted materials, given the fact that they are edited and specially prepared for the classroom.

Debate has emerged as to the advantages and disadvantages of using authentic materials in teaching listening. There are those who argue that use of authentic materials in teaching listening is more beneficial both to the learners and to the instructors as compared to the use of scripted materials.

On the extreme end of the continuum are those who argue that it is more beneficial to use scripted materials in teaching listening skills than to use authentic materials. Each of these schools of thought has justifications that they use to support their arguments.

This paper is going to look at the benefits and disadvantages of using authentic materials in teaching listening. The author is first going to look at the various definitions of authentic materials and the various sources of the same.

The author will then look at the advantages of using these materials as compared to using scripted materials. The disadvantages of these materials will then be addressed, and these will mainly be the limitations that the instructors face as they incorporate these materials in their classrooms.

Use of Authentic Materials in Teaching Listening: Benefits and Disadvantages

Authenticity in the context of teaching has been defined variously. The various definitions depend on the philosophical orientations of the different scholars in this field. However, a common thread appears between these definitions, a thread depicted by the central theme of the definitions. A definition by Martinez (2002) is widely accepted in this field, and it is the one that is going to be adopted in this paper.

Martinez (2002) conceptualizes authenticity in linguistics as a form of real language emanating from a real speaker or writer, language that targets a real audience. The language is also designed or structured in such a way that it conveys a real message of some nature (Tamo 2009).

From this definition, it is easier for one to define authentic materials in the teaching of listening skills. Authentic texts, according to Yingmai (2005), are those written or spoken texts that are targeted at native speakers of a given language. This is for example a conversation in English. This conversation can only be comprehended by English speakers, and the source of the conversation was targeting these speakers.

As such, authentic texts are not specifically designed for the learners of the language in question, and this is one of the factors that set them apart from scripted texts. Whereas scripted texts are designed for the specific consumption of the learners of the language, authentic texts are designed for the native speakers of that language (Thanajaro 2000).

Deriving from the discourse above, it is obvious that for a text to be considered as been authentic it must meet one major criteria; it should not have produced specifically for the aims of teaching a language (Thanajaro 2000).

For example, a radio interview between a celebrity and a presenter is not aimed at teaching the English language, but targeted at English speakers. However, this interview can be used to teach listening skills to a class of English learners.

Riding on the definitions of authenticity that have been provided above, it is now possible to conceptualize the meaning of authentic materials in teaching listening. According to Ur (2005), these are elements of real language that are produced for the native speaker of the language and which are designed devoid of the intention of teaching the language to learners.

When viewed from this pedestal, it becomes obvious that we are surrounded by a large amount of authentic materials, materials that we interact with in our daily life. This is for example the articles in newspapers and other print media, electronic broadcasts such as TV and internet productions and conversations between individuals in the society, conversations that occur on a daily basis.

These authentic materials can be used to teach listening skills within a classroom setting. For example, the instructor may make the learners listen to radio broadcasts and then act on the conversations between different individuals. As earlier indicated in this paper, this form of teaching listening skills has its advantages and disadvantages. These will be looked into in detail below:

Advantages of Using Authentic Materials in Teaching Listening

Scholars in this field agree that using these materials in teaching listening skills is beneficial to the learners, to the teachers and to the language in general as far as some aspects are concerned.

This is regardless of whether the learners are foreign language speakers learning the language as their second or foreign language, or native speakers who are advancing their skills in the language. The benefits of these materials also extends to the advanced and beginners in the language.

The following are some of the advantages:

Learners are Exposed to Real Language

Lingzhu and Yuanyuan (2010) concur that unlike scripted materials, authentic listening materials expose the learners to the real language. This is the language that is used in daily and real life of people who speak the language, or the natives.

Lingzhu and Yuanyuan (2010) expound on this point by taking a look at the different features of the authentic and scripted listening materials that are used in the classroom setting. The different features can be condensed into four aspects of the two materials. These are as follows:

Varying Redundant Features

In authentic listening materials, the speakers more often than not use more words than necessary to convey their message (Luoma 2004). This is something that does not happen in scripted listening materials. According to Ur (2005), this is the redundant nature of authentic materials.

Redundancy in authentic materials such as conversation can take various forms. This is for example repetition of phrases and words, re-phrasing, tautologies among others (Lingzhu and Yuanyuan 2010). This is for example use of phrases that can be taken as meaningless, phrases such as umh, err, I mean and such others (Lingzhu and Yuanyuan 2010).

