Category: Teaching

Introduction

Discourse analysis is a study that aims at discussing the relations that exist between language and the context of use (McCarthy 1991). Discourse is defined as something that people talk about. Therefore, it has to be properly analysed and understood. In this paper, the article written by Eshita Awal and Homayra Binte Bahar for the Journal of Humanities and Social Science about the significance of linguistic and communicative competences and the worth of discourse analysis will be analysed. The critique of this article helps to develop an understanding of discourse analysis that can be used by linguistic teachers and also the ways of thinking different authors introduce in their writings.

Evaluation of the Purpose, Research Questions, Rationale, and Significance of the Study

The authors of the chosen article believe that discourse analysis is a significant tool that provides teachers and learners with an opportunity to develop adequate and practical knowledge and become linguistically efficient with time (Awal & Bahar 2013). The purpose of the article is to investigate learners levels of competence and clarify how useful discourse analysis can be for learners and teachers. To achieve the goal, the authors establish several crucial objectives like the identification of how the techniques of discourse analysis may be adopted, the clarification of what the functional usage of the target language is, and the discussion of the pedagogical approach in discourse analysis.

The main research question is to check if the devices of discourse analysis can be properly used by learners and teachers to demonstrate their linguistic competence and prove their communicative competence. The rationale of the article is to favour teaching language as a linguistic phenomenon with the help of which communicative competence may be proved. The authors explain that language has to be interpreted as a psychological phenomenon and a social issue with the help of which the process of learning a language can be justified and improved from the structural and conceptual points of view.

The significance of the study is the possibility to interpret communicative competence and combine its worth with linguistic competence and discourse analysis. People should realise that there are many rules and standards that have to be considered in a particular context. It is important to remember about cultural and social norms, values, and knowledge and use discourse analysis to understand contexts and use appropriate practices. The development of linguistic, socio-linguistic, discourses, and strategic skills is integral for learners and teachers.

Taking into consideration the information obtained from the article, it is possible to say that the goals and rationale are properly introduced in the paper. Though the authors do not develop clear research questions, it is easy to find out the essence of the chosen article.

Theoretical Framework and Literature Review

Any discourse analysis is a successful employment of methods and theoretical principles. It is a strong combination of different activities in social life (Awal & Bahar 2013). In addition to the pedagogical approach in terms of which discourse analysis is discussed, the interactions of the language are discussed through Chomskys competence theory the goal of which is to prove that the primary role of language is to promote communication and convey messages.

Therefore, communicative competence is crucial for discourse analysis, as well as the use of discourse analysis is critical for the development of communicative competence. In addition to this theory, the authors mention several theoretical perspectives which may strengthen discourse analysis, e.g. speech act theory, ethnography of communication, conversational analysis, or pragmatism (Awal & Bahar 2013).

Other authors suggest additional theories to improve discourse analysis regarding linguistics. For example, Tsui (2011) introduces an information-processing theory of learning as a means to investigate classroom discourse research. Liu and Braine (2005) and Mohamed-Sayidina (2010) rely on the ideas developed through cohesion theory and use it as the main framework for their discussion. In the article under analysis, the authors do not specify the theoretical framework and the measurements that have to be met. Their goal is to discuss and evaluate the material available on the topic and introduce the examples with the help of which discourse analysis can be developed and explained.

The review of the literature is one of the main methods of gathering information. There are 14 sources referenced in the article, and several sources used through the article. The authors use several old sources dated in 1983 and earlier to introduce the basics on which they can rely and develop their investigation of discourse analysis and communicative competence of learners. In fact, the choice of such sources can be justified because a number of authors introduced their powerful ideas and thoughts about discourse analysis between the 1980s and the 1990s.

For example, similar ideas can be found if the Wells article where discourse analysis and genres are introduced as separate semiotic tools for action (Wells 1993). Awal and Bahar (2013), as well as Walsh (2012) and Jiang (2012), believe that a thorough understanding of discourse analysis may have a strong impact on a learning process, especially when learning is defined as a social activity with the necessity of engagement and participation. Still, despite the evident strengths of the article and the approach chosen by the author, the literature review is not as strong as it could be due to a small number of up-to-date sources and comparison. The authors find it appropriate to rely on their experiences and understanding and share their visions of the matter.

Methodology

In the article, not much attention is paid to the methodology and the steps taken for the analysis of the material. The authors indicate the failure of CLT approaches as the stimulus to discover new aspects of gathering information. The peculiar feature of the article is the intentions to use past experiences to prove discourse analysis as one of the best research methods for investigations of practices, skills, and knowledge. Awareness of others and their intentions should help to succeed in discourse analysis (Crane 1994; Cook 2011). In fact, the article is based on the evaluation of the already known and proved facts about communicative competence, linguistic competence, and discourse analysis as the tool that unites these two types of competence.

Findings, Conclusions, and Recommendations in the Article

The findings of the article help to realise that linguistic knowledge and the recognition of verbal and non-verbal elements turn out to be considerable parts of discourse analysis in terms of which a learner or a teacher can stay competent during the discussions. It is concluded that the development of four different skills cannot be neglected because they aim at recognising the boundaries of communication. The only recommendation that is given in the article is to continue working in the linguistic field to discover new aspects of communicative competence and succeed in understanding language in a proper way.

Conclusion

In general, the article contains enough valuable information about discourse analysis and the role of communication in this process. People may develop their thoughts and share their experience. However, the interpretation of this information has to be logically organised and defined. This article explains how discourse analysis should be organised and developed in terms of communication using linguistic knowledge.

Reference List

Awal, E & Bahar, HB 2013, Significance of linguistic competence over communicative competence enlightened through the devices of discourse analysis, Journal of Humanities and Social Science, vol. 7, no. 5, pp. 75-80.

Cook, G 2011, Discourse analysis, in J Simpson (ed), The Routledge handbook of applied linguistics, Routledge, New York, pp. 431-444.

