If there is one item that is with nearly all women, it is a handbag. In our dynamic world, the gender boundaries are becoming increasingly blurred, and therefore it is possible to meet one or two men who carry handbags too. But this can only be the exception. For women in society, carrying handbags is the rule. This is true for my teacher. Her handbag stands out in my view and it is going to be the object of discussion in this essay.
My teacher’s handbag is brown in color. I have never taken time to do a thorough analysis of the color but I believe what my teacher says about her handbag. She believes that it is the brown that results from a combination of black and white.
At one point, I pointed out that the color of her of her handbag was golden. She looked at me with a wide smile and thanked me for my suggestion. She then proceeded to tell me that whatever I choose to call the color is my decision. It was not going to affect her since she was fully aware that her handbag’s color is brown. I have since stopped wondering about the color of the handbag. I am now trying to unravel the mystery behind her attachment to the handbag.
The handbag is thirty seven years old. My teacher is fifty years meaning that she got it when she was thirteen years. It is made of pure leather and has a one and half meter strap by which it is suspended from the shoulder. The open top is secured by a buckle that locks to the inside, meaning the side that is in contact with the body while the bag is on the shoulder. On both sides, it has the letter L and V that are close together.
The texture of the leather is smooth and it is not easy for one know that this handbag is as old as it is. Before my teacher told me its correct age, I thought it was around three or four years old given that I joined this institution two years ago and found her with it. But I later discovered that the bag is actually thirty seven years old. I was shocked at first but when I considered the type of person my teacher is, I realized why it appeared intact. She is extremely careful with whatever she handles meaning that it is not possible for the handbag to be mishandled while it is in her possession.
Leaving the above a side, opening the handbag is something I have always been tempted to do despite the fact that it reflects badly on me. I can remember carrying it as I was assisting her carry items from the lecture room to her office. I asked her how she had managed to let me carry her handbag, something she had never done ever since I arrived in the school from Hong Kong. She jokingly told me that she had attained mysterious powers that allowed her to get into my system and carry the bag through me.
Therefore I was not the one carrying it although I thought that I was carrying it. I laughed off her joke when she suddenly promised to tell me the history behind her bag. I knew as I still know today what handbags are used for. In a general sense, I can point out the fact that women use handbags to carry their personal items. That means my teacher’s handbag serves that function too. But what was the history behind my teacher’s handbag? I had to hear her story so as to be able to answer this question.
The Handbag as a Social Message than a Class Symbol
The case is very different with teacher’s handbag. The L and V that are on both sides of the bag mean so much to my teacher. They communicate a sense of class going by the prestige that is associated with Louis Vuitton as a company (Dittmar 1992, pp.16). When the bag was given to my teacher as a present from her father, he did not tell her that he had spent so much money on it. She however discovered that a few years later, long after her father his death.
The only thing my teacher tells me she remembers hearing from her father was that the handbag meant more than the money that was used to purchase it. As a young girl, my teacher says that she did not take so much time trying to figure out what her father was referring to. She carried her new possession around and showed off in front of friends who had gotten handbags long before she did. What she learnt later about the bag created the attachment she has to the bag. It is something more than the fashion message that is communicated by the L and the V (Belk 1998, pp.139-141).
The Message in the object (the handbag)
My teacher’s father had told her to take care of the handbag. This was before he died. He then told her that the brown color is a representation of what is good for Australia. My teacher clearly explained to me the message from her father that the racial tension between the races that exist in Australia will die when the color separation dies out. She further reveals that her father’s wish was for her to marry someone from a different race as a means of giving their children the color of the handbag and therefore contributing to the unity of Australia. More information from my teacher regarding the bag is that the solution is not being black or white.
The ultimate solution is a blend of the diversity as it is availed to us by God; so that at the end of it all, the color of the handbag becomes the ideal. This gift of a handbag from a father to his daughter represents the balance (Schwartz 1967, pp.1-3).
From the above revelation I was able to understand the origin of the respect my teacher has for her handbag. The earlier thinking that it would be because of its apparent superior design is not featuring in my mind any more. It has a deep history that connects my teacher to her father. This history further connects them to the society in which they live (Osteen 2002, pp.16). This society is the multi racial Australia which has seen the worst scenarios of racial discrimination that has left both sides with deep psychological wounds. The descendants of the perpetrators are able to feel the weight after learning of what their forefathers did. They want to say sorry but they do not know how.
This is the category where my teacher’s father belonged. He sought to make amends before his death through his advice to my teacher. The victims’ descendants on the other hand cringe when they read and view the gruesome historical accounts of what their forefathers went through. They definitely feel that someone owes them an apology but I guess they do not know who. What does my teacher think about the whole issue of her father’s message through the handbag?
It is not by accident that this handbag is tenderly cared for. My teacher intends to give it to her daughter one year from now. The message will be the same as it was given to her by her father. But this time round, it will be a message converted into practical reality. The psychological impact on my teacher for not obeying the words of her dying father has not been easy. This is why she was extremely excited upon the realization that my sister is getting married to a man from a different race.
In addition the above, my teacher has found peace and the bag is the symbol. When it eventually lands on her daughter’s shoulders, she will have arrived. To her it is not just a bag. It cannot be equated to the bags that are carried by high class women who want to tell the world how much they have achieved. It is also not for the conventional use of carrying personal items. It is a message that she was given but decided not to follow due to what she calls the folly of youth.
Her intention for reparation is clear and her gladness is evident given that fact that she never had to work hard to get it accomplished. It just happened on its own even before she would make either her daughter or my son sit and listen to long persuasions and explanations as to why they need to be not only open minded but inclusive. What else does it mean to my teacher? Is this all there to the bag?
Psychological Attachment and the Handbag
Psychological attachment can be described as the sense of togetherness that develops between a human being and an object or another human being (Karen 1998, pp.87). It comes with staying with an object over a long period of time. This element clears out the idea of how much the item cost at the time it was obtained. The fact that the item has been with the person for a good part of his or her life creates a tight bond which can lead to mental disturbances if the item is suddenly lost or handed over to another person without the heartfelt willingness of the owner or the person who has stayed with it for long (Karen 1998, pp.47).
This is the case with the handbag. My teacher ‘s attachment to the handbag is not something anyone can doubt given that as mentioned elsewhere in this essay, she has been with the handbag for thirty seven years. She confesses that it has become part of her identity and people who are close to her have come to associate her with the brown handbag. The attachment is so intense that any time she leaves the house without the handbag, she feels like part of her is missing.
The comparison that can be made here is that of a child who enters the world and immediately gets into contact with the mother. If the child and the mother are separated after a period of ten to fifteen years, the child will always feel the violence of the separation. The vacuum that will result from the separation will be a source of grief for the child, and the main reason for this is the amount of time spent with the mother. This cannot be the case if the separation is done immediately after birth before the child has time to connect with the mother (Blurton-Jones 1972, pp 217-219).
Conclusion
From the above, it is evident that my teacher’s handbag is more than just a bag. It is true that it is highly fashionable and this contributes to her liking for it but it is not the major attraction. The message that accompanies the handbag is the main concern. Her father bought it for her as a symbol of unity in Australia. The message is a blend of the diverse groups of people into what to me appears to be golden but my teacher insists is brown.
She blames the folly of youth for not being able to accomplish her father’s mission. But all hope is not lost since her daughter has decided to fulfill the wishes of my teacher’s father. She has made the decision to marry someone from a different race and my teacher thinks this is a step in the direction that her late father wanted. This makes her happy and her decision to hand over the handbag to her daughter is based on this. Thus the handbag is not just a handbag but a message that she has taken care of for a long time as she was waiting for a moment when it would be fulfilled.
Also, my teacher is psychologically attached to the handbag because of the long period it has been in her possession. Like the attachment infants develop to their mothers as they spend time with them, she has developed a bond with her handbag, which will undoubtedly make it emotional when she will be handing it over to her daughter. But she will have compensation for her grief through the joy of living to see her father’s wish fulfilled. The guilty of having failed to do it herself will be cleared and her conscience will be crystal clear. It will be a source of internal peace for her. This is the interesting life of my teacher’s handbag.
References
Belk, R. W. 1998, “Possessions and the Extended Self.” Journal of Consumer Research, Vol.15.4. 139-68.
Blurton-Jones N., 1972. Ethological Studies Of Child Behaviour. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dittmar, H., 1992. The Social Psychology of Material Possessions: To Have Is to Be. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Karen, R., 1998. Becoming Attached: First Relationships and How They Shape Our Capacity to Love. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.
Osteen, Mark, ed., 2002. The Question of the Gift: Essays across Disciplines. London: Routledge.
Schwartz, B., 1967. “The Social Psychology of the Gift.” American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 73.1. 1-11.
