Technological and social changes taking place across diverse aspects of the society require news ways to access, disseminate and improve the quality of knowledge passed delivered to learners. The desire to improve the levels of students performances has led to a dramatic attention towards the development of effective assessment methods. This is more so when examined from the drastic changes in learning environments, which have called for the need to examine the effectiveness of national and regional performance-based assessments. These developments in education have generated interests among stakeholders in the education sector.
A significant number of researchers as well as reviewers in educational support the fact that the development of an effective assessment method is an indicator of a continuous evolution in the process of learning, which will continue to mutate.
Whereas there is lack of consensus on preference for a particular method of assessment, a significant number of researchers reveal that teacher-based is an effective method of certifying the performance and achievements of students at the end of their studies. According to Newton (2005, p. 1957), in many other countries, whether the assessment system consists entirely of schoolbased assessment components, externally marked assessment components, or a combination of schoolbased and externally marked assessment components, the judgments about students achievements are typically made by teachers. Mercurio (2003) supports the assertion in stating that teachers play the critical role in certifying the performance and achievement of students.
In addition, through education, an individual acquires the requisite knowledge that shapes personal views and thinking and prepares one for the challenges in future. The well-meaning educators search for ways to serve all students with a prescribed body of norms, skills and values that are essential to society (Macklaren, 1988). It is on this basis that considerable research has been directed towards the analysis of the effectiveness of teacher-based assessment.
Giving teachers the opportunities to make judgements on the achievements of their own students in seen as a viable path towards realizing accurate summative assessments of students performances. The role and position of the teacher in training and development of a student enables him to draw on a wide range of evidence from numerous events that encompass the learning process of student. In principle, this enables teachers to make judgments backed by evidence and present assessment reports that accurately reflect the overall performance of a student.
Mansell and James (2009) have supported this assertion in stating that:
Teachers can sample the range of a pupils work more fully than can any assessment instruments by an agency external to the school. This enhances both reliability (because it provides more evidence than is available through externally devised assessment instruments) and validity (it provides a wider range of evidence (p. 14).
On the other hand, many schools observe the challenge of ensuring that all students attain skills, knowledge, as well as the disposition they require to succeed. The current economy demands that students be prepared to work and attain high standards of achievement. This has been the main reason behind the push for the development of autonomous learning contexts, which refers to the environments in which learners have the ability of learners to take charge of their learning.
This generation of students need to graduate with the ability to think critically and compete in a globally competitive society. Carrying out an assessment on the capacity of the students to compete in a globally competitive environment and handle challenges in the future has been a daunting task for most governments and stakeholders in education. It is on this basis that a growing number of stakeholders want teachers to take a central role in the assessment of students. Teacher based-assessment can therefore form a solid basis for achieving broad educational goals. It serves the purpose of being fairer to students and enhances the confidence of the public in educational policies and assessment systems.
In addition to the above, the purpose of education is to reinforce important skills in learning such as critical thinking and problem solving. Teachers play the most significant roles in enhancing these skills on their students. Teachers develop activities that stimulate students growth through engagement. The understanding that teacher-based assessment is teacher based should be valued and acknowledged as the most effective path in capturing a holistic perspective of a students performance.
On the other, building the capacities of the teacher to improve learning and develop effective methods of instructions and assessment forms one underlying path of achieving the broad goals of teaching and learning. This is because teachers are key stakeholders in education sector who play a critical role in the development and implementation of educational policies. It is against this background that their skills and knowledge should be enhanced to enable them deliver in the goals. According to Newton (2005), one viable path of building the capacities of teachers to understand assessment processes and thereby improve learning is to let them take a central role in assessments.
In the analysis of the validity and reliability of the external assessment methods, it is discerned that teacher-based assessment is preferred over other assessment methods. The fact that teacher-based assessment enhances the validity of students assessment reports has been widely captured in literature. According to Wilmut (2004), teacher-based assessment provides a wide range of evidences in the assessment of a students learning programmes. Reliability and validity of a framework in methodological process undertaken during an activity depends on the amount and accuracy of evidence presented. Teacher-based assessment relies on consistent evidence collected throughout a learners training and development period.
