Category: Teaching

Human capital is the most valuable resource in an organization, therefore, it is a critical resource as it determines the quality of services offered. It takes years to develop skilled employees, as such they must get superior salaries. According to Lussier and Kimball (2009) a key driver of business success is human resource (HR) management& (p. 182). Human resource managers develop terms of employment which determine the quality of potential employees an organization attracts. In September 2012, the teachers strike paralyzed public schools in Chicago for eight days. According to State-Net (2012) the contract statement which ended the strike  but which has to be ratified by the unions full membership  should raise teachers pay an average of 17.6 percent over four years. The teachers came about on the streets of Chicago because they were in desperate need of the salary increase along with other benefits which include medical insurance and retirement benefits.

The National Education Association supported the strike even though the teachers are not members of NEA (Roekel, 2012). The Chicago strike achieved its goal, as a result, the teachers got a pay rise. The teachers who earn improved wages are more productive, thus students receive a more quality education from the teachers who are satisfied with their working conditions thus entirely focusing on the educational process and students needs. Besides, other non-monetary benefits contribute to the quality of education students get. Management of education institution must strive to attract talented teachers by improving monetary and non-monetary terms of service. According to Morse (2007) a model of education that is stingy with resources, crowds classrooms, and pays small salaries will not attract the best people to the teaching profession or keep them there (p. 21).

Business organizations minimize the wage bill in order to make a profit; employees, on the other hand, seek for well paying jobs. Therefore, an organization which pays its employees well attracts qualified staff; conversely, inadequately paid employees offer poor services. Organizations, which provide employees enhanced working terms attract trained and committed employees. Teachers understand that students deserve dedicated and qualified teachers (Roekel, 2012). The pay teachers currently get lowers the stature of the teaching profession, yet teachers help to nurture all professionals. I support the National education Association that teachers must be compensated like other professionals with the same training and experience (Roekel, 2012). Although it is not easy to quantify the contribution of teachers to the economy, they play a vital role. It, therefore, follows there must be found a way out to encourage college students to choose teaching as their career path. According to Brandt (1990) a major concern identified in the reform report was that the declining interest in education careers, especially of academically talented college students. The number of entering college students interested in becoming teachers had dropped dramatically over the previous decade (p. 220).

In conclusion, it must be highlighted that a human resource manager has to find a way to balance the interest of the employer with that of the employee. The objective of most employers is to keep labor cost at minimum without affecting the quality of products and services. Any employee desires to work for an organization with a superior pay and excellent benefits. It is the duty of a human resource manager to develop terms of employment which attract the most qualified employees while minimizing expenses. In addition, continuous appraisal of employees and salary review ensure better employee retention.

References List

Brandt, R. (1990). Incentive Pay and Career Ladders for Todays Teachers: A Study of Current Programs and Practices. Albany: State of New York University Press.

Lussier, R & Kimball, D. (2009). Applied Sport Management Skills. Illinois: Thomson Learning.

Morse, F. (2007). Level Playing Field: School Finance in the Northeast. Albany: State of New York University Press.

Roekel, V. (2012) NEA President Van Roekel Statement on Chicago strike. Web.

State Net. (2012) Victories All Around in Chicago Teachers Strike. Web.

Motor delays are experienced when children fail to attain a certain stage of development within a given time. Causes of motor delays can either be genetic or environmental. There are many signs which indicate that a child is experiencing motor delays. These signs are behavioral, vision, gross motor, and hearing. Behavioral signs that may signal motor delay among children include lack of attention or focus on activity for a long time when compared to children of the same age (New & Cochran, 2006).

Violent behavior on a daily basis as well as child avoiding or rarely making eye contact with others are also behavioral signs for development delays among children. Additionally, when a child focuses on the unusual objects for a long time and seem to enjoy it more than interacting with others, this is a sign of motor delay. If the child does not seek approval or love from the parent or caregiver and gets unusually frustrated when doing a simple task, that children of the same age can do, then the child may be suffering motor delays., Furthermore, when a child shows aggressive behavior and at the same time appear to be stubborn as compared to children of the same age, this can help reveal motor delay. Finally, when a child talks to self more than to other children, this can be a sign of development delay. Information collected by occupational therapist and physical therapist during screening include neurophysiological, musculoskeletal, sensorimotor, and daily living skills of the children.

Early years of child development are a time of great growth. At the same time, negative experiences during this may make the child vulnerable to growth disorders. When children have negative experiences, their mental health is affected. This may also affect the cognition, behavior and social-emotional growth. Common factors that may affect social-emotional disabilities in young children include family income, neighborhood characteristics and mental health problem relative and non-relative caregiver (Whitted, 2011; Cooper, Masi & Vick, 2009). Furthermore, poor maternal attachment during the early years is a child development risk factor that can negatively affect children social-emotional development. Finally, substandard childcare and educational opportunities may also negatively impact on young children socially-emotional disabilities. Poor quality day care in a poor neighborhood in the context may contribute to children delayed learning about the necessary skills at the appropriate time. This can contribute to social-emotional disabilities in young children (Whitted, 2011).

Young children are screened so as to reduce the chances of childs disability. The rationale for screening is to enable early identification of childhood development disorders so as to reduce disability among young children. In children, problems related to hearing, vision and language are identified. There are several hearing and vision screening test that are done to identify childrens disorders. The key hearing tests in screening include Infant distraction test (IDT), Traditional Health Visitors distribution test (HVDT), Targeted IDT, BeST test, Transient Evoked Otoacoustic Emission (TEOAE), MLS TEOAE, Auditory Brainstem Response (ABR), and Distortion Product Otoacoustic Emission (DPOAE). Key vision screening test includes checking of the appearance of the eyes, cover/uncover test for squint, single optotype or linear visual acuity test, for example, Sheridan Gardiner or Snellen. Other vision screening tests that are performed on Orthoptic screen are ocular movement, a convergence, prism test, and test of stereoacuity such as frisbee and stereotest (Salvia, Ysseldyke & Bolt, 2010).

Early intervention services are important for children with AIDS, FAS, and prenatal exposure to cocaine. The intervention services are important in reducing the exposure of children to multiple negative effects of Aids, alcohol, or cocaine on their development. Additionally, these intervention services are important to reduce the environmental risk factors that may place children at risk of developmental delays. These intervention services or rather, programs are important in improving the well-being of children together with their parents that are drug dependent or HIV positive. Early interventions are also critical in minimizing the acute, as well as long term effects of prenatal substance exposure. This is important because it ensures that children get the treatment and services early enough before the effects goes out of hand (CASA, n.d.).

Child self-help skills are important because they help the child to become independent and have a better experience with peers at home and in class. Additionally, self-help skills help a child to integrate with peers. The preschool special education teacher can play a major role in helping children with special needs to develop their self-help skills. The preschool special education teacher can do this through motivating the young children towards achieving this. The teacher can motivate the children by working and demonstrating the skills to be taught to the children. The teacher ought to make the children observe the demonstration of skill for a reasonable number of days before allowing them to practice. The teacher should choose to break down the skills into simple tasks so as to give the children a sense of accomplishment that eventually motivates them. This also involves working backward for the children to have a sense of the activity that enables them take more responsibility. The teacher should make them feel and see the tasks of the skills they learn. Then the preschool special education teacher should use every available opportunity to let the children practice the new skill over and over again and to ensure that the children use the skills. Finally, the teacher can allow the children to learn more and practice the new skills through play.

There are five major classroom areas. Each area holds its own importance. The meeting area is a very important area in the classroom. It is the point where children meet every morning for routine activities such as attendance, calendar, reading the alphabet, group instructions, weather, and sharing after independent activities. Library or language area is important for learning and development of reading culture for children. Sensory area is important for the children because it exposes children to the use of their senses. Mathematics area introduces students to mathematics materials such as counters, cubes, rulers, numbers, balances, and figures. The social studies area introduces children to maps, books, flags, display books, and well as other children work. The science is important in arousing curiosity among children to learn about soils, seeds, thermometers, plants, magnets, and others. Finally, dramatic play area offers an excellent opportunity for children to develop language and social skills. It also enables children incorporate the class teachings to the real life.

Classroom behavior management is critical in achieving positive educational results. Effective behavior management is important in the realization of such goals. Effective classroom behavior management requires structuring of the classroom, active supervision of childrens engagement, implementation of classroom rules and routines, and proper procedures to encourage appropriate behavior. Other important components of effective behavior management include behavior reduction strategies and collection of data to be used to monitor children or pupil behavior and modification classroom procedures (Oliver & Reschly, 2007).

There are various key skills that are important for a childs success in kindergarten. First, the child ought to be enthusiastic towards learning for success in the kindergarten. At the same time, the child should have solid oral-language skills, as well as having the desire to be independent. Moreover, the child should possess the ability to play well with others and have strong motor skills. On top of these, the child should have the ability to listen and have strong letter and number recognition skills (Parlapiano, n.d.). Teachers and parents can play a fundamental role in developing these kindergarten readiness skills. Parents can do this by buying reading books with children, encouraging the children to construct sentences. This can also be achieved by allowing children to do and try new things, and giving the child opportunity to have hands-on experience in doing things. Additionally, the parent can help the children to sing alphabet songs, reading nursery rhymes, clapping rhythmically, and singing songs to the children. Playing games with children and allowing them to interact with other children in the neighborhood. Parents can build comprehension skills reading stories to the children and also allowing them to retell stories as they also communicate their feelings. At the same time, parents and teacher can help children learn print awareness through recognizing environmental print, knowing the differences between letters and words, and to recognize prints occurring on different surfaces (James, 2006).

References

CASA. (N.d.). Neonatal & Newborn Substance Exposure.

Cooper, L. J., Masi, R. & Vick, J. (2009). Social-emotional Development in Early Childhood: What Every Policymaker Should Know. National Center for Children in Poverty. Web.

James, A. (2006). Kindergarten success: Everything you need to know to help your child learn. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

New, R. S., & Cochran, M. (2006). Early childhood education [four volumes]: An international encyclopedia. Westport, Conn: Praeger Publishers.

Oliver, M. R. & Reschly, D. J. (2007). Effective classroom management: Teacher preparation and development. National Comprehensive Center for Teacher Quality. Web.