The meaning of Tao Te Ching’s “The highest good is like water” has several similarities with the definition of the “highest good” in both Christianity and Confucianism. Tao Te Ching makes several comparisons between the highest good and water. All these comparisons are in one way or the other similar to some of the Christian and Confucianism values and teachings regarding this noble virtue. First and foremost, just like water, which is the source of nourishment to almost all the living creatures on earth, the highest good gives life to thousands of things without striving. In acting as the source of life to the various living organisms on earth, water does this rather effortlessly because it simply flows to all those areas where it is needed and provides nourishment to plants, animals, and human beings. In addition to giving life to thousands of things, the highest good also flows to places where people reject and, therefore, it is like the Tao (Tzu, 1997).
This comparison is directly related to the Confucianism belief that impurities usually lie in low areas where water normally collects. Moreover, the comparison is also related to the Taoist belief that the Tao dwells in these low areas. In Christianity, people are encouraged to be indiscriminate in all their charitable endeavors. The ‘highest good’ is, therefore, a virtue that requires a person or any other party seeking to attain it to be universal in their approach while helping others (Tzu, 1997). In this context, the term universal does not imply that the person has to travel all over the continent helping others. It simply requires that the person or party should not discriminate while extending their services (Tzu, 1997). This requirement is present in both Christianity and Confucianism where there is advocacy that followers should be indiscriminate while helping people who might be in need.
In addition to the aforementioned comparison of the ‘highest good’ in both Christianity and Confucianism, the underlying aspect that is being highlighted in this Taoist teaching is the approach used and the relationship that exists in Christianity, Confucianism, and Taoism. In many ways, the approach towards doing right to others is similar to the highest good as asserted by Tao in his comparison between this virtue and water. In addition to giving life to thousands and going to places where men reject, Tao also gives some direction about some of the values that should be practiced by human beings in their approach to doing right.
‘In dwelling, be close to the land.’ (Laozi, 2012). This simply implies that people should not stay disconnected from the main issues that face society as a whole. This is attributable to the fact that such closeness is essential in understanding the issues that need to be addressed and, therefore, incorporate them in all their benevolent efforts. This approach should be adopted by Christians, Taoists, and Confucianism who should always do the right. Besides, people should seek ground information regarding the real issues affecting people (Laozi, 2012).
‘In meditation, go deep in the heart.’ This line illustrates the importance when it comes to all the endeavors meant to enhance spiritual wellbeing in Christianity, Taoism, and Confucianism. In carrying out endeavors such as meditation, human beings are encouraged to ensure that there is a closeness between them and promote personal reflection in others. While dealing with other people, it is recommendable to portray gentleness and kindness. All three religions advocate for a compassionate approach while dealing with other people. This, therefore, means that even in acts of benevolence, people should be guided by the need to be kind and gentle to others (Hohne, 2009). Honesty is also a virtue that is advocated by Tao. Furthermore, people are encouraged to be truthful in their speeches. Honesty is an important aspect that is accorded great weight in all three religions. On the same note, dishonesty is a sin. Therefore, while doing the right, human beings are encouraged to be honest in all their endeavors. In addition to honesty, another important aspect as far as doing right to others is concerned is a just approach that is encouraged across all religions (Hohne, 2009). Indeed, all three religions recognize the need for justice. In exercising their ruling, people should be just in their deeds and words.
Efficiency is an aspect that has been accorded great weight as far as righteous acts are concerned. In Christianity, Taoism, and Confucianism, people are encouraged to be efficient in all their endeavors. Some of the key attributes concerning overall efficiency are the need for competency in all business dealings and other efforts that are meant to advance the common good to all mankind. In addition to the need for competency, it is advocated that people should be time conscious in all their undertakings (Hohne, 2009). Time is recognized as an important resource in Christianity, Taoism, and Confucianism and, therefore, people in all these religions are encouraged to be mindful of their timing when engaging in various activities.
Finally, people are encouraged to avoid fighting and passing blame to others in case of any unfortunate occurrences. Fighting is regarded as a vice in all three religions because, in many instances, it is always counterproductive. Also, it erodes some of the economic gains made by the people (Tzu, 1996). It is also equally unproductive for people to engage in blame games whereby instead of taking responsibility for the faults committed, they end up blaming one another for unfortunate occurrences (Tzu, 1996).
All in all, ‘highest good’ is a virtue that has been significantly explored by Tao Te Ching in his assertions. It is regarded as the utmost virtue that human beings can choose to exercise. Therefore, it is an important aspect across all religions including Christianity, Taoism, and Confucianism. In many ways, the highest good has been compared to water and the similarities between virtue and water have been explained exhaustively. In addition to that, Tao Te Ching offers various guidelines regarding the right conduct that should be observed by human beings. Right conduct incorporates justice to others, honesty, competency, peace, and personal responsibility. Tao Te Ching has done a lot in educating the society about living with others peacefully. In his assertions, he discusses the virtues that people require most to be able to coexist. This is founded on the fact that people need others for various reasons. Guiding and correcting others is a virtue that should not be overlooked.
References
Hohne, K. (2009). Tao Te Ching: The Poetry of Nature. London: Tao Books.
Laozi, L.T. (2012). Tao Te Ching: An All-New Translation. Seoul: Shambhala Publications.
Tzu, L. (1996). The Tao Te Ching of Lao Tzu. New York: Macmillan.
Tzu, L. (1997). Tao Te Ching. New York: Wordsworth Editions
Daoism is regarded to be a part of the great Chinese traditions in religion along with Confucianism and Buddhism. Daoist practitioners are advocating a naturalistic philosophy, artificiality of material values, and harmony with the natural flow of things. Thus, Daoism can also be defined as one of the Chinese schools of philosophy with the ideas that might be applied as a guide for a meaningful life. Traditionally, Daoism is associated with the name of Lao-Tsu, which can be translated as Old Master. According to some researchers, he was “wary of living and heading Westward in search of wisdom” (Tan, 2016, p. 163). Lao-Tsu is known as a founder of “Tao Te Ching,” which is recognized as a guidebook of Daoism and divided into two parts called Tao (the way) and Te (virtue). Tao explains the philosophy of life and can be used as a practical guide to living in harmony with nature and the universe. One of the most famous statements of Lao-Tsu is his notion of the highest good, which is compared to water known as the strongest element in the Five Elements theory.
It is generally recognized that Daoism has several major beliefs that include such theories as “Ying-Yang,” “Five Elements,” and “Eight Trigram.” Five Elements theory is usually regarded as a system that consists of five phases used for providing descriptions of phenomena and their interactions and relationships. This system includes such elements as wood, fire, earth, metal, and water. It is stated that “nothing in the world is weaker than water, but nothing is stronger than water when it comes to breaking something strong” (Yin, 2016, p. 453). Therefore, water is defined as a symbol of strength. The comparison made by Lao-Tsu confirms that the highest good is stronger than anything else in the universe and can change the state of things.
Thus, according to the philosophy practiced by Daoism and presented in the passage about the highest good in “Tao Te Ching,” the goal of any human is to become a good man. The main qualities of a good man are allegorically compared to the ones of water, including timely action, faithful speech, profound heart, and competence in deeds. People who obtain these qualities are regarded as the best and the strongest. Life of such people must be happy as they achieved the goal of their existence.
This idea emphasizes the importance of naturalness in the methods of self-development, as well as satisfaction and happiness in life. Daoist practitioners need to understand the natural state of things and follow the ways of nature, which is regarded as right doing. It is noted that “everything in the world has its way of being and development, which occurs independently and naturally without following any human will” (Yin, 2016, p. 453). Therefore, to achieve happiness and harmony with themselves and nature, people should not change anything natural or try to control the world. One should not waste time chasing fortune, power, and fame. The principles of the highest good were designed to help people in achieving success in self-development as the right being and reaching the main goal of life to become closer to the highest good, which is one of the main qualities of the highest power.
The ideas of the highest good presented in Daoism are believed to have their origin in another Chinese philosophy known as Confucianism. Some researchers state that “the responses that Confucius and his successors articulated reveal a focus on authentic relations that form the cornerstone for familial harmony and social cohesion” (Tan, 2016, p. 158). A right doing praised by Confucian philosophy should involve being fully human in the relations with the outer world and seek the ways to become an embodiment of the highest virtues. Therefore, these two philosophies share the aspiration for self-development and achieving some perfection in the course of life. Still, Confucianism stresses the importance of reaching harmony with society rather than harmony with nature. Love to people is regarded as the highest virtue, and full humanity is emphasized to be obtained only through relations with other human beings. According to Confucius, an individual should also develop one’s human nature using education to the highest potential. At the same time, Daoism presents the idea of non-action that means that an individual should develop oneself through meditation and harmony with nature.
