Category: Teaching

Introduction

Teacher education studies have focused on teaching efficacy beliefs. This is because teaching efficacy beliefs influence a teachers effectiveness, attitude and behavior. The self-efficacy concept describes the process whereby people develop the ability to organize and accomplish important tasks first. In this model, people are supposed to develop their own capacity to reach the essential learning degrees (Albayrak, 2011). Therefore, the given paper aims at studying the development of mathematics self-efficacy in pre-service elementary teachers who participate in mathematics education methods courses.

Methodology

This paper will study the effects of the methods that are adopted by mathematics teachers to teach their courses. The Mathematics Teaching Efficacy Belief Instrument will be administered to students taking the elementary mathematics course. A survey will be conducted to help identify how the course is administered to students through demonstrations, classroom discussions, and direct instructions. In addition, the study will gather statistical and quantitative results from a sample of pre-service elementary teachers through a questionnaire I will fill out before and after each course. In the quantitative phase, I will analyze the teachers responses to a mathematics teachers self-efficacy beliefs. In this case, the survey will help to identify a sample of teachers whose mathematics teaching self-efficacy beliefs are at high/low extremes. Moreover, paired sample ttests will be used to analyze the data obtained and indicate the methods that teachers should use to teach mathematics appropriately when they incorporate efficacy beliefs in their teaching strategies.

Discussion

Efficacy beliefs usually influence the manner in which people think, behave and, become motivated. Efficacy beliefs also help determine how much effort teachers should apply during the education process, what kind of student behavior teachers should approve of and how they can maintain the approved type of behavior among students, and the unfavorable experiences that teachers can face (Albayrak, 2011).

Kazempour (2008) makes it clear that the self-efficacy concept and teacher-efficacy are related. He argues that teachers who are confident in their mathematical abilities are able to influence the learning methods of their students. Therefore, teachers should help the students focus on the lesson topic and absorb new information during the studying process. Moreover, teachers should provide different types of feedback to use the appropriate the learning methods and help students achieve good results in learning. Therefore, teachers should believe that they are capable of improving the learning methods with different types of students in a classroom. Studies show that students performance depends considerably on a teachers efficacy (Kazempour, 2008). For these reasons, efficacy influences achievement, motivation, and the students self-appraisal.

Teacher efficacy has two dimensions: personal teaching efficacy and teaching outcome expectancy. Personal teaching efficacy refers to a tutors belief in his own ability to teach mathematics in an efficient manner. On the other hand, teaching outcome expectancy refers to the belief that a teachers mode of teaching is capable of influencing a students mode of learning in a positive manner. In this case, teachers believe that external factors such as family background, parental influence, IQ, school conditions, and home environment do not influence a students performance in mathematics once a teacher uses the appropriate strategy to enhance the students ability to learn and digest new information. The above-mentioned can be considered an adequate use of a teachers self-efficacy (Cone, 2009).

Research shows that teachers who have high teaching efficacy create the learning environment that encourages students think productively. As Kazempour explains, teachers with high self-efficacy use such strategies as student questioning, brainstorming, and class discussions (Kazempour 401). By doing this, teachers improve the performance of their students regardless of whether they come from challenging home backgrounds. Therefore, self-efficient teachers use student-centered approaches that stress the role of students in the learning process and make them feel that they contribute to the learning process as well. For example, in the course of a discussion, the student will feel that his/her opinion matters and, therefore, will be interested in the subject (Bursal, 2007).

References

Albayrak, M. (2011). The effect of methods of teaching mathematics course on mathematics teaching efficacy beliefs of elementary pre-service mathematics teachers. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 16(1), 183-190.

Bursal, M. (2007). The impact of science methods courses on preservice elementary teachers science teaching self-efficacy beliefs: Case studies from Turkey and the United States. Minnesota: University of Minnesota.

Cone, N. (2009). Pre-service elementary teachers self-efficacy beliefs about equitable science teaching: Does service learning make a difference? Journal of Elementary Science Education, 21(2), 25-34.

Kazempour, M. (2008). Exploring attitudes, beliefs, and self efficacy of pre-service elementary teachers enrolled in a science methods course and factors responsible for possible changes. New York: ProQuest.

I am writing to share my thoughts about the importance of kindliness and why I reckon it will help you solve the problem that you have faced in your school environment. I believe that kindliness is the core of compassion and caring attitude towards people, which is especially crucial in educating and raising children. Quite often, kindliness is associated with morality that regulates human interactions. However, it is designed to regulate the relations between people; meanwhile, kindliness is not adjusted to the narrow understanding of this idea when people do not cause inconvenience to one another, it is to contribute to the construction of a better future and a society that is more tolerant (Jalongo 29). Kindliness is a force that creates excitement, hope, confidence, and inspiration. If kindliness and empathetic attitude become a universal norm of treating others in society, it will evolve spiritually and materially.

After working as a teacher in the community school for a couple of years, I was able to draw a conclusion that kindliness is an inherent quality of life and human identity. The emanation of kindliness will enable educating a child that will be clement, kind, and compassionate (Hartas 20). When the child treated with kindliness will become an adult, he or she will be capable of integrating kindliness into his or her own family. The more people will emanate kindliness through thoughts, speech, emotions, and actions, the more often this state will become a permanent norm of life of the society. When children become independent from their parents, the essence of kindness starts influencing other people, thus, contributing to the overall welfare of the people, which, in turn, will enable other generations to face the society that is more kind, empathic, and tolerant.

Nevertheless, it is the human consciousness that frequently complies with the intention to act kindly. Consequently, it is reasonable to wonder why humans obey and are reasoned by the call of conscience rather than being guided by the notion of kindliness. The answer lies in the educational environment that a child faces. It also depends on the pedagogical attitude with the help of which kindliness is being nurtured in a child. It is essential that kindness is raised through a kind attitude and patience without any prejudice. It should be noted that the evil treating of a person could not raise the feeling of compassion. However, goodness is capable of transferring bad intentions into positive ones (Jalongo 41). Such a pedagogical approach as authoritarian and peremptory carry violence in their core, and they are detrimental to the child. It can diminish the positive nature that is inherent in almost every human. Authoritarian pedagogy teaches formal awareness and compassion that is to say a child knows that he or she must be good (Hartas 22). However, the authoritarian pedagogy cannot wake the empathy in the child as it does not give him or her the opportunity to experience compassion and rejoice it. Only humane pedagogy and attitude can raise compassion through the development of the spiritual and sensual base in a child.

For that reason, I believe that kindliness does not expect any benefit and mutual kindness as it is selfless. It is essential to treat the child facing controversy with patience and tolerance to help him, or she decide what is right in a non-violent way. It is crucial to raise tolerant and compassionate children as they will be capable of making the society complete.

Works Cited

Hartas, Dimitra. Parenting, Family Policy and Childrens Well-Being in an Unequal Society. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014. Print.

Jalongo, Mary. Teaching Compassion. New York: Springer, 2013. Print.

Introduction

Tutorials are considered an effective form for teaching a student, especially in cases when the student has been determined to have special needs. Tutoring incorporates instructional materials and information that are custom-made to the students learning rate and level of comprehension. In addition, tutoring allows the tutor to determine whether the student can grasp the subject through a feedback mechanism. Should there be a need to correct or encourage a student, sufficient time is allowed because tutoring is a personal method of instruction.

Main body

Another feature that facilitates learning through tutorials is that this method involves emotional involvement and it is easier for both student and tutor to determine whether the interaction is productive or not. Students are also given the chance to proceed at their paces and not feel any intimidation from other competitive students.

Tutoring is generally classified according to the age difference of the student and the tutor. Peer tutoring thus pertains to the instruction of a student who is at the same age range as that of the tutor. On the other hand, cross-age tutoring pertains to the form of personal instruction that involves an older tutor and a younger student (Schneider and Barone, 1997). Peer tutoring has caught the interest of educators and analysts as well because its practice suggests that the age difference between tutor and student is not the major criteria for an effective tutorial. Interestingly, it has also been observed that younger tutors reap more positive results in tutoring than older tutors (Luca and Clarkson, 2002). One plausible reason for such discrepancy is that young tutors can relate to the problems and difficulties that students encounter during their studies and thus they can immediately provide aid and other helpful hints that would show the student how to approach educational exercises and concepts. In addition, the same age range of both tutor and student lessens the intimidation of the student and allows them to approach their tutor without the feeling of embarrassment.