Examined from psychological and social contexts, learning is seen as a form of social interaction and influence in decision-making that involves the teacher as the role model and source of knowledge (Frank, Michel & Ben, 2012). This is because of knowledge on the effects of social influence, interpersonal relationships, group behaviour and self and social identity. Active social interactions have been demonstrated to involve feedback loops that create interdependencies between the choices individuals make (Frank, Michel & Ben, 2012, p. 181).
In classroom or autonomous learning contexts, this affects the way in which decision making process takes place because both passive and active interactions have significant influence on aspects of content the learner considers interesting and appropriate.
This implies that teachers have immense influence on their students. Students are more likely to perceive teachers perspectives on an idea as the universal truth. Teachers on the other hand stand at a very vantage position in gaining insights into these developments and changes taking place on the students during these interactions. The application of this knowledge and evidence forms the backbone of the development of accurate assessment.
From the analysis of educational instructional methods that have shifted from the traditional approaches in order to adopt inclusive education leadership that focused on power, authority and coercive influence to more inclusive and motivational approaches, it is observed that teacher-based assessment is leadership driven. The above description of emerging paradigms in leadership within instructional designs illustrates that effective leadership is different from coercive actions and adopts a lesser degree of authority and influence and forms the underlying framework upon which inclusive principles and practices, which takes cognizance of the learner may be anchored.
Teacher-based assessment is an inclusive education strategy because it seeks to understand, improve and apply methods focused on the production of desired changes in skills as well as knowledge of the learner, delineating key aspects holistic leaning upon which accurate assessment of student performance may be anchored upon.
In summary, it is seen that teacher-based assessment is the most effective method of measuring gains in all learning contexts. An examination of the relevance and effectiveness of the method in measuring gains made in autonomous learning contexts has revealed similar results. There is consensus that teacher-based assessment offers a more holistic and comprehensive analysis and presentation of all aspects of a students learning programmes, which are key determinants of accurate measurement of a students performance and achievement.
In addition, it relies on a wide range of evidence retrieved from a students interactions and association with the teacher, which enhances the validity and reliability of the assessment reports. The above reasons form the underlying reasons for the push towards the adoption of teacher-based assessment in a number of learning contexts and countries.
References
Frank C. B., Michel, A. and Ben, M. (2012). Action-centered team leadership influences more than performance. Team Performance Management, 18 (3): 176 195.
Macklaren, P. (1988). On ideology and education: Critical pedagogy and the politics of education. Social Text, 19(20): 153-185.
Mansell, W and James, M. (2009). Assessment in Schools. Fit for purpose? A Commentary by the Teaching and Learning Research Programme. London: Economic and Social Research Council, Teaching and Learning Research Programme.
Mercurio, A. (2003). Questions as Answers: Understanding Upper Secondary Selection and Certification Practices in South Australia, Adelaide: SSABSA.
Newton, P. E. (2005). Examination standards and the limits of linking, Assessment in Education, 12(2): 105123.
Wilmut, J. (2004). Experience of Summative Teacher Assessment in the UK: A Review. London: Qualifications and Curriculum Authority.
Education is a complex system of teacher-student interaction. The effective work of this system is presupposed by the teachers willingness and abilities to foster in a student the burning desire to know and the students readiness to collaborate with the teacher to become proficient in this or that sphere. Though curriculum, facilities and resources play a significant role in the process of education, to the greatest extent the letter is dependent on the professionalism of the teacher.
No one would deny the fact that teaching is a challenging profession. During ones teaching experience one encounters a lot of difficulties related both to his or her personal and professional development. It is especially true when it comes to young teachers who just start their teaching careers and face a lot of challenges during their transition from being students of teaching to teachers of students. It is very important that at this stage the beginners receive an adequate support not to lose their spirits and abilities to inspire others for learning.