Parlapiano, H. E. (N.d.). Ready for Kindergarten? Five teachers tell you what preschoolers really need for next year. Web.

Salvia, J., Ysseldyke, J. E., & Bolt, S. (2010). Assessment in special and inclusive education. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Cengage Learning.

Whitted, S. K. (2011). Understanding How Social and Emotional Skill Deficits Contribute to School Failure. Preventing School Failure, 55 (1), 1016.

There are two theoretical frameworks that are pertinent in instructing elementary teachers on teaching mathematics: the developmental approach and the constructivist approach (Van de Walle et al., 2010). This discourse shall be delving deep into this viewpoint in the quest to establish their suitability and whether one is more preferable than the other, taking into account the present learning needs of mathematics students.

Generally, the motivations for the changes witnesses in the teaching of mathematics in schools are evidence of the fact that as the society changes, so do the need to develop technical aids in teaching the subject (Anghileri, 2006). These changes have also prompted psychologists to change their strategies whilst conducting research on ways in which children can be taught mathematics.

Throughout the previous century, the theorists of this approach have gone to the great length of bringing to the fore the discussion concerning the value of the childrens development base for teachers. More importantly, this period has seen to the modeling of learning concepts and development falling between the definitions of either behaviorist tradition or to the extreme the biological perspective, including entity ideas such as the claims that intelligence is fixed or rather the maturations perspective that children develop their intelligence on their own (Van de Walle et al., 2010). Anghileri (2006) defines this approach as a behaviorist. She notes that the approach relied on the conviction that the learning process of human beings and their behavior can only be explained as a response to a particular external stimulus. This approach presented the implication that knowledge was a transferable commodity, that it could be transferred from the teacher to the students in a class set up. Secondly, the approach also posited that techniques such as drill and practice were the most pertinent means through which students acquired such knowledge.

Anghileri (2006) further notes that the evident shortcomings of the behaviorist approach led to the subsequent questioning of its efficiency in imparting knowledge to the student. Undeniably, whereas the approach could aptly elaborate the intricacies involved in training pigeons to play ping-pong, it fell short of bringing to understanding the modalities involved in helping students to apply concepts in language, exploit their creative capacities and resolve all kinds of problems.

Constructivist Approach

The past decade, however, witnessed a turning point in perspective by theorists who instead endorsed the educational practices that are based on prevailing knowledge in regards to how children learn and develop (Freeman & Richards, 1996). These recent approaches that have been adopted in a bid to explain how children learn mathematics are termed as constructivist, and they are founded on the view that learning is not merely the transmission of knowledge from one person to another; it rather posits that students are actually active participants in the construction of their own knowledge, especially from their personal experiences (Anghileri, 2006).

Notably, the constructivist approach, as related to the teaching of mathematics, is broadly discussed through a variety of thematic concerns. Many scholars have employed various qualifiers in the advancement of the constructivist approach. This has led to such sub-branches like the individual and cognitive constructivism as propounded by Jean Piaget and social constructivism, as argued by Lev Vygotsky (Baker, McGaw & Peterson, 2007) and David Ausubel (Cakir, 2008). Other facets of the constructivist approach include socio-cultural constructivism (Branco & Valsiner, 2004); socio-transformative constructivism (Rodriguez, 1998), and contextual constructivism (Cobern, 1993). For the sake of this discourse, we are limited to delving into the dimensions of constructivism, as portrayed by Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky.

Understanding that human beings are born with reflexes that allow them to interact with their environment is fundamental in understanding Piagets approach to constructivism. The ability of human beings to adapt to their environment is, therefore, a product of the replacement of these varied reflexes through the construction of schemes and/or structures. There are two distinct channels through which this process of adaptation is facilitated. These are either accommodation or assimilation. These two channels are critical elements of constructivism. As a person interacts with their environment, they invariably create knowledge, and this, in turn, manipulates their cognitive structures; as a result of the continuous building of these knowledge, adaptation results. Whenever there comes up a difference between the mental structures that have been formulated and the environment that the learner operates in, the learner can alter their perception of their environment to match it with the order of the incoming information. This is achieved through the process of assimilation. Alternatively, the cognitive structures can change by themselves as a result of the interaction that occurs during accommodation. Whichever way, the individual interacts with his environment for the purpose of adaptation. (Piaget, 2001)

There are three types of knowledge that need to be present at the various stages of cognitive development, as proposed by Piaget (Driscoll, 2000). These include the physical, the logical-mathematical, and social knowledge. First of all, physical knowledge is accessed by learner through their encounter with the physical environment. It is therefore defined in terms of the experiences of the learner and how they perceive physical objects and the very nature of their concreteness. In essence, the physical knowledge is acquired through direct contact with environmental elements (Lutz & Huitt, 2004). On the other hand, the kind of knowledge referred to as the logical-mathematical knowledge consists of abstract reasoning. This knowledge is applied in concepts that are not necessarily dealing with the physical encounter with stimuli. It is different from physical knowledge in the sense that it can be discovered, it requires action before it can be acquired. Therefore, its acquisition comes through recurrent exposure and interaction with multiple objects in a number of places. This results into the creation and modification of the mental structures. In this case, generalizations and abstractions become the products of the manipulation of objects in varied patterns and contexts (Piaget, 1978). Thirdly, the social knowledge is specifically determined by the cultural context that an individual is exposed to. The process of acquiring this knowledge is contingent on the learners action as opposed to their perception of the physical objects. There is no hierarchy of importance in regards to the three types of knowledge are applicable at all the stages of cognitive stages of development (Piaget, 1978).

Lev Vykotsky, on his part, identifies society and culture as great determinants of cognitive development. He employs social interaction as to lay out the concepts needed for learning and development. He argues that the development of an individuals mind involves the interweaving of the biological development of their body, on one hand, and the appropriation of their cultural and material heritage that exist in the present to coordinate people with each other and their physical world (Lutz & Huitt, 2004). According to Wink and Putney (2002), there are three major principles that underlie the Vykotsky approach to constructivism. For one, social interaction plays a crucial role in the development of cognitive abilities of a leaner. Nicholl (2012) views this principle as meaning that without the learning that occurs as a result of social interaction or without self awareness or the application of symbols that allows people to think in ways that are more complex, we would invariably be subjected to slavery to situations, thereby, responding directly to the environments that we are subjected to.

Vykotskys second principle simple imply that the potential for the development of a persons cognitive abilities are limited to a particular time span (Kearsley, 2001); whereas, the third principle assert that the only means of understanding how individuals acquire knowledge is by studying learning in an environment in which the process of learning is studied (Lutz & Huitt, 2004).

It can therefore be concluded that both the society and culture are crucial to the social development theory as proposed by Vykotsky. This is evident from his argument that the higher mental functions need to be processed through an external stage in the context of social occurrences (Lutz & Huitt, 2004). This allows their merging into the integral part of the thinking of learner. This dialectical discovery eventually becomes complex as much as it is a continuous process (Wink &Putney, 2002). According to the Vykotskys, it is suggested that each and every person has their unique potential range for learn concepts. This range of learning is what Vykotsky defined as the zone of proximal development.

In this zone, at any given point, there are three levels of ability that are possible at any point of development. This includes whatever an individual can learn without guidance or help, that a person cannot learn even if they are helped and that which they can learn with help (Lutz & Huitt, 2004).

The central element, according to this approach, is the potential of a learner to develop as opposed to the snapshot that can be provided through asking the learner to independently accomplish some particular mathematical tasks (Lutz & Huitt, 2004). Consequently, the cognitive capacities of a learner can be measured by simply evaluating the tasks provided to the learner. This zone of proximal development is represented by the difference between actual levels of development, which ate measured by the ability to solve problems and, the levels of a learners potential that are characterized by the learners ability to resolve problems when they are under guidance of either an adult or a fellow competent peer (Lutz & Huitt, 2004).

Many scholars have considered the approaches propounded by Piaget, Ausubel and Vygotsky as offering quite divergent of the development of learning or rather cognition. For one, Vygotsky and Ausubel are considered as providing teaching recommendations that are more explicit than those that are provided by Piaget and there are glaring similarities that can be pinpointed between the processes of cognition that are proposed by the three theorists (Cakir, 2008).

Piaget proposes that both children and adults employ mental patterns or schemes in their attempt to appreciate and control behavior and cognition (Cakir, 2008). In essence, they interpret new material or experiences by relating them to existing schemes. This demands that for the new material to become fully absorbed, it should fit into a present scheme. In close relation to Piaget proposal, Ausubel argues that significant information is often saved in the networks of closely related informational facts connected facts that are reckoned to be called schemata. This means that for one to clearly understand and be able to use in practice the new information, it is necessary for it to fit in the existing schemata for it to be successfully assimilated. The two theorists therefore concur that new concepts are more readily learned and assimilated than the new information that relates to less established schemes or patterns (Cakir, 2008).

On the other hand, Vygotsky approach has been lauded for its focus on culture as the basis for cognition and also for proposing that each learner has got their zone, which depends on two crucial factors: the developmental threshold that is necessary for learning and upper limit of the current ability of the learner to absorb the material that is under consideration (Cakir, 2008).

In that regard, mathematical knowledge is not acquired by student just by sitting in their classroom and listening to their teachers; it is rather something that students take initiative in constructing by themselves through establishing meaning and mental connection of concepts. Therefore, the learning outcome of students vary depending upon the framework for understanding that a particular student has developed and this limits the teachers role to that of providing an enabling environment, which can stimulate active participation (Anghileri, 2006).

Duckworth (2006) also notes that research has demonstrated that the constructivist view, by the teachers, that the students mindset are somewhat consistent with that of their child-centered practices. Other studies demonstrate that such practices encourage qualities such as the motivation to learn and solve problem, which are highly valued in children. For instance, studies demonstrate that preschool and kindergarten teachers who advocate for approaches that are child centered are prone to employing a variety of engaging and authentic activities while teaching mathematics in their classrooms (Stipek & Byler, 1997). Additionally, other studies have established that there is a link between the uses of activity based approaches that are characteristically instructional and the constructivist view of the mind (Duckworth, 2006).