Crane, PA 1994, Texture in text: discourse analysis of a news article using Halliday and Hasans model of cohesion. Web.

Jiang, X 2012, A study of college English classroom discourse, Theory and Practice in Language Studies, vol. 2, no. 10, pp. 2146-2152.

Liu, M & Braine, G 2005, Cohesive features in argumentative writing produced by Chinese undergraduates, System, vol. 33, pp. 623-636.

McCarthy, M 1991, Discourse analysis for language teachers, Cambridge University Press, New York.

Mohamed-Sayidina, A 2010, Transfer of LI cohesive devices and transition words into L2 academic texts: the case of Arab studies, RELC, vol. 41, no. 3, pp. 253-266.

Tsui, ABM 2011, Classroom discourse, in J Simpson (ed), The Routledge handbook of applied linguistics, Routledge, New York, pp. 274-286.

Walsh, S 2012, Conceptualising classroom interactional competence, Novitas Royal: Research on Youth and Language, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 1-14.

Wells, G 1993, Reevaluating the IRF sequence: A proposal for the articulation of theories of activity and discourse for the analysis of teaching and learning in the classroom, Linguistics and Education, vol. 5, pp. 1-37.

Learning vocabulary can sometimes become a tricky thing, one that can make even a devoted learner step back and reconsider his or her own strengths and capabilities. Teaching vocabulary, however, can be even more complicated because the tutor always needs to strike a balance between the useful but dull information and maintaining the students interest. While grammar and sentence structure are immensely important, it is the word that carries the basic meaning, and the ability to hear, comprehend and reproduce the new words will have a great impact on further understanding and learning of the language.

There are many ways of teaching the vocabulary, but most of them are variations of the same archetypical examples that most teachers use in their practice in one way or another. In fact, it would be best to try as many approaches as possible, because students actually need to be exposed to a new word in many ways, in order to grasp its meaning and understand where and how to use it. The key points in understanding and remembering the word are listening and pronunciation, which is closely related to phonology and phonetics.

When a tutor teaches a student how to pronounce a new word, he or she has to deal with the great influence of a students mother tongue. Suzanne Irujo (n.d.), and author of the article on teachin g reading to English learners, notes that being literate in ones first language can become an advantage in learning English; moreover, when the students are already familiar with phonetics and are literate in their native language, will be able to transfer these skills to other language studies (par. 1-40).

The next step in learning new vocabulary is to learn the definition of the word. At first, the best practice would be to introduce only the basic meanings of the word, limited by two or three most common meanings, if such exist. The context, in this case, should be very helpful as it allows the students to try and guess the meaning of the word on their own, in fact, it is a well-known technique for translator training. An experienced translator might able to guess about 10% words from context, but such exercise may be useful for any level of studies.

A lucky guess may stir up the students interest and encourage another try. The use of synonyms and antonyms, for example, while playing, can give better results for material revision and redundancy. In fact, games and gaming methods during the lessons today has gained popularity even among the teachers of adult groups. The editor of Simulation & Gaming Journal, David Crookall (2007) reports on the topic:

Nowadays, the use of simulation/gaming methods in language acquisition is wide-spread and encouraged. Thousands of teaching books at all levels now include various forms of role-playing, games, simulations, and other exercises. & [it] has become a hallmark of quality and creativity and is seen as a guarantee that learners would become involved, and perhaps even learn. (7)

The next large part of the learning strategy can be combined in a group with a code name Demonstration. It includes showing or drawing illustrations for a new word, acting it out with students, when such activity is possible, creating tables, systems, and scales, using words in sentences that are able to illustrate their meaning, and other activities aimed at creating a distinguished picture in ones minds eye, as well as helping to remember the usage variation and working with context.

At this phase of training, it might also be useful to dissect the words into parts to single out the meaning of each part. Such activity is sometimes called root analysis and can be very useful for later individual work. Pupils are known to respond well to such activity because it allows them to look inside the word structure, find simple elements inside, learn their meanings, and a guess a combined meaning of a word, based on this knowledge.

When everything is said and done about the pronunciation, meaning, and illustration of a new word, a time comes for a new experience  using the learned word in practice. This section will also combine various activities, such as reading and writing, both solo and with some kind of context. The shift from using a single word to usage within an expression can be subtle enough for students that they would not be confused with meaning variations, however, learning word combinations and set phrases can further expand their vocabulary without much effort.

Later this activity will naturally proceed into learning the words in context and using sentences for illustration. At this stage, depending on the learning abilities of the student or the group, a few idioms can be introduced for spiking their interest and understanding of the meaning cluster.

To revise the material, homework exercises might be advisable in cases when the students individual work permits them. It might also be very important to remember that actually, students should have a voice in the selection of the appropriate vocabulary to learn. This can be a perfect way to emphasize the mutual respect between the teacher and the student, as well as maintain the latters interest and encourage him or her in studies. While it might be difficult to decide which is better, a special lesson devoted completely to new vocabulary or short but numerous introductions to vocabulary, for example, during each lesson, it should be noted that such issues are highly individual, and every teacher makes his or her own decision about the course of studies.

To draw a conclusion, it might be fair to extrapolate the previous statement to the work of the teacher as a whole. Of course, the methods and techniques among tutors may vary significantly, and their curriculum always depends on the level of students, their learning abilities, their age, and a great deal of other factors, which probably every teacher of English as a second language is familiar with. However, one thing remains unchanging for every lesson, every study, and every piece of knowledge that has ever been passed from one person to another: it is the interest.

The most important thing for the tutor is to keep the students motivated and interested, for without sufficient motivation, teaching becomes nearly impossible, and it may do harm to the teacher as well as the student. It might be appropriate to end this article with a quotation from Noam Chomsky (1988), who stated this in his lectures:

As any good teacher knows, the methods of instruction and the range of material covered are matters of small importance as compared with the success in arousing the natural curiosity of the students and stimulating their interest in exploring on their own. What the student learns passively will quickly be forgotten. What students discover for themselves when their natural curiosity and creative impulses are aroused not only will be remembered but will be the basis for further exploration and inquiry and perhaps significant contributions. (p. 135).