The current paper is concerned with the problem of induction support for beginning teachers. We seek to investigate the induction program through analyzing the findings of the three articles focusing on the problem under consideration. Namely, the articles are: Do Teacher Induction and Mentoring Matter? (2004) by Richard M. Ingersoll and Thomas M. Smith from the University of Pennsylvania and Vanderbilt University, correspondingly, First-Year Teachers and Induction Support: Ups, Downs, and In-Betweens (2007) by Sara Winstead Fry from Bucknell University, Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, and Examining the Consequences of Inadequate Induction for Beginning Teachers (2008) by Heather Sharp, the University of Southern Queensland.
Do Teacher Induction and Mentoring Matter? (2004)
In teaching the term induction is referred to support, guidance, and orientation programs intended for beginning elementary and secondary teachers during the transition into their first teaching jobs.
In the first article under analysis Ingersoll and Smith focus on the different types and components of induction with the purpose to explore the effects that such supports have on the retention of beginning teachers. The authors research starts from a general overview of the problem of induction. According to Ingersoll and Smith (2004) Historically, the teaching occupation has not had the kind of structured induction and initiation processes common to many white-collar occupations and characteristic of many of the traditional professions. (28) The authors consider the most common kinds of occupational ills that prevent young teachers from succeeding in their careers. This overview is done to encourage the reader to realize the necessity of induction programs implementation. The authors claim that the induction programs are expected to cure the occupational ills and, therefore, implemented in a growing number of states and school districts in recent decades (Ingersoll & Smith 29).
Further, a clarification of the concept of induction program is made: Theoretically, induction programs are not additional training but are designed for those who have already completed basic training , Teacher induction can refer to a variety of different activities such as classes, workshops, orientations, seminars, and especially, mentoring. (Ingersoll & Smith 29) Though the main objective of teacher induction is to provide newcomers with a local guide, the purposes of the programs can differ: some are primarily designed to foster growth on the part of newcomers, others weed out those deemed ill-suited for the job. (Ingersoll & Smith 30) Depending on the objectives, duration and intensity of the programs vary. Also, the programs differ in the numbers of new teachers they serve.
On outlining the basics of the program the authors speak of the existing gap in the research and state the aims of their own one:
to examine how widespread induction programs are across the nation;
whether their prevalence has increased over the past decade;
what kinds of activities, supports, and components the induction experience usually includes;
what are the effects of receiving these different kinds of supports on the likelihood that beginning teachers remain with or depart their jobs (Ingersoll & Smith 31).
The data the research is based on comes from the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS) along with its supplement, the Teacher Followup Survey (TFS). SASS includes separate questionnaires for administrators and for a random sample of teachers in each school, whereas TFS includes all teacher turnover or departures. The two types of the sources are evaluated by the authors with the focus made on beginning teachers. The advantage of the large-scale data source is rooted in its breadth: the survey of this type does not only represent a wide range of teachers and schools across the nation, but allows the analysis to control for a wide range of other factors that might conceivably affect beginning teacher retention. (Ingersoll & Smith 38)
The data reveal that the beginning teachers provided with multiple supports were less likely to change their working places and less likely to leave the teaching occupation altogether after the first year of their work. Some forms of assistance and support, however, did not appear to increase beginners retention (Ingersoll & Smith 38). The authors found out that the proportion of beginning teachers involved in induction programs has increased significantly over the past decade. The kinds and number of supports provided by schools to beginners in terms of the induction programs vary and it influences differently the retention of the recipients.
All findings of the paper considered, one should take into account the limitations of the study, that is, its lack of depth and specialty. The authors only state that some programs are effective, some are less effective and others are not effective at all without telling exactly which are which. What is also important is that the study does not address how the effectiveness of induction and mentorship programs interacts with other characteristics of effective schools, such as principal leadership, academic orientation of the curriculum and an organizational climate conducive to instruction (Ingersoll& Smith 39).