Another interesting observation regarding peer tutoring is that students can sense whether a classmate or peer is experiencing difficulty with a certain topic or subject (Fuchs et al., 2002). Such sensitivity is detected by simple nonverbal actions and thus this capacity is far more beneficial in assisting students in their learning process. Difficulties in learning among students are often neglected by older tutors and they have no other method to determine if a student is struggling in a course unless they see that their test scores are very low. It has been observed that peer tutors who earlier struggled during their studies are more patient with their tutors because they could understand what the student is experiencing. On the other hand, cross-age tutors carry high expectations from their students, and this lack of empathy further causes issues in the students learning process (Gaustad, 1992).

The employment of tutoring, both peer and cross-age, has augmented the atmosphere in schools because these personal forms of instruction reduced the sense of competition among students in a classroom. In addition, the personal support that the students receive during tutorials decreases the chances that the student will encounter disapproval and discouragement in the actual classroom setting (Eggers, 1995).

It has been reported that peer tutoring benefits both parties, wherein the student not only receives some form of teaching but that the peer tutor himself is honed into the subject and becomes more specialized and adept with the course (Allen, 1976). As it has long been observed that practice enhances ones capabilities, the same philosophy may be applied to peer tutoring. A peer tutor also needs to prepare his teaching materials before the actual tutorial itself and this preparation enhance the tutors retention of the material that he is to teach to his student. In addition, the peer tutor is also provided with an opportunity to integrate both instructional materials and other supportive techniques that will help both the tutor himself and the student in addressing exercises that are related to the topic of study. The communication skills of a tutor are also improved when he is subjected to teaching a student. Not only is his knowledge of the subject area used in tutoring, but he is also placed in a situation where interaction is the key aspect of instruction.

A mutual relationship is involved in peer and cross-age tutoring, wherein the self-esteem of the tutor increases when their student learns and improves his knowledge and learning skills. Such meaningful and worthwhile effect on the tutor is priceless and this feeling helps them to continue what they do for the next students that come in. However, caution should also be exercised between a tutor and a student because not all combinations result in positive learning. Tutors who are knowledgeable of the subject area yet are not trained for teaching may not be effective enough in teaching a student. In these cases, tutors are impatient with the slowness of the students pace and this may be coupled with different forms of punishment and penalties. There are also instances when a tutor would not accept a student who is of his age range, although he is capable of teaching a student of any age. Such selection of students may thus influence which students will be able to receive personal instruction and thus tutors should be trained to instruct almost any age of the student, as long as the student is willing to learn and interact with the tutor.

References

Allen VL (1976): Children as teachers: Theory and research on tutoring. New York: Academic Press, 276 pages.

Eggers JE (1995): Pause, prompt, and praise: Cross-Age tutoring. Teaching Children Mathematics. 2(4):216-218.

Fuchs LS, Fuchs D, Yazdian L and Powell SR (2002): Enhancing first-grade childrens mathematical development with peer-assisted learning strategies. Sch. Psychol. Rev. 31(4):569-572.

Gaustad J (1992): Tutoring for at-risk students. Oreg. Sch. Study Coun. Bull. Eugene, Oregon: Oregon School Study Council, 74 pages.

Luca J and Clarkson B (2002): Promoting student learning through peer tutoring- A case study. Proc. World Conf. Educ. Multimed, Hypermedia. Telecomm., 7 pages.

Schneider RB and Barone D (1997): Cross-age tutoring. Childhood Education, 73:136-139.

Introduction

The sphere of education is one of the most important nowadays, and at the moment, the efficiency of explored approaches is one of the major concerns of the society. The fact is that the enhanced demands for the quality of education and its specific character introduce the need for new methods of teaching that will be able to combine different fields of science and knowledge to attain positive outcomes (Gately & Gately, 2001). Under these conditions, the approach called co-education acquires the top priority in the modern educational sphere. Thus, the given paper supports the thesis that co-teaching demonstrates the high efficiency in different settings and is positively evaluated by educators if they have appropriate collaborative skills.

Nevertheless, the continuous cooperation between two or more educators with the central aim to organize, instruct, and make assessments on the same group of pupils could be determined as co-teaching (Gately & Gately, 2001). Today, co-teaching between general and special educators become a common method to deliver services and ensure that all pupils will understand the presented material (Loiacono & Valenti, 2010). In such a way, the efficiency of the approach is stipulated by the teamwork of several specialists who possess an outstanding authority in different spheres (Gerlach, 2017). Combining their perspectives on the delivery of educational service and sharing experience, they result in the appearance of a new working environment characterized by enhanced results (Magieram, Smith, Zigmond, & Gebauer, 2005).

Thus, as it comes from the definition, co-teaching presupposes the close cooperation and establishment of specific relations between all educators who use the model. There are eight components of a co-teaching relationship that impact the final result and should be considered when speaking about the efficiency of the approach and its potential impact on students. These are interpersonal communication, physical arrangement, familiarity with the curriculum, goals, instructional planning, presentation, classroom management, assessment (Gately & Gately, 2001). All these aspects are critical for the enhanced outcomes and successful implementation of co-teaching into real-life conditions. However, Murawski and Swanson (2001) admit that the inclusion of all these components with the primary aim to create a joint approach becomes one of the most important tasks of educators nowadays. However, there are different perspectives on the way how co-teaching could be used and introduced. Moreover, teachers readiness to engage in this sort of relations could also be doubted.

Regarding the information mentioned above, the pivotal aim of this literature review is filling the gap in knowledge about co-teaching and educators readiness to participate in this specific activity. At the same time, the scientific literature and research works related to the issue suggest diverse perspectives on it and teachers experiences about working with other specialists. For this reason, analyzing the sources selected for the given review, we will be able to compare the existing findings and discuss them regarding the efficiency of co-teaching and specialists readiness. Another specific purpose of this literature review is to find credible evidence about the enhanced efficiency of the suggested approach in terms of modern society and the complexity of tasks students and their educators might be offered.

Nevertheless, today co-teaching could be implemented at different grade levels and under conditions if educators think its use can stipulate appropriate results. However, the most common areas of its exploration are elementary and middle schools (Nierengarten & Hughes, 2010). At the same time, students with disabilities might also have the need for a specific education during their middle or high school (Obiakor, Harris, Mutua, Rotatori, & Algozzine, 2012). For this reason, teachers can use co-teaching to meet special pupils needs at the secondary level. At the high-school, the method might face numerous challenges because of the peculiarities of the environment and individuals needs. For this reason, the investigation of the issue within this literature review might help to reveal these problems and teachers actions to overcome potential barriers that might appear.

At the same time, despite all problems that might appear during the implementation of the co-teaching approach into the real-life setting and its further use, the efficiency of the method is proven by students positive responses. However, the teachers opinions regarding the approach are mixed (Pratt, Imbody, Wolf, & Patterson, 2016). In other words, different educators demonstrate various perspectives on the further development of co-teaching and its apparently positive impact on the educational sphere. This diversity in attitudes is preconditioned by the complexity of the tool and significant differences in teachers readiness and beliefs about co-teaching. For this reason, the more comprehensive investigation of the efficiency of the method might be needed to prove its promising character and necessity of its use in diverse conditions.

Nevertheless, co-teachings efficiency is not apparent if to speak about complex cases and specific conditions. For instance, providing meaningful education to children or students with disabilities might become complicated by numerous additional factors that should be taken into account by an educator (The effectiveness of co-teaching model. Literature review, 2012). In such a way, a question of whether co-teaching could be effectively implemented into the work with disabled students to provide them with the needed knowledge becomes topical. There are diverse perspectives on this. In such a way, the literature review assesses teachers beliefs about the possible effect the method might have on different groups of students and how it affects their academic successes.

Finally, co-teaching creates the basis for vigorous debates related to other innovative methods of teaching and providing students with materials and knowledge they might need (Friend & Barron, 2016). Today, there is a wide array of tools educators could use to attain enhanced results. However, their implementation might demand the use of practices and approaches different from co-teaching (Solis, Vaughn, Swanson, & Mcculley, 2012). At the same time, the use of new elements of teaching could be combined with the co-teaching method to obtain better results and ensure that all groups of students including those with disabilities will be able to acquire needed knowledge. For this reason, the given literature review also suggests the comprehensive investigation of the issue regarding other approaches and teachers perspectives on the way co-teaching could be used.