It should be noted that both Daoism and Confucianism are oriented to the development of a human being, which is good at the beginning of life but should be perfected. At the same time, in Christianity, which also values the virtues of a human being, the initial point of redemption and development is the fallen human nature born with sins. Still, there is a connection between the notions of the highest good in Daoism, Confucianism, and Christianity. The teaching of Jesus who was the embodiment of virtue demonstrated that God is love and the highest expression of goodness. Thus, it is noted that a right doing for a person is achieving “harmony with this creational expression of God’s goodness, and gratitude for the goodness of God is what makes possible a realization of the good of mankind in any sphere of life” (Jeffrey, 2015, p. 222). It also harmonizes with the understanding of the goals of life in Daoism. What is created by God cannot be bad and human beings have the evidence of God’s goodness and perfection presented in nature and at the universal level. By the Old Testament, a human being should not only follow the Law given by God but also lead such life that might make one better and closer to God. It is possible to say that everything that is good appeals to God because he is the embodiment of goodness. The evil actions that involve the destruction of God’s creation such as murder separate an individual from God because accepting something bad are against his nature.
It is a widespread opinion that most of the main religions of the world share common values about the good and the evil. Some researchers state that “economic development rather than political complexity explains the emergence of axial religions” (Baumard, Hyafil, Morris, & Boyer, 2015, p. 15). Still, Confucianism and Daoism were initially oriented to wealthy layers of society and people who are tired of power and money and seek to reach harmony with themselves and this world. As for Christianity, Jesus preached mainly for poor people giving them some values to oppose the ones of their rulers. Moreover, Jesus never had a chance to write down his sermons, and they are given to us according to their understanding by his followers, while the founders of Confucianism and Daoism put their dogmas on paper personally. Nevertheless, the notion of the highest good seems to be almost the same for these three religions.
The paper discussed one of the most famous statements of Lao-Tsu and his notion of the highest good, which was compared to water known as the strongest element in the Five Elements theory. It also provided a comparative analysis of the key ideas of the highest good in other religions such as Confucianism and Christianity. The relationship between right being and right doing was stated for each of these three religions.
References
Baumard, N., Hyafil, A., Morris, I., & Boyer, P. (2015). Increased affluence explains the emergence of ascetic wisdoms and moralising religions. Current Biology, 25(1), 10-15.
Jeffrey, D. L. (2015). The “good” and “the good life”: Confucius and Christ. Journal of Chinese Humanities, 1(2), 213-230.
Tan, J. Y. (2016). What Christians can learn from Chinese religions. In E. K. Chia (Ed.), Interfaith dialogue: Global perspectives (pp. 155-167). New-York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.
Yin, Y. (2016). Philosophical Taoism: A guide for happy life and administration. In L. Hale et al. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Fifth Northeast Asia International Symposium on Language, Literature and Translation (p. 453). Marietta, GA: American Scholars Press.
English literature is presented by numerous writers and poets, which present their pieces of work on different topics and of various styles. Needless to say that the works related to the psychology are extremely interesting. Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong by James W. Loewen is the brightest example. This book is a kind of the author’s reflection about American history and the reasons why students and pupils do not like this subject.
James Loewen, the professor of sociology tries to find out why American history is, for the most part of school and college students, the most detested and least unforgettable subject. After all, presented the collide of Native population with Europeans, relationships between Europeans, a rebellion and the organizing of a republic, a gory civil war and several world wars, the clashes in Korea and Vietnam, a lot of years of racial and prejudiced pressures, the history of America is intrinsically impressive. Moreover, according to the recent studies the minor part of the students who do well in math and other precise sciences and subjects constantly fail American history.
Main text
So, it is necessary to outline the most essential interesting issues covered in the chapters 10-13. Thus, the chapter 10 deals with the information about the differences in historical facts presented in many textbooks. The author tells that different textbooks may provide with the different facts which cover the same period of time: “Indeed their attention to the recent past reflects their authors’ intention of making history relevant to current events and issues” (Loewen 412). Loewen states that these differences give the students the opportunity to analyze the facts themselves and find out the reasons of such differences. “Then students are challenged to discuss events and processes in the past that cause these differences. Teachers can also encourage their students to critique their textbooks” (Loewen 359).
Chapter 11 of the book deals with the discussion of progress. It is regarded as one of the most important products of humanity’s activity. He states that the main issue of all historical books is to demonstrate that history as a subject at college does not actually lead to the development and progress: “Probably, the principal effect of the textbook whitewash of environmental issues in favor of the idea of progress is to persuade high school students that American history courses are not appropriate places to bring up the future course…” (Loewen 299).
According to Loewen’s words all the facts about progress discussed in many historical books lead to the students being passive and indifferent somehow: “ …students rosy tales of automatic progress helps keep them passive, for it presents the future as a process over which they have no control” (Loewen 300).
The next chapter is the 12-th one. In this chapter Loewen tells about the process of creating of some historical books. From this chapter we get to know that very often these books are written not by the authors, enumerated in the reference list, but publishers’ clerks. “Authors should held responsible for what is inside their covers. Ironically once in a while the material added by publishers’ clerks conflicts with and enhances the base narratives (Loewen 323). So, as a result students read the books which are very often far from truth, as nobody is sure in the competence of these clerks. ” We can hardly expect textbook authors to return to primary sources and dig out facts that are truly obscure” (Loewen 303).
Finally, the chapter 13 discusses the effects of using history textbooks. Loewen states that these books make students stupid. “Whether in elementary school or the university. Learning appears to be stupid…(Loewen 440). Loewen conducted several examinations of the historical books and found out the main disadvantages of them. In many cases presented information in very boring, sometimes consisting of lies and misinformation. “Some historical books prepare students for lifelong misunderstanding of our place in the world” (Loewen 419).
Conclusion
Thought infuriating, unbiased, and often appalling, Loewen exposes the genuine America in this iconoclastic book so much-loved by the teachers of high schools, history beiges, and free-thinking citizens along the country.
Works Cited
Loewen, James W. Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everyting Your American History Textbook Got Wrong. New York: Touchstone, 2007.
The book Lies My Teacher Told Me written by James Lowen presents a comprehensive critical analysis of 12 American history textbooks. This paper presents a summary of the first three chapters of the book and a brief review of the book.
The topic of hero creation in chapter 1 deals with controversial issues related to President Woodrow Wilson or Helen Keller. President Wilson became a hero through the history books while the fact was that he was racial in his outlook and encouraged racial violence among African Americans. This has been exemplified through various events like the Russian civil war and administrative policies of Wilson limited the civil rights of the black community in America. Helen Keller became a hero through these discourses and was hailed as a figure of courage. However, the truth often concealed was the radical socialist inclinations of Keller. Therefore, history textbooks had been used to make mythic heroes for the next generation Americans.
The second chapter demonstrates the deliberate misrepresentation of the 15th century invasion of the Americas and the picture of the Europeans. The creation of myth about the 15th century right from the expedition of Columbus has been criticized in the chapter. Loewen first points out those explorers before Columbus are never mentioned and other important incidents and facts like the Arawaks, African and Phoenician predecessors, Las Casas, etc. The half-truths glorify the oppressors like Columbus and of 15th century European world domination. Therefore, the history of the 15th century does not portray the social and political changes rather present unconnected incidents.
Chapter 3 shows the mythification of the concept of Thanksgiving and the origin of the nation in 1620. The history books start the settlement story of America with the Pilgrims and leave out the Natives and the Spanish. Further, the chapter shows that the idea the history books portray is that the Natives were isolated groups of primitives. Rather Loewen shows that they run interconnected settlements. American history has suppressed all that is awkward. American history was equally violent or oppressive as any other history of the world. However, American history avoids the bad tales and brings forth only the good stories to the students.
The book is an eye-opener to various aspects of American historical mythologies. The point of departure from truth in history textbooks is capable of creating a falsified impression of the facts and this distorts the basic ideas of generations of Americans. The book by Loewen brings out the ideas and beliefs of the past that the government intends to create through discourses of textbooks. The book is essentially a critique of the historical details presented in the textbooks of American schools. The textbooks glorify America and everything American. Further, the textbooks avoid the historical facts to re-create the history of the oppressors (i.e. the Europeans settling in America) and completely avoid the natives. Loewen tries to put forth the argument that national history should be able to invoke pride and national identity among young Americans, but this should not be done through falsification and distortion of truth. Falsification and non-revelation of historical facts deliberately negates the rights of students and their right to knowledge. The book supports the idea that history is written by people ho win the war and those who lose are erased into oblivion. The book also presents a question to the American concept of transparency and information disclosure – if the basic historical facts are deliberately distorted, can the rest of the American public documents like newspapers or government memorandums be trusted? The book by Loewen raises serious questions in the reader’s minds that extend beyond the history textbooks.