References

Chomsky, N. (1988). Language and Problems of Knowledge: The Managua Lectures. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Crookal, D. (2007). Editorial. Second language acquisition and simulation. Simulation and Gaming, 38(1), 6-8. Web.

Irujo, S. (n.d.). What Does Research Tell Us About Teaching Reading to English Language Learners? Web.

Introduction

English has become the primary language of communication in the world, promoting the demand for language teachers, specifically in developing countries. Currently, English is widely used in media, scientific researches, and scholarly publications; its universal utilization offers access to a vast variety of data and knowledge (Flowerdew & Peacock, 2001). The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) is one of the countries that show high interest in the language; in its schools, English had officially developed into a separate school subject by 1958 (Al-Subahi, 2001). It proves that the demand for teachers and innovative approaches to education are very high.

Mainbody

It is necessary to point out that learning outcomes in students of Saudi Arabia are at a low level despite the current demand for English. The challenging aspects of learning include the lack of students motivation to study, poor educators performance, an ill-conceived learning environment, and deficiency of training programs for teachers (Al-Subahi, 2001). Indeed, individuals learning outcomes do not show promising results.

According to the research by Alabdualkarem (2007) that involved visits to Saudi public schools, children experience difficulties with listening tests and understanding simple sentences. Moreover, their scores in final examinations in English are lower than in other subjects.

The Saudi Ministry of Education has developed a teaching reform to improve the learning outcomes of students. For example, the textbooks for teaching English as a foreign language in KSA are adjusted according to the TEFL curriculum document to meet childrens needs for acquiring basic skills, including speaking, listening, writing, and reading, and improve their communicative competencies (Al-Hajailan, 2006).

The new learning materials are based on the communicative language teaching method. However, educators primarily rely on obsolete teaching systems that concentrate on memorialization, teaching grammar, and examination preparation (Al-Hajailan, 2006). Students results prove that such an approach to teaching does not improve their language skills. Liton and Ali (2011) also consider such practices as ineffective and insist that it is necessary to improve students communicative competencies. Saudi teachers perspectives on English lessons do not correspond with the efforts of the Ministry of Education, which aims to develop effective methods of teaching English as a foreign language.

This incompatibility suggests that educators may have personal reasons for eliminating the communicative approach and are resistant to implement more effective methods. It is crucial to study the aspects that prevent them from using the communicative language teaching method to improve education in Saudi Arabia.

Conclusion

The discussed problems explain the significance and applicability of the research. The study aims to identify the beliefs and attitudes of Saudi English teachers towards the communicative language teaching approach that prevent them from improving students communicative competencies. It will study the challenges they may encounter in their teaching practice and consider possible barriers to the implementation of more effective methods.

References

Alabdualkarem, M. (2007). Teaching English as a foreign language in Saudi Arabia. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Obekan Press.

Al-Hajailan, T. (2006). Teaching English in Saudi Arabia. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Aldar Alsawlatiah.

Al-Subahi, A. (2001). Evaluation of the English programme (ESA) at Saudi intermediate school. Journal of King Abdulaziz University, Educational & Sciences, 14, 3-86.

Flowerdew, J., & Peacock, M. (2001). Research perspectives on English for academic purposes. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.

Liton, H. A., & Ali, M. M. (2011). A diagnostic study of EFL courses at the community college of Jazan University. Language in India, 11(12), 108-128.

The particular topic that I decided to study within the frame of the project is the usage of such expressions as to make an appointment andto make an appointment in the English language. The reason why this very topic has been chosen is closely interconnected with the fact that English is not my mother tongue. There was a situation that happened to me and encouraged me to search for additional sources to extend my knowledge related to English grammar. One fine day, I needed to arrange to see a doctor, and I gave a call to specialists from one dental hospital. A lady in the reception answered the phone, I said, Hello, can I make an appointment? The lady replied, You mean that you would like to make an appointment? Frankly speaking, this case encouraged me to think more about the peculiarities of the usage of some words in English.

To solve this problem and find the information that would provide me and other non-native speakers with a substantial explanation related to the usage of these expressions in English, I decided to use the corpus tools we have learned during the exercise. To be more precise, I was using Google Ngram Viewer as it appeared to be the most appropriate tool to help me with my question. This tool allows users to track the popularity of a certain word or expression, they are supposed to lay down necessary parameters such as time-lapse, insert the particular word or expression to search for, and choose a corpus. After that, the system provides users with a graph showing the frequency of occurrence of the word or expression in texts from the chosen corpus, and these results can be analyzed and used in research papers as a justification of a certain point. Another important fact related to the given tool is that the user can insert two expressions together and compare word frequency results in different variants of the English language. In this case, my search inquiry would look like make an appointment, make an appointment. Due to the tool, students who learn English as a foreign language can collect a lot of interesting information and choose the most appropriate variant to express a certain idea.

Speaking about the information on these expressions that I retrieved with the help of the discussed tool, it can be stated that they were used in different ways. To begin with, as it is clear from the graph showing the tendencies for modern American English, make an appointment is used a few times more often than make an appointment and this fact remains a clue encouraging non-native speakers like me to choose the first variant. The same tendency can be noticed in British English. Nevertheless, it is known that some people can make an appointment but this expression can be used only about specialists who confirm the planned visit. To check it, I used two more search inquiries: patient takes an appointment and patient makes an appointment. The results helped me to make a decision: there were no cases when the first expression was used whereas the second one was used extensively and its frequency has increased recently. I suppose that all English learners should be explained how to work with this tool as it can be important during making research in linguistics. Besides, this tool allows students like me to analyze common situations and choose appropriate expressions to avoid misunderstanding.