Thus, the created literature review covers some most important aspects of co-teaching. It provides an in-depth overview of educators beliefs related to the implementation, use, and effectiveness of the suggested approach. Moreover, teachers readiness and understanding of the basic peculiarities and modules of co-teaching is covered. Finally, the document reveals the issue of professional needs that might appear in terms of the implementation of co-teaching. Altogether, the primary purpose of the document is filling the gap in knowledge about the method, its peculiarities and effect, and educators perspectives on it.

Discussion

Speaking about co-teaching, first of all, it is important to determine teachers attitude to it. Thus, Austin (2001) used one hundred thirty-nine collaborative teachers from nine school districts in New Jersey to analyze their beliefs about the approach. The researcher explored a single survey approach to collect needed information. Findings show that the majority of teachers consider co-teaching worthwhile (Austin, 2001). Additionally, respondents agreed that general education co-teachers do more than their special education partners to implement the approach (Austin, 2001). In such a way, a particular difference in perspectives, duties, attitudes, and responsibilities could be observed. Hang and Rabren (2009) are also interested in the examination of co-teaching and the central indicators of its efficiency. They conducted their study between 31 general and 14 special education teachers who had just started using co-teaching (Hang & Rabren, 2009). Using the data collected with the help of a survey, researchers admit positive attitudes to co-teaching both among students and teachers (Hang & Rabren, 2009). Moreover, the method becomes extremely efficient regarding disabled students and their specific problems.

Continuing investigation of the issue, Pancsofar and Petroff in the article Professional Development Experiences in Co-Teaching raise the question of the correlation between particular qualities of teachers and outcomes. Using an online survey among 129 teachers from five districts in the Mid-Atlantic state, the authors collect the data proving that professional development of co-teaching is associated with each teachers outcome (Pancsofar & Petroff, 2013). Additionally, educators who had opportunities to improve their understanding of co-teaching from in-service teaching were more interested in co-teaching and demonstrated better attitudes to it. In such a way, the paper reveals the dependence between teachers readiness and co-teacher outcomes along with the beliefs about it.

The significance of the creation of an effective co-teaching relationship and environment is also empathized by Indelicato in her research. The central aim of her study is to determine the most efficient way to enhance collaborative teaching relationships (Indelicato, 2014). During her investigation, Indelicato assesses 1st through 4th-grade teachers to evaluate their attitude and readiness to engage in co-teaching relations (Indelicato, 2014). The bigger part of the participants admitted the direct correlation between a degree to which they were successful in cooperation and communication and their attitude to the method and their overall success. In such a way, to build an effective relationship between co-teaches additional training and an increase in their readiness are needed.

Factors that could promote or hinder the use of co-teaching are also investigated by Chitiyo. 77 teachers participated in this research. 67 of them were general education teachers, 14 had a bachelors degree, and the rest of the individuals worked in inclusive classrooms (Chitiyo, 2017). Using the questionnaire with the sections about demographics, experiences in co-teaching, the ways educators learned about it, and barriers to the implementation of the method, the researcher come to a conclusion that the majority of obstacles or negative attitudes are preconditioned by the low level of competence (Chitiyo, 2017). For this reason, educators readiness should be trained to guarantee positive outcomes.

As for the challenges that might appear during the implementation of co-teaching in inclusive classrooms, Hussin and Hamdan support the idea that the poor culture of collaboration and the lack of administrative support might be considered central obstacles educators face (2016). Data from 162 respondents (150 teachers, 30 parents, and 60 administrators) in Malaysia prove the overall efficiency of the method if it is supported by the appropriate alterations in teachers behaviors and skills (Hussin & Hamdan, 2016).

The importance of teachers readiness to collaborate and contribute to positive outcomes of co-teaching is also touched upon by Hamilton-Jones and Vail (2014). To collect information about pre-service teachers beliefs and ideas about collaboration, the authors used data provided by twelve paraprofessionals working regarding the given approach (Hamilton-Jones & Vail, 2014). Results show that educators have diverse perspectives on the definition of collaboration which might create particular barriers in the future use of co-teaching and collaborative practices. It also means that additional training aimed at the creation of an enhanced understanding of collaboration between teachers results in better attitudes to co-teaching and good academic success in students.

Investigation of co-teaching and educators attitudes to it is also the main theme of the paper by Scruggs, Mastropieri, and McDuffie (2007). Trying to understand the attitude specialists have towards the method they conduct thirty-two qualitative investigations of co-teaching in inclusive classrooms (Scruggs et al., 2007). Acquired data shows that the bigger part of educators supports the approach (Scruggs et al., 2007). However, they also outlined numerous needs that should be satisfied to guarantee positive outcomes of co-teaching and create a collaborative setting. These are planning time, student skill level, additional training for teachers, etc. (Scruggs et al., 2007).

Reviewing literature devoted to co-teaching and its peculiarities in different settings, Rice and Zigmond (1999) admit that the given method provides numerous opportunities for educators to improve outcomes and help all students regardless of their cognitive abilities or health status. However, assessing data from different schools in Queensland and Pennsylvania, the researchers emphasize the existence of similar approaches to facilitate the inclusive methods and similar barriers like attitudes rejecting inclusion or administrators unwillingness to give needed resources and time (Rice & Zigmond, 1999). In such a way, the groundwork and additional training among co-teaching specialists become central for success.

To effectively assess the most important aspects of co-teaching, benefits, and emerging problems, Walther-Thomas (1997) conducts a long-term study (three years) and engages twenty-three school-based teams in it. The total number of participants is 143. Data was collected via a semi-structured interview. Findings prove that co-teaching demonstrates high efficiency in students with disabilities and other pupils who participated in the study. Moreover, significant improvement in their self-confidence and self-esteem could be observed. At the same time, many co-teachers reported that their professionals skills improved because of the close cooperation with their experienced colleagues (Walther-Thomas, 1997).

The investigation of teaching attitudes to co-teaching practices is continued by Strogilos. In the paper, the author uses data from 400 surveys completed by educators working with disabled children and from 10 semi-structured interviews (Strogilos, 2016). The results of this research coincide with the previous studies mentioned in the paper and prove the efficiency of the supportive co-teaching model (Strogilos, 2016). At the same time, almost all educators emphasize the need for planning time and administrative support to ensure that they will be able to engage in efficient collaboration to provide students with the needed knowledge.

King-Sears, Brawand, Jenkins, and Preston-Smith (2014) conduct the research devoted to a similar issue. They investigate peculiarities of the co-teachers practice team and their students in a real-life setting with the central aim to determine how each educator perceive different aspects of their teaching experience and what barriers in the delivery of needed services they might observe (King-Sears et al., 2014). Thus, using data from the research, the authors come to the conclusion that science educators most often play leading roles in presenting new information and increase the efficiency of the whole process.

In such a way, we could observe numerous pieces of evidence proving an outstanding efficacy of co-teaching and its positive impact on academic success. However, in the majority of cases, to greater degree results of the intervention depend on the efficiency of collaboration between educators and their readiness to engage in co-teaching. Malian and McRae (2010) prove this assumption. Using results of a statewide survey of Arizona general and special educators teaching in inclusive classes, they come to the conclusion that there is no significant difference between general and special educators on their beliefs and approaches to co-teaching (Malian & McRae, 2010). At the same time, these ideas might be shaped by training and readiness to work in an inclusive environment. Abbye-Taylor (2014) also associates successful co-teaching experiences with the level of teachers preparedness and their attitudes to the suggested method.

Having conducted a phenomenological study among efficient co-teachers and administrators, the author comes to the conclusion that the positive perspective on co-teaching is mainly achieved due to the additional training and educators competence in particular spheres (Abbye-Taylor, 2014). For this reason, the majority of scientists agree that teachers demonstrate positive emotions if they attain success and have enough skills. This means that it is fundamental to engage teachers in co-teaching professional development with the primary aim to achieve positive shifts in their attitudes and better outcomes. Shaffer and Brown (2015) prove this idea by organizing two teams of participants consisting of two general teachers and a shared special education teacher. Using informal conversations and interviews, the researchers come to the conclusion that team-work is critical to the ongoing co-teaching professional development and improvement (Shaffer & Brown, 2015). Team-work between educators becomes the key to their positive attitude to co-teaching and success.