Introducing the title ‘Lies My Teacher Told Me’ Loewen criticizes the distaste for history the American students have. Students with African American, Latino, and Native American backgrounds approach history always with a particular distaste. This dislike has been observed by almost all the history teachers. At the same time, he emphasizes the fact that American history is more important than any other topic since it is their own past. According to Loewen, it is the presentation of the subject that does not illuminate the past with the present, hence the past loses its relevance for the present situation, as far as the students are concerned. The very presentation of the book itself makes the book uninteresting and not memorable. At the same time, the history books have never been revised or corrected as the history profession does not spend time on them. Moreover, the textbooks do not really give a sense of the nature of history. Keeping all this in mind Loewen invites the Americans to do better on this front.
The True Importance of Christopher Columbus
Christopher could really be looked upon as the beginning point of the modern age of the Americas. Whereas, describes Loewen every school child in America remembers the date 1492, but the historians fail to record “virtually everything that is important to know about Columbus” (Loewen 1995) on the other hand the authors make up beautiful stories to humanize Columbus. The collective account given about Columbus on the history books are unfortunately not verifiable or practically wrong according to Loewen.
Due to the diversity of the culture, the historians have struggled to make equilibrium thus not offending anyone. Thus they would not leave out Arawakas, Phoenician precursors, or glorify De Soto. Similarly when Columbus is glamorized the textbook would suggest we identify with the oppressor, but the new times can not judge Columbus from our own time. It is clear that in “1493 world had not decided, for instance, that slavery was wrong. Some Indian nations enslaved other Indians. Africans enslaved other Africans. Europeans enslaved other Europeans. To attack Columbus for doing what everyone else did would be unreasonable” (Loewen 1995).
Red Eyes
Loewen argues that today’s students study Native American history through white people’s perspectives. He further claims that the overall interpretations of the authors are still shackled by conventional assumptions and semantics. He believes that it is not the authors of history but those archaeologists, ethnobotanists, linguists and physical anthropologists are the ones who could reasonably tell us about what happened in the Americas before the Europeans and Africans arrived. For actually “a significant number of archaeologists believe that people reached most part of the Americas within a thousand years” (Loewen 1995).
Loewen observes that “the Indian-White war that dominated our history from 1622 to 1850 were of considerable importance” (Loewen 1995). But to a great extent, the textbook authors have compromised on facts to let the students feel good about while studying. Hence telling Indian history to be a story of white villains might prove to be a feel-good history only for those who pertained to prove that America and whites are bad. At the same time, the native Indian community should be emphasized as a cultural asset from which everyone could learn in the future.
The Land of Opportunity
A certain part of textbooks only shares the high points of labor history. As a result, the students of America come out of high school knowing the different social classes in American society and not knowing how did these classes come about. The main reason for this narrates Loewen’s “history textbooks contain no index listing at all for social class, social stratification, class culture, income distribution, inequality or any conceivably related topic” (Loewen 1995). However, he is of the opinion that social class in a way is the single and most important variable in society. The differences in the lifestyle between the rich and the poor of the society experienced from the beginning of conception in the mother’s womb to the last hour of life in America.
Loewen complaints of the mindless teaching of historians which turns aluminize of history to be just onlookers of today’s system, not being able to criticize or defend the system. Such a situation results from the message the historians give to the young students that what American society needs to remain strong is “citizens who assent its social structure and economic system without thought” (Loewen 1995). However, such mindless teaching enables the students to live in the myth of America being the land of opportunities. Therefore, the sky is the limit for the youngsters, most of the time reaching for the sky without knowing one may not get it. He exhorts that, it is American history that holds the promise to tell the high school students that how they and their parents along with their communities and societies came to where they are now.
Down the Memory Hole
Loewen explains how strategically historians have avoided the immediate past from the textbook. Obviously, because the immediate past is known to the youngsters and thus it could become controversial, whereas, the youngsters could only relate the past to the present and know the relevance of the history only when they know and learn the past. At the same time, the immediate past for historians has already become an unknown past for their children. For instance, the lecture on the Vietnam War had become a strange topic just in ten years’ time and the lecturer received “blank looks from the students” (Loewen 1995). It would not be a surprise that the new college graduate would have very little chance of remembering the war when it is not elaborately introduced in history class.
When textbooks downplay recent history it is made “hard for the student to draw connections between the study of the past, their lives today and the issues they will face in the future” (Loewen 1995). He argues that the recent past is our important past and it has been avoided in our textbooks and the students are made to think the ancient past is more relevant. As a result, the students are deprived of the perspective to analyze the issues that most affect them.
Conclusion
The history needs to be informed with evidence and reasons. The history books are to be designed in such a way that makes sense to the student that one feels the relevance of the incidents in light of the present issues he/she is faced with. There may be controversies in history, the students have the right to know the truth and only then they could draw sense out of it.
Reference
Loewen, J. (1995) Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Text Book Got Wrong Topeka Bindery Simon and Schuster Adult Publishing Group.
One of the most significant steps in any person’s life is getting own education. In order to provide each person with proper education, it is very important to any teacher to choose the best educative models and methods and help students to enlarge own level of knowledge and practical and communicative skills.
Teacher training programs are considered to be a good start for understanding that linguistics and its diversity are important issues to discuss.
The book Relevant Linguistics: An Introduction to the Structure and Use of English for Teachers is a good source of information that provides teachers with strong background linguistic knowledge and with an opportunity to train their professional skills in order to cope with any linguistic situation that may happen during classes.
The ways of how descriptivism and prescriptivism are applied to English reading and writing, the dialects of English, which are inherent to the chosen community, and the examples of dominants dialects will be discussed in this paper.
For many reading and writing teachers, the value of learning linguistics is regarded to be considerable, because this course not only presents necessary information about language but also gives a kind of insight into one of the most significant aspects of human behavior.
The ideas of descriptivism and prescriptivism turn out to be crucial for those, who teach reading and writing English: some teachers still believe that it is important to prescribe how to speak English, and some teachers use another technology, describing how to speak English.
Many people find it very difficult to study grammar as it is a set of strict rules, which have to be followed any way by those, who want to speak correctly (Justice, 2004).
For a long period of time, educators use the prescribing approach in order to study their students what rules have to be followed, what it means to speak correctly, and why numerous exercises and practices should be used.
In fact, teachers do not want to concentrate on describing how it is to speak correctly, because they assure that following the already established rules is the only activity that has to be used.
This prescriptive approach proves that the value of reading and wiring English is closely connected to past studies and has certain grounds, which cannot be removed or neglected.
Another important issue that may raise the value of learning linguistics among reading and writing teachers is the presence of numerous dialects within one community.
English Language Learners (ELL) face too many challenges while reading and writing; the variety of dialects disturb students, and teachers have to be ready to support their students and improve the situations to teach and correct mistakes, which are made because of lack of practice and knowledge.
It may happen that certain ELL speak different dialects in one classroom; in my classroom, the dialects of British English and American English are the dominant ones, and it becomes very difficult to explain the students that both of their languages are correct, and it is not so important to discover the priority of their languages but to be able to think and speak properly.
English in the United States is considerably different from British English: various pronunciation, tones, colloquialisms, and spelling. These differences create certain challenges for tutors, who teach reading. One of the possible examples of the challenges with the dominant dialect may be observed at reading classes.
It is necessary to choose one standard for proper reading, the people, who speak these two dialects, cannot comprehend why one way of speaking and reading is appropriate and another is not.
Teaching reading and speaking is not an easy assignment for teachers, whose students prefer different dialects. Such situations help to comprehend the value of linguistics and the effectiveness of prescribing approach.
When students have one standard to follow, this provides teachers with an opportunity to use one criterion for evaluation of students’ skills. In the United States, American students, who speak American English from their birth, and the students, who have been speaking British English and now have to adapt to a new dialect, cannot achieve the same results.
This is why one of the most important teachers’ purposes is to create an atmosphere in order to support each student and not to show the priority of another.
After reading a book by Paul Justice about learning linguistics and challenges, teachers may face with, the concept of value of this course becomes more or less clear. For many reading and writing teachers, the value of learning linguistics has to be put on the first place.
The variety of dialects within one community, different levels of background knowledge and students’ attitude to the studying process require proper choice of educative programs and clear establishment of criteria.
Students have to have a chance to study linguistics on a proper level, and teachers should care about successful methods and models of teaching, which will never decrease the value of reading and writing.
Reference List
Justice, P. W. (2004) Relevant Linguistics: An Introduction to the Structure and Use of English for Teachers. Stanford, California: Center for the Study of Language and Information.
Language acquisition is a continuous process that begins early in life. The first language is usually easy to learn as it is introduced early in life. Children learn their first language through interaction with people who speak the language. This is usually easier than learning a second language as an adult.