2000 NCTM Principles and Standards

The theoretical approaches discussed above are essential in teaching children mathematical concepts. However, as discussed by Van de Walle et al. (2010), the 2000 NCTM Principles and Standards is a crucial document that teachers need to acquaint themselves with, if at all they are going to achieve maximum effectiveness with teaching children mathematical concepts. These principles and standards as reflected in this document lay out the important components that should be inculcated in the high quality mathematics programs in schools. The program gives much prominence the need for well supported and well prepared teachers and, also recognizes the significance of a system that is carefully organized to assess the learning of students and the effectiveness of the program. Thirdly, the program underscores the necessity for all stakeholders including the students, teachers, parents, administrators and the community at large to play a part in the quest to build a high quality program for all students. (NCTM, 2000)

The principles proposed in this document reflect the basic precepts that are considered as fundamental to the provision of high quality teaching of mathematics. There are six principles in total that are proposed in the document. They include equity, learning, curriculum, teaching, assessment and technology (NCTM, 2000). According to the principle of equity, excellence in teaching mathematics is dependent on the strong support that the teacher offers to the child. The principle makes the assumption that all children can be taught and learn mathematical concepts of high-quality instruction, their physical challenges, social-economic background and personal characteristics notwithstanding. Rather than demanding that every student be accorded identical instruction, the principle of equity prescribes that the teacher makes reasonable and appropriate accommodation and that they also provide challenging content in order to boost access and attainment for all students (Van de Walle et al. 2010).

Secondly, curriculum as principle represents coherent activities that are focused on learning important concepts in mathematics. In this case, mathematical concepts are built on one another to help the understanding of the child and deepen their knowledge of the concept, thus multiplying their ability to apply mathematics. This implies that an effective mathematics curriculum will lay much emphasis on concepts that will prepare the child to further study the subject and also solve problems in any environment they find themselves in whether it be at home, school or work place in the future. When a curriculum is well articulated, it challenges the student to deepen their knowledge on more sophisticated mathematical ideas as they further their studies (Van de Walle et al. 2010).

Teaching as a principle posits that effective impartation of mathematical concepts requires the understanding of what the students already know and what they need to learn; it therefore also involves the teacher challenging and supporting the student to acquire these new concepts that they need to learn. Teaching is imperative to achieving the understanding of mathematical concepts by students, their ability to use them to solve problems and generally their confidence in doing mathematics (Van de Walle et al. 2010).

Students must also learn mathematics with understanding as they build new knowledge from the experience and previously acquired knowledge. The conceptual understanding of mathematical concepts cannot be gainsaid. The students become effective learners only after they can draw parallels on the factual knowledge and procedural proficiency on one side with conceptual knowledge on the other side (Daniels & Shumow, 2003). In this state, students are able to identify the significance of reflecting on their thinking and even draw lessons from the errors that they have made. They also achieve competence and confidence in their capability to handle difficult problems, thereby becoming more willing to persevere whenever the task presents challenges (Van de Walle et al. 2010).

Additionally, the principle of assessment supports the learning of important mathematical concepts and provides invaluable information to both student and teacher. Assessment should be placed at the center of the student learning since it contributes to the understanding of mathematical concepts (Daniels & Shumow, 2003). Teachers should formulate assessment in the manner that it informs and guides them to arrive at instructional decisions. They should also formulate the assessment in the manner that the task that they select for the students conveys a message to the students about the most pertinent mathematical knowledge and performance. More importantly, the feedback that is derived from assessment enables the students in assuming responsibility for their own learning by setting learning goals and achieve independence in the whole learning process (Van de Walle et al. 2010).

Finally, technology is essential in the teaching and learning of mathematical concepts. This is because it does influence the teaching process itself by enhancing the learning of students. Through the use of technology, students can attain a deeper understanding of mathematical concepts. This could be through conduction investigations in mathematical concepts and allowing students to emphasize decision-making, reflection, reasoning and the solving of problems (Daniels & Shumow, 2003).

On the other hand, the standards proposed by the 2000 NCTM Principles and Standards document include the descriptions that mathematics instructions are given, which enable the students to familiarize with what they need to know or do in order to solve a particular mathematical problem. The standards are further categorized as content standards and process standards. The content standards describe the five basic contents that students need to be acquainted with including: numbers and operation, algebra, geometry, measurement, data analysis and probability. The process standards, on the other hand, demonstrate the ways through which content knowledge should be acquired and applied. The process standards include problem solving, reasoning and proof, communication, connection and representation.

Conclusion

In this discourse, we have looked at both the theoretical and practical underpinning of teaching children mathematical concepts. In the theoretical framework, we have looked at the developmental aspect and ruled it out as an effective concept to be adopted by teachers to teach mathematics to children. This is informed by the knowledge that the approach refuses to acknowledge human beings as active participants in the learning process. We have therefore endorsed the constructivist approach, taking into account its strengths as highlighted by scholars such as Vykotsky and Piaget. This is because the approach appreciates the interaction between the learner and his environment and how this crucial matrix helps in the comprehension of patterns, thus, concepts.

Finally, we have studied the 2000 NCTM Principles and Standards document, which are lauded by Van de Walle et al (2010) as the best blue print for teachers who are teaching mathematical concepts to children. The document proposes principles and standards that offer a robust guideline to teachers in their quest to impart knowledge that is direly required to solve mathematical problems.

References

Anghileri, J. (2006). Childrens Mathematical Thinking in Primary Years. New York: Continuum International Publishing Group.

Baker, E., McGaw, B., & Peterson, P. (2007). Constructivism and Learning. Oxford: Elsevier.

Branco, A. U., & Valsiner, J. (Eds.). (2004). Communication and Meta communication in Human Development. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing, Inc.

Cakir, M. (2008). Constructivist Approaches to Learning in Science and their Implications for Science Pedagogy: A Literature Review. International Journal of Environmental & Science Education, 3(4), 193-206.

Cobern, W. (1993). The Practice of Constructivism in Science Education. Washington DC. AAAS Publishers.

Daniels, D. H., & Shumow, L. (2003). Child Development and Classroom Teaching: A Review of the Literature and Implications for Educating Teachers. Applied Developmental Psychology, 23, 495  526.

Driscoll, M. (2001). Psychology of Learning for Assessment. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Duckworth, E. R. (2006). The having of wonderful ideas and other essays on teaching and learning. New York : Teachers College, Columbia University.

Freeman, D. A., & Richards, J. C. (1996). Teacher learning in language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press.

Kearsley, G. (2001). Constructivist theory. Theory into Practice. (2012). Web.

Lutz, S., & Huitt, W. (2004). Connecting Cognitive Development and Constructivism: Implications from Theory for Instruction and Assessment. Constructivism in the Human Sciences, 9(1), 67-90.

National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) 2000. Principles and Standards for School Mathematics. Web.

Nicholl, T. (2012). Vygotsky: The virtual faculty. Web.

Piaget, J. (1978). The development of thought (A. Rosin, Trans.). Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

Piaget, J. (2001). The psychology of intelligence. London: Routledge.

Rodriguez A. J. (1998). Strategies for Counter resistance: Toward Socio-transformative Constructivism and Learning to Teach Science for Diversity and for Understanding. J Res Sci Teach, 35, 589-622.

Stipek, D., & Byler, P. (1997). Early Child Education Teachers: Do they Practice what they preach? Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 12, 305  325.

Van de Walle, J., Karp, K., Karp, S.K., & Bay-Williams, J. (2010). Elementary and Middle School Mathematics: Teaching Developmentally. New York: Pearson

Wink, J., & Putney, L. (2002). A vision of Vygotsky. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Estimate Time Teaching Will Last: One hour.

Location of Teaching: Elementary School Classroom.

Supplies, Materials, Equipment Needed: Litter bins signed Metal, Paper, Plastic, a pile of empty plastic bottles, juice containers, food wrappers, cans, batteries, newspapers, pictures of littered locations.

Target: Elementary school students.

Topic: Help our planet become more beautiful. Litter is a serious environmental issue in the world nowadays and raising social awareness of this subject is necessary to help prevent the pollution of the environment we live in. Littering is a bad habit and it can be stopped (What is Littering? n. d.).

Statistics Related to Topic: Every year millions of tons of trash are being discharged into the environment. The total amount of trash generated every year in the United States is two hundred fifty million tons. At least eighteen percent of all the litter in the United States ends up in water streams and oceans (Litter Trashes the Environment, 2014). The most common types of litter are paper (twenty-nine percent), plastic (two percent), glass (six percent), metal (twenty-eight percent), and fast food waste (thirty-three percent) (Littering Statistics, 2013).

Nursing Diagnosis: This environmental issue is able to cause multiple dangers if it is not prevented in time and if it is out of control. Litter pollution can cause soil contamination and air pollution. Soil contamination is the source of various contagious diseases and poisonings, and air pollution causes respiratory illnesses and pathologies. Besides, big litter sites have a tendency to become the areas where mosquitoes breed, the increasing population of mosquitoes living in the polluted environment can cause the occurrence of diseases like Malaria. Moreover, dangerous waste, such as explosives or sharp litter, is able to become the reason of accidents where human life and health can be endangered.

Readiness for Learning: The factors that indicate the childrens readiness are the amount of packed food they consume and their everyday experience with potential litter.

Learning Theory to Be Utilized: The children will be informed about the dangers litter creates and the negative impacts of environmental pollution on peoples health with the help of photos of polluted locations, malaria mosquitoes, trash-filled water streams and beaches.

Behavioral Objectives and Domain: The students first will be asked to identify the types of trash shown to them.

Content: Plastic litter includes objects like bottles, plastic bags, plastic wrappers and boxes. Paper litter is newspapers, magazines, paper wrappers, and cartons. Metal waste is batteries, cans, food containers.

Strategy: The class will be divided into teams and each team will be given the bins labeled according to the types of litter. In a form of a contest, the teams will be given piles of trash objects and asked to put them into the correct bins.

Creativity: The game was created for the children to learn to differentiate between the types of litter and train the students to throw the trash into the correct bins.

Evaluation of Objectives: Checking if the children used the bins correctly for all the types of trash. Asking questions about what kinds of dangers littering creates.

