Category: Teaching

The discharge with a newborn leads women and their families to significant changes in their daily lives, and it is crucial to teach them the basics to maintain well-being. Firstly, the mother must be educated about possible body reactions, such as bowel and urine difficulties, swelling, and mood switches. Secondly, a woman has to be provided with a list of activities to perform like walking and Kegel exercises and avoid stairs climbing or heavy weights lifting. Thirdly, it is necessary to discuss breastfeeding, its technics, and warning signs. Lastly, the whole family must be educated about the infants daily schedule, reactions, and activities. It is also essential to provide recommendations towards nutrition, the psychological aspect of having a newborn at home, and when to call a doctor.

Most healthcare facilities provide protocols based on periods of checkups and general concerns that might appear after discharge. For example, Californian agencies suggest a woman watch her mood, conditions, and body changes, yet not make any specific decisions before the first visit postpartum visit in 21 days after giving birth (California Department of Health Care Services, 2020). My community relies on these healthcare governments suggestions, yet the plan based on a mothers past medical history with clarified actions to perform in case of an emergency could be better. Moreover, the infants health is more crucial for the mother, thus the latter might ignore the severe reactions of her body if she does not know how to deal with them.

The timing of discharge influences the approaches a woman and a family need to perform. A healthy mother and her newborn should receive care in a healthcare facility for at least 24 hours (World Health Organization, 2018). If they are to be discharged the next day, it is crucial to outline the conditions considered usual for a baby and a mother to decrease a familys worries. Moreover, home visits for health professionals can be arranged within the next few days after early discharge.

References

California Department of Health Care Services. (2020). Postpartum care. 

World Health Organization. (2018). WHO recommendation on postnatal discharge following uncomplicated vaginal birth. WHO Reproductive Health Library. Web.

The COMTA Teaching Model

The COMTA teaching model focuses on the following objectives when it comes to teaching adult learners:

1. To increase the level of perceived interaction between students and teachers to create a more interactive learning environment to increase student motivation in learning
2. To develop an effective method of teaching that enables student autonomy due to life, work and other personal factors
3. To address the issue of time constraints to enable adult learners to study at their convenience
4. Lastly, to enable a method of teaching that takes into consideration the need for affordable methods of education.

Based on these objectives, it can be seen that the COMTA teaching model is designed to specifically address the issues of adult learners when it comes to advanced education. Studies such as those by Geçer (2013) have shown that adult learners have an assortment of problems with present-day teaching models and, as such, it necessary to develop a new model that creates a learning environment that is more conducive towards the needs of this particular group of individuals (Geçer, 2013).

Before proceeding, it is important to note that the study of Kraft (2007) which delved into analyzing the different levels of learning for adult, teen and adolescent learners alike within the U.S. system of education stated that it is the motivation behind learning that influences a learner and at times it is the very environment that they are exposed to that either promotes motivation or reduces it (Kraft, 2007). Kraft (2007) explains in his study that initially students, when presented with a particular subject in a new learning environment, have high levels of motivation resulting in the desire to internalize what they are learning. However, over time this level of motivation is influenced by outside factors such as their personal affairs, friends, family, hobbies etc.

In his examination, Kraft (2007) focused on the learning environment within the context of the school/training institute itself (i.e. public and private schools within the U.S.) due to the plethora of outside factors that would be too difficult to analyze. What Kraft (2007) discovered was that the militaristic method of teaching found in public schools resulted in less interested, less motivated, and above all bored students who were taught to memorize rather than analyze the subject they were being taught. This differed significantly from his analysis of the private school system where deep introspection, critical thinking and analysis were the focal point of the learning environment. The private school teaching environment produced more attentive and more motivated students resulting in students with better grades and critical thinking levels as compared to their public school counterparts. Through this example, it can be seen that motivation is impacted by a students learning environment.

This is particularly important to take into consideration given that Hao-Chang (2009) explains that the primary text-based method of e-learning is considered unappealing by some adult learners given the lack of interaction between students and course instructors (Hao-Chang, 2009).

It is based on this and the previously mentioned problems with traditional classroom environments that the following steps of the COMTA model have been developed:

This particular approach involves having to divide a subject into three distinct phases: the introduction, the analysis and the application.

Utilization of online E-learning to introduce students to the literature of the subject they study

As mentioned in the previous section, one of the main issues when it comes to traditional learning environments is that adults simply do not have the time to work and study at the same time. Thus, it is necessary to create a method of study that takes into consideration the need for autonomy and the inherent time constraints of adult learners in the form of introductory E-learning stages during the course. The introduction stage of the course involves developing the initial knowledge that students would need in order to know what a subject is about. This includes having to read short articles and online recorded video tutorials that the teacher has provided in order to help them understand the initial intricacies of the subject. This can be done at the students leisure within a span of time, ranging from 5 days to 2 weeks.

It is recommended that the during the introduction stage readings are provided in short snippets with small non-grade impacting quizzes being implemented at the end of each reading session so as to test a students current knowledge regarding the subject they are reading. The advantage of this method compared to traditional classroom environments consists of the following:

1. It enables the teacher to better monitor the progress and understanding of the students regarding lessons which would allow them to determine what to focus on in the analysis part of the course.
2. It provides students with the autonomy they need in order to balance their education with personal affairs.
3. It removes the time constraints that would usually discourage adult learners from progressing in their studies.

Implementation of scheduled classes on morning, afternoon or evening schedules

This section is where the application phase of the COMTA model is put into effect. The concept of having scheduled classes stems from the development of blended learning environments. Blended learning is basically a combination of E-Learning and face to face learning wherein students complete a course both online and offline. It is usually the case that the online content deals with the readings and necessary information to help transition a student into a particular subject matter while offline meetings deal with the more practical application.