Further research
Another article under consideration is S. W. Frys First-Year Teachers and Induction Support: Ups, Downs, and In-Betweens. The author investigated how the first-year teachers were supported during induction and how they responded to this support. As well as in the previous work the research starts from introduction to the problem. The author suggests the basics of the induction: it is a period of difficult adjustment that lasts for the first three years of teaching and influences the whole teaching career. Four first year teachers experiences are given the authors close examination with the purpose to analyze the challenges and successes they faced during their transformation from being students of teaching to teachers of students.
The Literature Review section that follows is important for the readers understanding of how deeply the problem is investigated. Here we find the reference to the paper discussed above. Fry speaks of the benefits and limitations of the research and concludes that her own investigation is expected to contribute to the induction literature by using qualitative research methods to determine how four 1st-year teachers were supported during induction and how they responded to this support. (Fry 218)
Further, the author speaks of the participants of the study. The four teachers with elementary education degrees took part in the experiment on a voluntary basis. Involvement of these very women into the study was determined by appropriateness of the skills they possess for the current research. Earlier the teachers participated in the original study where they demonstrated their writing and speaking strengths and strong reflective abilities that are of much importance in teaching career. Moreover, the author of the study developed personal relationships with the young teachers, as she was their professor and supervisor.
The authors interest in the research is also determined by her own teaching experience. During Frys first year of teaching she was provided no induction, whereas while being the second and the third year teacher she participated in the induction program and was far more successful in her teaching.
As far as the research framework is concerned the author resorted to a case study research design, as it provided insight into beginning teachers responses to their induction support. (Fry 219)
The authors initial objective was to explore beginning teachers induction experiences and their retrospective evaluation, in the course of research the focus was changed with respect to the themes that emerged in the data. The latter was primarily received from monthly semi-structured phone interviews. The data collection went along with data analysis. The researcher decided to do this simultaneously for two reasons: it allowed her to structure subsequent data collection efforts based on emerging themes and hunches, while avoiding collecting unfocused, repetitious, and voluminous data and to use the participants first-hand knowledge of the phenomenon under investigation to create a two-way dialogue about the meaning of the emerging data. (Fry 221) To identify categories of data and major themes Fry used open coding technique, the data was coded within descriptive and interpretative techniques. QSR NUD*IST NVIVO qualitative research software program was used to facilitate data analysis. A multi-step process based on Miles and Hubermans work appeared to be a useful tool in analyzing the data. Objectivity, accuracy and validity of the results achieved were sustained by the use of member checking technique.
The authors findings demonstrated that the participants had different support needs and received variable forms of it. The one common experience that the researcher observed was the inadequate nature of induction support that each teacher was provided with. In the discussion section the author offers a list of suggestions for how the participants induction experiences could have been strengthened: Fry considers mentoring, practical support and administrative and mentoring evaluations issues. Researcher reflections that come afterwards may be considered as example of how reflection is used to analyze ones own achievements. What is more, reflective abilities always contribute to the teachers success, not to the researchers only.
The limitations of the study are also outlined by the author. They are determined by the small, heterogeneous sample and therefore cannot be generalized to the larger population of beginning teachers. Still the research has significant implications for beginning teachers and suggests wide opportunities for further quantitative investigations with larger samples.
Sharps Examining the Consequences of Inadequate Induction for Beginning Teachers
One more article focusing on the problem of induction is H. Sharps Examining the Consequences of Inadequate Induction for Beginning Teachers. The title of the study speaks for itself: the author investigates the consequences of inadequate inductions and provides recommendations for effective professional support to young teachers. Admitting the abundance of the factual information on the problem the researcher uses the documentation on Queensland schools as a springboard for her investigation. The Teachers Board of Registrations survey states that there exist significant negative issues associated with inductions and in retaining beginning teachers in the profession. (Sharp 3)
The problem of induction was treated in three ways by the author:
by analyzing the current policy document set out on employee induction;
offering a literature review on current research and reports on the topic of support through induction the beginning teachers were provided;
conducting of anonymous online survey where beginning teachers in Queensland were invited to participate (Sharp 4).