Scenario 1

The discussed example of the exercise remains effective because of several reasons. First of all, in the majority of Indo-European languages, there are several similarities in the meanings of words and their pronunciation which makes the understanding of the context easier for a learner. The given task utilizes this fact and encourages students to read the whole text to find hints that can help them to understand the main idea of the given message, the central actors, their names, and occupation.

For this reason, the majority of the assignments that do not presuppose the additional explanation of new words rest on the idea of certain similarity between languages belonging to the same group (Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2013). At the same time, scanning texts, students can acquire an improved understanding of how learned languages are connected and what common features can be used to master skills.

The ability to answer true/false (T/F) questions also comes from this very idea. The fact is that the given type of task does not presuppose that a learner should understand and know the meaning of all words presented in the text. However, to provide correct answers, he or she should grasp the main idea conveyed by a particular message, the central discussed topics, and issues needed for the contexts analysis. In this regard, they will be able to predict the meaning of other words and answer T/F questions correctly. These exercises can be considered an effective approach to teach learners to understand the meaning of unknown words due to the increased attention to the context in which they are presented and analysis of the central idea of the discussed unit which is critical for real-life communication.

Scenario 2

The use of the exclusive knowledge of the target language (TL) can also be a potent tool in teaching students new vocabulary and mastering their skills. The fact is that the existence of a certain knowledge base among learners helps to achieve better results while discussing new words and analyzing their use in a particular context. However, this approach can be effective only if there is the appropriate level of the knowledge of TL and students can understand various linguistic situations regardless of the existence of unknown words in them.

Under these conditions, exercises that presuppose reading authentic documents and deciphering the meanings of the new words can help to achieve the new level of TLs understanding. First of all, an explanation of new words and their use in the context are always more effective than simple translation (Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2013). It helps not just to find the corresponding word in the native language but to achieve an improved understanding of how TL works and in what contexts or situations the new vocabulary can be used.

Finally, the use of the exclusive knowledge of the learned language helps to assess the overall level of students, as this sort of tasks presupposes that the current competence is enough to analyze texts without the complete understanding of all words that can be found in it. For this reason, only if a learner has a solid background, the goal can be achieved, and the meaning of new units will be explained using the already known words studied during the previous classes. The given sort of assignment should be provided only to advanced level learners; otherwise, it will have decreased effectiveness because of the absence of the TLs improved knowledge.

Reference

Larsen-Freeman, D., & Anderson, M. (2013). Techniques and principles in language teaching (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

In the article Teaching Standard English: Whose Standard? Linda Christensen raised questions about why children are taught language in one particular way and not the other. During standard English courses at schools and colleges, students are often confronted by large lists of new words, grammar and punctuation rules, irregular verbs, and so on. However, it is important to question why language is taught through rules as well as why students are forced to believe that they will be valued in the society because of their correct pronunciation and the use of cash language. Therefore, the most significant problem that the author found in teaching students English language was that they rarely knew where they could find help in their learning while teachers had no idea how to adequately correct mistakes.

It was interesting to read the article because the author had a unique approach towards language. When reflecting on her personal experiences with language teaching, Linda Christensen mentioned Fred, a student who was extremely scared of taking risks in his learning and only followed strict grammar rules that he had memorized. The author wrote: the biggest problem with Freds writing was that he didnt make mistakes (Christensen, 1990, p. 37). This meant that the student felt extreme discomfort when using a new language and experimenting with it; he would write with a purpose of avoiding mistakes instead of genuinely expressing his thoughts and opinions in a paper. Therefore, Christensen underlined the problem of valuing the way something in said instead of what is said in language teaching. It became evident that the author did not hold a view that students had to be limited in their own opinions and thoughts for the purpose of getting to learn a language based on strict rules. When learners are frowned upon for experimenting with language and are ridiculed for making mistakes, they usually lose interest and confidence in learning, which are huge barriers to education.

The issue of alienation played a significant role in the authors discussion because educational facilities tend to make students feel alone in their learning. Thus, it is the role of teachers to encourage students not to be afraid of making mistakes and sharing their thoughts, especially in language learning. Because the primary purpose of languages is to express opinions for communication, teachers should not put an emphasis on grammatical rules since they may often restrict communication. To make language learning a creative and liberating process, Christensen offered such strategies as writing stories, poems, letters, and essays to share them during lessons. In this way, learning becomes an interactive process where every student has opportunities to share his or her writing and be heard by others. In such a welcoming environment where students are equal in their language learning, the problem of alienation fades away as it is replaced by creativity and the freedom to express ones thoughts.

To conclude, Teaching Standard English: Whose Standard? is an excellent article that spread the message of rethinking the way students are taught language to encourage engagement, creativity, and freedom from alienation. Schools and teachers have done enough to intimidate students and make them feel less successful in learning when they make mistakes. Errors should be embraced and celebrated as ways to improve ones language learning; only in this way will students learn and become liberated and confident in their knowledge.

Work Cited

Christensen, Linda. Teaching Standard English: Whose Standard? English Journal, vol. 79, no. 2, 1990, pp. 36-40.

Foreign language study is a long-term and challenging process that demands many skills from both educators and learners to succeed and achieve appropriate results. At the same time, there are numerous aspects impacting all participants and showing the emergence of particular outcomes. That is why much attention is devoted to the development of tools, models, and methods of language teaching that are used in modern educational establishments to achieve success and ensure a high level of language skills.

The assigned reading also delves into this aspect and revolves around the nature of approaches and methods that can be used by skilled specialists depending on the situation and current needs of learners. Understanding this area is critical for the appropriate selection of models and their implementation into practice.

Describing the methods, the chapter assumes that the difference between a philosophy of language teaching regarding theory and principles becomes critical. That is why there are the three suggested levels of conceptualization which are defined as approach, method, and technique. They form a particular bond and remain in hierarchical relations that determine their further use and implementation. Thus, an approach is described as a set of assumptions describing the nature of language teaching and learning.