Nevertheless, there are attempts to implement the co-teaching model of instruction into a particular teacher education program to enhance teacher readiness, retention, and preparedness (Huff, 2016). Thus, Huff examines these attempts and their overall impact on the effectiveness of co-teaching. Twenty beginning teachers participated in the study. The results of the research demonstrate that such training might be useful in cultivating enhanced competence among students and the cultivation of their preparedness to perform particular tasks regarding the co-teaching model (Huff, 2016).

Discussing the problem of co-teaching and the most important aspects that appear during its implementation in different settings, Tandon (2016) investigates the co-teaching partnership between Kristin (general educator) and Dan (special educator) and their functioning in the U.S. school. Information was collected with the help of the interview. Thus, Tandon (2016) concludes that prolonged cooperation between co-teaching partners enhance their collaborative practices and result in better outcomes. For this reason, it is recommended not to regroup existing pairs. The efficiency of table pairs of educators is also discussed by Woods (2017) in his research. Interviewing high school teachers of English Language Arts and special educations who engage in collaborative relationships, he comes to the conclusion that long-term cooperation is the key to better attitudes to co-teaching and appropriate outcomes (Woods, 2017).

Conclusion

The given literature review reveals the tendency towards the gradual rise of the significance of co-teaching. Defined as the cooperation between teachers who possess knowledge in different fields, it demonstrates different results that are constantly discussed nowadays. However, the majority of authors mentioned in the review agree that co-teaching shows outstanding results especially regarding students with numerous disabilities. Researchers admit that both students and teachers benefit from the inclusive classroom environment. The first group shows better academic results, social skills, and behavior. As for teachers, engaging in collaborative relations with their experienced colleagues, educators acquire an opportunity to share their perspectives on different methods and ways to deliver services most efficiently.

As for teachers attitudes to co-teaching, they are impacted by the level of their preparedness and readiness to engage in collaboration and work together. All reviewed articles admit that the positive perspective on co-teaching is observed among successful specialists who can work in a team and perfectly realizes the basic aspects of the approach. In such a way, additional training is needed to create the appropriate environment and ensure that educators will be ready to use co-teaching.

Nevertheless, several obstacles appear when implementing the method. These are the lack of time for planning or the absence of administrative support. The majority of respondents who participated in the above-mentioned studies agreed that these two factors might deteriorate final results. Additionally, poor collaborative behavior could also be one of the reasons that stipulate outcomes.

Altogether, the majority of teachers demonstrate a positive attitude toward co-teaching and have correct beliefs related to their basic peculiarities. They could contribute to the further development of the method and its becoming one of the most efficient practices. For this reason, additional research is needed to fill remaining gaps in knowledge about how co-teaching could be facilitated in the modern education sphere as its efficiency preconditions the necessity of its further exploration..For this reason, the aim of future research is the methods of the effective implementation of co-teaching in different settings.

References

Abbye-Taylor, S. (2014). Characteristics of successful co-teaching experiences in classrooms with general and special education students. Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses. (PTN 3578568)

Austin, V. (2001). Teachers beliefs about co-teaching. Remedial and Special Education, 22(4), 245-255.

Chitiyo, J. (2017). Challenges to the use of coteaching by teachers. International Journal of Whole Schooling,13(3), 55-66.

The effectiveness of co-teaching model. Literature review. (2012). Web.

Friend, M., & Barron, T. (2016). Co-teaching as a special education service: Is classroom collaboration a sustainable practice? Educational Practice & Reform, 2.

Gately, S., & Gately, F. (2001). Understanding coteaching components. Teaching Exceptional Children, 33(5), 40-47.

Gerlach, S. (2017). A quantitative study of co-teaching as an instructional model to serve elementary students. Web.

Hamilton-Jones, B., & Vail, C. (2014). Preparing special educators for collaboration in the classroom: Preservice teachers belies and perspectives. International Journal of Special Education, 29(1), 76-84.

Hang, Q., & Rabren, K. (2009). An examination of co-teaching perspectives and efficacy indicators. Remedial and Special Education, 30(5), 259-268.

Huff, R. (2016). Co-teaching model of student teaching: Perceptions of beginning teachers for career readiness. Web.

Hussin, M., & Hamdan, A. (2016). Challenges of co-teaching in Malaysian inclusive classroom: administrators, teachers and parents overview. Procedia  Social and Behavioral Sciences, 217, 477-486.

Indelicato, J. (2014). How to build an effective co-teaching relationship between teachers. Web.

King-Sears, M., Brawand, A., Jenkins, M., & Preston-Smith, S, (2014). Co-teaching perspectives from secondary science: Co-teachers and their students with disabilities. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 25, 651-680.

Loiacono, V., & Valenti, V. (2010). General education teachers need to be prepared to co-teach: The increasing number of children with autism in inclusive settings. International Journal of Special Education, 25(3), 24-29.

Magieram, K., Smith, C., Zigmond, N., & Gebauer, K. (2005). Benefits of co-teaching in secondary mathematics classes. Teaching Exceptional Children, 37(3), 20-24.

Malian, I., & McRae, E. (2010). Co-teaching beliefs to support inclusive education: Survey of relationships between general and special educators in inclusive classes. Electronic Journal for Inclusive Education, 2(6).

Murawski, W., & Swanson, L. (2001). A meta-analysis of co-teaching research: Where are the data? Remedial and Special Education, 22(5), 258-267.

Nierengarten, G., & Hughes, T. (2010). What teachers wish administrators knew about co-teaching in high schools. Electronic Journal for Inclusive Education, 2(6), 1-17.

Obiakor, F., Harris, M., Mutua, K., Rotatori, A., & Algozzine, B. (2012). Making inclusion work in general education classrooms. Education and Treatment of Children, 35(3), 477-490.

Pancsofar, N., & Petroff, J. (2013). Professional development experiences in co-teaching: Associations with teacher confidence, interests, and attitudes. Teacher Education and Special Education, 20(10), 1-14.

Pratt, S., Imbody, S., Wolf, L., & Patterson, A. (2016). Co-planning in co-teaching: A practical solution. Intervention in School and Clinic, 1(7), 1-6.

Rice, D., & Zigmond, N. (1999).Co-teaching in secondary schools: Teacher reports of developments in Australian and American classrooms. Web.

Scruggs, T., Mastropieri, M., & McDuffie, K. (2007). Co- teaching in inclusive classrooms: A metasynthesis of qualitative research. Council for Exceptional Children, 73(4), 392-416.

Shaffer, L., & Brown, K. (2015). Enhancing teacher competency through co-teaching and embedded professional development. Journal of Education and Training Studies, 3(3), 117-123.

Solis, M., Vaughn, S., Swanson, E., & Mcculley, L. (2012). Collaborative models of instruction: The empirical foundations of inclusion and co-teaching. Psychology in the Schools, 49(5), 498-508.

Strogilos, (2016). Co-teachers attitudes towards planning and instructional activities for students with disabilities. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 31(3), 1-16.

Tandon, B. (2016). Critical look at the contributions of a special education in co-teaching settings in a US secondary school: A case-study. MIER Journal of Educational Studies, Trends & Practices, 6(1), 41-53.

Walther-Thomas, C. (1997). Co-teaching experiences: The benefits and problems that teachers and principals report over time. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 30(4), 395-407.

Woods, P. (2017). Perceptions of secondary teachers on the co-teaching model: An examination of the instructional practices in co-teaching classrooms in Western Pennsylvania. Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses.

Results of the study, and the Impact of Different Courses on Self-Efficacy

The qualitative analysis supported the quantitative data, demonstrating, that pre-service teachers felt their ability to teach mathematics improved after the mathematics methods courses. Interviews conducted with six pre-service teachers gave the following data on teachers self-perception: three teachers said that their rating was eight, one gave a mark of nine, and one gave seven points, while only one hesitated between eight and nine points. Such rating results (between seven and nine points) suggested that teaching courses taught respondents a lot about effective practices, techniques, and tools. However, they also suggested that interviewed pre-service teachers did not have enough experience and confidence to give themselves a rating of ten. The fact that the majority of interviewees acknowledged that there was always some room for improvement and growth suggests that actual working experience will improve their self-efficacy.Most of the pre-service teachers who took part in the current study thought that they had been not very skillful teachers of mathematics prior to taking the courses.