The author used a qualitative approach for the data collection. It was completed through online surveys which were formed into individual case studies that are widely used in educational research.
The participants of the research (24 persons) were teachers who had entered the teaching profession in the Queensland government school system within the past five years. As the data was collected through an online survey their anonymity was guaranteed. The research lasted for four weeks; this period was considered adequate as it gave beginning teachers a defined period to respond within.
To report the results achieved the author singles out consequences of no induction, consequences of inadequate induction, geographically isolated teacher issues, behaviour management and student effects and consequences of ineffective inductions. The researcher concludes:
when beginning teachers are inducted properly the flow-on student effects are positive, as teachers feel confident about their teaching, and they are more likely to have an accurate view of the expectations placed on them. The participating beginning teachers who responded that they did receive an adequate induction are far more likely to have feelings of high satisfaction in their position [&] A comprehensive and adequate induction needs to be provided to all beginning teachers, regardless of locality, teaching role and teaching statuscontract or permanent (Sharp 21).
Conclusion
Thus, the three articles discussed though differ in the aspects analyzed do not differ in the main claim that the authors make. All of them speak of the necessity of the induction program implementation into teaching experience as it will not simply arouse temporal satisfaction of the beginning teachers from their position, but will ensure their personal and professional growth during their overall teaching career.
Works Cited
Fry, Sara Winstead. First-Year Teachers and Induction Support: Ups, Downs, and In-Betweens. The Qualitative Report. 12.2 (2007): 216-237. Web.
Ingersoll, Richard M. & Smith, Thomas M. Do Teacher Induction and Monitoring Matter? NASSP Bulletin. 88.638 (2004): 28-40.
Sharp, Heather. Examining the Consequences of Inadequate Induction for Beginning Teachers. Web.
Merit pay, as many would call it, is a practice in which the salary of the worker is determined based on the basis of how well individual worker is successful in his/her work. This method of compensating employees may seem attractive as it makes sense to reward those employees who demonstrate high productivity and subsequently high contribution to the sector or the organization in question. This method may also look interesting as it show fairness and retains employees in the company.
Forms of merit pay
Annual salary increment
Forms of merit pay include instances where a workers annual salary is increased on the basis of the productivity. Anyone whose work is assessed and found to be good re receives an increment in his/her salary.
The bonus system
In the bonus system of performance appraisals, hardworking and productive workers are rewarded with a bonus payment for only that period of time.
Direct compensation
This approach takes a direct recompense for quantified method of production. This is highly practiced in factory set ups and is not applicable in the merit payment for teachers (Bacal 3).
The Disadvantages of Performance Based Compensation
It is argued that this mode of compensation will be anomalous to the character of effective schooling. It is feared that this method of payment will suppress reforms in the education sector mainly by causing enmity between teachers as they endeavor to earn more pay.
Conflicts may arise in schools between teachers who are not compensated against those get high paychecks. Jealousy may arise from the administrators (who could be fellow teachers) against the teaching staff if they earn more. This is expected to give rise to competition and weak teachers may feel endangered.
This conflict between the two parties becomes unfortunate if it differently influences student learning. Concern also arises due to the financial attachment of the evaluation as some of those who do not qualify for the award fear that the judgment was not really equitable. It can be seen that the spirit of competition instilled into the teachers by this program becomes unhealthy and ideas are no longer shared.
Learning climate in the school change and teachers no longer share the hard work fearing that the credit may be beneficial to only one of them. In general, competition rather than cooperation arises. A common misunderstanding that arises is the comparison with commission stores that base their compensation on this mode and attain high productivity in sales. A clear observation reveals constant rivalry and lack of cooperation. The effect would cause our education system to crumble.