The second or consecutive language acquisition occur simultaneously and later in life. Teaching a language can be challenging and will require understanding in order to be effective. Research on language acquisition or development has generated knowledge on the subject. This essay will discuss the development of language, and relate the theory to teaching and learning.
Language Acquisition
Challenges for teachers working on English as a Second Language
Language acquisition begins early in life. Children learn by listening and experiences in their first language. The second language is often taught and children further learn it from experiences. Teachers should look for effective methods of teaching English to their students.
The method should cater for the learning needs of all learners. The first challenge that the teacher should be able to overcome is to recognize learning challenges in their class and the needs of every student. This will help in the effective learning of a second language. The second language is often taught as a foreign language, alongside or after the acquisition of the first language. Students depend on the teacher to tell them the correct form of language.
The teacher’s challenge is to encourage students to try and learn the language on their own. This is usually a difficult task because most students are not willing to try this, particularly because they fear making mistakes. Teachers encounter students who have persistent use of their first language. The teacher can encourage students to use English only and introduce punishments to students who use their first language.
Poor class management and materials, as well as students who distract others pose a major challenge to the teachers. Discipline should be enforced. It is easy to divert from the lesson since the second language is secondary to the students. The teacher can avoid diverting the conversation and be keen to control students so that the students do not take over the class.
Teaching resources and teaching aids designed for specific needs of different second language learners are sometimes hard to get. Students deliberately see the second language as difficult and do not engage in practice. Teachers of a second language fear that incorrect model of the first language may affect the learning of the second language (Ortega 2009).
Challenges for Teachers working of English as First Language
Ortega (2009, p. 5) notes that, teachers who teach English as a First Language have challenges. The challenges include teaching materials, the design of the syllabus and learning exposure. Moreover, the techniques to be used in teaching, method of teaching, evaluation, and assessment designs are sometimes a challenge. The teacher has to come up with a method of interaction and understanding cognition of the students as they teach.
The teacher’s exposure to the language and activities used in learning in and out of class pose a challenge. The teachers depend on other stakeholders to make teaching a success. They require a certain level of autonomy to teach the language. Other problems that the teacher may experience are lack of motivation, low confidence and nervousness. Teaching the skills and cultural concerns becomes more challenging if the teacher’s native language is not English.
To make teaching less challenging, all the required teaching materials should be provided. Adequate training and a relevant syllabus should also be availed. Gibbons (2006, p. 45) mentions that, the method of assessment, evaluation, and techniques used should go hand in hand with the needs of the students. If one of the requirements is missing, the process of teaching a language may not yield the desired results.
Reference List
Gibbons, P 2006, Bridge Discourses in the ESL Classroom, Continuum, London.
Lightbown, M & Spada, N 2006, How languages are learned, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Ortega, L 2009, Understanding Second Language Acquisition, Hodder, London.
Saville- Troike, M 2006, Introduction to second Language Acquisition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
English is the most widely spoken language in the world today. Stemming from the British Empire dominance in the early days of civilization, former colonies of Britain either adopted English as their official language or as their second most important language after some indigenous languages.
Because its used in international instruction, learning English as a second language is a necessary undertaking for students and instructors especially given the dominance of the US and UK in global economics and politics. In Asia, all the learners whose first language is not English study the language as their second language.
ESL (English as a second language), ESOL (English for speakers of other languages), EFL (English as a foreign language) all refer to the learning of English by people whose fist language is not English. They may also refer to the use of the language by the same group.
Teaching of English is also referred to in different terms summarized in popular acronyms. ELT (English language teaching), TESL (Teaching English as a second language), TESOL (Teaching English to speakers of other languages), and TEFL (Teaching English as a foreign language) all referred to teaching English to non-native speakers.
There are many more terms used to describe teaching and learning g English. However, this research concentrated on the TESOL, which primarily involves the teaching of English to speakers of other language.
Learners and instructors of English all over the world including countries that have English as their first language have trouble in the process. According to Brown et al (1983), the difficulties that these learners face are especially compounded in situations where the native language is different from English like in Asia (p. 50).
Through contrastive analysis, for instance it’s easy to conclude that a person of Chinese origin will have difficulties studying English compared to a French man because of the close relationship French has with English. Errors relating to syntax and pronunciation emanating form the influence of first language weigh heavily on learners, which easily discourages the learners.
Demoralization of both parties can easily set in if no steps are taken to address the challenges that face such instruction. This paper therefore largely explored the elements of motivation in the foreign language teaching after tackling the problems that face the process such as anxiety.
The research also reviewed various existing literature on the subject of motivation strategies that have been put in place to ensure learners and instructors successfully deal with the challenges that they face in their course of learning.
Motivation and Foreign Language Learning
Motivation is important in foreign language learning because it helps students the morale to pursue the studies despite the challenges associated with it. In Asia, like many parts of the world where English is studied as a second language, its important for learners to be motivated to ensure they don’t drop out of the ESL classes besides helping them better their performance.
According to Moriam, who carried out extensive research on ESL in Asia, motivation and language learning strategies are the most valued variables that help highlight the differences that exist in individual learners (2008 p.51). According to Moriam (2008) quoting Oxford & Nyikos (1989), self-perception motivation was the most important variable in influencing the strategy that a foreign language learner adopted (p. 52).
Similarly, motivated students of foreign languages in Asia have been found to be engaged in the use of learning strategies of all categories compared to less motivated learners.
Further, Moriam quotes Ehrman & Oxford (1995), who in another study found out that there is strong correlation between the motivation and strategy employment in foreign language learning. This study concluded that motivation had a positive relationship with the strategies used in language learning especially in settings such as TESOL in Asia.
According to MacIntyre & Noels (1996), situational learning attitude, integration, and foreign language anxiety were related with motivation in foreign language learning as well as strategy that is used in the learning approach among Asian learners. According to Schmidt et al (1996), the learning strategies of foreign language learners’ preferences for strategies and motivations are more or less the same.
Gardner et al (1997), says that there is significant relationship between the use of motivation and strategy in the learning g of foreign languages in Asia but achievement or success in the target language was not explicitly y related to the above.
Influences of the Motivation
Influences of motivation help students engage in activities that help reinforce motivation among learners. They help them keep a positive mind and attitude towards learning ESL. The influences of motivation to English speaking among foreign language learners in Asia, can take many forms.
According to Stein (2004), it’s important to positively reinforce the minds of learners, set clear goals and instructions in the foreign language classes create elements of surprise, encourage friendly competition while at the same time spicing up the student life in foreign language classes (150).
Influences of motivation among Asian learners according to Stein (2004) should be put in place to ensure learners are not overwhelmed in the course of the study.
The influences of motivation will ensure students develop a positive attitude to study the language even in the absence of instructors. Students will as a result be more confident in the employment of the strategies to avoid the anxiety associated with the learning of foreign languages.
Influences of English Speaking Ability
These factors determine the ability of learners to develop their ability to speak English. They largely involve the strategies that these students employ.
English speaking ability according to many scholars is a direct result of the strategies that both learners and instructors employ. The English speaking ability for foreign learners inn Asia can only be natured through assistance accorded by instructors.
Its important to note that the same style that is used in the US, UK and other countries that have English, as their first language is not the same that is used by learners taking ESL learners in Asia. In the Countries mentioned above, learning is more students centered and more often than not students do not lay emphasis on group discussions and communications (Neuman et al. 2006 p. 56).
However, those students taking English as their second language in Asia need to engage more in-group discussion to enhance their skills. Moreover, it will help them because their backgrounds are not English oriented, unlike say American or British learners whose families speak English hence playing a big role in the language development.
Foe Asian learners, language acquisition techniques like vocabulary, listening, and speaking tasks are primarily aimed at improving the speaking ability of the learners. It’s therefore imperative for learners to engage more in activities that help in the development of the above through strategies especially those of socio=affective nature.
One of the strategies that are recommended by experts that will help Asian students improve their speaking ability is the use of first language during instructions. Students through L1 are able to better express thoughts especially when their language skills have not fully matured (Neuman et al. 2006 p. 60).
Speaking ability has been shown to be greatly influenced by the strategies employed by the students. Many researchers have proven that learners more often than not employ meta-cognitive strategies compared to socio-affective strategies.
On the other hand, cognitive strategies are the most used by these learners. It’s therefore important for learners and instructors fuse all the strategies in triangulation so as to achieve the best results in speaking ability.
Anxiety in Foreign Language Learning
Learning of English as a foreign language Is not always smooth. Many learners in Asia like all other ESL learners experience many problems including Foreign Language Anxiety.
According to Young (1992), FLA is quite common among Asian ESL university students and other learners who are taking a foreign language class (p. 67). Young (1992) further adds that sometimes the anxiety is quite severe to the point that learners have difficulty in concentrating, sweat, become forgetful, and exhibit avoidance of the lessons (p 25).