It should be pointed out that even those respondents were confident in their content knowledge of mathematics, they had not thought of themselves as highly competent educators. On the other hand, it is apparent that after the courses, the participants became more confident in their ability to teach mathematics. It is also very important to point out that event those respondents who stated that they had forgotten the majority of the basic notions and had doubts regarding their ability to teach properly became much more confident in their content knowledge of mathematics after taking the courses. Thus, it is possible to summarize that students initially had had different perceptions of their skills, competence, and ability to teach, but almost all of them achieved significantly higher levels of self-efficacy after the courses.

All respondents suggested that mixed methods courses were more effective than content pedagogy courses. They explained that methods courses have more practical experiences in teaching mathematics.on the other hand, the content pedagogy courses interviewees stated that these courses were beneficial for bringing them back to the basic material and helped realize what their students usually did not understand. , they need to know the subject they teach and how to teach the concepts to students (Shulman, 1986). This particular finding is a good indicator of the fact that both content courses and mixed methods courses are important but mathematics method courses may have more beneficial effects on the pre-service teachers self-efficacy development than content pedagogy courses.

In addition, the thoughts divided almost equally when asking about the most effective element in the course. Two interviewees emphasized small group instruction; two focused on peer interaction; one gave preference to partner assignments, and one enjoyed hands-on activities. These results are consistent with previous research studies, according to which training and hands-on activities provide all necessary enactive mastery, which acts as an important source of self-efficacy beliefs for pre-service teachers (Bleicher & Lindgren, 2005; Bray-Clark & Bates, 2003; Cone, 2009; Tenaw, 2013; Turner, Cruz, & Papakonstantinou, 2004).

As for assessing the impact of content pedagogy courses and mathematics methods courses on perceived self-efficacy of pre-service teachers, other studies show that both pedagogical knowledge and content knowledge, as well as the knowledge of technologies which may be needed in the classroom (e.g., when teaching information and communication technologies) (Topkaya, 2010), are pivotal for the overall synthesis (=pedagogical content knowledge) of the pre-service teachers knowledge pertaining to both the subject matter that they are teaching (=content knowledge) and to the ways to teach it (=pedagogical knowledge) (Chai, Koh, & Tsai, 2010). The current study also suggests that both the content pedagogy courses and the mathematics methods courses (=content knowledge) are paramount for pre-service teachers; however, as has been noted above, mathematics methods courses might be more useful for pre-service teachers than content pedagogy courses, because they permit for achieving broader experience and knowledge pertaining to teaching mathematics.

This finding can further be supported by other research. For instance, according to a study by Capraro, Capraro, Parker, Kulm, and Raulerson (2005), pre-service teachers who possess good content knowledge of mathematics display significantly better pedagogical content knowledge, and the latter knowledge progresses better throughout their studies that that of those pre-service teachers who demonstrate poorer content knowledge of mathematics. Therefore, mathematics methods courses (or content knowledge courses) may be pivotal when it comes to developing pedagogical content knowledge among pre-service teachers of mathematics, though pedagogical courses also play a major role in these pre-service teachers development.

Characteristics of Teachers with Higher Self-Efficacy

Based on the responses of the interviews, the researcher identified the characteristics of pre-service teachers with high self-efficacy. It is expected that those pre-service teachers who participated in the study have a tendency to cope with difficulties, be more confident in their ability to teach, use new strategies, and be more motivated. Also, some of the respondents believed in their ability to differentiate their instruction to teach all students with a different background. Czernaik (1990) stated that teachers who possessed high standards of self-efficacy were the most likely to apply new methods in their classrooms and manage to teach all students with a different background. The participants described a variety of positive experiences and did not express any concerns about their ability to teach mathematics. The data collected from the interviews for this question generated numerous topics for discussion.

Unfortunately, virtually no research that addresses the relationship between the characteristics of pre-service teachers and their self-efficacy has been found. However, it is worth noting that pre-service teachers may tend to overestimate their degree of self-efficacy, perhaps especially in the situation when they have children of their own, or when they are emotionally aroused about teaching (Pendergast et al., 2011); self-efficacy may also depend on the setting where they will teach (Siwatu, 2011).

Increasing Pre-Service Teachers Self-Efficacy

When it comes to the ways to increase the self-efficacy of teachers, the literature suggests that the level of self-efficacy may depend on four critical factors: 1) mastery experiences (that is, the experience of teaching students), 2) verbal persuasion (the impact of verbal assessments pertaining to the pre-service educators teaching ability), 3) vicarious experiences (such as the observation of the process of teaching carried out by colleagues, or modeling practices), and 4) emotional arousal of the pre-service teacher during his or her experience of teaching (Pendergast, Garvis, & Keogh, 2011, p. 47). Therefore, it might be possible to conclude that the participation of pre-service teachers in practices which involve these four aspects (e.g., the opportunity to practice; positive evaluation by colleagues and instructors; observing the teaching process and modeling classes; experiencing excitement about teaching activities) may have a positive effect on their self-efficacy. In addition, it is stated that mastery experiences have the most profound impact on perceived self-efficacy (Hoy & Spero, 2005); therefore, it is of paramount importance to provide pre-service teachers with the opportunity to have a practice of teaching students.

It is also noted that pre-service teachers, during the practice of teaching students as a part of these teachers education, often experience an increase in self-efficacy; however, they suffer from a decline of self-efficacy during their first year of teaching (Hoy & Spero, 2005). On the other hand, it is stressed that during the first year of teaching, the support that teachers receive (such as the provision of high-quality teaching resources, the support obtained from colleagues, parents, the administration, and the community) has a positive effect on these teachers self-efficacy (Hoy & Spero, 2005). Thus, similar support during the practice of teaching may help pre-service teachers increase their self-efficacy.

In addition, sometimes pre-service teachers overestimate their self-efficacy, which might lead to a shock when they experience their first teaching situation (Pendergast et al., 2011). Therefore, it may not be the best strategy to simply try to maximize pre-service teachers self-efficacy; adequate instruction in the subject that they need to teach (e.g., in mathematics) and in the pedagogical methods and their implementation may be vital if high self-efficacy is not to have any adverse consequences.

Self-Efficacy and Field Experience

When speaking about self-efficacy and field experience, the current study has found that pre-service teachers are convinced that they would have greater self-efficacy if they had field experience. A study by Gurvitch and Metzler (2009), on the other hand, compared the association between laboratory-based experience and field-based experience of teaching; it was found that teachers participating in laboratory-based practicum had significantly greater levels of self-efficacy than those taking part in a field-based practicum at one of the four stages of their practicum; however, both groups reached similar levels of self-efficacy at the final phase of practicum. It is suggested that this resulted from the more protected atmosphere of the laboratory experience (Gurvitch & Metzler, 2009). On the whole, however, it is apparent that practicum does help to increase self-efficacy of pre-service teachers (Gurvitch & Metzler, 2009, p. 441; Palmer, 2006), which supports the results of the current study.

Conclusion

All in all, the current study has revealed some facts pertaining to pre-service teachers beliefs about their self-efficacy and the factors which may have an impact on these beliefs. A review of the literature shows that the findings of the given research were consistent with the previous studies.

References

Bleicher, R. E., & Lindgren, J. (2005). Success in science learning and preservice science teaching self-efficacy. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 16(3), 205-225.

Bray-Clark, N., & Bates, R. (2003). Self-efficacy beliefs and teacher effectiveness: Implications for professional development. Professional Educator, 26(1), 13-22.

Capraro, R. M., Capraro, M. M., Parker, D., Kulm, G., & Raulerson, T. (2005). The mathematics content knowledge role in developing preservice teachers pedagogical content knowledge. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 20(2), 102-118. Web.

Chai, C. S., Koh, J. H. L., & Tsai, C. C. (2010). Facilitating preservice teachers development of technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge (TPACK). Educational Technology & Society, 13(4), 63-73.