Planned Evaluation of Goal: Will only be available after a while through asking the staff of the school if the littering on the schools territory was reduced after the class.

Communication: The lesson will be started with a question Do you like the home you live in? and end with the phrase Remember, every time you pick up your litter and throw it into the bin  you help our planet become more beautiful and healthy.

Reference List

Littering Statistics. (2013). Statistic Brain. Web.

Litter Trashes the Environment. (2014). About. Web.

What Is Littering? (n. d.). IGSU. Web.

What is Co-teaching?

Co-teaching is described as an act of teaching performed by two or more educators who deliver the instructions and learning activities at the same time working in one physical space with one class (The Benefits of Co-Teaching for Students with Special Needs, 2013). Besides, co-teaching is also known as CTT or collaborative team teaching. The educators need to be prepared and trained to be able to perform in a team (Kaplan, 2012). The primary goal of the collaborative model of teaching is to ensure the cooperation and co-performance of several educators in order to strengthen their capacity to meet the needs of all students (Dieker, n. d.).

Models of Co-teaching

Parallel teaching model refers to the practice when several educators work with the class simultaneously so that the group of learners is divided into smaller groups (The Benefits of Co-Teaching for Students with Special Needs, 2013). That way, the student-teacher ratio changes and the educators become able to pay more attention to individual students and deliver unique approach based on the specific needs of the students.

One teacher observes while the other one works  this is another model beneficial for the educators as well as the learners. It allows teachers to keep their independent styles dividing the tasks within a lesson and interchanging their approaches (The Benefits of Co-Teaching for Students with Special Needs, 2013).

Another model of co-teaching is called alternative teaching; it involves one educator working with the majority of the learners, while the other one focuses on a small group (The Benefits of Co-Teaching for Students with Special Needs, 2013). This model is suitable for inhomogeneous classrooms where there are children with various needs (learners with disabilities or students with different academic performance levels).

Why Co-teaching Requires Preparation

Teaching is quite an individualistic occupation. Usually, a teacher works on their own, relying on the specifically selected and created materials, chosen materials, and techniques that suit both the teacher and the learners at the same time. Experienced teachers spend years practicing without much supervision. Moreover, teachers normally engage in self-evaluation and self-assessment techniques they create on their own and then adjust the lessons and teaching styles accordingly. Practically, every practitioner is an independent professional with a set of very specific individual tools, materials, habits, and ideas. Moreover, teachers differ from one another not only by the use of instruments, but also by views, attitudes, and philosophies.

Barriers

Logically, many practitioners may feel insecure having to collaborate with their peers and share the working space and practices. Most are likely to reject the idea and have difficulties adjusting to the new circumstances and rules. Often, teachers working in one team may clash with one another arguing about appropriate ways to structure lessons or select activities. These challenges are nothing but normal during the first stages of training.

The Benefits of Collaborative Education

Collaborative teaching may be extremely beneficial for the learners as well as the educators. This practice could be complicated at first and require some adjustment and changes. However, over time, it is likely to add more positive and useful dynamics to the lessons, make them more flexible, and interactive.

Collegial Exchange

Collegial exchange represents many different benefits such as the exchange of individual teaching techniques and formulas  through such exchange, the professionals may enrich one anothers knowledge and practices. Also, working off of one another involves the mutual provision of feedback and objective evaluation  an option new for the teachers who are used to working alone (Stark, 2015).

Deeper Understanding of the Learners Needs

Subdividing a class into groups based on the learners academic, developmental, social, and cognitive requirements provides the students with a unique experience of receiving enough attention and guidance from the teachers to succeed and show improvement regardless of their age, level, or health status (Stark, 2015).

Decreased Stress and Burnout of Teachers

Professional support, communication, and the formation of peer relationships help the teachers to reduce the levels of professional stress, depersonalization, and burnout  the problems that are rather typical in this career field that kills the performance of the teachers and the academic success of the learners (Dieker, n. d.).

Stronger Educational Programs and Courses

Combining different approaches and working alongside one another, collaborating educators are able to create and maintain more active and informative courses with a higher density of tasks, topics, and goals that would cover more aspects and ensure a more dynamic learning in the diverse classrooms (Walther-Thomas, 1997).

Better Options for Inclusion of Diverse Learners (Including Children with Disabilities)

The learners needs are the primary focus in co-teaching. Working together, the teachers may ensure better inclusion in the classrooms and organize a cross-disciplinary approach to the studied subjects making connections between academic knowledge and day-to-day experiences of the students (Walther-Thomas, 1997).

Descriptions and Cautions

For the professionals to be able to collaborate successfully, they are to be ready to embrace the change and the possible inconveniences it may carry. There are a number of issues that persist in co-teaching regardless of the professionals involved, the locations, or specializations.

Planning Time

Combining the roles of several professionals working in one physical space and at the same time requires flexibility and patience from both sides; teachers report problems making time for all the activities simultaneously and deciding which ones are more preferable (Walther-Thomas, 1997).

Matching Schedules

The issue of schedules is related to that of time, but it also involves the problems of assigning roles to the team members and aligning them with the goals of the co-teaching activities.

Administrative Support

For the co-teaching projects to work, the school administrations need to provide sufficient and diverse staffing to create the teams and also equip the schools with necessary materials to maintain co-teaching experiences (Walther-Thomas, 1997). Without such support, the initiatives are unlikely to work.

Development of Professionals

Finally, one of the key contributing factors is the level of training ensured by the school administration. The teachers are to learn to collaborate regardless of their experience, age, and specialization because collaboration requires much more than a high level of professionalism. It needs the willingness to help one another, unite efforts, work for the common goals, and match one anothers expectations (Walther-Thomas, 1997).

Excellent teachers make a successful team only when they approach this task with commitment and readiness. The professionals need to be monitored and guided at the primary stages of their collaborative teaching practices. The teachers need to learn to communicate with one another in a productive manner, create combined lesson plans, divide roles, address common objectives, and share the control over classroom (Why Co-teach?, 2014).

References

Dieker, L. (n. d.). Cooperative Teaching.

Kaplan, M. (2012). Collaborative Team Teaching: Challenges and Rewards.

Stark, E. (2015). Co-teaching: The Benefits and Disadvantages.

The Benefits of Co-Teaching for Students with Special Needs. (2013).

Walther-Thomas, C. S. (1997). Co-Teaching experiences: The benefits and problems that teachers and principals report over time. Journal or Learning disabilities, 30(4), 395-407.

Why Co-teach? (2014).

The present study examined the influence of mathematics methodology courses on pre-service early childhood education teachers sense of self-efficacy. Seven specific areas were targeted to develop an adequate understanding of how courses in mathematics methods affect the development of self-efficacy among pre-service early childhood teachers.

The first two areas aimed at evaluating the differences in self-efficacy between pre-service teachers exposed to (1) content pedagogy courses versus one or two mathematics methods course, and (2) one content pedagogy mathematics course versus two content pedagogy mathematics courses. The third area aimed at evaluating how self-efficacy varies among pre-service teachers exposed to one methods course versus those exposed to two methods courses, while the fourth area assessed the impact of mathematics methodology courses on pre-service teachers sense of self-efficacy.

Other important areas targeted in the study include understanding if there any gender-based differences in the self-efficacy of pre-service teachers; identifying pre-service teachers perceptions of their skills, competence, and ability to teach mathematics; and developing an adequate understanding of the aspects of mathematics methods courses that are instrumental in influencing the development of self-efficacy beliefs of future teachers of mathematics. The main findings of the study are discussed in the described areas of interest.

Differences in Self-Efficacy: Content Pedagogy Courses versus Methods Courses

In response to the first research question that assessed the differences in self-efficacy between content pedagogy courses and mathematics methods courses, the study found a significant difference in self-efficacy beliefs between pre-service teachers exposed to content pedagogy courses and those exposed to one or two mathematics methods courses.

The mean self-efficacy score of pre-service teachers exposed to content pedagogy courses was low (77.53) compared with those exposed to mathematics methods courses (84.83). This particular finding is a good indicator of the fact that mathematics methods courses may have more beneficial effects in developing the self-efficacy of pre-service teachers than general content pedagogy courses.

Although to the best of our knowledge no study has specifically evaluated how content pedagogy courses and mathematics methods courses compare in developing the self-efficacy of pre-service teachers, Lancaster and Bain (2010) found statistically significant gains in self-efficacy among pre-service elementary education teachers exposed to a 13-week compulsory undergraduate inclusive education course. On their own, content pedagogy courses may be unable to increase the self-efficacy beliefs of elementary pre-service teachers due to their inability to provide demonstrations, hands-on activities, and enactive masterly experiences (Velthuis, Fisser, & Pieters, 2014).

Although the two groups (pre-service teachers exposed to content pedagogy courses and those exposed to mathematics methods courses) had equal variances according to the results from the Levenes test for equality of the variances (F=1.061, with p-value =.305), a test of between-subjects effects showed that the null hypothesis showing no difference between the two groups of pre-service teachers could be rejected at the 5% significance level (F=29.878 with p <.001).

This finding reinforces the fact that targeted mathematics methods courses are more effective than generalized pedagogy courses in developing the self-efficacy beliefs of elementary pre-service mathematics teachers. In their study, Wilkins and Brand (2004) found a positive relationship between participating in the mathematics methods course and changes in teacher beliefs and attitudes (p. 226). In another related study, Easterly (2003) found that mathematics self-efficacy, teacher efficacy, and mathematics teaching efficacy increased substantially among pre-service and novice elementary teachers exposed to a mathematics methods course over a fixed period.

Overall, with regards to the first research question, the present study showed a consistent positive increase in self-efficacy that covaried with exposure to either one or two mathematics methods courses compared with exposure to content pedagogy courses. As such, it can be argued that participation in mathematics methods courses can be perceived as a potential source of increased self-efficacy among pre-service early childhood education teachers.

This is consistent with the observation made by Cone (2009) that targeted mathematics methods courses act as sources of masterly and vicarious experiences that reinforce the self-efficacy beliefs of elementary pre-service teachers. Additionally, mathematics methods courses may be more effective than content pedagogy courses in developing an enabling environment for the exhibition of self-efficacy mediating aspects, such as positive attitude, task engagement, as well as feedback (Wilkins & Brand, 2004).