The COMTA model differs from the traditional blended learning model though by departing from the use of classroom lectures. The reason behind this is simple; the lecture aspect has already been taken care of in the E-learning stage of the model through the videos that the teacher had uploaded. In this stage, the teacher uses an analysis of from the various automatic quizzes to determine the strengths and weaknesses of the class regarding the lessons that they were taught and creates a lesson that focuses on analysis, feedback and rapport between the teacher and student to help them better delve into the lesson (Van der Meijden & Veenman, 2005). This aspect of the COMTA model helps to address four identified problems in the Computer-Mediated Communication model of learning and the traditional classroom setting:

1. It addresses the learning predilections for adult learners to feel a level of interaction between students and teachers as well as creates a method for immediate feedback
2. It helps the teacher to impart a level of analysis to students that could not be implemented through a primarily e-learning based approach
3. It increases the motivation of adult learners since the lack of interaction between students and teachers (as well as between students themselves) was noted by several studies as being one of the main reasons behind adult dropout rates in online courses.
4. Lastly, it saves considerable time since the interaction between the student and the teacher involves analysis with the lecture and reading section already having been taken care of through the online session.

Practical application of the knowledge through real-world simulations

This stage in the COMTA teaching model involves practical use of what was learned through an online simulation that mimics an actual real-world simulation. The primary purpose of this practice is intended to

1. Help learners work creatively.
2. Enable them to think analytically.
3. Lastly, to develop practical experience with the knowledge that they obtained from class.

This simulation can be achieved either through an online model where students have to interact with a predetermined set of situations that they have to resolve or a continuous model experience wherein students compete with each other through a simulated online platform. These simulations are intended to not only increase student motivation through an interest in the lesson but also enable them to practically apply what they have learned. It should be noted that this aspect of the COMTA model is a reflection of the working education model which combines work and education to help students better understand how to apply their knowledge and skills in an actual working environment. The reason behind this practice being implemented through an online medium is related to the need for autonomy and time constraints on the part of adult learners. These types of learners simply do not have the time or the capacity to be able to handle the workplace learning model as well as the traditional classroom learning model. Time constraints and their jobs would simply get in the way, as such, it is necessary to implement a process that teaches the practical application of what they are learning hence the fact the online virtual simulation exercise is being advocated in the case of the COMTA model since it resolves the indicated issues.

Implementation of online forums for student and teacher interactions

The last stage of the COMTA teaching model is to address the issue related to a lack of cooperation between students, teachers and other students within the same course. Studies such as those by Strøms, Grøttum & Lycke (2007) have shown how teacher-student interaction and student-student interaction are often sought after by adult learners due to level interactivity and the apparent social experience this entails (Strøms, Grøttum & Lycke, 2007). By implementing an online forum where ideas can be shared and commented on, this simulates the desired level of interactivity that is sought after by adult learners yet is still capable of presenting them with the autonomy they want as well.

Role of the Teacher

In this teaching model, the role of the teacher is that of an analyst and advisor. They would analyze the level of progression and the results of the online aspect of the COMTA model to properly advise and guide students during the analytic portion of the model.

Role of the Student

The purpose of the student in this model is that of a learner while at the same time a teacher since the online forum aspect of the model enables them to not only learn but teach based on their perspective.

Comparison to other Models

When comparing the COMTA teaching model to other present models, it can be seen that it addresses the deficiencies found in the traditional classroom model as well as the Computer-Mediated Communication model. Overall, this method promotes a higher level of interactivity while at the same time, ensures adult learners gain the autonomy they want.

Reference List

Hao-Chang, L. (2009). Utilizing Computer-mediated Communication Tools for Problem-based Learning. Journal Of Educational Technology & Society, 12(1), 205-213.

Kraft, M. (2007). Toward a School-Wide Model of Teaching for Social Justice: An Examination of the Best Practices of Two Small Public Schools. Equity & Excellence In Education, 40(1), 77-86.

Geçer, A. (2013). Lecturer-Student Communication in Blended Learning Environments. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 13(1), 362-367.

Strøms, H. I., Grøttum, P. P., & Lycke, K. H. (2007). Content and processes in problem-based learning: a comparison of computer-mediated and face-to-face communication. Journal Of Computer Assisted Learning, 23(3), 271-282.

Van der Meijden, H., & Veenman, S. (2005). Face-to-face versus computer-mediated communication in a primary school setting. Computers In Human Behavior, 21(5), 831-859

Those who cannot do, teach. Those who cannot teach, teach others to teach& or do they?

The idea that those people who cannot teach, teach others to teach is rather provocative, and it is based on following the balance between theory and practice, passive discussions, and real actions. This balance should work for teachers themselves and for their methods of teaching students. It is possible to state that those who cannot teach are not perfect teachers to share their knowledge and help others in teaching. The theoretical knowledge is not practically useful without the focus on actions. Those persons who can guide the others in teaching should become the examples for their students. Thus, their actions should be based on the effective philosophical balance of theory and practice. Any discussions and explanations are useless if they are not based on practical actions and real examples.

Moreover, students are successful when they also try to follow this balance because any great thoughts have no real power when they are not supported by real actions. The choice to specialize in the theoretical aspects of education and teaching does not mean that a person is not good in practice. Furthermore, those persons who teach others to teach are also teachers, and their methods and experience are important for students.

To be or not to be& It is a question, but also a choice.

While making learning and the process of learning real, a teacher should orient toward students and follow the main professional norms and principles. Ideally, moral and professional aspects of the teachers work should be correlated to teach effectively and according to the ethical standards. The problem is in the fact that teachers can choose between their commitment to profession and commitment to students while selecting the methods to make learning real and effective. From this point, the choice between wrong and right methods, practices, techniques, and approaches should result in choosing the most effective approach according to which it is possible to achieve the highest professional and moral standards. Thus, teachers are responsible for choosing the approach which is better for their students despite the area of choice. Ethically and professionally wrong choices can lead to the opposite results in working.

If it aint broke, dont fix it. The pragmatic sense in teaching

According to the statement, If it aint broke, dont fix it, there are no needs to change or improve something if the objects function and the processes develop effectively, as it was earlier. Referring to this idea in the field of education, it is necessary to note that the idea is based on the pragmatic approach and sense of teaching. The pragmatic sense in teaching is based on the notion of practicality. Any thoughts and theories should be effectively used as instruments to achieve a definite goal or overcome the problem. If the current approaches and techniques used in education are effective, the changes are not rational. However, this approach is controversial because the ignorance of improvement and development leads to failures in education as any other process because of the impossibility of responding to modern social trends. Reforms and improvements are important to make education an effective tool for students to develop their potential.