Many scripted materials lack these features, despite the fact that they are common occurrences in daily conversations and interactions. As such, when the instructor uses authentic materials, the learners are exposed to this feature which is a reality of the language.

Varying Grammatical Features

It is a fact beyond doubt that differences exist between the authentic and scripted materials as far as their grammar is concerned. This is basically the variation between spoken and written language (Salehzaden 2006). For example, spoken language contains few subordinate clauses.

Speakers also use incomplete sentences, an attribute that is uncommon in scripted materials (Lingzhu and Yuanyuan 2010). The vocabulary that is produced by speakers is less specific as compared to that of writers, and speakers tend to use interactive expressions such as mmh more than in written language (Lynch 2004).

When the learners make use of authentic listening materials in their learning of listening skills, they are exposed to these features, and are thus able to adapt to the real language where they are used more easily.

Varying Stylistic Features

Authentic listening materials such as interviews and conversations are different from the scripted materials as far as their stylistic features are concerned. For example, they are more characterised by natural and spontaneous language that varies from one speaker to the other and from one dialect to the other (Lingzhu and Yuanyuan 2010).

Authentic listening materials contain a lot of informal words, idioms and slangs that are not to be found in the scripted materials. It is important to expose the learners to these aspects of the real language to prepare them for the real world out there.

Varying Environmental Features

The environmental features of the authentic and the scripted listening materials also do vary. For example, authentic materials are characterised by a lot of background noise, which is filtered and more often than not eliminated in scripted materials (Flowerdew and Miller 2005).

Ur (2005) and Anderson (2004) are of the view that noise is usually caused by interference which may be internal or external to the listener, interference that affects the listening and comprehension of the spoken language. Internal noise may be for example lack of attention on the part of the listener or the inability to comprehend the words spoken.

External noise may be for example when a phrase is misused or misplaced by the speaker making it hard for the listener to comprehend (Boxer and Cohen 2004). Incorrect intonations and mispronunciations by the speaker may also be sources of external disturbance for the listener. As such, authentic materials expose the learner to this feature of the real world.

Learners’ Motivation is Stimulated by the use of Authentic Listening Materials

Research by scholars in this field have revealed that the use of authentic materials in teaching listening is more appealing to the learners as compared to the use of scripted materials (Wilson 2004). As earlier indicated, sources of authentic listening materials include newspapers, the internet and such other electronic media. These forms of media are mainly part and parcel of the popular culture in the society.

This is given the fact that they carry materials that embodies popular culture in the society. This is for example interviews with celebrities, interviews that are contained in websites and on fashion magazines. These materials tend to be more appealing to the contemporary learner, especially for the youthful learners. As such, the materials are more effective in teaching these students.

The authentic materials also tend to have content that is more current and as such relevant to the students (Berardo 2006). For example, newspapers and television broadcasts contain more recent information than books that were written years ago. Internet articles are also updated regularly.

As such, the gap between the students and the social reality in the world is bridged by authentic listening materials (Hwang 2005). The students therefore find these materials to be more interesting to interact with, and their experiences in this interaction are enriched. This enables them to acquire the listening skills easily and faster.

Wang (2000) is of the view that learners who constantly receive the authentic listening input are better placed than their counterparts who receive scripted inputs.

This is given the fact that the former will find it easier to communicate and interact with the native speakers of the language that they are learning in real life situations (Hwang 2005). This is as opposed to those students who make use of scripted listening materials, which are more often than not out of touch with the reality.

The true listening ability of the learners using the authentic listening materials is fully developed than that of those using scripted materials. This is given that the latter have to make adjustments between what they learn in class and what they encounter out there in the real world.

Accumulation of the Learner’s Knowledge

Rost (2002a) and Rost (2002b) contend that authentic listening materials have a wide range of information than the edited and scripted materials used for teaching listening such as books. The information contained therein covers many fields of the real world and of the human life.

These topics range from popular culture such as music and films to more mundane topics such as geography and politics. As such, when the instructor makes use of these materials in teaching their students learning skills, they end up equipping their charges with more than just the ability to listen.