Differences in Self-Efficacy: One Course versus Two Content Pedagogy Courses

The second research question addressed the differences in self-efficacy between pre-service teachers exposed to one content pedagogy mathematics course and pre-service teachers exposed to two content pedagogy mathematics courses. Although ANCOVA tests showed that pre-service teachers exposed to one content pedagogy course had a lower self-efficacy mean score (74.94) than those exposed to two content pedagogy courses (78.12), the test of between-subject effects demonstrated that the null hypothesis that there is no difference between the two groups of teachers could not be rejected at the 5% significance level (t = -.868, with p =.460).

This finding implies that no significant differences in self-efficacy were noted between pre-service teachers who participated in one content pedagogy course and those who took part in two content pedagogy courses. This finding shows that the number of content pedagogy courses does not affect the pre-service teachers viewpoints, perceptions, or judgments of their capabilities to succeed in teaching mathematics in the future.

The finding contrasts the results of a previous study that found that the differences at the university level in courses taken during the first year between science content courses and science methods courses&influenced the pre-service teachers development of science teaching self-efficacy (Velthuis et al., 2014, p. 445).

However, the finding is consistent with the argument made by several scholars that content pedagogy courses cannot often increase the self-efficacy of elementary pre-service teachers as they are unable to not only emphasize constructivist experiences but also to accentuate a problem-solving conception of mathematics that is inherent in a methods course (Briley, 2012; Ford & Strawhecker, 2011).

This particular finding underscores the importance of blending content pedagogy courses with mathematics methods courses, rather than offering them in isolation. In their study, Ford and Strawhecker (2011) found that a blended course of math content and math methods not only enhanced the connections between content and methods but also developed the confidence, mathematical aptitude, and self-efficacy beliefs of pre-service teachers beyond their preferred teaching level.

Since pre-service teachers beliefs, teaching efficacy, and sense of self-efficacy can be influenced by teacher education programs (Briley, 2012), it is important to blend content pedagogy courses with mathematics methods courses to ensure optimal benefits in terms of developing and reinforcing self-efficacy beliefs.

Overall, the finding that no significant differences in self-efficacy exist between pre-service teachers exposed to one pedagogy course and those exposed to two content pedagogy courses reinforces the conclusion made by Woodcock (2011) that the structure of preparation programs might indeed affect how teachers develop their self-efficacy beliefs.

Variations in Self-Efficacy: One Methods Course versus Two Methods Courses

The third research question addressed the variations in self-efficacy between pre-service teachers exposed to one mathematics methods course and those exposed to two methods courses. Here, the study found no significant difference in self-efficacy between teachers who participated in one methods course and those who participated in two methods courses.

Although ANCOVA results showed that the mean self-efficacy score for pre-service teachers exposed to one methods course was lower compared to the score for teachers exposed to two methods courses (82.64 and 85.95 respectively), the test of between-subjects effects was unable to reject the null hypothesis that there is no significant difference between the two groups of teachers at the 5% significance level (t = -.868 with p =.460).

This finding could be explained in the context of the existing disconnect between training programs for elementary pre-service teachers and accrued self-efficacy gains, with Charalambous and Phillipou (2003) arguing that training programs are at risk of becoming a sink and swim experience for pre-service teachers due to their incapacity to influence the development of teacher efficacy beliefs.

Available literature demonstrates that the assumed benefits of positive teacher self-efficacies are believed to derive from the effects of teacher self-efficacy on teacher cognition and motivation (Chan, 2005, p. 155). Research is also consistent that self-efficacy beliefs relate to the capacity of teachers to not only develop high confidence in their teaching abilities (Charalambous & Phillipou, 2003; Palmer, 2006) but also to realize specific outcome expectancies and efficacy expectancies (Chan, 2005).

Drawing from these statements, it is clear that there were no significant gains in teacher cognition and motivation that could be associated with exposure to two mathematics methods courses, meaning that participation in two mathematics courses was not effective in increasing the beliefs of pre-service teachers about their own ability to successfully execute specific teaching actions. However, this explanation addresses variations in self-efficacy between the two groups, and it does not mean that mathematics methods courses are not effective in increasing self-efficacy gains among elementary pre-service teachers.

This finding is consistent with the observation made by Cone (2009) that, despite the number of science and multicultural education courses taken, pre-service teachers continue to enter their student teaching semesters and professional careers with low science teaching efficacy beliefs and with beliefs about diversity that undermine the equality principle articulated in science reform initiatives (p. 25). However, the finding contrasts the results of other studies showing that improved teaching methods would foster greater self-efficacy among pre-service teachers (Chan, 2005; Ford & Strawhecker, 2011).

Impact of Mathematics Methodology Courses on Self-Efficacy

The main purpose of the present study was to examine the impact of mathematics methodology courses on pre-service early childhood and special educators self-efficacy and beliefs. In response to the fourth research question that assessed the impact of mathematics methodology courses on pre-service teachers sense of self-efficacy, the study found significant raises in teachers self-efficacy upon exposure to mathematics methodology courses.

Specifically, statistical tests showed that the impact of mathematics methods courses on pre-service teachers self-efficacy was significant at the 5% confidence level (t=5.427 with p-value <.001), with the estimated regression coefficient for mathematics showing that the self-efficacy of the teachers increased by 7.293 when they participated in the mathematics methodology courses. This finding is consistent with previous research studies documenting the positive effects of mathematics methodology courses on pre-service teachers self-efficacy (Cone, 2009), teacher efficacy beliefs and mathematics teaching efficacy (Esterly, 2003), and motivational orientation (Stevens, Olivarez, Lan, & Tallent-Runnels, 2004).

Several researchers have attempted to explain why participation in mathematics or science methods courses leads to positive gains in pre-service teachers sense of self-efficacy and beliefs. For example, Turner, Cruz, and Papakonstantinou (2004) argue that such courses not only argument teachers feelings of confidence for teaching mathematics but also expose them to many opportunities for masterly experiences as well as verbal and social persuasion.

On their part, Velthuis et al. (2014) argue that methods courses are more effective than content courses in reinforcing the self-efficacy and teaching efficacy of elementary pre-service teachers as they aspire to instruct teachers on the skills and competencies needed to teach the particular subject, such as relevant teaching strategies, assessment of students science [or mathematics] knowledge and application of classroom management techniques (p. 447). Bleicher (2004) found that professional methods courses are more practical in the application of masterly experiences, leading to significant gains in teachers self-efficacy beliefs.

Overall, the finding that mathematics methods courses impact positively on elementary pre-service teachers self-efficacy is welcome based on the available evidence showing that teachers with high self-efficacy beliefs are more capable of using instructional strategies effectively, more capable of ensuring student participation, and more successful in classroom management skills (Ozder, 2011, p. 1). However, a study by Palmer (2006) found that pre-service teachers can gain confidence directly from success in understanding content and pedagogy, meaning that significant increases in self-efficacy could still be attained through cognitive content masterly as well as cognitive pedagogical masterly.

Differences in Self-Efficacy based on Gender

The fifth research question assessed if there are significant differences in the self-efficacy of pre-service teachers based on their gender. Although the ANCOVA test found that the self-efficacy score for female teachers was slightly lower compared to the score for male teachers (80.90 and 85.14 respectively), the between-subjects effects test failed to reject the null hypothesis that there is no difference in self-efficacy between the two groups at the 5% confidence level (t=.078 with p=.780). This finding can be interpreted to mean that gender does not mediate the difference in self-efficacy beliefs among elementary pre-service teachers. The finding is consistent with previous research studies documenting that gender has no significant effect on personal mathematics teaching efficacy and science teaching efficacy beliefs (Bursal, 2010), teacher self-efficacy beliefs (Senemoglu & Demirel, 2009), and confidence to teach mathematics or science (Ford & Strawhecker, 2011; Palmer, 2006; Tenaw, 2013).

It is important to note that the ANCOVA test revealed significant differences in self-efficacy between pre-intervention and post-intervention results using gender as a covariance (F=5.691 with p-value = 0.019). This finding could be interpreted to mean that most female teachers have low self-efficacy beliefs than their male counterparts before enrolling in training programs, but bolster their self-efficacy beliefs to be at par with male teachers once they participate in the training courses.

This view is supported in the literature, as Albayrak and Unal (2011), Briley (2012), and Woodcock (2011) have documented several studies that found a positive relationship between exposure to mathematics methods courses and significant gains in pre-service teachers self-efficacy beliefs. Similarly, other researchers (e.g., Cone, 2009; Charalambous & Phillipou, 2003) found that pre-service teachers exposed to methods and special teacher education courses reported high self-efficacy beliefs after attending the courses.

Since self-efficacy beliefs are easy to change or manipulate in the presence of favorable conditions (Woodcock, 2011), it could be that the self-efficacy beliefs of female pre-service teachers increased and averaged that of male pre-service teachers once they were exposed to one mathematics methods course or two mathematics methods courses.

The main finding, however, is that post-intervention scores showed no significant difference in self-efficacy beliefs of pre-service teachers based on the gender variable. This particular finding shows that female pre-service teachers are as good as their male counterparts in developing self-efficacy beliefs upon exposure to the necessary conditions.

Perceptions of Pre-Service Teachers

The sixth research question assessed the perceptions of pre-service teachers about their skills, competence, and ability to teach mathematics. The themes that were used to analyze the qualitative data included mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, social persuasions, and sociological factors. In mastery experiences, the interviewed pre-service teachers agreed that they can develop the skills, competence, and ability to teach mathematics through exposure to hands-on activities, modeling/simulating real-life classroom contexts, watching videos of real-life classroom situations, and participating in creating and presenting lesson plans.

One pre-service teacher noted that participating in all those activities helped her to feel more confident and more prepared to teach those subjects in the future, while another pre-service teacher acknowledged that these activities enabled her to learn how to teach math rather than learning how to do the math. These results are consistent with previous research studies documenting that training and hands-on activities provide the necessary enactive mastery (Bray-Clark & Bates, 2003; Turner et al., 2004), which in turn acts as an important source of self-efficacy beliefs for pre-service teachers (Cone, 2009, Tenaw, 2013).