Self-Rating and Effectiveness of Courses for Pre-service Teachers Perceptions of Their Skills, Competence, and Ability to Teach Mathematics

The research question chosen for analysis is What are pre-service teachers perceptions of their skills, competence, and ability to teach mathematics? To answer the question, seven preservice teachers were interviewed on themes of their personal self-rating, the effect of the math content courses, beliefs in their ability to teach before and after the courses, which methodology was the most effective, and what course element was the most effective.

Literature Review

According to the three-year study conducted by Choy, Wong, Ming Lim, and Chong (2013), the pedagogical knowledge of preservice teachers evolved significantly in the course of their professional practice, which suggested that perceptions of teachers about their skills, competence, and ability to teach are factors that change over time and cannot be easily determined at once (p. 68).

As mentioned in Marzanos work (2007) Classroom instruction that works: Research-based strategies for increasing student achievement, preservice teachers competence, and teaching skills greatly depend on their ability to conduct lesson planning that will support their articulation skills, what they plan to do in their lessons, and why they plan on doing it (p. 34). Kaiser, Rosenfield, and Gravois (2009) suggested that teachers gain effective teaching skills and increase their competence from participating in instructional consultation services as well as interacting with their students (p. 444).

Basow and Montgovery (2006) concluded that self-ratings completed by teachers did not have any significant correlations with the ratings given by their students, which suggested that teachers perceptions of their professional practice only affect them and cannot be transferred to students (p. 91).

The results of the study conducted by Koksal (2013) showed the existing positive correlation between teachers self-perception of their competence and their general attitude towards their professional practice (p. 270). According to Struyven and De Meyst (2010), teachers competencies embedded into the policies and practices of educational institutions were regularly implemented, while other competencies such as cooperation with parents or teacher committees were not implemented regularly (p. 1495).

Qualitative Data Analysis

Interviews conducted with seven preservice teachers gave the following data on teachers self-perception: three teachers said that their rating was eight, one gave a mark of nine, and two gave seven points, while only one hesitated between eight and nine points. Such rating results (between seven and nine points) suggested that teaching courses taught respondents a lot about effective practices, techniques, and tools.

However, the rating also suggested that interviewed preservice teachers did not have enough experience and confidence to give themselves a rating of ten. The fact that the majority of interviewees acknowledged that there was always room for improvement and growth suggests that actual working experience will either improve or decrease their self-rating.

When questioned about the effect of the math content courses, interviewees gave different answers. For example, three interviewees stated that 151 and 152 math courses were beneficial for bringing them back to the basic material and contributed to their understanding of what their students usually did not understand. However, one interviewee did not have a positive experience with these courses.

Three interviewees suggested that 320 and 330 courses facilitated the development of many skills. One interviewee stated that taking math courses made him/her realize that there was more about teaching math than he/she knew about. As for the beliefs in interviewees abilities to teach before and aftermath courses, all seven preservice teachers indicated that they were much more confident in their math skills compared to what they had felt before.

Once asked questions about what courses (methodology or content pedagogy) were the most effective, three respondents indicated that 320 courses were the most beneficial. Four respondents (including those that mentioned 320) suggested that 330 were also effective. One out of those interviewees mentioned that 151 and 152 taught many youth concepts while the last respondent indicated that all courses taught different important information. Lastly, the answers about the most effective element in the course divided almost equally. Two interviewees suggested the effectiveness of small group instruction; two suggested peer interaction; one gave preference to partner assignments while one enjoyed hands-on activities.

Conclusion

To conclude, preservice teachers education should take into account the concept of confidence, competence, and self-esteem for making sure that they proceed with effective teaching (Russell-Bowie, 2012, p. 62). The results of interviews conducted with preservice teachers suggested that the majority of respondents were confident enough in their skills to start teaching maths; however, all of them hoped to gain more experience while teaching. 151 and 152 math courses were beneficial for the respondents to get back to the basic material.

Furthermore, bypassing 320 and 330 math courses interviewees became more confident in their skills. As for the beliefs in interviewees abilities to teach before and aftermath courses, all seven preservice teachers indicated that they were much more confident in their math skills compared to what they had felt before. Interviewees also stated that small group instruction, peer interaction, partner assignments, and hands-on activities were the most effective components.

Experience and Persuations in Pre-service Teachers Perceptions of Their Skills, Competence, and Ability to Teach Mathematics

The research question What are pre-service teachers perceptions of their skills, competence, and ability to teach mathematics? was also examined through a perspective of themes such as mastery experience, vicarious experience, social persuasions, and the psychological factor, which all make up a cohesive framework for teachers self-efficacy in the classroom.

Literature Review

Coined in 1994, the concept of self-efficacy pertains to an individuals beliefs about the capability to perform a particular task on the designated level (Redmond, 2016, para. 3). According to Steyn and Mynhardt (2008), mastery experiences are crucial components for forming teachers self-esteem and self-confidence in the teaching environment compared with the information they received from social comparisons (p. 563). Vicarious experiences are beneficial for altering the beliefs of self-efficacy by transmitting the competencies as well as comparisons to others (Wagler, 2011, p. 2).

To make sure that individuals believe that they have the necessary skills for completing a designated task, social persuasion is used as the component of self-efficacy. In such cases, it is suggested that others encourage an individual to perform a task through constructive feedback (4 Ways to develop self-efficacy beliefs, 2014, para. 15).

The perceived level of self-efficacy can also be largely influenced by the emotional and psychological responses of an individual. If, for example, an individual is nervous about performing a specific task, the self-efficacy may be significantly weaker compared to those individuals that do not experience any nervousness or panic (4 Sources of self-efficacy in the workplace, 2013, para. 5). Over the last three decades, the field of educational research explored the notion of self-efficacy as an essential component to teachers success (Artino, 2012, p. 76); therefore, studying its characteristics is of the highest importance.

Qualitative Data Analysis

Mastery experiences were highly beneficial, as reported by the interviewed preservice teachers. Three respondents valued manipulative tasks and tools that facilitated creative thinking; for example, teaching math to a professor that acted as a school student and made some mistakes. Hands-on opportunities and activities were outlined as beneficial by two respondents, while one mentioned teaching each other and one enjoyed watching videos of other people teaching. Such results suggested that practical tasks were the most effective mastery experiences that help develop self-efficacy in preservice teachers.