Merit payment is inequitable; it could lead to the rise of free riders who lie low and only come out during the sharing of the kill. This is especially so if merit payment is done as per department. This will deter collaboration because hard workers will become demoralized when they observe others slaking off. It is common knowledge that for any education system to prosper, teaching should be done in teamwork and collaboration (Solmon and Podgursky 8).
Performance-based payment tend to oppose the above notion by creating division, in fact, it is inappropriate and counterproductive. Supporters of the performance based payment argue that effort is not always collaborative to be productive. However, teaching is not like athletics, in athletics, individual effort matter most and the runners are paid based on their performance in the field, there can be no otherwise.
It is not clear on what basis anyone is dubbed a good teacher. There lacks proper parameters in measuring the goodness of a teacher in the educational process. Standardized tests cannot be relied on in the evaluation of teachers as they are sometimes very difficult to use in gauging the relevance of a teacher to the students using their achievement (Abma 6). The two famous measures that proponents suggest for evaluation of teachers are inconclusive. No teacher can decide on what a given student get in an exam.
The test scores are also very ineffective in some spheres of the curriculum, for example, these tests do not measure well performances in arts or in contests (Solmon and Podgursky 8). How do you evaluate an artistic teacher? A teacher who is able to deal with imperfect situations? This teacher deals with various parties ranging from disturbed students, administrators, union employees. All teachers are therefore important in their own ways. It is difficult to also evaluate how a teacher make a class feel.
Conclusion
It is evident from all over the world that merit based compensation poses serious problems especially in public schools. It is my view that this system should be left to operate in the private schools and in other industries. There are very few instances where this system has worked properly more so in the public school. Merit-based system has been experimented and has so far no fruits have been bored. I propose for a complete neglect of this system.
Works Cited
Abma, Derek. Merit-Based Pay For Teachers Ineffective, Educators Say. National Post Inc. 2011. Web.
Bacal, Richard. Performance Management and Appraisal Help Centre. Bacal & Associates, 2010. Web.
Solmon, Lewis., & Podgursky, Michael. The Pros and Cons of Performance-Based Compensation. Milken Family Foundation. 2011. Web.
My teaching philosophy lies in enhancing the development of critical thinking in students. I believe that the learning influence originates from the urge to find information about different life concepts. Since humans are naturally curious, it is relatively easy to support learning by guiding them to get answers to their questions. My teaching philosophy lies in the values of rational thinking. I believe in delivering legit information to students and reaching beyond their immediate questions in different subjects. I strive to teach through example and influence students to hunger for information beyond the classroom. Teachers require the development of curiosity to learn from their adult students to control effective learning.
Teaching philosophy
My teaching philosophy banks on some core values, including effective communication, teaching through words and actions, and ultimate honesty. My aim in teaching is developing the urge for students to look for answers by asking questions. I strive to trigger problems to create an environment where students keep searching for solutions for the unknown. It does not matter whether I am in a classroom or outdoor setting; I always avail time for people to ask questions. This way, curiosity guide the learning process in students, and it focuses on the objectives of the curriculum in use (Pratt 16).
Beliefs about adults as learners
I believe that human beings create challenging situations in their daily lives, problems that need the employment of rational thinking to find viable solutions to counter the challenges (Rogers and Horrocks 5). I also believe that learning is a continuous process that is guided by environmental factors. For instance, companies employ learned people, but in their respective careers, they have to keep learning new ways to go around challenges in their work. Natural learning is also a constant system in active minds, and it goes on from childhood through to adulthood. I believe education should be an integral part of society. This form of learning should focus on developing unique relationships between the teacher and students because, unlike teaching children, adults have the knowledge of their specific learning objectives ( What is adult education? par. 3). My teaching policy on children incorporates giving students detailed dreams about what they should look forward to learning. Using an adult-learning-perspective in teaching enables a teacher to focus on preparing students for life. I believe that adult learners should be preparing for energy rather than looking for knowledge to guide them to success. Adult learning should focus on instilling knowledge and skills that the learners can use to become innovative in developing solutions to lifes challenges (Mezirow 8).