The value of enactive mastery is embedded in the fact that when faced with similar situations, individuals rely on perceptions of past mastery to produce information that is used to make judgments about present capabilities (Bray-Clark & Bates, 2003, p. 16). In line with the results of other researchers (Charalambous & Phillipou, 2003; Esterly, 2003; Palmer, 2006), the present study also found that teachers were able to feel more confident and comfortable to teach mathematics once they participated in these activities.

In vicarious experiences, the participants said that modeling, use of physical tools, use of manipulations, peer observations, and group collaborations were particularly useful in developing their skills, competence, and ability to teach mathematics. Research is consistent that vicarious experience capitalizes on the notion that an individuals efficacy beliefs can be enhanced through the observation of a significant model engaged in an activity that they perceive as being well aligned with their needs and capabilities (Bray-Clark & Bates, 2003, p. 17).

Although one participant felt nervous watching other students perform various tasks, it is evident from the responses that these observations were critical in enhancing their self-efficacy beliefs through social comparisons made with other students (Albayrak & Unal, 2011), observations of successful and unsuccessful teaching behaviors with the view to enhancing their ability to engage in analysis and self-correcting patterns of behavior (Bray-Clark & Bates, 2003), and small group interactions (Esterly, 2003).

The theme of verbal or social persuasion showed that the participants were able to improve their skills and competence to teach mathematics through feedback from the instructor, learning in small groups, and adopting a brainstorming strategy with the view to promoting varied thought processes. The notion of social persuasion is nested on the fact that the communication of verbal judgments from respected or influential others can affect an individuals self-efficacy beliefs (Bray-Clark & Bates, 2003, p. 18).

This assertion is well depicted in the present study, as most participants reported that instructor feedback and brainstorming issues with peers and their instructor helped them to build math vocabulary, internalize confidence in teaching mathematics, and develop their self-efficacy and self-awareness beliefs. Furthermore, the participants reported that they felt more confident from both positive and negative feedback and that the instructor underscores the need for providing balanced feedback depending on context or issue.

This finding confirms the assertion made by several researchers that superficial or hollow feedback is unlikely to bolster the self-efficacy beliefs of individuals (Chan, 2005; Ediger, 2012), and that verbal persuasion can change the self-efficacy beliefs of elementary pre-service teachers only when the behavior-related information is not only convincing but is also conveyed in a way that interrupts the pre-existing distrust in own capabilities (Bray-Clark & Bates, 2003).

Lastly, in the theme of psychological factors, most participants agreed that confidence, good attitude, and an open environment are important in developing the skills and competence to teach mathematics. It is clear from the responses that most participants believed in sharing ideas and experiences at the beginning of the teaching session to set the proper mood for classroom engagement and also encourage the reinforcement of a mathematics mindset.

Such engagement coupled with a relaxed environment for cooperative learning, according to Ediger (2012), encourages individuals to contribute in problem-solving situations, build on the thinking of others, develop connections in ongoing lessons and units of study, and encourage creativity in finding own best way to solve problems. Bray-Clark and Bates (2003) argue that because self-efficacy beliefs are intertwined with psychological states (each is highly dependent on one another), physiological states such as anxiety, stress, and fatigue provide other potentially important sources of efficacy information (p. 18).

To put this argument into context, two participants noted that the long class hours and heavy workload distracted their concentration to learn. This finding underscores the need to pace mathematics lessons with the view to ensuring that the pre-service teachers succeed in mastering the content presented (Bates, Latham, & Kim, 2013; Charalambous & Phillipou, 2003; Ediger, 2012; Ford & Strawhecker, 2011). Overall, the implication of these findings for pre-service training is the noticeable need to pace mathematics lessons, express positive and compelling feedback, and provide a favorable environment in which elementary pre-service teachers feel they may engage in learning processes in a non-intimidating, cooperative manner.

Aspects of Mathematics Methods Courses

The seventh research question assessed the specific aspects of the mathematics methods courses that influence the self-efficacy beliefs of future teachers of mathematics. Responses from the qualitative interviews show that pre-service teachers benefited more from the mathematics methods courses due to their ability to provide hands-on use of manipulatives and other activity-based lessons that increase their confidence and self-efficacy beliefs.

It is also clear from the responses that that practical nature of the mathematics methods courses positively influenced the beliefs of pre-service teachers in their ability to teach mathematics, though their self-rating scores on teaching efficacy showed that majority of the teachers are yet to achieve full confidence to teach mathematics due to lack of actual field experience.

These findings underscore the argument made by Wilkins and Brand (2004) that An important goal of teacher education programs should be to help pre-service teachers develop beliefs and dispositions that are consistent with current educational reform (p. 226). Additionally, most pre-service teachers agreed that small-group instruction strategy, peer interaction, modeling/simulations, and use of videos were particularly useful in assisting them to gain the confidence and self-efficacy beliefs needed to teach mathematics in the future.

Several researchers have documented the efficacy of mathematics methods courses in changing teacher self-efficacy beliefs and confidence levels. For example, Wilkins and Brand (2004) found that pre-service teachers who participated in mathematics methods course changed their beliefs in a way that was more consistent with current mathematics education reform and also changed their sense of self-efficacy in a positive way (p. 231).

Lancaster and Bain (2010) found that participation in an inclusive education course covaried with enhanced perceptions of self-efficacy, though they were unable to find any relationship between self-efficacy beliefs and the type of course design experienced by pre-service teacher education students. Similarly, Velthuis et al. (2013) found that differences at the university level in courses taken during the first year between science content and science methods courses influenced the pre-service teachers development of teaching self-efficacy.

The present study goes beyond describing the association between mathematics methods courses and self-gains to identifying the specific aspects of mathematics methods courses that lead to gains in self-efficacy beliefs. Overall, the findings of this research question provide an example of how instructors can assess and modify their mathematics methods courses in terms of teacher self-efficacy beliefs by ensuring that the courses cannot only provide hands-on use of manipulatives and activity-based lesson but also employ small-group dynamics, peer interactions, and modeling during instruction.

References

Albayrak, M., & Unal, Z.A. (2011). The effects of teaching mathematics course on mathematics teaching efficacy beliefs of elementary pre-service mathematics teachers. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 1, 183-190. Web.

Bates, A.B., Latham, N.I., & Kim, J. (2013). Do I have to teach math? Early childhood teachers fears of teaching mathematics. Issues in the Undergraduate Mathematics Preparation of School Teachers, 5(1), 1-10. Web.

Bleicher, R. (2004). Revisiting the STEBI-B: Measuring self-efficacy in pre-service primary teachers. School Science and Mathematics, 104, 383-391. DOI: 10.1111/j.1949-8594.2004.tb18004.x

Bray-Clark, N., & Bates, R. (2003). Self-efficacy beliefs and teacher effectiveness: Implications for professional development. Professional Educator, 26(1), 13-22. Web.

Briley, J.S. (2012). The relationship among mathematics teaching efficacy, mathematics self-efficacy, and mathematical beliefs for elementary pre-service teachers. Issues in the Undergraduate Mathematics Preparation of School Teachers, 5(2), 1-13. Web.

Bursal, M. (2010). Turkish preservice elementary teachers self-efficacy beliefs regarding mathematics and science teaching. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 3(2), 1-10.

Chan, D.W. (2005). Teacher self-efficacy research and teacher education. Educational Research Journal, 20, 149-164. Web.

Charalambous, C., & Phillipou, G. (2003). Enhancing preservice teachers efficacy beliefs in mathematics. European Research in Mathematics Education, 3(2), 1-10.

Cone, N. (2009). Preservice elementary teachers self-efficacy beliefs about equitable science teaching: Does science learning make a difference? Journal of Elementary Science Education, 21, 25-34. Web.

Easterly, E.J. (2003). A multi-method exploration of the mathematics teaching efficacy and epistemological beliefs of elementary pre-service and novice teachers (Doctoral thesis, Ohio State University, Ohio, USA).

Ediger, M. (2012). Quality teaching in mathematics. Education, 133, 235-238.

Ford, P., & Strawhecker, J. (2011). Co-teaching math content and math pedagogy for elementary pre-service teachers: A pilot study. Issues in the Undergraduate Mathematics Preparation of Teachers, 2(1), 1-13. Web.

Lancaster, J., & Bain, A. (2010). The design of pre-service inclusive education courses and their effects on self-efficacy. Asian-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 38, 117-128.

Ozder, H. (2011). Self-efficacy beliefs of novice teachers and their performance in the classroom.

Palmer, D.H. (2006). Sources of self-efficacy in a science methods course for primary teacher education students. Research in Science Education, 24, 337-353. doi: 10.1007/s11165-005-9007-0

Senemoglu, N., & Demirel, M. (2009). Elementary school teachers self-efficacy beliefs: A Turkish case. Humanity & Social Sciences Journal, 4, 164-171. Web.

Stevens, T., Olivarez, A., Lan, W.Y., & Tallent-Runnels, M.K. (2004). Role of mathematics self-efficacy and motivation in mathematics performance across ethnicity. Journal of Educational Research, 97, 208-221.

Tenaw, Y.A. (2013). Relationship between self-efficacy, academic achievement, and gender in analytical chemistry at Debre Markos College of teacher education. African Journal of Chemical Education, 3(1), 3-28.

Turner, S.L., Cruz, P., & Papakonstantinou, A. (2004). The impact of a professional development program on teachers self-efficacy.

Wilkins, J.L.M., & Brand, B.P. (2004). Challenge in pre-service teachers beliefs: An Evaluation of a mathematics methods course. School Science and Mathematics, 104, 226-232.

Woodcock, S. (2011). A cross-sectional study of pre-service teacher efficacy throughout the training years. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 36, 23-34.

Approach to Editing the Lesson Plan

The most significant adjustment to my unit plan is the integration of diversity concepts in all four lessons. The lesson plans were edited to align with different social or cultural themes. Lesson Plan A, for example, was modified to allow the teacher to relate the instructional context and activities to inclusive topics. For example, the teacher may work with the students to construct fractions which reflect the racial demographics of a particular group or the entire class. Students were allowed to practice this activity by creating their fractions in groups. These minor alterations helped develop and maintain an inclusive learning environment, which may help address persistent issues such as social isolation of racial/ethnic minorities (Reid et al., 2015). These considerations encourage students to share unique and creative ideas and perspectives.