The method is outlined as the plan needed to present the language material in terms of the selected approach. One approach might include many methods used by educators to achieve their goals. Finally, the technique is a set of actions that take place in classrooms and are used to accomplish the objective. These three terms become central while speaking about language teaching and final success.

Continuing cogitation about the outlined basic elements, the reading delves into the critical peculiarities of the approach, design, and techniques to avoid misunderstandings and reveal essential features. For instance, the existence of multiple theoretical concepts of language is emphasized as they impact teaching and results significantly. That is why there is a detailed description of models influencing the effectiveness of methods and tools such as the cognitive, structural, functional, interactional, sociocultural, genre, and lexical ones.

The necessity of their detailed discussion comes from the idea that language is an extremely complex phenomenon that can be studied using various perspectives determining its understanding. For instance, the cognitive model presupposes that the way a person speaks reflects the central properties of his/her mind. In accordance with this theory, our mind contains specific grammar and principles universal to all languages, which is critical for learning. For this reason, it is fundamental to take into account all existing models.

Speaking about language, one should also consider the existence of theories that are designed to explain how second languages are learned by individuals and what peculiarities impact outcomes. There is a wide array of frameworks such as behaviorism, cognitive-code learning, the creative-construction hypothesis, constructivism, sociocultural learning theory, and skill learning. All of them try to describe the main stages of language acquisition and factors that impact individuals during the educational process. At the same time, the reading emphasizes the existence of the direct correlation between language and learning theory. It means that all teachers should be ready to take them into account while trying to select the most appropriate methods.

The design is also discussed in the assigned chapter. Being determined as the level of method analysis helps to understand what are the main objectives, reasons for the selection, types of tasks, roles of learners, teachers, and instructions of various approaches. In other words, analyzing the nature of a certain methodology, one should remember the reason for certain topics, texts, and word inclusion. Finally, the procedure also plays a critical role as it involves the choice of appropriate techniques that can be applied within the language theories discussed above.

Altogether, the reading can be considered an important source that provides information about the nature of language teaching. From the text, I can understand the existence of the direct correlation between the theory that describes the way learners get new data, master their language, acquire new information, and selection of appropriate approaches that can help to achieve success. Another idea is that the effectiveness of techniques used in the class and methods come from the utilized approach that should consider the most relevant learning theory peculiar to certain learners.

In other words, language teaching is situational and should be planned in terms of existing demands, characteristics of learners, and dominant theoretical frameworks. There are also certain learning style preferences that come from the personal characteristics of students that should be considered while selecting the style to increase the effectiveness of language learning.

In such a way, the analyzed reading contributes to the improved understanding of the nature of language teaching approaches, methods, and techniques and how they should be used in various situations depending on the existing tasks, peculiarities of learners, and their needs. Moreover, the chapter outlines the need for an effective selection to ensure that preferred learning styles are utilized and applied to achieve the best possible results and help students to master their language.

Introduction

In this paper, I would like to bring forward the issue of writing skills in an L2. I would like to explore the possibilities, if any, of students cultural backgrounds affecting or influencing their L2 writing skills. I would also, in this paper, like to critically examine the role of an ESL teacher with regard to the current theme.

As such, the present paper looks into the area of students culture, their L1, and the writing acquisition process in L2.

Literature Review

Writing is considered one of the most complex human activities. It involves the development of a design idea, the capture of mental representations of knowledge, and of experience with subjects (geocities.com). Moving along the same lines of our discussion, Hinkel (p. 1, 2002) informs us that: because written discourse and text occupy a prominent place in the academy in the United States and other English-speaking countries, much research has been devoted to formal discourse genres, their characteristics, and common linguistic features encountered in academic text.

Most students who are studying in academic institutions like schools, high schools, universities have writing skills. It may more often be the case that their writing capabilities are in conflict with the requirements of the context of a second language. There are certain differences in their writing styles and conventions that are taken as something that hinders learning. For example, Myles (p. 2, 2002) tells us that the culture-specific nature of schemata  abstract mental structures representing our knowledge of things, events, and situations  can lead to difficulties when students write texts in L2. Thus a student from Mandarin, or Spanish, or Portuguese cultural background is not necessarily a competent writer when it comes to the English language not because they lack writing skills but because the system of English language composition is different from that of Mandarin or Spanish, and so on. Mother tongue or L1 cultural influence is something that is apparent in the second language writing or composition. In this connection, the writer tells us that learning to compose in English is not an isolated classroom activity, but a social and cultural experience. The rules of English composition encapsulate values that are absent in, or sometimes contradictory to, the values of other societies (Spack, & Zamel, p. 124, 1998). Thus according to the writer when it comes to learning English composition, it means, to a great extent, actually learning of Anglo-American society.

Moving along the lines of our review, we find that language and writing in it are ongoing processes that need to be understood in connection with historical and sociocultural contexts. We note what the author (in Kaplan, 2002) observes about language and its link or relation to a persons culture that how a language learner interprets or constructs a written text requires an ongoing negotiation among historical understandings, contemporary realities, and future desires. Thus, language learners are not only learning a linguistic system; they are learning a diverse set of sociocultural practices, often best understood in the context of wider relations of power.

The author further informs us that in recent times, researchers have shifted their attention from the area of investigation of social psychology to other such diverse areas as anthropology, cultural studies, sociology, and so on. This is surely a remarkable turn to the direction of recognizing the place of cultural knowledge of L1 and its transfer to L2 writing or composition.

Thus, we can aver that there is high evidence and acceptance among scholars about the influence of culture on second language acquisition and in the present case, writing skills.