Beliefs about aims
The main aim of my teaching philosophy is to influence students to keep seeking answers. I believe in using an individual-based teaching approach; hence, allowing students to pose questions is the most feasible method of identifying their personal needs in learning. My goals in teaching include delivering quality information to clarify the principles that answer their questions. My practical approach to education is instrumental in providing theoretical knowledge in a useful way to influence faster learning. Most teachers identify their students needs by reviewing their performances in different subjects, but I aim at identifying learning needs by encouraging students to communicate directly about their weaknesses (Barker and Annerstedt 6).
My personal objectives in teaching include captivating students with interesting teaching approaches, clarifying difficult concepts, and developing practical strategies that make the knowledge delivered relevant to the students. I also aim at learning in the process of teaching. I view myself as a teacher with essential experience, and I need to maintain continuity in understanding details about various concepts. I strive to facilitate learning in students while learning from them at the same time. I aim at developing interpersonal relationships with students to create a free environment where they can ask questions and brainstorm for answers in an open social environment.
Beliefs about the subject matter
Delivering the subject matter in the curriculum is the most important thing for a teacher looking to help his or her students to acquire knowledge and skills. While I believe in influencing curiosity to learn in students, I strongly believe in teaching them everything they need to know about different topics, but I strictly use the subject matter as the backbone of the lessons offered. I think in acquainting students with some general knowledge encompassing the subject matter in their curriculum; hence, I am open to answering any questions by students as long as I can tie them up to the subject matter in class. Perhaps, this is one of the most vital points of my teaching philosophy because, unlike most teachers, I am flexible and willing to give students a chance to decide where to start with the delivery of the subject matter (Van Driel and Berry 27). I believe that it does not matter the approach used to deliver content to students as long as I cover the subject matter comprehensively and objectively. My philosophy in content delivery is influencing students to keep questioning themselves and helping them to develop an understanding of the subject matter.
Beliefs about teaching and learning
As highlighted in Piagets theory, learning is a gradual process that takes place mainly through the delivery of instructions from teachers and the execution of instructions by the learners. Following this definition of education, I believe that teaching should be focused on instilling essential concepts in the minds of learners. I think that teaching should always happen in an objective way. The subject matter should form the basis of the entire process, but this should not be the only content delivered to students. I believe in equipping students with a general knowledge surrounding the subjects in their curriculum. This approach in teaching commonly applies to adult learning, and it is quite useful in preparing adults for life.
In the same context, I believe in preparing students for more complex topics in the future by highlighting some of the details they should expect to learn later in their respective curriculums. This approach also raises the curiosity of students, and they keep asking questions that guide teaching. Learning, on the other hand, is a process of conceptualizing information. I believe that learning only occurs when students grasp the ideas presented by their teachers, as well as the knowledge they acquire while reading alone. Following this sentiment, I always clarify concepts to influence faster learning for students. I experienced teaching through offering assistance to fellow students in school, and just like Vygotskys theory indicates, a teacher influenced the potential of learning in his or her students. This theory is not only applicable to teaching children but also in teaching adults (Alfieri et al. 1). In conclusion, I believe that practical teaching skills and students curiosity to learn should be the integral factors influencing learning for adults.
Works Cited
Alfieri, Louis, Patricia Brooks, Naomi Aldrich, and Harriet Tenenbaum. Does discovery-based instruction enhance learning? Journal of Educational Psychology 103.1 (2011): 1. Print.
Barker, Dean, Mikael Quennerstedt, and Claes Annerstedt. Inter-student interactions and student learning in health and physical education: a post-Vygotskian analysis. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy (2013): 1-18. Print.