When discussing vicarious experiences with preservice teachers, three interviewees indicated modeling activities as positively influencing their self-efficacy. Observing peers was a procedure that received contrasting feedback: while one respondent stated that peer observation was useful for seeing a phenomenon from a new perspective, another indicated that it made him/her nervous because of the fear to underperform in comparison with his/her peers. One respondent mentioned that teaching each other math was beneficial while another mentioned the positive impact of activities where teachers gave examples.

The component of social persuasions was explained as effective when instructors gave feedback on performance. Six respondents indicated that explanations, negative and positive feedback given by professors helped solve many issues with their self-confidence. One interviewee mentioned that the task of teaching small lessons to other students promoted self-confidence alongside with feedback given by the professor.

Lastly, when discussing the psychological factor regarding self-efficacy, five out of seven interviewees indicated that mood and emotional state greatly affected their learning. For example, if one was in a good mood, ones self-efficacy in performing a specific task tended to be much higher. However, two respondents stated that professors attitudes towards teaching influenced them the most. For instance, one interviewee stated that his/her professor was always going straight to the topic of the lesson so that no one had any opportunities to relax or to get distracted. Such a strategy was effective because self-efficacy was achieved by focusing on the task instead of preparing for it by creating a positive atmosphere.

Conclusion

To sum up the results of the interviews, self-efficacy in preservice math teachers greatly depended on effective strategies about mastery experiences. Practical tasks were proven to be the most effective mastery experiences that develop self-efficacy in preservice teachers. Modeling activities were suggested as the most effective vicarious experiences while peer observation received contradicting feedback. For instance, if a professor praised one individual, a respondent felt pressured to perform at the same level, even if he or she did not possess the same skills. The psychological factor was proven to be greatly contributing to increased self-efficacy.

Two respondents also indicated that performing the task itself boosted their self-esteem and confidence rather than their mood. Self-efficacy was defined as one of the most important preconditions to behavioral change (Bandura, 1982, p. 122). The analysis of qualitative data about preservice math teachers showed that behavioral change was affected by several factors.

Therefore, further research and increased attention to the concept of self-efficacy is needed so that future teacher is equipped with knowledge on how they can improve their confidence, skills, and ability to teach specific subjects. Furthermore, increased self-efficacy will positively influence the overall educational process for both teachers and students.

References

4 Sources of self-efficacy in the workplace. (2013).

4 Ways to develop self-efficacy beliefs. (2014).

Artino, A. (2012). Academic self-efficacy: From educational theory to instructional practice. Perspect Med Educ, 1(2), 76-85.

Bandura, A. (1982). Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. American Psychologists, 37, 122-147.

Basow, S., & Montgomery, S. (2006). Student ratings and professor self-ratings of college teaching: Effects of gender and divisional affiliation. Journal of Personnel Evaluation in Education, 18(2), 91-106.

Choy, D., Wong, A., Ming Lim, K., & Chong, S. (2013). Beginning teachers perceptions of their pedagogical knowledge and skills in teaching: A three year study. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 38(5), 68-79.

Kaiser, L., Rosenfield, S., & Gravois, T. (2009). Teachers perception of satisfaction, skill development, and skill application after instructional consultation services. J Learn Disabil, 42(5), 444-457.

Koksal, N. (2013). Competencies in teacher education: Preservice teachers perceptions about competencies and their attitudes. Educational Research and Reviews, 8(6), 270-276.

Marzano, R. (2007). Classroom instruction that works: Research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. Alexandria, VA: ASCD

Redmond, B. (2016). Self-efficacy and social cognitive theories. 

Russel-Bowie, D. (2012). Developing preservice primary teachers confidence and competence in arts education using principles of authentic learning. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 37(1), 60-74.

Steyn, R., & Mynhardt, J. (2008). Factors that influence the forming of self-evaluation and self-efficacy perceptions. South African Journal of Psychology, 38(3), 563-573.

Struyven, K., & De Meyst, M. (2010). Competence-based teacher education: Illusion or reality? An assessment of the implementation status in Flanders from teachers and students points of view. Teaching Teach Educ, 26, 1495-1510.

Wagler, R. (2011). The impact of vicarious experiences and field experience classroom characteristics on preservice elementary science teaching efficacy. Electronic Journal of Science Education, 15(2), 1-27.

Impact of Cognitive, Linguistic, and Cultural Differences on Student Learning

To a large extent individuals cultural and linguistic backgrounds, as well as inherent cognitive abilities, define their personalities, behaviors, and decision making. These factors also affect the process of learning across the lifespan. Therefore, every teacher must consider all possible differences in students and differentiate lessons according to childrens specific needs and interests to facilitate the academic performance and achieve better results.

From the sociological perspective on human thought and cognition, individuals are largely influenced by social and cultural contexts where they are placed. Not only do those contexts determine the manner of human relationships but also define how emotions are elicited and expressed, and how different events and phenomena are interpreted and dealt with in various situations. In other words, both children and adults act based on their perceptions of the world, which they gradually develop during the course of interaction with their environments. Moreover, it is worth noticing that social-cultural and psychological domains of human cognition and behavior are deeply interrelated. It means that they may affect each other significantly and lead to changes in the performance of distinct activities.

The assumptions described above have a few implications for each teacher to consider. First of all, they indicate that each student may have different values and perceptions of the world, and consequently respond to anything that happens at school and in the classroom in his or her individual way. Thus, not a single instructional activity will be accepted and seen by multiculturally diverse children similarly. Moreover, some of those instructional practices may even be entirely inappropriate for particular students. Therefore, an educator must have a culturally sensitive approach to the curricula design and selection of materials to avoid being disrespectful and to meet students interests.

Secondly, it is valid to presume that when childrens differences are not taken into account in the classroom, they may feel left out, disengaged, and unmotivated to learn. An obvious example of such a situation is the neglect of a student whose linguistic skills are underdeveloped, and whose mother tongue differs from the language spoken by the rest of the classmates. When such student is not provided with a sufficient amount of scaffolding materials and his/her engagement in the whole-class practice is not supported by various appropriate differentiation strategies, his/her academic development can be significantly delayed. Moreover, in this situation, linguistic differences of the learner or rather the lack of their consideration may also adversely impact his/her psycho-emotional well-being, and self-esteem. In their turn, such negative effects can have a prolonged detrimental influence on the childs behavioral and cognitive development at later stages in life.