Cone, N. (2009). Communitybased servicelearning as a source of personal selfefficacy: Preparing preservice elementary teachers to teach science for diversity. School Science and Mathematics, 109(1), 20-30.

Gurvitch, R., & Metzler, M. W. (2009). The effects of laboratory-based and field-based practicum experience on pre-service teachers self-efficacy. Teaching and Teacher Education, 25(3), 437-443.

Hoy, A. W., & Spero, R. B. (2005). Changes in teacher efficacy during the early years of teaching: A comparison of four measures. Teaching and Teacher Education, 21(4), 343-356.

Palmer, D. (2006). The durability of changes in selfefficacy of preservice primary teachers. International Journal of Science Education, 28(6), 655-671.

Pendergast, D., Garvis, S., & Keogh, J. (2011). Pre-service student-teacher self-efficacy beliefs: An insight into the making of teachers. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 36(12), 46-58. Web.

Siwatu, K. O. (2011). Preservice teachers sense of preparedness and self-efficacy to teach in Americas urban and suburban schools: Does context matter? Teaching and Teacher Education, 27(2), 357-365.

Tenaw, Y. A. (2013). Relationship between self-efficacy, academic achievement and gender in analytical chemistry at Debre Markos College of Teacher Education. African Journal of Chemical Education, 3(1), 3-28.

Topkaya, E. Z. (2010). Pre-service English language teachers perceptions of computer self-efficacy and general self-efficacy. TOJET: The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 9(1), 143-156.

Turner, S., Cruz, P., & Papakonstantinou, A. (2004). The impact of a professional development program on teachers self-efficacy. Web.

The topic that is chosen for the present work is about vocabulary enhancement with the application of the visual method (Sight words, environmental print, etc.). The choice of the current topic has been made on studying the booklet A Focus on Vocabulary (Lehr et al. 2004). The booklet provides necessary information on students vocabulary and gives evidence that the development of [students] vocabulary knowledge must remain a priority (Lehr et al., 2004, unpaged). Thus, vocabulary enhancement should be the first consideration of teachers as rich vocabulary may be considered a sign of literacy of students. From a psychological point of view, about 60 percent of the population are visual learners (UTMB 2001), this is why the methods that are based on visual perception of material may be very effective in the development of students vocabulary. However, the question remains if the method of Sight Words, as well as other visual methods, is suitable for students of secondary and upper grades.

The method of Sight Words is known due to the contribution of such scientists as Dolch and Fry who composed the lists of sight words, the most frequently used words, which should be recognized at once when seen in a text, this makes the process of perception of a text easier. The lists have been studied by us as they are available (Frys Instant Sight Words, Dolch Basic Sight Word List). The analysis of the sources has shown that the lists include basic words that ensure cognition, such as pronouns, prepositions, frequently used verbs and nouns. Sight words are often used in Word Wall: an ongoing, organized display of key words that provides visual reference for students throughout a unit of study or a term (Marzano, 2004, p. 68). Word Walls are also studied by Cronsberry (2004) who emphasizes their importance for students motivation (p. 1). The web search has shown that visual methods, such as word walls, environmental prints are most frequently used by educators for the instruction of elementary students and students with disabilities (Kuby and Aldridge, 2004, p. 1), (Gately 2007). However, the approach seems to be promising and should not be limited to these groups of students.

During the analysis of any teaching method, independent and objective opinion is always useful. This is why, the point of view of a teacher of upper grades, Ms. Wilson, will be presented. When asked about the possibility of the usage of Sight Words, environmental prints, and Word Walls, she seemed rather perplexed. She disapproved of the method, saying that the students of upper grades should have developed skills of analysis, synthesis, etc. She thought that visual method was too simplistic, hence, inappropriate for upper students. When asked about the general value of the method, she answered that it might be used with kindergarten children and elementary learners only. Thus, Ms. Wilsons attitude towards the method turned out to be radical and rather skeptical.

Though the above has shown negative attitude towards the method, it may be used with secondary students and upper grade students as well, and it goes without saying that it is one of the best methods to use to enrich vocabulary of elementary learners. The method may be used with secondary and upper grade learners who study English as a second language. In this case, depending on the current level of knowledge, even easy material may be useful, such as Sight Words (Fry, Dolch), Unit Word Walls that present key words from a unit. Besides, Writers Word Walls may be used in upper grades; they contain words that are necessary for essay-writing. In order not to make unsubstantiated statements, it is possible to refer to Marzano (2004), who states that it is possible to use Think Word Walls with Business students, Grades 9-10 (p. 69).

As for the disadvantages of the methods of sight words, it is necessary to state that it may really be too simplistic and unproductive if the words taken are familiar for learners. Still, in this case it is not the weak point of the method; the teacher is the one to be blamed. If he/she chooses appropriate words, it may be done together with students by means of synthesis of their suggestions of the words, the method is sure to be productive.

The idea of the usage of Writers Word Wall seems interesting. If we had to compose such a wall, it would present three well-ordered sections with new words for writing. The source of the words may be a literary work that is studied. The Word Wall will present interesting nouns (enigma, decorum, etc.), adjectives (multidimensional, flabbergasted, odious, etc.), and verbs (mesmerize, eradicate). The students will be asked to find definitions, synonyms to these words. The task may be to use several words in every essay they write. Besides, a word game may be used, when the words are written on the cards, there are two cards with the same words and they are on the table, only the blank side of a card is seen. Students take two cards and the task is to find two of the same cards. The one who finds them takes them. The winner is the student who accumulates the greatest number of cards.

As for the age appropriate resources for the students, they may differ depending on the age and proficiency level of the students. However, these resources may be used as the models for the teachers. All of them may be transformed. A teacher should not forget that he is a creative and talented person. The sources are: Readeez, Vol. 1 (Waters & Waters 2008), Making Word Walls Work (Lynch 2005).

Drawing a conclusion, it should be stated that the visual method of teaching that is based on Sight Words is very flexible and effective. It may be used with all students in order to enrich their vocabulary, help them learn key concepts and terms. Though there are different opinions concerning this method, the fact that there are a lot of articles concerning it, proves its effectiveness. The web search has shown that there are a lot of materials available to use this method, now it is up to every teacher to decide if Sight Words become a part of his/her teaching strategy or not.

Reference List

Cronsberry, J. Word Walls. (2004). A Support for Literacy in Secondary School Classroom. Web.

Dolch, E.W. Dolch Basic Sight Word List. Web.

Fry, E.B. Frys 300 Instant Sight Words. Web.

Gately, S. E. (2007). Teaching Students With Severe Disabilities to Read: The Need for Reconciling Constructivism. Rivier Academic Journal, 3(1). Web.

Harmon, J.M., Wood, K.D., Hedrich, W.B., Vintinner, J., and Willeford T. (2009). Interactive Word Walls: More Than Just Reading the Writing on the Walls. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 52(5), 398-408. Web.

Kuby, P., & Aldridge J. (2004). The Impact of Environmental Print Instruction on Early Reading Ability. Journal of Instructional Psychology. Web.

Lehr, F., Osborn, J., and Hiebert E. H. (2004). A Focus on Vocabulary. Pacific Resources for Education and Learning. Web.

Lynch, J. (2005). Making Word Walls Work: A Complete, Systematic Guide With Routines, Grade-Perfect Word Lists, and Reproducible Word Cards to Help All Children Master High-Frequency Words. NY: Teaching Resources.

Marzano, R.J. (2004). Building Background Knowledge for Academic Achievement: Research on What Works in Schools. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 68-69. Web.

UTMB. (2001). UTMB Work Scholl Programs. Web.

Waters, I., & Waters J. (2008). Readeez, Vol.1, Readeez Company, DVD.