Culture, Second Language, and Self

When we probe deeper into the issue of cultural influence on second language writing, we find that there is more to talk about now, that is to say, with relation to the influence of culture onto students second language writing, the concept of self is gaining wider recognition at the present time. Matsuda, Silva, and Erlbaum (p. 128, 2005) come up with the observation that The charge that seeing writing as a cultural phenomenon as much as, say, a cognitive activity essentializes unique individual implies there is an essential self insulated from its context. In the same connection, we find that the concept of self that is being referred to in linguistic literature as something that is regarded as something hard intertwined owing to the empirical findings and implications behind these findings. Here, Eagleton (as cited in Matsuda, Silva, and Erlbaum p. 128, 2005) notes that the essential self is not one beyond cultural shaping, but one which is culturally shaped in a specific, self-reflexive way& to belong to culture is just to be part of a context that is inherently open-ended& Like the rough ground of language itself, cultures work exactly because they are porous, fuzzy-edged, indeterminate, intrinsically inconsistent, never quite identical.

AT the end of the literature review, it is observed that the influence of mother tongue or language one or both cultures on the target language acquisition is a phenomenon that is well-discussed in the empirical literature on linguistics. Therefore, it is worth our attention to talking about the cultural transfer of L1 to the writing development of a second language.

In the coming part of the paper, the discussion shift onto the implications that these findings yield in connection with the teaching of writing skills to the students of other languages. The paper highlights discuss and point out the considerations that an ESL teacher should take into account when it comes to teaching writing skills to students of other languages.

ESL Writing Trend

Ferris, Hedgcock, and Erlbaum (1998) inform us that a strongly influential trend in L1 composition research and pedagogy emerged in the 1960s and 1970s (p. 4). This trend of teaching writing to the students of other languages got popularised in the United States of America in the 1980s. This trend is known as the process approach. The writers cite Faigley, according to whom process proponents can be divided into two distinct categories: the expressivists and the cognitivist (p. 4). For the former composing is a creative act. The latter writing is about planning, defining, rhetorical problem solving and so much more. However, there are complexities in this regard that are beyond the scope of the present paper.

However, when we come to talk about the consideration to be taken by an ESL teacher while teaching writing skills, we find literature that gives us views and ideas in this very connection.

In literature, the research on mother tongue societal and cultural factors and their influence on second language acquisition has yielded an area that is a sociohistorical approach. Goldman and Rueda (p. 1, 1988) inform us of the application of this approach to writing. This approach introduces new principles of instruction. It reinforces a number of principles that are based on cognitive development, information-processing approaches.

First of all, in this approach, all human beings (children as well) are seen as individuals who are actively participating in their own world and consequently in their learning processes. Following this approach teaching writing to the students of other languages the teacher has to view the culture of the first language rationally and intertwine the culture of the second language sensibly creating in students an awareness of both the world with a view of adding to both the poles.

The writers also inform us of another approach that is functional-interactive to teaching writing. According to this very approach, an ESL teacher teaching writing to the students of other languages is more likely to work on the systems of both the languages that a student is putting hand with so that an interaction between the cognitive processes involved in writing and the educational and cultural contexts that influence these processes can be adequately addressed and handled (Goldman and Rueda, p. 1, 1988).

Henceforth, the following guidelines can be put to be considered by an ESL teacher while teaching writing to students of other languages. These are as follows:

• The teacher has to bring into effect the approach that the topic for writing (which both the above-mentioned approaches stress upon) should be student-chosen since Such topics maximize the knowledge students have to include in their writing and they minimize the cognitive load associated with content generation, thereby freeing up resources to be used on other aspects of the writing process (Goldman and Rueda, p. 1, 1988).
• Secondly, under both or either of the approaches, the role of the teacher is somewhat highly nontraditional though highly important. The role is that The teacher provides guided assistance by structuring input just above students current developmental levels and assisting students to develop self-regulatory mechanisms (Goldman and Rueda, p. 1, 1988). In this way, the role of the teacher is to provide scaffolding that creates an interactional learning environment.

Moving along the same line, Commins, and Miramontes tell us of the duty of the teacher who is teaching students of other languages. They say that:

Teachers must carefully consider that second language students will require much more extensive attention to language development than is required for native speakers. At every level, especially for those learning to read solely through their second language, additional steps need to be taken before students can handle text in the same way as native speakers.

They also give us some criteria as to what should be the lines along with a teacher has to move. They say that for every comprehension strategy (which according to them depends on a number of concepts) vocabulary and grammatical awareness should be such that makes sense in front of the students of other languages. They also claim that it is more important to create a repertoire of the second language vocabulary and concepts among the students than merely trying to make them cram out the alphabets. Because this way students will become gradually capable of gripping what they are reading about. They further assert that It will also be easier to learn to read and derive meaning when students already have had extensive practice in talking about and understanding the big ideas and vocabulary represented in the text (Commins, and Miramontes, p. 1, 2006).

Another important area regarding teaching to ESOL individuals is that the teacher should also opt for using the physical environment so that they can help create instructions that are meaning-based, they come up with their rationale for the support of this very observation with the following comment:

An important aspect of meaning-based instruction in a linguistically diverse environment is how the physical space in the room is used. In any good classroom, it should be apparent to students from the physical environment the topics they are learning about, the expectations for their behavior, and the main guidelines for how to accomplish their work.

They stress that print-rich texts that surround the students in the classroom are not necessarily helpful unless these texts are meaningful. Henceforth, the focus must be on the meaningful transition of language rather than print-mania that nothing but confuses and hampers the cognitive development of the students. In a linguistically diverse environment, the key to teaching writing successfully to students of other languages is that the teachers always mediate understanding by relating test, visual imagery, and oral discussion about important concepts (Commins, and Miramontes, p. 1, 2006).