Overall, individual differences substantially influence students behaviors and learning processes as well. As it was suggested in the essay, the consideration of different factors affecting childrens preferences, motivations, and learning engagement may boost the classroom performance, while the neglect of cultural and cognitive aspects of personality can create barriers to students academic success. Thus, the differentiation of instructional practices and learning activities is of tremendous importance. Various differentiation strategies such as peer-mediated tutoring, grouping, spontaneous language use, etc. contribute to the creation of a friendly and inclusive atmosphere in the classroom. They can encourage all students regardless of their cultural and linguistic characteristics for self-expression and help them be more involved in group activities resulting in better learning and behavioral outcomes.

Connecticut Common Core of Teaching (CCCT) Standards

The CCCT standards are specifically designed to help teachers to develop and implement right strategies to meet the learning and developmental needs of modern students. It is possible to say that each CCCT standard represents a professional ideal, which every educator must strive to attain. The standards outlined in Domain 2  Classroom Environment, Student Engagement and Commitment to Learning  are probably the most significant in terms of the classroom management. They are of great professional value because they may help improve the overall quality of teacher-student and peer interactions and foster better academic outcomes.

The standards 2.1-2.5 are related to the creation of an inclusive classroom environment, implementation of accountable and culturally-sensitive instruction, promotion of learning engagement, development of social skills and behaviors conducive to greater productivity in students, and achievement of greater class management efficiency. Firstly, it means that along with a profound content knowledge, an educator should be able to comprehend developmental needs of diverse students to design relevant, differentiated curricula. It means that a teacher should be respectful to all students, their cultural identities, and previous social backgrounds.

Secondly, the CCCT standards imply that educators can play a large role in fostering favorable social changes by performing according to high-standard ethical principles of professional conduct and being responsible for the accomplishment of professional tasks in a liable manner. By working in such a way, teachers may positively influence students with whom they interact on a daily basis by providing a good behavioral example to them. To achieve this, a teacher will always support equality in the classroom by differentiating lessons and creating inclusive learning contexts while working in a highly diverse student community. All students should have equal access to educational practices aimed at the improvement of their language and cognitive skills and knowledge development, and teachers need to raise own competence in order to meet their needs and provide them with equal opportunities for academic self-realization.

The implementation of the CCCP standards in practice also means the stimulation of student engagement, which is directly related to the quality of instruction. Thus, along with being flexible and cohesive, instructional practices should be diversified, deliberate, and intensive. It is possible to say that when a teacher has a strong sense of professional purpose, he/she becomes able to engage students in the learning process more quickly because, in this way, the educator can clearly convey to students what exactly he/she tries to accomplish and what should be done in the class. To ensure that learners are not bored, teachers may use such instructional strategies as asking engaging and challenging questions about students experiences to involve them in the discussion, or using different instructional materials, and activities. By diversifying instructional components according to students needs and promoting class collaboration, an educator may achieve better outcomes in practicing target skills without losing students attention.

In conclusion, it is worth noticing that a learners brain always searches for meaning, and looks for meaningful patterns and connections between constructs throughout the process of education. It means that people tend to evaluate information through their subjective perceptions and pay greater attention to the things they find personally significant. Therefore, the awareness of students interests, characters, and multicultural backgrounds; the development of a collaborative, supportive environment; the stimulation of positive perceptions of self, individual abilities, and curriculum content in students can help teachers add more meaning to the learning process and motivate learners to participate in instructional activities. The CCCT standards may guide educators in choosing a holistic approach to instruction and classroom management by multiple constructive means. They suggest a way to avoid negative emotions in the classroom and to maintain productive and positive student behavior.

It should be stated that outcome-focused evaluation can be considered a functional approach towards teacher preparation assessment. It provides an opportunity to display the levels of readiness of teachers to furnish educational services right after graduation. It is worth noting that on the one hand, such an approach to the estimation of the system would allow creating a common approach to the evaluation of the quality of teacher training. Besides, it would enable appraising the competency and academic performance, focus on external users, and so on (Meyer, Brodersen, & Schmidt, 2013). This approach will be equally effective for staff and their social environment as well as in terms of standards and programs. However, it requires the alignment and formation of a system for quality assessment following the new requirements, which will be offered for teachers and educators.

On the other hand, it is essential to evaluate the effectiveness of projects aimed at improving the quality of educational services (Meyer et al., 2013). From this point of view, process-focused evaluation can be more efficient. It would provide an opportunity to focus on the way the outcome was attained and determine what resources were used to achieve them rather than focusing on the actual results. Moreover, in the initial approach, the output cannot be used to obtain the objective quantitative and qualitative indicators to manage the quality of education. Apart from that, it is unclear whether it would be necessary to create a legal framework for the new model to assess the quality of education.

Nevertheless, outcome-focused evaluation has specific advantages and disadvantages. This type of approach towards assessment is functional when reflecting on the effectiveness of implementing alterations (Yuen, Terao, & Schmidt, 2013). Thus, it is strictly focused on the results and the side effects of the proposed change. It aims to respond to the complex questions to speculate on how well the participants of change have perceived it and whether it has introduced any positive difference for them (Yuen et al., 2013). To be more precise, this framework is used to comprehend whether the objectives have been met, but it does not allow assessing the actual process and the difficulties that were faced throughout the process. More importantly, it would not be possible to determine the specific interventions that could be applied to manage emerging issues. Also, the outcome-focused assessment does not give a possibility to dwell upon the problems encountered in the process of implementing the change and to assess the availability of essential resources.

References

Meyer, S. J., Brodersen, R. M., & Linick, M. A. (2014). Approaches to evaluating teacher preparation programs in seven states. Web.

Yuen, F. K. O., Terao, K. L., & Schmidt, A. M. (2013). Effective grant writing and program evaluation for human services professionals. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

I watched the following four videos: About oceans-integrating language and literacy activities, Providing phonological awareness instruction, Becoming aware of print and Dialogic reading an interview with Christopher Lonigan (WETA, 2011). I found the last podcast most interesting. Here the speaker, Dr. Lonigan, briefly details the strategy as a teaching approach that fosters student participation in class through encouraging them to contribute in telling/reading a story. Dr. Lonigan says that children get acquainted with reading through constantly going through the same publication.