The diversity orientation had a significant impact on how I perceived the processes of creating curriculum, assessment, and planning. Most importantly, I realized that curriculum planning starts at the end of the students learning process (Bullard, 2019). In light of this perspective, it is imperative for teachers to define what their students are expected to know, what they value, and what they can perform. Focusing the syllabus and evaluation methods on these expectations can enable educators to provide meaningful, high-impact learning experiences for their class (Chappuis & Stiggins, 2020). The various elements of a lesson plan should be integrated with the overarching objective of creating a lesson plan that is carefully designed to impart students with relevant knowledge and skills to solve real-life problems.

Furthermore, how curriculum development and assessment are organized play an integral role in how students construct meaning through connecting between the instructional context and their prior experience. An effective curriculum should focus on supporting learners to not only understand the new knowledge and skills they acquire from the classroom but also apply them to real-life situations (Chappuis & Stiggins, 2020). The planners should prioritize providing students with a manageable amount of context information which is well-organized into meaningful patterns. This consideration will enable the students to internalize the new information and skills they learn and apply them to real-life situations. Therefore, creating an effective curriculum, assessment, and planning necessitates instructors to embed relevant formative and summative evaluation strategies and opportunities to reflect on and direct their learning.

The Usage of Instructional Models of Teaching

I focused on aligning the core elements of the unit plan: the TEKs, learning objectives, teaching models, instructional activities, and assessment techniques. I integrated a range of instructional models, including mastery learning, cooperative learning, and concept attainment. The primary aim of creating this unity was to reinforce the TEKS and learning objectives. For instance, the Concept Attainment model aligns with the learning standard and objective, requiring students to learn how to define the whole, fractions, denominator, and numerator, and understand different fractions (halves, thirds, and quarters).

The model supported this objective by allowing the educator to present several examples of fractions on the smartboard and ask the students to explain how they are related. This activity supports TEK 3 (numbers and operations) by giving the students a chance to learn how to recognize and represent fractional units and communicates how they are used to name parts of a whole (Texas Education Agency, 2014, para. 9).

Similarly, cooperative learning supports the learning objectives in several ways. For instance, allowing the students to work in groups of four to six individuals helped in enhancing comprehension and the whole learning process because students can learn from their peers. For example, the reciprocal nature of this learning activity provides students with the opportunity to help and support each other to learn through sharing advice, feedback and thoughtful questions on how to name, compare, and operationalize fractions. An aligned curriculum design facilitates the achievement of learning outcomes (Alfauzan & Tarchouna, 2017). The close alignment ensured that the core elements of the lesson plans reinforce one another.

Consistently, the various teaching models had a considerable influence on the choice of evaluation methods. An effective assessment has to provide a precise reflection of how well pupils have learned what they were expected to know (Joyce et al., 2015). To achieve this goal, I ensured that my teaching approaches and tests align closely. I planned to appraise my students based on the set learning objectives. I analyzed the specific competencies I wanted my pupils to acquire, the skills and behaviors that would demonstrate their progress, and instructional techniques that would reinforce the learning outcomes and prepare them for the exams. My instructional models focused on different learning aspects, such as understanding, critical thinking, problem-solving abilities, task completion, and collaboration. Therefore, the summative and formative assessment activities were specifically designed to measure these elements.

An advance organizer is one of the most powerful tools that I would have integrated into my lesson to complement other models. This method is uniquely designed to offer learners a cognitive framework that helps them comprehend the instructional materials (Chappuis & Stiggins, 2020). It would have been instrumental in helping the students understand fractions. For instance, cutting an orange into halves, thirds, or quarters and presenting them graphically could reinforce learning how to name and operate with fractions. The model could have enabled me to effectively introduce the structure of different fractions, consequently enhancing student comprehension and retention of the content of the lessons (Gidena & Gebeyehu, 2017). Therefore, adopting the advance organizer model could have closely aligned my instruction with TEKs and learning objectives.

Role-playing would be a logical replacement of the cooperative instruction model. This technique involves creating several activities which reflect real-life situations but under a controlled environment (Chappuis & Stiggins, 2020). It could have been used effectively during the practice sessions to help the students internalize their learning. For example, I may ask members to volunteer to play the role of a teacher to illustrate the attributes of different fractions. In addition to deep immersion in the learning, this model can promote the broadening of knowledge and understanding in this area. Therefore, role-playing can be a powerful strategy to facilitate learning and comprehension of mathematical tasks such as calculating fractions.

Unique Methods of Teaching, Diversity Scenarios and Other Takeaways

This project exposed me to new and unique instruction methods and philosophies which would have a significant impact on how I teach in the future. First, group investigation equipped me with a powerful tool to transform my elementary students into well-informed and effective citizens. Consistent with Yuanita et al. (2018), I intend to apply this technique by providing learners with opportunities to learn, experience, and exercise, making decisions democratically and addressing issues by investigating real-life issues.

Moreover, this approach will enable me to integrate a range of subject matter areas (such as science, mathematics, and language arts) with social studies. In line with this model, I will always adopt a democratic approach to my instruction by negotiating with my pupils on the most relevant topics or issues to cover, how to teach them, and the format of evaluating learning and progress. This model will permit the students to immerse deeply into and become more responsible for their learning process, consequently improving learning outcomes.

Second, the nondirective model will also have a significant influence on my instructional decisions in the future. This model requires educators to consider the learning needs, emotions, and personalities of my students when creating lesson plans and assessments (Joyce et al., 2015). I will endeavor to perceive the world from my pupils point of view and help them recognize that they can define and solve problems by applying their own solutions. In this context, I create and foster a welcoming environment to encourage my students to share ideas freely. Using the five distinct stages of this framework will enable me to produce students who are effective problem solvers and value life-long learning.

Finally, mastery learning will transform the way I deliver content in class. I will employ this approach when handling conventional and special classes to raise students achievement levels. This technique necessitates the teacher to present information in small pieces and allow pupils to work at their own pace (Joyce et al., 2015). Introducing instructional content in small chunks will improve my delivery by allowing my students to comprehend knowledge, concepts, skills, and dispositions deeply. If I implement it appropriately, this model will completely change how I teach, how my pupils will learn, and how my classroom will work. It will also transform how I plan and design curricula and how I assess academic achievement.

Innovative Assessment Techniques

Standard-based grading is perhaps the most innovative assessment technique I have learned in this project. It will refine how I organize, administer, and discuss evaluation results with relevant parties (such as students, parents, and school administrators). It reflects a shift away from the controversial traditional grading systems towards an intentional approach to tracking students progress and academic achievement (Chappuis & Stiggins, 2020). It requires educators to focus their attention on helping students to learn and realize their highest potential. The system will enable me to create a fair, accurate, and defensible grading system.

For example, I will capture my pupils progress by measuring proficiency levels for applicable standards instead of depending solely on a holistic reflection. I will construct a reliable grading system by tracking information regarding work habits and social skills separately. Chappuis and Stiggins (2020) suggest that the appropriate way of deriving a standard-based grade from summative data is by monitoring and recording information about achievement level separately from other data types such as class attendance and participation, work completion, timely submission of assignments, and cooperation with peers. Although these elements play an essential role in learning, they can compromise the clarity and reliability of the achievement records.

The various types of portfolios constitute one of the most innovative ways I have learned to analyze achievement data and provide feedback. Project, growth, achievement, celebration, and competence-based portfolios offer powerful tools for collecting, analyzing, and reporting the effort, progress, learning, and competencies pupils gain from a class (Chappuis & Stiggins, 2020). I intend to utilize these tools to measure the progress and quality of my pupils learning by evaluating the pieces of evidence they document. Assessing different artifacts (essays, projects, presentations, and assignments) will enable me to analyze and demonstrate the full extent of the students achievement beyond conventional grades.

References

Alfauzan, A. A., & Tarchouna, N. (2017). The role of an aligned curriculum design in the achievement of learning outcomes. Journal of Education and e-Learning Research, 4(3), 81-91.

Bullard, J. (2019). Creating curriculum in early childhood: Enhanced learning through backward design. Routledge.

Chappuis, J., & Stiggins, R. (2020). Classroom assessment for student learning: Doing it rightdoing it well (3^rd ed.). Pearson.

Gidena, A., & Gebeyehu, D. (2017). The effectiveness of advance organiser model on students academic achievement in learning work and energy. International Journal of Science Education, 39(16), 2226-2242.

Joyce, B., Weil, M., & Calhoun, E. (2015). Models of teaching (9^th ed.). Pearson.

Reid, J. L., Kagan, S.., Hilton, M., & Potter, H. (2015). A better start? Why classroom diversity matters in early education. Poverty & Race Research Council.

Texas Education Agency (2014). Texas essential knowledge and skills. Texas Education Agency.

Yuanita, R., Degeng, I. N. S., & Sudarmiatin, S. (2018). Application of group investigation model to increase learning outcomes of elementary school students. Journal of K6 Education and Management, 1(1), 21-26.

Course Reflection

As a general education teacher, I did not have experience of teaching children with special needs and therefore entered the course with quite a limited background on education based on IEP. After undertaking the course, I can state with confidence  and with big pleasure  that the significance of the course content for my professional knowledge and experience exceeded my expectations: I have obtained valuable knowledge which I can apply in my everyday professional activity.

A teachers profession requires one to be able to find the way to the soul of each child, help them overgrow their problems, and develop their skills and talents. This can be particularly difficult for an educator who works with children with disabilities considering the special needs these students possess and the challenges they face in their learning activity. That is why this course and other educational programs connected with teaching based on IEP are so important. Fortunately, for a contemporary child, a disability is not a sentence: during the last centuries, the efforts of the officials and the society were directed at providing and guaranteeing education rights to young students with special needs. Today the Government and a range of organizations provide informational, educational, and financial support to children with disabilities, their families, and teachers. The informational component is of huge significance in the given field: while studying this course, I understood how effective it is in struggling against disabilities and their effects.