Another important strategy that the authors talk about in the present context is to create as many opportunities as possible for practice and interaction among students. Thus in their view, three poles must be considered when it comes to teaching writing to the students of other languages; these are language, culture, and context. Not until these three poles stand in complete harmony and balance is it possible to yield high result in ESL teaching:

What teachers do and how they do it in the context of their particular school makes a difference in student outcomes. To succeed, all educators need to proactively account for the complex interactions of language, culture, and context.

Moving ahead in the quest of empirical data and observation, we also find another very important observation made by Ferris and Erlbaum (2003) with regard to teaching writing skills to the students of other languages referring to the process approach of teaching writing. They say that in the present-day context, at least within the physical boundaries of the United States of America, the writing model is cyclic. This cyclic model is the process-oriented, multi-draft approach that regards feedback on a broad spectrum of issues, response-and-revision writing cycle. They also inform us that the latest trend has yielded empirical data that teacher-student conferences for feedback on writing and peer review sessions are also equally contributing factors when it comes to teaching writing skills. The best strategy to start with this cycle is to focus, according to them on content and meaning in the initial drafts of the students. It is only when the drafts are mature that the teacher should opt for meaning and form which to them maybe a false dichotomy (Ferris and Erlbaum, pp. 22-23, 2003).

Conclusion

The latest research and the trends emerging from this research tell us of the importance of the L1 cultural influence of the students of other languages to the target language and particularly on the writing skills in the present discussion. It has been observed in the paper that the teaching approach must come to address students needs and the core realities that theyre being the students of other languages hinge to the context of ESL.

Unless and until due importance is given to the writing skills with regard to the present research findings, it is hard to say that true address can be made to the needs of the students in the due course of time.

References

Advanced Writing in English as a foreign language. 2007. Web.

Commins, N. L., & Miramontes, O. B. (2006). Addressing linguistic diversity from the outset. Journal of Teacher Education, 57(3).

Ferris, D. R. (2003). Implications for second language students. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Ferris, D., Hedgcock, J. S., & Erlbaum, L. (1998). Teaching ESL composition: purpose, process, and practice. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Goldman, S. R., & Rueda, R. (1988). Developing writing skills in bilingual exceptional children. Exceptional Children, 54(6).

Hinkel, E. (2002). Second language writers text: linguistic and rhetorical features. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Matsuda, P. K., Silva, T., & Erlbaum, L. (2005). Second language writing research: perspectives on the process of knowledge construction. P. K. Matsuda & T. Silva (Eds.). Mahwah, NJ. Publication: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Myles, J. (2002) Second language writing and research: the writing process and error analysis in student texts. 2007. Web.

R. Spack, & V. Zamel (1998), (Eds.) Negotiating academic literacies: teaching and learning across languages and cultures. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Place of Publication.

Robert B. Kaplan (2002), (Ed.). The Oxford handbook of applied linguistics. New York: Oxford University Press.

What is Language?

Communication is typical of all kinds of non-human species. Communication is done with the purpose of the exchange of information between the individuals. Non-human species communicate in a non-linguistic way where their actions are designed to express certain kinds of emotions that can be compared to such human actions as frowning, crying, smiling, getting angry or annoyed (Eifring & Theil, 2005). To communicate, animals use their body parts  eyes, mouths, teeth, paws, ears. They also add sounds to their communication. The kind of communication employed by humans is the most complex and developed compared to the interactions of non-human species (Eifring & Theil, 2005).

Human communication is done by means of languages. This way, language is something used only by humans. For us, language is one of the most important aspects of life; it helps us to express out abstract ideas, share thoughts, fulfil our desires and needs, interact with others and continue our culture. Even though there are a large variety of languages on our planet, they all share some of the similar features (Eifring & Theil, 2005). First of all, they all have inner systems and structures and rely on certain organisational rules. Secondly, they are the sources of creativity as they can produce an infinite number of variations of sentences and phrases.

How Is an Additional Language Learned?

Languages can be learned using different methods. The first one facilitates the explanation of the meanings of different words, word combinations, and rules. Another one is learned by being immersed in the environment of the additional language; this way is similar to the method we employ when we first learn to speak our native languages (Mackey, 2014). Both of the ways require a so-called re-wiring of the brain of the learner to adjust to new names of the objects and new associations. This takes some time, as certain processes in our brain need to shift and become more like the processes of the native speakers of the language that is learnt. This shift defines how well we know the language, and shows the level of our proficiency. The research conducted by the Swedish scientists determined that learning a language by means of being immersed in the environment is much more efficient than leaning through the explanation of rules (Mackey, 2014).

This occurs because the individual that has to spend time surrounded by the language learns by means different stimuli, they see the language, hear it, et to practice it, and they need to apply creativity as their application and comprehension of the new language determines their success in interactions.

How Should an Additional Language Best Be Taught?

According to the results of the research mentioned above, it is clear that the best way to teach an additional language is to involve the learners different senses and skills into the process of the acquisition of a new language. Unfortunately, the vast majority of the second language teachers have no chance of throwing the learners into the native environments where everyone speaks the studied language, and even if such method is available (trips abroad), it is always limited in time and does not produce much effect on the learners. In the contemporary classrooms, the teachers try to re-create foreign language speaking environments by means of assignments that require the visual and auditory perception of the second language, and creative self-expression through the communication of ones own thoughts and opinions in oral and written forms.

One of the main obstacles to fast language acquisition for the learners that study languages at schools is limited exposure to the language. The practical language acquisition keeps breaking up since the learners live in their native environments and are mainly exposed to the new languages in the classrooms. This way, the best way to teach a second language is by using consistent language exposure that enforces the re-wiring of the learners brains.

Why Should Additional Languages Be Taught?

In the contemporary world with its rapid globalisation, one is to be able to speak at least two different languages. This is necessary for successful communication with peers, friends and co-workers from all around the world. Besides, knowing foreign languages is helpful during travelling abroad. Moreover, knowing more than one language makes one a valuable professional almost in any workplace. Finally, and most importantly, based on the results of psychological studies, being able to speak several languages makes a positive impact on the individuals cognitive abilities (Merritt, 2013).