He, therefore, proposes that a stepwise mode of teaching be adopted whereby teachers initially focus on identifying the big things, actions in the pictures-in a way developing vocabulary (Lonigan, 2011). In the second phase, the doctor proposes that teachers develop ways of getting the children to use the words they learned in the first step to tell a story. In the final stage, the teacher is supposed to help the children develop a narrative about the story that relates to something they have done before (Lonigan, 2011). In conclusion, from the video, we learn that books with pictures are more effective for use in dialogic reading as compared to those with text only.

The curriculum presented in the podcast is mainly experiential because it supports learning through individual involvement. This type of curriculum supports language acquisition by giving children the time and a favorable pace with which to acquire learned speech patterns into sensible pieces of communication (Otto, 2010). Even more advantageous is the fact that this type of instruction is appropriate in both home and formalized settings and can be used effectively even by individuals with little or no teaching experience.

By basic mention, the speaker also informs the viewer of interactive shared reading as another training technique that is closely related to dialogic reading (Lonigan, 2011). He, however, says that shared reading is not as interactive as dialogic reading and hence might not address the aspect of language acquisition in the same way that the dialogic reading approach does.

The dialogic reading method adequately addresses the five aspects of language. As far as the phonetic and morphemic element is concerned, the children, through having someone read a story to them, end up picking different sounds that, when put together, can be used to identify something. The technique also addresses the syntactic elements of language because, through repeated reading, children are able to correctly identify the correct ways to use certain words in combination with others to make meaningful dialogues.

The semantic element of speech is also well covered in this method of instruction because, through the acquisition of basic reading skills in the form of phonetics and morphemics, the children gradually learn to connect words to particular meanings. Finally, and most importantly, dialogic reading is particularly fundamental in the development of pragmatic elements of language. This is particularly evidenced in the third stage, whereby children are encouraged to connect learned language elements in detailing personal experiences.

I would definitely use the elements learned from the dialogic reading strategy because the step-by-step method it proposes gives the children the motivation needed to acquire proper reading and communication skills. The element of expansion as a method of getting children to grow into effective readers gradually is one of the approaches I have personally witnessed through previous interaction with children.

Reference List

Lonigan, C. (Host). (2011). Dialogic reading. Reading rockets, Podcast. Web.

Otto, B. (2010). Language development in early childhood. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.

WETA (2011). Early literacy. Web.

In the paper titled Teaching to the test: high crime, misdemeanor, or just good instruction, James Popham talks about teaching targeted at helping students pass exams and contrasts it with teaching aimed at helping students gain knowledge (Popham 1). Popham describes the kind of teaching whose main purpose is the passing of examinations as item-teaching and the instruction that aims at helping students gain knowledge and perfect their skills as curriculum-teaching.

Item teaching, Popham says, has the effect of giving students the false impression that they know a lot on a certain topic when they can only answer a particular set of questions (Popham 2). For example in an arithmetic class, a teacher can ask a student to find out how many oranges are left after John, who had 12, gives five to Mary. An item-teaching proponent will use this example in class knowing very well that in the test there is a question asking the student to find out how many mangoes are left if Priscilla, who had 12, gives five to Antony. In this regard, the only things that change are the type of fruit and the names of the individuals involved. In contrast, curriculum teaching helps students gain knowledge which they can use to correctly answer completely new questions (Popham 2). An example of this is when a teacher asks her students to find out how many grapes Tom, who initially had five, will have after receiving five others from Peter, with the aim of helping the student learn to use basic addition.

As the paper develops, Popham draws to the conclusion that item-teaching is a vice that needs to be stopped in order to improve the quality of education. To help in the nabbing of teachers practicing in the vice, Popham offers a number of solutions as summarized below:

Teacher self-reports-In this detection plan teachers are surveyed to find out which ones can confess to item-teaching (Popham 5). Popham suggests that the survey can even be devised in such a way that anonymity is maintained in the exercise. However, this approach has one weakness in that the teachers who have been engaging in the practice may not be willing to confess and instead answer the questions presented in a way that will impress the assessors.

Teacher-collected materials-For this method, teachers are asked to collect all the tests and quizzes they gave their students in preparation for the main examinations (Popham 5). These materials are then compared with what was examined with the aim of pointing out similarities. Unfortunately, this method also has a weakness, in the sense that the teachers under review will get rid of incriminating material. Besides it is difficult to keep records of oral exercises.

Pre-announced classroom observations-In this technique, the schools administrators plan assessment sessions to assess the quality of instruction that goes on in classrooms (Popham 5). The teachers are also informed of the impending assessment exercise. The downside to this technique is that because the teachers already know that they will be watched, they can easily structure the particular assessment session to feature curriculum-teaching.

Unannounced classroom observations- Here, the administrators pop in at classes without prior warning (Popham 6). By using this method, the evaluators can catch errant teachers off-guard. However, to effectively pull this strategy off, the administrators will have to completely abandon their daily duties, something that may end up costing the school even more harm.

Student self-reports- In this technique, the administrators set up questionnaires probing students on what they have learnt in regards to testable material (Popham 6). By using this method, the assessors can tell whether the teachers were giving material that is specifically aimed at passing an upcoming examination. The weakness of this arrangement is that because the questionnaires are structured to be anonymous, most students will not bother to fill them in; and those who do might not really give information that could incriminate the tutors.

Score-jumps-According to Popham, extreme improvements in students performance could be an indicator of item-teaching (Popham 6). However, score-jumps on their own cannot confirm improper teaching conduct because the students could actually have improved because of improved instruction.

With all the above detections strategies having loopholes, Popham comes up with what he calls the dual-deterrence detection strategy to help reduce incidence of item-teaching (Popham 7). The first facet of the approach is to ensure teachers are well equipped with assessment literacy. In this regard, all the teachers in a particular region, and especially those under pressure to improve the students test scores should be made aware that giving instruction tailored to help the students pass specific examinations is unethical and urged to shun away from the practice.

The other element of the suggested strategy involves making the policy makers know that pressurizing teachers without giving them clear descriptions of what certain examinations aim at attaining encourages item-teaching. When it comes to high-stakes examinations, the teacher should be made to understand what outcomes are expected in order to come up with a strategy that will implement the curriculum requirements effectively.