Many instructors according to Young (1991) assume that lack of motivation among students when they exhibit anxiety symptoms in the TESOL classes (p.79). He further adds that a study carried out among Asian language instructors whose fist language is not what they are instructing also reported some anxieties comparable to those that occur in students. It’s important to understand the, meaning of FLA before any analysis is done.
FLA can be described as the feelings of worry, uneasiness, nervousness, or apprehension that native learners experience when using or learning the language. According to Selami et al (n.d), anxiety is the power less state where a person is an emotional state and an individual perceives and prepares for danger (p. 2).
Selami et al (n.d) quoting Gardner (1985) says that language anxiety is a complex state where self-perceptions, beliefs feelings, and behaviors arise from the unique setting that is brought or set by the learning of a foreign language. (p. 2). Selami et al (n.d) further FLA as the apprehension that arises when a situation demands the use of a foreign language, which the individual thinks he/she is not proficient in (p. 3).
The language can be English or any other foreign language that a learner may be involved in. According to experts, any second language context is likely to cause un-easiness when learning one or both productive skills or perceptive skills.
According to psychologists, FLA is a specific anxiety reaction that occurs in the anxiety contexts where some individual may feel more anxious in some situations than others do (Huitt 2007 p. 84). Its human nature for one to be anxious when engaging in activities such as foreign language learning. A detailed look at the causes will help many in understanding FLA.
Causes
Experts cannot precisely point to specific causes of foreign language anxiety. However, Selami et al (n.d) cites listening and speaking as the most common causes of FLA (p. 45). Selami et al (n.d) asserts that students in TESOL classes cite numerous causes of FLA. Besides the causes cited in the above section, Von Worde lists speaking activities on top of the list that students feel are the chief cause of anxiety.
Also cited are incomprehension, negative and unfavorable experiences in the classrooms, native speakers, and methodology used in the instruction, and pedagogical practices used in the instruction of foreign languages (p. 109).
The activities under these broad categories of causes account on most times, the anxiety that learners feel. According to Crookall & Oxford (1991), uncertainty relating to communication apprehension, fear of negative evaluation and test anxiety contributes to the uneasiness that breeds FLA (p. 307).
When the learners listen to other individuals or when they participate in speaking activities, they are more likely to suffer from communication apprehension. Selami et al (n.d) adds that more often than not, these individuals have mature ideas and valid points of communication but lack of confidence in their expression skills of the language they study holds them back from expressing themselves (p.4).
The fear from failure of low performance breeds test anxiety while negative evaluation is brought by the fear of judgment from onlookers, classmates, and instructors. According to Selami et al (n.d) this fear stems form the fact that the learners think they cannot make a good impression of themselves before others (p.4).
If in all the above cases, the learners feel that their language ability is scrutinized and negative feedback is likely to be given, their anxiety levels rise. Selami et al concludes that these learners have pre-conceived perceptions about failure and their lack of confidence in their skills level compounds the situation. This apprehension compounds their fear in academic failure that may actually lead o actual failing (p. 4).
Speaking Anxiety in Foreign Language Learning
The anxiety that ESL learners is according to psychologists perfectly normal. Psychologists classify fear of public speaking and oral communication activities that have a psychological dimension. Giving speeches in public according to some scholars is comparable to other human fears such as phobias for snakes and heights.
Learners in foreign languages have a Herculean task when speaking the new language since they are expected to perform impeccably. Young (1992) says that more often than not, it ends up exposing their inadequacies that generate panic and fear (p. 90).
Pedagogical and instructional practices
This relates to the test anxiety that has been discussed above. The most stressing of the tests that many students cite are the listening and oral tests. Many scholars have different views about the pedagogical and instructional practices as explored here.
According to Liu & Jackson, some students complain that classes move quickly hence, they do not have enough time to absorb what is given out during the lessons (2008 p. 36). Liu & Jackson further allude that students have issues with instructional styles where instructors come to class and sometimes call out names of the students in setting order to undertake a task before the class.
Its builds tension and anxiety and many students can hardly concentrate, especially those that feel that their language skills are poor. Another pedagogical concern that scholars have cited to be making a big contribution to FLA is the mode of error correction.
According to Lin (2009), some instructors reprimand students too harshly for making errors. Such unwarranted correction by instructors according to Lin contributes to a student loosing focus and makes them feel stupid. The likely outcome of such a scenario is anxiety anytime the learner attends the class.
FLA is a negative development in any ESL class. This research therefore won’t be complete if the effects of FLA are not tackled.
Effects
The effects of foreign language anxiety cannot be overstated. According to Horwitz & Young (1991), many studies have concluded that FLA greatly impedes the production and achievement of foreign language development (p. 4). In fact, a report by Campbell & Oritz concluded that almost half the population of learners of foreign languages suffers from FLA (1991 p. 86).
The report further concluded that the FLA that these learners experience pose potential challenges though hindering the acquisition, retention, and proclivity of the language skills that the learner acquires (p.10). The most vulnerable bit is the academic performance of the student.
Kroll (2003) emphasizes this point by saying that research by various scholars has concluded that FLA is the leading cause of a drop in students’ confidence, self-esteem and level of participation in TESOL classes (p. 173). Anxiety leads to the erection of mental blocks that during TESOL classes. Learners’ confidence wanes and they are likely to employ avoidance strategies to the lessons.
They also lack the confidence to do a self-assessment to identify their weaknesses. According to Kroll (2003) anxious students tend to be forgetful easily forgetting the lesson contents besides showing little or no interest in participating in class (p. 178). The learners rarely ask questions nor do they answer questions and show passiveness in class work activities.
Crookall & Oxford say that the effects of FLA extend outside the classroom. The biggest a casualty of this is the showing of communication apprehension where anxious individuals will be less willing to communicate, tend to be quiet. The lack of communication easily wrecks havoc on their social life where these individuals are easily considered anti social, untrustworthy, physically attractive, tense, and less competent (1991, p.47).
Krashen (1985) as quoted in Olah (2006) alluded that FLA contributes to major inhibition of a learner’s ability to process incoming language skills effectively short-circuiting the process of acquisition. Anxiety impairs the cognitive function the learners interfering with the interaction that is present among anxiety, task difficulty, and ability to understand.
As a result, learners who show anxiety may acquire less skill besides being unable to put to practice to what they have learnt. Because self-confidence, ego and self-esteem is considerably bruised, learners encounter difficulty in achieving proficiency in the second language (Crookall & Oxford (1991 p. 45).
Motivation Strategies for Oral English Proficiency
Numerous strategies are used by ESL learners. These strategies vary according to student preferences as well as the environment where the teaching is conducted. Many scholars have different views about the strategies.
Its therefore important that their views are looked into to gain an insight about the strategies used by learners. These authors have various definitions and meanings attached to the motivation strategies for achieving proficiency in English.
A study carried out by Olah (2006) among Japanese ESL learners concluded social strategies that are used in universities and high schools in the teaching of English played a big part in achieving proficiency in the language (p. 1). Mingyuan (n.d) says that there is great variance in the speed of learning bys students in a language class despite having access to the same teaching staff and learning materials (p. 51).
According to Mingyuan, the individual differences that learners have constitute the basis of the variable that determines language learning outcomes and proficiency (n.d, p. 51). Mingyuan seems to pay emphasis individual learning strategies employed by individuals in their quest for proficiency.
According to Green & McGroarty (1985) as quoted by Mingyuan (n.d), learners who better in their own languages showed better proficiency levels in their foreign language learning. At the same time, these learners showed a greater tendency in to use greater and frequent use of strategy.
According to Mingyuan (n.d), learning strategies that lead to proficiency can be defined as the mental and/or behavioral activities employed by students that or learners of language use and/language on the overall learning process or some specific stage of language use and/ or acquisition (p. 52).
According to McGuinness (2004), definition of language proficiency and the strategies used independent on the classification that language experts have attached to language learning strategies. McGuinness further points out that there are two main ways of classifying language acquisition strategies (p.53.).
McGuinness says that two main classification methods have been in existence and are most commonly used in the classification of strategy. According to McGuinness, one involves Oxford et al (1987) which laid emphasis on five factors general habits of study, functional practice, meaning of speaking and communication independent study and practice and use of mnemonic devices.
McGuinness (2004) reckons that all strategies that are formulated to assist in TESOL learning should be influence by the above factors. They should adhere to most if not all of the elements that are described above.
There are however other strategy classifications presented by other authors. According to Chamot (1990) as quoted by Mingyuan (n.d p. 53). According to him, strategies helping in improving language proficiency and acquisition must fall within the metacognitive, socio-affective, and cognitive categories.