This is an opportunity for the learners to accumulate their knowledge on the world that they live in, the world outside the four walls of their classroom (Lingzhu and Yuanyuan 2010). Contrast this with the scripted materials like textbooks. These materials contain information that is limited to the listening needs of the students.

Reflection of the Changes in the World

As indicated earlier in this paper, authentic listening materials have contents that are regularly updated and as such reflect the reality of the social world. This content in extension reflects the changes that are taking place in the social world, the world within which the learners live (Yingmai 2005).

It is erroneous to assume that the world within which we live is a static phenomenon. To the contrary, the social world is fluid in nature, with changes taking place in time and space.

For example, the language that was used by the older generation in their teens has drastically changed, and the contemporary teenager speaks in a language full of slangs and idioms that are so unlike those used by their elders.

Authentic listening materials reflect these changes in language and other attribute of the social world. As such, use of these materials has the advantage of keeping the students abreast of what is happening in the real world (Martinez 2002).

Disadvantages of Using Authentic Materials to Teach Listening

The advantages of using authentic materials in teaching listening are not without riding limitations and disadvantages that sometimes make it inappropriate to use them in the classroom. Some of these disadvantages are elaborated on below:

Cultural Bias

The materials, as much as they reflect the social reality of the world within which the learners exist, may be too culturally biased as to make no sense at all to the learners (Martinez 2002).

This is especially so if the materials are used in their raw form with no editing or support to adapt them to the classroom environment. As such, the content of the materials may not make sense outside the culture within which the native speakers of the language exist.

This attribute of the materials makes it very hard for learners of the language, especially those that are learning a foreign language, to benefit from the content of the authentic materials. For example, an interview with a pop idol in the United States of America may not make sense to a Russian learning the English language.

This is given the fact that the content of the interview may be biased to the American culture, with the Russian been unable to connect with it. Similarly, the same interview with a teen idol may not make sense to an octogenarian in the United States of America who is working on advancing her English language.

Difficulty of the Language

It has been noted that authentic materials are rarely edited to accommodate the different needs and competence of different learners. This is given the fact that such editing may interfere with the authenticity of the material (Tamo 2009). As such, sometimes the language used in the materials may too hard to be comprehended by learners, especially those at elementary levels.

The language of the materials may too complex for these learners. Take for example an interview with a market analyst, who keeps using jargon to refer to practices in their field. As much as this interview exposes the learners to the reality of the marketing field, the complex language may hamper the development of their listening skills (Beare 2011).

Increased Learning Burden

It is noted that some content of the authentic listening materials may be irrelevant to the learners (Berardo 2006). This increases the learning burden of the learners unnecessarily.

Some words and phrases that are to be found in these materials are rarely used outside the context of the materials.

For example, phrases and words that are used in a conversation between two music producers may not be used outside the context of the entertainment industry. This is especially so if the conversation is full of jargon and technical terms that apply only to the field.

Lingzhu and Yuanyuan (2010) contend that some of the items in authentic materials such as vocabulary and phrases occur in low frequency in the real world.

They may also be peripherally used in the real world, and the student may not come into contact with them again in the future (Ur 2005). As such, the significance of learning such items is lost to the student and to the instructor. This is especially so if the materials used contain a significantly large number of such items.

Unavailability of the Materials

There are instances where it is hard for the instructors and the learners to access authentic materials to use in the classroom. This is for example when the learners are engaged in learning a foreign language.

Given that the language is foreign to the land and to the learning environment, coming into contact with such materials may be hard (Martinez 2002). For example, the instructor may find it hard to access newspaper articles that are reported with the language that they are engaged in.

The process of acquiring the authentic listening materials in such situations may be costly and time consuming both to the learners and to the instructors (Ur 2005). This makes the use of authentic listening materials in teaching an unattractive alternative to the learners and the teachers, as it is more costly than the use of script materials such as books.

Conclusion

The use of authentic listening materials in teaching listening has been embraced by many instructors and learners in contemporary society.

This is given the many advantages that this form of learning has over the use of scripted materials. For example, the materials expose the learner to the real world, they reflect the changes in the world and they are more relevant to the learners. However, there are several disadvantages that make the use of this technique unattractive.

This includes the irrelevancy of some of the items in the materials and the exorbitant costs that are incurred in accessing these materials by the learners and the instructors in some cases. However, when all the factors are considered, it appears that the use of authentic materials in teaching listening is more beneficial than it is costly.

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