Possible solutions for the problem

In order to stop item-teaching, there are a number of methods that can be effectively used. First, is changing what I would like to call exam-swap. In this technique, the institution in charge of setting the examinations can come up with two sets of examinations with questions closely related. One set can be made readily-available to the tutors and the other kept a secret. Later, on examination day, the hidden paper will be offered instead of the one that tutors were made to believe would be the main paper. In this way, teachers that used item-teaching will be caught unawares as their students will have difficulty dealing with the examination. The main advantage of this technique is that it need not be applied every semester. It can be used randomly and with the teachers not knowing what to expect, they will be forced to constantly be on the right side.

Another solution that can effectively tackle the problem of item teaching is completely keeping the tutors in the shadows, regarding the range of questions that will be set. The teachers should be given a syllabus to cover and only made aware that examinations will cover core concepts taught in the units taught in the curriculum. By teachers not knowing what to expect in examinations, they will be deterred from teaching to the test.

Works Cited

Popham, James. Teaching to the test: high crime, misdemeanor, or just good instruction. Los Angeles: University of California, 2009. Print.

Introduction

This paper seeks to examine three topics about the current issues in education concerning the educators perceptions and attitudes towards different teaching approaches, policies, and the training of teachers. The first topic for study is, Teaching linguistically diverse students: a mixed-methods study of the elementary practitioners coursework, attitudes, and practice. The second topic for study is Establishing the teachers understanding of the students knowledge, skills, and traits to educate diverse students. The last topic study is Government policy and collective participation in early educator professional development.

Potential research topics

The first topic for study is, Teaching linguistically diverse students: a mixed-methods study of elementary practitioners coursework, attitudes, and practice. This broad topic seeks to explore teachers attitudes and practices concerning linguistically diverse learners. A lot of literature has been provided for this topic but there are no consistent findings to build on for further research. Therefore, this topic presents an opportunity to conduct further research and identify ways to educate linguistically challenged students. Teachers professional practice differs depending on their understanding of and perceptions concerning assessment and teaching approaches.

Previous literature suggests that teachers professional capacity is interconnected to school, classroom, and government policies (OByrne & Smith, 2015). Besides, their perceptions are influenced by their students needs and performance. A previous study by Li (2013) suggests that the teachers perceptions predict practices, this, in turn, predicts outcomes. This author suggests that teacher-training programs offer insufficient training to teaching learners of linguistically diverse settings. Similarly, despite when or how perceptions are developed, teachers attitudes pose a direct effect on students self-esteem and performance. Thus, increased preparation for teachers is needed, and it should consider the social-cultural view of education (OByrne & Smith, 2015).

The second topic for study is Establishing the teachers understanding of the students knowledge, skills, and traits to educate diverse students. There is still looming controversy regarding pre-service and in-service teacher education as inadequate to prepare teachers to attend to the varying demands of students including those with special needs, those from low-income backgrounds, and English language learners. Teacher educators are facing huge barriers in preparing educators to teach students of diverse backgrounds. These gaps in teacher education have led to an unending debate that forms the basis for further research on this topic.

Even though many teacher educators have proposed various models to equip teacher candidates for diversity, the skills, knowledge, and traits are hard to obtain. In a bid to determine the effectiveness of teacher candidates to teach for diversity, this topic explores how training programs prepare teacher candidates to teach regarding equality and diversity. However, it is hard to come up with a tailor-made approach since each classroom has unique needs.

Teacher candidates should be prepared to possess skills for learning about and reacting to the diverse needs of a classroom. The second proposal to equipping teacher candidates for diversity would be bridging the gap between schools and universities. Faculty perspectives and attitudes on teacher learning for diversity are essential determinants of whether the process is going to be a success (OByrne & Smith, 2015). Most of the faculty members believe that they suffer limited skills and experience with teaching diversities, particularly when dealing with English learners. These insights indicate the need for more research to offer clarity on the necessary approaches needed to facilitate teaching in diverse environments.

The last topic study is Government policy and collective participation in early educator professional growth. This topic forms one of the most debated issues in the field of education today. This topic introduces the issue of collective participation by all stakeholders in achieving teachers professional development. This topic discusses the potential benefits of collaboration and identifies the trends of professional growth for insightful policies. According to Douglass, Carter, Smith, and Killins (2015), collective participation is a rare practice in elementary education but can be optimized via professional development policy considerations.

Real quality growth relies on professional strategies that work. Information and training alone cannot be sufficient in effecting changes in practices. Policymakers and training programs tend to focus on promoting the knowledge base of teachers rather than incorporating teachers points of view and work contexts. Professional training can be more beneficial if teachers are actively involved in the decision-making process. Besides, policies should be flexible enough to allow teachers to devise alternatives when they feel that certain models do not meet the demands of the students. Collective participation may provide benefits such as shared dialogue and planning among stakeholders for initiating new strategies. Besides, it ensures that teachers do not feel constrained by the state policies since they share values and goals towards quality instruction (Renée, 2016).

Key Words

The Keywords used include language, linguistic diversity, teacher education, teachers attitudes, teacher practice, collective participation, state policy, professional learning, and teacher development. A keyword can be defined as a general idea that is estimated from various search queries (Ridley, 2012). A search query may entail the exact word or a combination of multiple words that a user types into the search engine.

Following the high number of research materials available online, it is essential to establish reliable sources for the topic of interest. Furthermore, when researchers use keywords it implies that a certain issue was studied earlier, and since it was published, it is likely to be an important topic that deserves further scrutiny. A database search can be done using Boolean operators to either narrow or widen a certain set of results. The main Boolean operators are AND, OR, and NOT. Boolean operators focus a search on a certain topic coupled with identifying if there are multiple search words. Besides, Boolean operators interlink multiple pieces of information to find a specific topic of interest.

Using AND in search criteria helps narrow the results. For instance, keywords, language AND education AND teachers. This approach helps avoid ambiguity or omission of important reference works. Moreover, a search can be conducted using different but specific terms/phrases to get highly specific results. For example, teacher education AND teachers attitude. In this case, the phrases are well represented in the results within a narrowed topic.

Using OR in a search assists to link two or more common concepts. Essentially, OR enables broaden the results by indicating that any or both of the search terms can be found in the feedback records (Ridley, 2012). However, since not all results from a search are required, the term NOT is used to exclude unwanted words in the results. Such exclusion helps narrow the search by commanding the search engine to ignore terms that may be implied by typed search terms.