According to research carried out by the United States Government Accountability Office; it is well indicated that strategies of improving students academic standards, were mostly applied in schools with higher proportions of low income, and minority students. In this case, schools principals used student data in notifying directions and augment professional development for teachers. In addition, in some states like California, Georgia and Pennsylvania; mathematics teachers raised the use of some instructional practices in order to fit their state tests. Based on this; instructional practices were employed aiming to focus on the topics highlighted on assessments and also, pursuing the search for more effectual teaching techniques. In this case, teachers could provide extra instruction to low achieving students, in order to improve their performance. Arguments on the standards-based accountability systems stated that, this system can affect instructional practices both positively and negatively. In one way, studies indicated that when a standards-based curriculum aligned with matching instructional guiding principle was used, it assisted in the development of elevated order thinking skills among students. On the other hand, studies showed that teachers practices were not constantly replicating the values of standard based instruction; and the complexities associated in aligning practices with standards were accredited partially to existing accountability necessities (Harrell, 2003).

Moreover, there were studies indicating that assessment powerfully advanced the studying process and at the same time, appraised students success. In this case, they brought about unplanned negative effects as far as instruction was considered; by studying only the materials being tested. Other strategies used included; creating extra time for instructional programs which was mostly before-school, after-school and weekends. On the other hand, parents were involved in their childrens education; where they were informed about the students performance and showed the importance of guiding them when they are off-school. Based on the students performance, principals restructured the school day in order to teach the main content areas in depth (Krashen, 1982).

Teaching a second language is the act of imparting students with the knowledge of another language other than their native one. In this case, there are various methods employed in teaching a second language. Among these techniques is; the use of grammar translation method, direct/natural method, audio-lingual method and language immersion method (Krashen, 1998).

When teaching a second language, it is essential that students understand the essence of what is being taught. Based on this, comprehensible input is a significant notion where students develop a second language with and without learning complexities. Students understand the concepts of a new language best; especially when an input more complex than they can easily learn is administered. In this case, the teacher should be very comprehensible when talking because students in most cases understand many, even if not all of the teachers words. Therefore it can be argued that, students comprehend most aspects essential for learning, where through experience gained from learning they are pushed to greater understanding (Harrell, 2003).

The second language teacher should give pertinent background information and content of the language, in order to ensure that the material provided is adequately comprehensible. Based on this, teachers should offer instructions that draw mostly on what students know, through their past experiences and cultural backgrounds. In this case, teachers need to give details of the ideas in most of the time while using minor differences in vocabularies and examples. Therefore, teachers are required to use their vocabularies controllably while at the same time using graphic organizers and signs where possible; in improving the students understanding of the language concepts (Krashen, 1982).

On the other hand, students need to be involved in discussions so that they can express their own ideas and thoughts about the new language. Based on this, students will be motivated by being given an opportunity to share their experiences which will in turn raise receptive language proficiencies. In this case, students will understand the new language better than not when allowed to use oral language in classrooms; while at the same time involving themselves in cognitive difficult responsibilities. In some cases, older students may face problems in classrooms when expressing their ideas orally; therefore dialog journals and computer journals through responses from their teacher; may be a good method of improving their second language understanding (Krashen, 1998).

Further, It is the teachers duty to evaluate the students in order to know whether they understood the concepts of a second language or not. Evaluations may be in form of oral or written questions; where students are supposed to write their ideas about the new language. Based on this, the teacher will get adequate information on the students learning. It is advisable to let students know what you learned from their continuous assessment tests (CAT); and what was supposed to be done. Another way the teacher can use to acquire feedback on his teaching is through survey or evolution forms, which are circulated in the classroom throughout the learning course. These forms ask questions which the teacher is best interested in; so as to get feedback from students (Ellis, 1997).

When teaching students of various ages, they need to be grouped in accordance with their age to ease the work of teaching them as well as allowing socialization amongst themselves. As indicated earlier, older students are at greater risks than young ones when expressing their ideas in classroom situations; and therefore other methods like dialog journals with responses from the teacher are recommended. On the other hand, students may be grouped according to their native languages. In this case, it will be easier to understand their backgrounds; which helps in giving authentic examples from their own languages (Chamot & OMalley, 1990).

Reference

Herrell, A. (2003). Fifty Strategies for Teaching English Language Learner, Second edition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Publishers

Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall

Krashen, S. (1998). Foreign Language Education the Easy Way, 1^st edition. Bedford: Language Education Association Press

Ellis, R. (1997). Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press

Chamot, A. & OMalley, J. (1990). Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Meeting the needs of a diverse learner

Diverse learners can perform well academically because they exhibit the characteristics necessary for excellence. They have positive attitudes towards learning, are obedient, have excellent social skills and perform excellently in other areas of the school curriculum such as sports. However, they may have difficulties applying these characteristics to obtaining better grades or performing excellently. Teachers must find ways of meeting the needs of their students, especially those that exhibit learning difficulties. There are several strategies that teachers can use to help students learn how to write and read, hence performing well academically.

Five strategies that will help Mike in reading

Effective reading requires Mike to do the following:

1. Encouraging learners to participate in rhymes, group stories, poems and songs- this strategy is helpful for Mike who has very good social skills and likes stories
2. Listening to poems, songs and stories- Mike is polite and respectful and hence, he will be able to listen carefully
3. Encouraging learners to know book conventions-, this suits Mike who has difficulty in memorization and sequencing and in addition, he has a tutor to assist him at home.
4. Influence learners ability to use sound-letter cues- Mike has a processing disorder affecting memory
5. Teachers should encourage learners to read broadly- this works well for Mike who gives his best academically

In addition to these strategies, there are reading processes that enhance effective reading. These processes complement the strategies and are classified into before, during and after reading groups.

Before reading, teachers should:

1. Help students recognize the purpose of reading a text. This may include reading to find out events in a story or obtaining specific information.
2. Once the learner has set a reading purpose, they should preview the text they are about to read. Previewing includes looking at the texts title, captions, pictures, headings, graphics and bold-faced prints. This helps learners familiarize themselves with the text, that way; they are capable of reading smoothly as they expect differences in the text layout.
3. Readers should activate any background knowledge they have regarding the text they are about to read.
4. They should predict the happenings in the story or the contents of the story.

During reading

1. Learners should check one cue using another cue. This is possible by checking how words look and sound, and checking if they make sense.
2. Rereading text is also important. When learners encounter problems during reading, they should go back to the beginning of the paragraph or sentence and read again (Jacobs 67).
3. Predicting and confirming is an essential strategy of effective reading. As they read the text, readers should maintain their attention to the purpose of reading, checking if the text confirms the purpose. Additionally, if they encounter difficult words, readers can skip, continue reading then go back to the word once they have finished reading the sentence. They may make out word meanings using other texts in the sentence.
4. Readers can also connect their background knowledge of the text to its content.

After reading

Teachers should encourage learners to summarize and retell the happenings of the story. If the text was nonfiction, readers should review the presented information. In summary, the reading process included pre-reading, reading and after reading processes. Pre-reading involves making connections, activation of prior knowledge and setting a reading purpose. Reading strategies include shared reading, guided reading, and independent reading, friend reading and reading aloud. The processes involved in this stage are cue checking, rereading, prediction and confirmation, and connecting the text to their background information. The after reading process included retelling, summarizing or reviewing the text.

Apart from reading, tutors must equip themselves with strategies to help learners write well.

Five writing strategies

Prewriting Stage

Learners should brainstorm and obtain sufficient information about their writing topic. Writing an outline helps avoid confusion and writing without a flow. The strategies involved in prewriting include:

• Identifying the text audience
• Identifying a writing purpose
• Gathering as well as organizing ideas

This suits Mike who has a moderate learning disability and enjoys writing stories.

Drafting

Once they have done this, learners get into stage two of writing. This involves drafting their materials. Learners should write rough drafts of their writings before producing fine copies. When drafting their copies, learners should focus on content rather than writing mechanics. In this strategy, Mike has supportive parents to help, a tutor and also he gives his best academically.

Revision

Stage three of writing is revision. At this stage, learners should reread their compositions, Share them in groups and actively participate in discussions while making substantive changes to their compositions. These changes may include adding words, substituting sentences, deleting paragraphs and moving phrases. Mike likes to read, has good social skills and has a processing disorder affecting memory.

Editing

The fourth stage is editing, which includes:

• Proofreading the written text
• Identifying and correcting mechanical errors
• Liaising with their teachers for final editing

This suits Mike who has a moderate learning disability has an impact on spelling and has difficulty remembering to capitalize, indent and space.

Publishing

The last step at writing is publishing and sharing the written information (Tompkins, p. 59). This strategy suits Mike who likes writing stories.