However, it’s important to not that proficiency is achieved through many independence strategies that may sometimes depend on n individual or a group of learners.
It is important to note that proficiency as used here refers to the accurate use of the language in this case English and relative ease in the expression by the learner (Hsu 2004 p. 19).
According to Olah, there was a significant correlation between memory, social and cognitive strategies and high level of proficiency experiences by the students under study (p. 187). One of the most important observations by Olah is that some strategies designed to motivate foreign language learners have proved unsuccessful.
He adds that in fact, the strategies have proved detrimental in the development of proficiency among foreign language learners in other words, not all motivation techniques are efficient in the teaching of English to foreign learners.
On the other hand, Olah (1996) defines second language learning strategies as steps that are employed by both instructors and students with the aim of improving learning of the second language, the use of it or both the above goals (2006 p. 189).
Olah also quotes O’Malley & Chamot (1990) who define strategies used in foreign language learning as the special behaviors and thoughts that learners put to use to help them grasp information about a subject, in this case English. The important point Olah brings out in the two definitions above is the contrast between them.
The former definition laid emphasis on steps and actions while the latter stressed on thoughts and behavioral processes. It is important therefore that any strategies that instructors and learners employ consider the above elements. They are important for their successes and the achievement of proficiency.
According to Jin & Cortazzi (1998), the strategies that may be formulated and used in foreign language learning must fall or conform to the elements of the Oxford Strategy Inventory for Language Learning factors (p.21). The groups that Oxford formulated have a number of items that help in guiding strategy formulators.
According to Chan et al (2002), memory strategies that have under them nine items are the recommended by the Oxford research. The strategies include; elements such as use of imagery, rhyming, use of groups and structured reviewing.
A brief look into them will help understand how they work.
There are cognitive strategies that include reasoning, analyzing summary and general practicing. These strategies reflect deep processing that needs to be employed by the learner for him/ her to comprehend fully the language under study.
There are also compensation strategies that help in bridging the gap in the cases of limited knowledge. Instructors may engage learners in guessing meanings, and using gestures for the conveyance of meanings in cases where expressions are ambiguous.
In the learning of foreign languages, there should be metacognitive strategies. They include encouraging learners to pay attention to lessons, engaging in practice activities and opportunities, self-evaluation, monitoring, and doing more language tasks for self-improvement.
There must also be affective strategies that cater for the emotional needs of the learners. These strategies come in handy in the reduction of anxiety and self-encouragement that learners need ton progress in their language class.
Finally, there are the social strategies that help learners cooperate with native speakers to get a first hand feel of what communicating in the language is. The strategies help learners be culturally aware of their language they are studying and begin to appreciate and participate in the cultural activities associated with the language.
Despite the differences in strategy classification, all scholars agree that there is a big relation between the use of learning strategies and achievement of proficiency in foreign language learning.
Some of the approaches that fall within the above-defined categories and those that have been used in the achievements of proficiency results in TESOL include the use of communicative teaching approach, reduction of the level of task difficulty and building of a supportive learning environment for the learners.
Tackling the strategies in general does not give a comprehensive view on the techniques used in achieving proficiency among ESL learners especially Asian learners. It’s therefore important for the research to focus a detailed look at the individual strategies.
Communicative Language Teaching Approach (CLT)
This is one of the most important techniques in ESL teaching and that is equally important in the use among Asian learners. The technique began in the 1960’s in the UK as replacement for the structural method that was in place. Situational Language Teaching, which preceded CLT, was much criticized by scholars as not being all-encompassing in teaching English especially for foreign learners.
According to Kirsten & Sharon (2008), the functional view of language is the main theory behind CLT. They further add that despite the absence of literature on the theory, there are principles behind its existence and its operation.
According to Kirsten & Sharon (2008), the approach that is CLT involves activities that promote communication and learning (70). In the activities, language is actively used while undertaking tasks that promote learning. Similarly, learners get to use meaningful language that promotes learning (Kirsten & Sharon 2008 p. 73).
According to Swan (1985), the objectives of CLT emphasize the proficiency of the language especially English. The objectives ensure learners active proficiency by using the language they study in TESOL classes as a means of expression.
The students will also use the language as a means of expressing values and judgments in their everyday life activities. CLT also aims helping students achieve proficiency through expression of functions that meet their communication needs.
According to Swan (1985), CLT uses any activity that helps learners engage in authentic communication. Despite the generalization, Swan distinguishes two types of major activities that instructors should help learners engage in. the broad categories include functional communicative activities. These skills learners develop language skills and functions.
However, these activities must involve communication, which is central to the successful application of this strategy. Like other scholars, Swan also recommends social activities including role-plays, conversations, and discussions in the application of CLT (Gardner et al 2004 p. 34).
Communicative Language approach has been touted as one of the most efficient ways to help learners achieve proficiency in foreign language learning (Abbot 2000 p. 54). According to Harmer (2003), CLT as a method of teaching foreign language lays emphasis on the interaction of the participants as the main mode of learning (p. 45).
Harmer (2003) adds that the techniques has a close relationship with and serves as a response to the use of audio-lingual method. It can also serve as the extension of the notional function syllabus, which makes use of tasks in its learning approach in foreign languages.
Bax (2003) says that the technique is useful especially because it uses real life situations that require communication. Mostly, the instructor sets the situation which learners are likely to encounter in their real life experiences.
According to Abbot (2000), CLT can be described as asset of principles that help language instructors in teaching TESOL classes. It helps define the classroom activities that instructors and learners have to engage in to ensure proficiency in the foreign language being studied is achieved (p. 1). Abbot adds that the main goals of CLT are to achieve communication competence among the learners (2000 p. 97).
CLT according to Richards helps learners’ active communicative competence through grammatical competence. According to Abbot (2000), communicative competence that is achieved through CLT includes a number of aspects that help in foreign language proficiency. It helps the use of the language under study for different function and purposes.
It also helps learners know how to use language in different settings for instance in formal and informal settings. CLT will help learners achieve communicative competence though understanding of different texts for instance in sports, narrative and conversations.
Most importantly, according to Abbot (2000), CLT helps learners achieve communicative competence through imparting of skills that help them maintain a conversation even if one has limitations in the languages being studied (2000 p. 3).
It’s important to note that CLT cannot succeed by its mere application. Many other factors should also be taken to consideration when applying CLT (Bax 2007). Many instructors prefer the use of CLT because it offers real life situations hence helping learners internalize the skills and how they are applied.
Reduce the Level of Task Difficulty
Task difficulty has been cited by Asian foreign language students and indeed other ESL learners as one of the leading causes of the course abandonment. Reducing the level of difficulty of the tasks carried out in and out of class is one of the best ways of ensuring ESL learners in Asia and elsewhere in the world stay and complete the course.
According to (Wharton 2000), many TESOL learners become reluctant in speaking the foreign language they are studying in class because of the difficulty of tasks that are issued by instructors (p. 90). Difficult tasks in foreign language classes demotivate students by making them develop a negative attitude towards learning the language.
According to Nation (2007), learners of foreign languages especially in TESOL classes can only perform tasks well id they have enough knowledge about the language they are studying. Many learners who fall in this predicament of tackling difficult tasks with limited knowledge are always unwilling to talk.
Many scholars have suggested many remedial measures aimed at addressing reduction of difficult task to TESOL learners.
Ellis (2005) suggests allocating more time to tasks that students are given during and after class hours (p. 76). Ellis further says that this can be done through allowing students more preparation time. This he says will help them undertake tasks without operating under undue pressures.
Preparation is key to learning in TESOL classes and learners will participation with relative ease when they are allowed enough time to do tasks within the knowledge context that they possess.
Nation (2000) asserts that it’s also important to allocate students tasks that are within their level of experience. Accordingly, Nation says that instructors should consider the background knowledge and experience of the learners before issuing tasks.
He suggests instructors pre-teach orals skill to learners before communicative tasks are allocated. Ellis (2005) adds that its important for instructors to grade the difficulty of the tasks they assign students before actual assignment is done.
Difficulty of tasks is significantly reduced when learners work in collaboration with each other. (Tsiplakides & Keramida, 2010), say that students or learner should be allocated tasks where each of them has a role to play (p. 106).
The role that the learner should reflect his/her strong points. Collaboration will help weak students improve areas. Its also helps reduce tension that is involved in engaging individual students in the TESOL class. Nation (2000) adds that collaboration is best achieved through pairing students or through group work.
One of the most common causes of anxiety cited by learners of foreign languages was lack of guidance or wrong approached by instructors. Similarly, lack of guidance from instructors is one of the factors that complicate tasks fro learners.
Nation (2000) says that guidance by instructors can be done through repeated input from teachers, guiding questions, and multiple-choice questions. Guidance will help students grasp task concepts they are not used to. It contributes greatly to the easiness that learners need to understand the language they are studying (McKay et al. 2008 p. 154).