Various databases are reliable and help expand ones knowledge in a specific area of study. When writing a literature review it is essential to search what knowledge, arguments, and ideas that have been developed on a certain topic of interest. Some of the reliable sources to search for peer-reviewed journal articles include EBSCOhost, ProQuest, or PubPsych. In a bid to ensure that a literature review is directly linked to the topic of choice, one should search available literature using suitable keywords for the selected topic.

Comparing the filing systems for searches

This section seeks to compare and contrast three search databases that include EBSCOhost, ProQuest, and PubPsych. These three interfaces are similar in many aspects and only differ on aspects such as quantity and quality of search results. The one major distinction between the three interfaces is the number of results provided. For instance, if one was to undertake a search for a peer-reviewed, full-text article for the concept teachers perception in the three interfaces, it is approximated that ProQuest will offer the most results followed by EBSCOhost then PubPsych.

However, in a bid to get the best out of the sheer number of sources available in ProQuest, one has to learn and master how to employ the search options. Even though it is a good idea to familiarize myself with the academic research process, most researchers find it complex and time-consuming to use ProQuest. Alternatively, most researchers prefer EBSCOhost that is user-friendly and sorts the most relevant and current sources. PubPsych is not broadly used since it is limited to sources related to social sciences.

Given the fact that all the three interfaces are critical for the literature review process, it is important for researchers who find barriers using ProQuest to shift to EBSCOhost. EBSCO offers an easy learning time even though taking the time to examine ProQuest might lead to better understanding and credibility. Essentially, all the three search models deserve attention concerning a search for reference material since the knowledge trapped in each will help build the review (Ridley, 2012). Nonetheless, due to flexibility issues among other aspects that will be discussed in the next section, EBSCO is chosen for the review.

EBSCOhost search interface

In a bid to attain a reliable literature review, one should seek the services of EBSCOhost. Researchers in need of wide coverage and access to in-depth full-text materials, EBSCOhost is a truly competitive provider. EBSCOhost offers a user-friendly interface and powerful search site including general and advanced search criteria. EBSCOhost search interface allows the user to incorporate Boolean operators as well as various limiters.

This interface offers access to an incredible amount of literature including general media publications, peer-reviewed journals, e-books, conference proceedings, and monographs. EBSCOhost targets to meet the demands of a diverse range of users. The wide data coverage is backed by credible full-text availability. Most of the licensed databases might not offer full text but they often develop a link to EBSCOhost if the full text is available. As a search interface, EBSCOhost has been developed to cover a wide scope. The elaborate catalog of various fields and major media resources testify to the comprehensiveness of their collection (Ridley, 2012). Moreover, the interface does not need any skills or proficiency to access.

EBSCOhost assists in this type of research in different ways through its rich and diversified collection. This interface offers a wide spectrum of information on multiple researchers across many disciplines and within specified timeframes. The Boolean system is compatible with this interface making it easy for users to interact effectively with major reviewed reference works. However, this site is critical when narrowing the three topics to come up with a common topic of study.

Besides, EBSCOs content is highly recommended and compatible with most state or province-specific learning requirements. During this review, EBSCOhost helps connect the research focus to the context of the broader academic setting in the education field. This interface helps identify the gaps that exist in the field of interest as well as provide recommendations and implications for more research (Ridley, 2012). As the study period gets underway, EBSCOhost offers current, relevant, and peer-reviewed research. EBSCOhost helps researchers manifest their awareness of contemporary issues and demonstrate how their research is relevant within an evolving context.

Conclusion

The task of developing a logical and credible report of literature is complex at times. When handling broader topics, it is common for a researcher to feel overwhelmed by the work at hand given the volumes of reading materials that have to be used. Thus, the researcher should endeavor to reach at the end of the report with a clear recognition of what conspires throughout the review coupled with how it builds to the generation of new knowledge. EBSCOhost offers search fields that are rich in evidence of what other researchers did and what suggestions they gave towards further research. Therefore, it is essential to consider the goals of a review before determining the search methods to employ.

References

Douglass, A., Carter, A., Smith, F., & Killins, S. (2015). Training together: state policy and collective participation in early educator professional development. The New England Journal of Public Policy, 27(1), 1-13. Web.

Li, G. (2013). Promoting teachers of Culturally and Linguistically Diverse (CLD) students as change agents: A cultural approach to professional learning. Theory into Practice, 52(2), 136-143. Web.

OByrne, W., & Smith, S. (2015). Multicultural education and multiliteracies: exploration and exposure of literacy practices with preservice teachers. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 31(2), 168-184. Web.

Renée, G. (2016). Educating linguistically diverse students: a mixed methods study of elementary teachers coursework, attitudes, and practice. Current Issues in Education, 19(1), 1-27. Web.

Ridley, D. (2012). The literature review: a step-by-step guide for students. London, UK: Sage Publications. Web.

The work of teachers is an important task, especially when it comes to working with exceptional children. This video describes one day of a teacher who works with special children and madly loves what she does. Her work is difficult, as each child needs their own approach. Thanks to her positive attitude, and the desire to give her students knowledge, to develop their skills, Kelly Denny is a successful and beloved teacher of children. It makes children with disabilities feel normal, which has a significant positive effect on their development and well-being. The peculiarity of her work is that she challenges them in a form that is comfortable for each student, cooperates with them as equals, encourages them, and actively works with parents. Besides the fact that Kelly knows how to work with children with disabilities, she also loves her job and feels happy helping children develop.

Her approach can be used to teach elementary school children. For example, it is essential to find an approach for each child, as this will help instil in them a desire to learn something new and exciting. In addition, it is necessary for children to become a person they can trust and with whom they will cooperate. This is of great importance because children often do not feel their ally in teachers, which may cause learning difficulties. Also, this aspect is essential for the psychological development of children since by being open with teachers, and they will be able to share their fears and experiences, which in the future will help prevent severe psychological disorders in children. Another approach that Kelly actively practices and is essential for elementary school students is working and collaborating with parents. The teacher tells parents how to guide their children at home correctly and how to work with them outside of school. In general, teachers should love their work and strive to give children knowledge and help them in the initial stages of their development.