Games in the affective domain

The use of video games to assess students level of knowledge, in this strategy Mike gives his best effort academically.

Use of math games- Mike has a processing disorder that affects memory

The use of Board games-This strategy helps Mike whose parents are supportive of schoolwork.

Five instructional materials and strategies for tutoring sessions

1. Use of pictures- This strategy helps Mike in memorization.
2. Word cards- This suits Mike who has a spelling and memorization impact.
3. Use of sound-letter cues- Mike has difficulty with memorization.
4. Use of videotapes- this strategy suits Mike who has difficulty remembering.
5. Storytelling- Mike enjoys writing stories.

Effective teaching requires pre-planning and the development of instructional strategies to guide the process. Establishing instructional strategy covers captivating all the gathering information and producing means of presenting the instructions to learners. Instructional strategies comprise four mechanisms; clustering and content sequences, learning components, selection of a delivery system as well as student groupings. Content sequencing refers to how a teacher plans to teach and group content.

Teachers can group content in terms of learners age level, the complexity of the material, type of learning or the time required for the learning events. The second element of an instructional strategy is describing learning components, which includes learning domains, learning conditions and events instructional events (Eisenberg, Carrie and Kathleen, p. 39).

The learning process includes attention, rehearsal, selective perception, retrieval, semantic encoding, feedback response, and a control process. The third element of the instructional strategy is student groupings. The fourth element is a delivery system, which includes classroom delivery, lecture, correspondence, web-based, videotape, computer-based or video conference.

Works Cited

1. Eisenberg, Michael, Carrie A. Lowe, and Kathleen L. Spitzer. Information literacy: essential skills for the information age. 2nd ed. Westport, Conn.: Libraries Unlimited, 2004. Print.
2. Jacobs, Heidi Hayes. Curriculum 21: essential education for a changing world. Alexandria, Va.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2010. Print.
3. Tompkins, Gail E. Literacy for the 21st century: a balanced approach. 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Merrill, 2001. Print.

Teaching languages is the matter of patience, persistence, and hard work. Only when you can see the result, one can enjoy the academic process. This is what my teacher has always told to me. You never know when you realize the actual incentives for learning languages. But when you do, you will be pleasantly surprised, my teacher once remarked. Indeed, learning languages is an ongoing process of constant scaffolding and repeating, and it is often hard to remain encouraged and motivated.

Nevertheless, what I know for sure is that there will be a moment when my efforts will be justified. While learning languages, I was extremely supported by my teacher for foreign languages, as she always said there was nothing impossible for a person who had a goal. Thus, the impact of a teacher on a learning process is obvious because this is person who has managed to provide a student with valuable knowledge and experience promoting my understanding of the importance of an academic process and professional growth.

Understanding theory is impossible without empirical knowledge. My teacher used to pronounce, Imagination is more important than knowledge because the latter is limited whereas the former can embrace the entire world. Once I heard this phrase, I never gave up practicing imaginative and creative thinking, which helped me much in exploring the boundaries of language. I was always surprised by the way my teacher explained various notions and phrases in language, as well as her unconventional techniques. Once, she came in the class, with no books and lecture notes in her hands, and started asking us about definition of the word writing.

She also added with a calm tone that we should put all scientific explanations aside and say what we actually thought about it. This was among the most interesting and exciting lessons because everyone in the class was engaged in discussion of the issue.

My teacher never appraised my achievements overtly. Nor did she single out students of others. Each lesson started with cross-examination, and she asked everyone how he or she felt today. Therefore, I feel equal and unique at one at the same time. During one of the lessons, asked everyone Why do you think people are so different? Do you think they want different things? At a glance, it seemed an easy question to me and I was about to answer it.

However, when other students started expressing controversial ideas, I realized that everyone in this class was unique, and this was the obvious answer to the question. While listening to our answers, she approached each student as if she felt concerned with their feelings and emotions. Once everybody answered the question, she proceeded with a new lesson, making no conclusion and rejecting neither of the ideas.

A learning process is effective as soon as a person starts making conclusions independently. This is the message our teacher always wanted to deliver. She never punished us for the home assignment we failed, which, in fact did make sense. She always looked calm, showing no embarrassment while explaining the importance of being independent. She never made connection between the learning process and our future goals, leaving space for students to think over it.

In conclusion, a learning process is more than just attending lessons. Rather, it is the process of developing individuality and identity. More importantly, my teacher played a crucial role in understanding my life goals, as well as why learning languages is my calling. Probably, my teacher was among the most influential people in my life because she managed to prove that knowledge is important only when you know how it can be implied for self-improvement.

Given what you know about increasing and decreasing behaviors, design an intervention for your target student in accordance with the steps outlined below.

What is the function of your students behavior (as determined in task #2)?

The function of Andersons behavior is to avoid participating in class.

What is the replacement behavior that you will be teaching (make sure it is a fair pair and that it is teachable)?

The replacement behavior I will be teaching Anderson is being actively involved in all class activities by just rising up to answer questions or make contributions. It is a fair pair since rising in his seat prevents him from feigning slips and tying his shoelaces.

Write a paragraph here to describe what you will say to the student  how will you introduce this new behavior to the student, what will you say and how will you say it?

Hello, Anderson, we both know that you have always had difficulties walking to the front of the class to make your contributions. You always slip or start tying your shoelaces to be exempted from participating in discussions. To prevent the occurrence of such things, I have decided that you will only be standing up to make contributions. This tactic will ensure that you do not walk to the front. Therefore, there will be no more slips and tying shoe laces in class. I believe you will cooperate since this decision is meant to help you achieve the objective of coming to school. I am sure your parents expect you to do well in class, and they cannot be happy with the behaviors you have been exhibiting lately.

Describe at least three positive teaching examples that sample the range of actual environmental events  and one non-example that is minimally different from the last positive example you taught. Remember, the positive examples all contain the same behavior but different contexts and the negative example is the same context but a behavior that is not appropriate.

For example, when I pose a question and ask you to answer, just rise in your seat and answer it. Another example is when I want you to work on a sum on the board; I will stand near the board and ask you to explain the procedure as I write it on the board for you. During the science class, I will put your apparatus on your desk and ask you to demonstrate your work to the class while standing. However, it will be wrong for you to engage in other activities such as tying your laces or shouting when I ask you to speak.

Describe what you will do to help ensure success  talk about all the things you can do to facilitate success (prompts, proximity, arrangements, routines, etc.).

• I will ask Anderson to sit in front of the class. This will ensure that everybody sees him whenever he stands up. Sitting in front will also ensure that he does not walk in class because walking makes him feign slips and other time-wasting tactics. He will have no excuse not to participate in class discussions.
• I will warn him not to tie his shoe laces in class. Tying his shoe laces is always one of the tactics he uses to avoid participating in class discussions. Therefore, warning him will ensure that he has nothing to make him avoid participating in class discussions.
• I will make sure I ask him questions regularly to help him get used to participating in class activities. I always believe he just fears participating in class activities. Therefore, making him participate in discussions frequent will eliminate the fear of participation.

What will you do when the student engages in the behavior appropriately  or what will you need to make sure happens under these circumstances (think increasing behavior procedures)?

I will praise him and ask the class to clap for him. This will help him understand that participating in class is a good thing. Therefore, he will start participating in discussion regularly. I will also exempt him from answering questions for the whole lesson once he answers three questions in class. Andersons reinforcement is not participating in class. He will be jubilant to be exempted. Thus, exempting him from some discussion will drive him willingly answer questions and make contributions in class.

What will you do when the student does not engage in the behavior appropriately  or what will you need to make sure happens under these circumstances (think decreasing behavior procedures)?

If he does not follow the behavior change procedure, I will ask him to stand in front of the class and answer all the questions in class. Since the function of his behavior is not to participate in class, I will have denied him that.

Write a paragraph here to describe how youll describe this to the students parents (what you are doing and why).

As I had previously informed you, your son, Anderson, has not been willing to participate in class for quite some time. He has always feigned slips and other excuses not to take part in anything we do in class. Therefore, I came up with an intervention method for his behavior. I have asked him to be rising whenever he is supposed to answer a question or say anything in class. This will ensure that he does not slip or start tying his shoelaces instead of answering questions. I hope it will work.