In the quest to ensure tasks allocated to the learners are easy to understand, instructors are encouraged to attend to learners individually. According to (Oxford, 1999), every student has his/her unique needs and abilities (p. 97). Oxford adds that students can never perform on the same level regardless. He suggests development of different tasks that suit different levels of understanding as exhibited by learners.
Nation (2000) further advises that instructors should always adjust task demands in accordance to learners’ oral competence and individual ability levels. Scholars however advise that helping students overcome difficult tasks should be some sort of last resort help.
Instructors are advised to let students tackle the tasks first on their own before they get any help from teachers. That way they will be able to identify the areas that they think they have problems with for instructors to help in solving.
Build a Supportive Learning Environment
Learning can’t take place without the support of teachers. Teachers have a primary task of ensuring the learning g environment is favorable for students to learn. Different scholars have different views on the need to have a supportive environment for ESL learners and, how it should be done. There views will help in articulating an insight into this strategy.
According to Tsui, foreign language learners need support from teachers and peers to succeed in the TESOL classes. The support forms part of the conducive environment that learners need (1996 p. 34). With the right environmental support, learners of foreign languages are more willing to speak in the language they are studying. A supportive environment can be achieved through numerous techniques.
One of the most successful techniques that ensure a conducive environment for foreign language learners is the presence of peer support in the classrooms (p. 40). Tsui says that instructors should consider allowing learners to countercheck their answers to their classmates before presentation.
That ways, Tsui says the students will be encouraged to speak up on the difficulties they encounter. According to Wharton (2000), the students can also be encouraged to hold discussions with their peers before any presentations made to the class (p. 209). That way, the students get to put to practice the communicative skills they have learnt besides gaining confidence about their spoken language.
According to Naughton (2006), it’s important that instructors be sensitive when grouping students to study groups (p. 169). A group environment helps students open up and learn better the target language. However, when grouped with group members they are not familiar with, students are not likely to open up.
McCroskey & Richmond says that many students will feel comfortable when assigned into groups with their close friends (1991 p. 84). Because the main aim is to ensure conversations in the target language, it is therefore important for instructors to group them with people they are comfortable with. They further add that the instructor can go a step further and allow students choose whom they would like to be groups with.
Another strategy that can make learning environments be conducive is through allowing students to use their first language in class, but only where necessary (Zhang & Goh 2006, p. 48). Nation (1997) says that students sometimes have difficulty in conveying messages in the target language especially when their skills are in the language are low (p. 205).
Nation adds that instructors should be positive and flexible in the use of the first language since its crucial in helping foreign language learners express their thought. He further says that the instructor’s attitude is important because it determines behavior of the students in the foreign language class. Students can easily feel humiliated through the instructor’s attitude towards their first language.
Many students find the classroom environment where they study foreign language to be threatening. According to Oxford (1999), it’s important that instructors ensure that the classroom environment where language study takes place is non threatening (p.101). The atmosphere and attitudes of both learners and instructors should be favorable to so as not to scare students from making communicative mistakes.
Young (1991) lists such mistakes as correction of students mistakes on the spot, random calling of students and calling on students when he /she appears to be not concentrating, he says that such actions only act to bring anxiety among the learners and minimal learning can only take place.
Promote Positive Attitudes among Students
Attitude determines to a great extent success in any learning activity. Promotion of a positive attitude among the students will help in improving their view ESL learning process.
According to (Tsiplakides & Keramida, 2010), students that have positive attitudes towards learning in the TESOL classes are less likely to have FLA and are more likely to participate actively in class work (65). The question therefore is how instructors and course directors create positive leaning environment where every learner will feel free to learn.
Young suggests a teacher learner centered discussion where both parties will discuss the importance of language use (1991 p. 83). Through discussions such as the above, learners will begin to appreciate the use of the language even if its not neither fluent nor accurate. Furthermore, the instructors and students can engage each other in oral activities, which will be guided by specific goals (2007 p. 39).
The oral activities that students and instructors will engage in will be rewarded accordingly to encourage students who in turn will change their perceptions about the use of the language. They will also learn to accept their mistakes.
According to Oxford (1999), instructors should always seek to boost students’ self-confidence. Course instructors and directors should come up with opportunities that will create classroom success (p. 47).
The sense of success and achievement that will be brought by self-perceived competence in communication will help boost their confidence. This can be done through the allocation of simple tasks that students can easily tackle. The sense of achievement that the students will feel will greatly help in boosting their confidence.
Lowering anxiety in the classroom is touted as one of the biggest steps instructors can employ in their quest to lay the development of language skill in foreign language learners.
Young (1991) says that it will help a lot if teachers of these students can dedicate some of their time in finding out what the sources of anxiety for the students are. The information they will gather will help in formulating strategies on how to overcome these anxieties.
References
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Bax, S. (2003) The end of CLT: a context approach to language teaching.London: Cengage Learning.
Bax, S. (2007) The end of CLT: A context approach to language teaching: London: Sage Publishers.
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ESL is the acronym for English as the Second Language. It is usually a program that helps foreigners in English speaking countries to learn the language in a systematic way.
The students are typically learning the basics of the language so that they can have confidence in their accomplishments career wise. They also learn some cultural attributes of the country so that they acquaint themselves with the basic information (García Mayo and Garcia Lecumberri, 2003).
Speaking a second or foreign language is usually a daunting task, but it makes one appreciate other people’s style.
There are primary schools that have such programs to enable the non-citizens to get used to the English language and be able to adapt quickly to the new system.
Other countries that do not speak English can also have an arrangement to aid citizens who wish to learn the language in preparation for international engagements (Mohan, Leung and Davison, 2001). Students would have to learn the English alphabet and some nouns.
Vowels are also important because they help form a word and or a sentence. They have to learn how to pronounce letters, words and read short sentences as beginners. Some assignments would also help them to test their memory. The teacher can also be asking each student to read some words and phrases loudly in class as others listen.
The students would also need visual charts on the walls of the classroom. The charts would support the students’ learning skills. When the students enter their classrooms they can have some visual reminders (Copper, 2002). The teacher in charge would have to keep up with the recap of previous lessons.
The English grammar has idioms, vocabulary, phrasal verbs, adjectives, and among other complex tools that make the language and or the subject very attractive. It is also one of the widest spoken languages in the world (Shastri, 2010).
Teaching vocabularies is also one very difficult but exciting task. One needs to prepare some vocabulary words at a time. It may not be easy for the young minds to grasp many things at once. The teacher can introduce the words one by one in each class session (Hugo, 2009).
There are normally classes for beginners, intermediate, and advanced level students. The more the student advances from one level to the next the more difficult the words that the teacher introduces.
Learners appreciate gradual development of the language aids because it helps in their improvement of the language. Some learning institutions have installed modern technology in their primary level classrooms. One may find computers, laptops and accessibility to the internet.
Students in such institutions could even have online teaching aids. They can quickly log in and recap on what they have learned in class or even advance ahead of the class by learning more helpful tips to the language knowledge (BavaHarji, Letchumanan and Bhar, 2014).
The class assignments would help the teacher know how well the students understand their lessons. The tutor can prepare those assignments after every lesson, weekly and monthly. The teacher can also give homework for the students to have some busy learning time at home (Abbasnasab Sardareh and Rashid Mohd Saad, 2013).
At the end of every term, the teacher and the learning institution can also arrange to have end term exams. The results of the marking of those exams can help make a judgment on the learning experiences of the students. The teacher can then know what to revise and begin with for the next term.
It is not an easy task for teachers. It requires patience, commitment, and sacrifice. But after the classes are over, the effort brings out positive results. The students have to know how to communicate using the English vocabulary.
References
Abbasnasab Sardareh, S. and Rashid Mohd Saad, M. (2013). Malaysian Primary School ESL Teachers’ Questions during Assessment for Learning. English Language Teaching, 6(8).
BavaHarji, M., Letchumanan, K. and Bhar, S. (2014). Feasibility of Building Bridges Between School and Homes in Developing ESL Literacy: The SPIRE Project. English Language Teaching, 7(9).
Copper, L. (2002). Cross-cultural preference of visual information in primary school ESL children. Proc. Am. Soc. Info. Sci. Tech., 39(1), pp.359-364.
García Mayo, M. and Garcia Lecumberri, M. (2003). Age and the acquisition of English as a foreign language. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Hugo, A. (2009). Primary school teachers’ opinions of their ESL learners’ language abilities. J. Lang. Teach., 42(2).
Mohan, B., Leung, C. and Davison, C. (2001). English as a second language in the mainstream. Harlow, England: Longman.
Shastri, P. (2010). Communicative approach to the teaching of English as a second language. Mumbai: Himalaya Pub. House.