Particularly, I was impressed by the fact that in many cases disability can be prevented or minimized using timely assessment and parents appropriate actions. Lack of responsibility that results in parents faults, from alcohol or drug abuse to simply late consultation with a specialist, may lead to a dramatic outcome for a child. Thus, as the education workforce, we can contribute to delivering this information to young families through participation in early childhood education maintenance organizations and sharing it with parents of our students.

At the same time, I was glad to work on the practical part of the course content. In particular, the observations of the teaching process in classes with IEP students gave me a more detailed, distinct picture of working with children with disabilities. It was very valuable to observe the efforts the teachers took to help their students cope with the lesson content and to create a comfortable environment in the classroom. I paid much attention to the emotional aspect of the issue: disabilities are connected with childrens psychological challenges, but when feeling comfortable and confident at school, students with disabilities perform significantly better. Regardless of disabilities they have, children possess the basic needs, which are communication, understanding, praise, support. I was especially impressed by the observation in the classroom where children with learning disabilities had problems with discipline. Students quarreled and fought, left their place in the middle of the lesson, and took dangerous objects to school. However, a child remains a child even if he carries a cold weapon in his pocket  the students of this class were also interested in playing games, felt uncomfortable about making mistakes, and demonstrated an eagerness to deserve a teachers approval.

The lecture materials and observations also provided me with an understanding of the essence and peculiarities of different disabilities. This was particularly useful considering that knowledge about disabilities is often replaced by false information and prejudices. Obtaining this knowledge makes educators ready for teaching students who seem unteachable for the ordinary people with a poor background in the field of education and thus to give them a chance for a happy and successful life.

The differences connected with childrens disabilities set specific requirements for a teachers work. One of the most valuable elements of the course content is an adaptation of the teaching process to the needs of children with special needs. Not only should a teacher be aware of differences that may appear in a classroom with students with disabilities, but be able to maintain an environment friendly and favorable for learning, keep students attention and manage misbehaviors. The teachers of the classes I observed masterly adapted their teaching to the situations that occurred in the classroom: they used mimics, gestures, and intonations to keep children involved, adjusted assignments and the way they were fulfilled, chose the appropriate way for explaining the new information. I think that these hooks can be applied in the work of a general education classroom teacher as well. Besides, I would like to make special mention of the teachers patience in teaching classes where general program students work together with children with disabilities. My teaching style implies not allowing misbehaviors to occur at the lessons, but in a classroom, with children with special needs, certain discipline-related problems are often inevitable. I saw that the teachers had enough tolerance, understanding, and sympathy for IEP students, and I feel that to a great extend I adopted these capabilities due to the lesson observations.

I am glad I had the opportunity to study this course. It was valuable, interesting, and memorable. At the moment, I feel capable to work in a class containing children with IEP together with a specialized assistant and use the obtained knowledge in teaching a general education classroom.

The profession of a teacher is one of the most important in the world. In fact, teaching is a kind of art. A good teacher is not only knowledgeable in his or her field of study; he or she also has the excellent rhetorical skills, the ability to prepossess the audience and to captivate attention. The talent of being a good teacher, unfortunately, isnt given to everyone, but those who have this teaching gift outstand among the others. The talented teacher can affect your skills, knowledge and even life in a positive way.

Mr. Eugene Grimes was a teacher of the English Language in our college. As a professional he gave a taste of his quality in intellect, erudition, and high education. He could answer any question both related to his subject and unrelated. During his classes, Mr. Grimes always tried to transfer his knowledge to the students in an unconstrained, natural and informal manner. Usually, in his classes the students felt free to show their abilities in English, they could make mistakes without any fear. Mr. Grimes always emphasized the importance of mistakes and especially their admitting for the learning process. If you make mistakes, and you notice them it means that you are on the right way, it means that you actually learn.

Mr. Grimes taught the necessity of staying true to yourself, your choices and opinions. In the classes we often had conversations in English on multiple topics: politics, art, religion, philosophy, literature and various social issues. Most of the topics required the personal opinions and perspectives. In these conversations the students attempted to sharpen their thinking, to state their opinions and to improve the conversational skills. The conversations in the Mr. Grimes classes were the liberating experience through which we learned the ability to express ourselves without shyness or a fear of being derided.

As s person, Mr. Eugene Grimes was inspirational, friendly, enthusiastic and open. He was a person of tremendous intellect that matched perfectly with his easiness and openness. He always managed to transfer his passion and eagerness of learning new things to us. Mr. Grimess personality was an example to follow for many college students. By his example he showed that the person can attain anything through the hard work, inspiration and the desire to become better.

The classes of Mr. Grimes gave a solid basis for the development of the skills in the English language. Along with this, we learned to stick to the personal opinions and decisions, to look at ourselves critically, and never to give up because of mistakes. The skills learned in the English classes of Mr. Eugene Grimes are useful in all the aspects of life because they help to become a better person day by day.

Mr. Grimess personality and skills exemplify the inborn talent for teaching. The example of his work and his attitude depict that the efficient teaching implies the variety of aspects: the perfect knowledge, the open mind, friendliness and the creative approach. Furthermore, the most important qualities the teacher must have are the respect of the students, perceptiveness, and support that allows the learners to grow and refine themselves. The authentic teacher always instills confidence and makes you believe in yourself and your abilities to achieve great results.

Differentiation and How It Supports ELLs

Every student must be provided with an opportunity to fulfill their potential and have an opportunity to learn. For this purpose, it is essential to realize that every learner is unique (Ontario Ministry of Education). Students from different backgrounds, learning styles, multiple intelligences, and different sets of skills require individual teaching approaches. Therefore, differentiation as the idea of splitting a class into groups based on the specifics of learners backgrounds is not only necessary but also inevitable. Otherwise, students will be unable to acquire the necessary skills successfully. To encourage the implementation of a balanced literacy program, a teacher may have to consider the multiple intelligences such as inter- and intrapersonal skills, linguistic prowess, and spatial awareness. The identified aspects of multiple intelligence transcend cultural boundaries and, therefore, can be used to design a training program that will help target learners weaknesses based on the differentiation principle (Bomberry et al. 3). As a result, a tool for students rapid progress can be designed.

Accommodating ELLs

The teachers plan under analysis embraces the opportunities to teach ELL students the essentials of algebra. The elements of accommodation can clearly be tracked down in the plan. For example, the fact that it incorporates instructions for the Step One and Step Two level students indicates that its creators were aiming at meeting the academic needs of several types of learners. The plan allows the students that currently possess a slightly lower range of skills than their peers to engage in class activities and, therefore, develop the required skills. At the same time, a teacher puts a significantly lesser pressure on ELL learners since a range of options for students that are not very familiar with the English language are provided to understand the assignment better.

Modifying for ELLs

The significance of modifications in the environment of a diverse classroom can hardly be underrated. It is essential to adjust the process of learning to meet the needs of students from different backgrounds, particularly, ELLs. The identified approach is bound to lead to an improvement in a learners performance (Supporting English Language Learners 5). The necessity to introduce modifications becomes evident once a learner fails to understand tasks, shows the lack of engagement, and is under the threat of being disadvantaged compared to other learners (Growing Success 7). When modifying the classroom environment, a teacher must pay close attention to the spatial design that will help ELLs feel more comfortable, detailed and at the same time simple instructions about the essential contact information, the curriculum, school clubs, teams, etc. (Supporting English Language Learners 11). One of the experiences of modifying a program for a student that was dyslexic involved shorter exercises that required focusing on specific letters that the learner confused (particularly, b and d).

Planning for our ELL Students

Title

Teaching ELL Students to use Past Simple Tense

Summary of unit

The goal of the unit is to teach ELL students to use the Past Simple Tense and understand how it is applied in the English language. Furthermore, the learners will have to memorize the Past Tense of at least 50 common English irregular verbs.

It is also expected that ELL students will engage in active communication with the rest of the class, thus, improving their social skills. The lesson, thus, will also be aimed at expanding their communication abilities and encouraging them to become active members of the community.

Scope and sequence

The list provided below details the essential elements of the unit. By achieving each of the goals stated below, one will be able to guide ELL students to not only academic success but also independence in learning. As a result, ELL students will be able to develop literacy skills required to engage in simple conversations and, thus, communicate more efficiently.

Big Ideas

The Past Simple Tense allows learners to study the ways in which the concept of action is expressed in the English language and culture. For instance, the fact that the Past Simple Tense can be used to refer to recurrent actions in the past, as well as the actions that occurred once at a specific point in time, can be connected to the idea of traditions and habitual actions in the English culture (). Furthermore, the specified set of lessons will allow learners to get ready for exploring the phenomenon of the Past Progressive Tense, which will be juxtaposed to the Past Simple Tense. As a result, the learners will develop an intrinsic understanding of the:

Focus Questions

1. What for is the Past Simple Tense used?
2. How is the Past Simple Tense formed?
3. What adverbs are commonly used with the Past Simple Tense?
4. How can the Past Simple Tense help render previous experiences?

Overall Expectations

1. The students will learn about the use of the Past Simple Tense.
2. The students will be able to tell about their experiences and past events using the Past Simple Tense.

Assessment and Evaluation

1. Assessment for leaning: enhanced student-teacher communication and scaffolding.
2. Assessment as learning: using peer-assessments.
3. Assessment of learning: quizzes and tests.

Links to Prior Knowledge and Skills

• The students will be provided with an opportunity to compare the formation of the past tense in English and their native language;
• The students will explore the culture-related characteristics of using the past tense in the English language and link it to their culture;
• The students will be able to engage in meaningful conversations with their peers to share their experiences and, thus, connect their background knowledge with the recently acquired abilities;
• The students will use their knowledge of their native language to make connections to the English language and, thus, relate to it better.

Works Cited

Bomberry, Michelle, et al. A Sacred Journey. DSNB.org, 2011, Web.

Growing Success. Edu.Gov.On.Ca, 2010.

Ontario Ministry of Education. Aboriginal Perspectives: A Guide to the Teachers Toolkit. Edu.Gov.On.Ca. 2011, Web.

Supporting English Language Learners. Edu.Gov.On.Ca, 2010.