The scholars confirm that learning additional languages improves the students memory, facilitates multitasking, decision making and observation (Merritt, 2013). Besides, learning new languages improves ones knowledge of their native language because it develops a better understanding of language mechanisms and systems. This way, teaching foreign languages has a variety of reasons and uses. Teaching foreign languages as a part of the curriculum is not only useful for the students future careers but also makes them better and more skilful learners. This is why it is widely encouraged and recommended that children start acquiring new languages since childhood as this makes a positive impact on their future adult life and reduces the number of potential challenges.

Reference List

Eifring, H. & Theil, R. (2005). Linguistics for Students of Asian and African Languages. Web.

Mackey, A. (2014). What happens in the brain when you learn a language? Web.

Merritt, A. (2013). Why learn a foreign language? Benefits of bilingualism. Web.

Particular attention should be given to the development of extensive reading skills (ER) in the case of young learners (YLs) (Al-Jardani, 2012). The learners identity characteristics and learning patterns can either hinder or assist: YLs tend to be more quickly distracted and their attention span is shorter than that of older students, especially when tasked with difficult topics (Hakim, 2015). In addition, children are less capable of abstract thinking about language, and when provided with rules, they may choose to disregard them and rely instead on their own explanations (Al Malihi, 2015).

Children also require greater support and need extra motivation (Briggs, 2016). These characteristics are, however, general: the possibility of such generalization suggests that YLs need a particular teaching approach, which can be developed with the aid of these generalizations (Thomas & Reinders, 2015). The purpose of the study is to prove that Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) is applicable to the work with YLs and that TBLT provides an opportunity to apply learners skills in a motivational and engaging way.

Study Aims

The possibility of application of TBLT to develop ER skills in Arab YLs requires a thorough consideration of the learners specific needs and capabilities. The aims of the study include a number of specific areas to research, for instance:

• investigating the effects of the environment on the reading skills of YLs;
• researching the teaching implications for YLs and Arab students specifically (Shabani & Ghasemi, 2014);
• investigating the relevance of TBLT in relation to YLs;
• developing specific examples of effective tasks for promoting students learning;
• developing curriculum guidelines for the emergence of sustainable ER skills in YLs.

Applied Linguistics and TESOL Concepts

The study will be carried out in accordance with the key concepts of applied linguistics and TESOL tenets. Thus, the research objectives include the L1 and L2 students acquisition and learning. The study considers how to promote the conjunction between task and orientation and task and meaning (investigating patterns) (OKeeffe & McCarthy, 2016). In addition, it is essential to find out how the educator can track and differentiate what was taught to YLs and what was learned.

Theoretical Framework

The research will include a thorough analysis of current literature in the field. Contemporary texts regarding reading comprehension and the usability of extensive reading enrichment programs will be analysed (Ahmed & Rajab, 2015). Different methods and tools to promote the required skills will be considered, for instance, the efficiency of introducing stories in English to YLs (Al Harrasi, 2012). Further, it is necessary to focus on motivational factors and on the importance of students attitude and the implications that has for the TBLT (Long, 2014). The variety of peer-reviewed articles and academic writings on the topic of strategies in learning and using a second language will make possible the careful examination of the most effective approaches to promote YLs reading comprehension (Cohen, 2014). In addition, it is essential to conduct research on the methods and practices of task-based language teaching in other countries in order to better target the most effective methods and then compare them with experiences of Saudi Arabia educators (Garton, Copland, & Burns, 2011).

Data Collection Methods

The qualitative study will be carried out based on structured and unstructured texts (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2013). The framework will consist of the latest research across academic resources and texts, including peer-reviewed articles and books. Thus, the main data collection tools will be literature review and analysis (Lichtman, 2012). If the research indicates it to be necessary, the research method can be extended through the application of quantitative research techniques to ensure collection of the most reliable results and to achieve validity (Wallace & Atkins, 2012).

References

Ahmed, R. & Rajab, H. (2015). Enhancing elementary level EFL students reading comprehension and writing skills through extensive reading enrichment program.International Journal of English Language Education, 3(2), 28. Web.

Al Harrasi, K. (2012). Using stories in English Omani curriculum.English Language Teaching, 5(11), 51-59. Web.

Al-Jardani, K. (2012). English language curriculum evaluation in Oman.International Journal of English Linguistics, 2(5). Web.

Al Malihi, J. F. (2015). Saudi EFL teachers readiness and perceptions of young learners teaching at elementary schools.English Language Teaching, 8(2), 86-100.

Briggs, J. (2016). Read on! Extensive reading and young second language learners motivation and attitudes. Web.

Cohen, A. (2014). Strategies in learning and using a second language. London, UK: Routledge.

Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2013). Research methods in education. London, UK: Routledge.

Garton, S., Copland, F., & Burns, A. (2011). Investigating global practices in teaching English to young learners. London, UK: British Council.

Hakim, B. (2015). The role of learning styles in the success of TBLT in EFL classrooms in Saudi Arabia. International Journal Of Applied Linguistics And English Literature, 4(3), 205-211. Web.

Lichtman, M. (2012). Qualitative research in education. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

Long, M. (2014). Second language acquisition and task-based language teaching. New York, NY: John Wiley & Son.

OKeeffe, A., & McCarthy, M. (2016). The Routledge handbook of corpus linguistics. London, UK: Routledge.

Shabani, M., & Ghasemi, A. (2014). The effect of task-based language teaching (TBLT) and content-based language teaching (CBLT) on the Iranian intermediate ESP learners reading comprehension.Procedia  Social And Behavioral Sciences, 98, 1713-1721. Web.

Thomas, M. & Reinders, H. (2015). Contemporary task-based language teaching in Asia. London, UK: Bloomsbury Publishing.

Wallace, S., & Atkins, L. (2012). Qualitative research in education. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.