Mezirow, Jack. Transformative learning: Theory to practice. New directions for adult and continuing education 1997.74 (1997): 5-12. Print.
Pratt, Daniel, D. Five Perspectives on Teaching in Adult and Higher Education, Malabar, Florida: Krieger Publishing, 2008. Print.
Rogers, Alan, and Naomi Horrocks, N. Teaching adults. 4th ed. 2010. London: Open University Press. Print.
Van Driel, Jan, H, and Amanda Berry. Teacher professional development focusing on pedagogical content knowledge. Educational Researcher 41.1 (2012): 26-28. Print.
The basic elements of the effective presentation include:
powerful message,
appropriate and limited content,
efficient design.
The power of visual aids is based upon the fact that individuals:
think visually,
remember visually,
engage visually way more often that they do with their senses.
Making a good impression within the working team is of the utmost importance in modern society. PowerPoint presentations were primarily designed to assist in business meetings (Fig. 1) while introducing the necessary information to draw attention of the audience. The following analysis includes various strategies that lead to the effective presentation and is based upon the studies of Jeavons, Morton, and Kawasaki. Presentations are worth rethinking as they must be created with care and consideration. With that said, visual aids are the powerful element of the presentation formula since individuals think, remember, and perceive information visually.
Business Meetings
Three steps that can be stated in 90-seconds or less in order to save time and avoid stress include:
Goal of the meeting,
Current situation,
Agenda statement.
Figure 1. The use of presentation for the business meeting. Reprinted from Introhive, by Adam Draper, 2019
Within the context of a business world, the effective presentation skills might be helpful during the business meetings, whether it implies the project updates or decision-making. It is generally accepted that business meetings need a clear agenda. First, the communicator has to state the goal of the meeting; however, not his goal but the goal of everyone else in the room. The information presented has to promote achieving or accomplishing the particular goals and the main task is to define these goals.
If the person conducts a budget meeting, the ultimate goal might be to save money. In case of a project update meeting, the goal is simply to move on to the next stage of the project. The alternative goal might be to brainstorm ideas.
The second step after stating your goal is to state the current situation. This step aims at getting support from other meeting attendees. This might include current problems, challenges or obstacles the listeners face as it refers to meeting the goal. The third step requires stating the agenda excluding any detailed information on any topic. The third step is focused on stating the topic that will be covered in the presentation and might be helpful throughout the meeting as a reference point to keep the conversations on track.
Three Techniques for Business Meetings
While taking a role of the communicator, it is essential to implement the following three techniques provided by Jeavons (2019):
90-Second Wow the Crowd Meeting Kickoff: goal current situation agenda.
Command the Room: refer to your agenda do not maintain eye contact.
Whats Next?
The second technique pursues the control maintenance by keeping the meeting on track and successfully side stepping those who intend to derail the speaker. The first step implies referring back to the agenda in case when someone dominates the conversation. One might reference the amount of time remaining and request that the conversation be managed at another time. Jeavons (2019) suggests to avoid the eye contact with the audience, when someone is taking over the conversation to refrain the negative energy. Ultimately, the presentation time should not take the overall time of the meeting since it is important to negotiate the critical questions and next strategic steps of the company at the end of the session.
How to Start a Presentation
A powerful start is a key to the effective presentation that will draw attention of the audience. The essential starting points include:
Focus on the message, not the delivery.
Focused messages take time.
Structuring the message with the Storyflow.
Creation of the compelling content.
It is important to note that a successful presentation is not about the design of the slides, but about the impact one can make on the target audience. First, a speaker must be focused on developing, clarifying, and testing key messages, which is a time-consuming process. Therefore, the main goal is to make an impact on the audience that will continue after the presentation is completed and the speech is delivered with a powerful message. Furthermore, the Storyflow process is designed for a carefully constructed and considered message (Morton, 2014, p. 76). Altogether, these steps lead to creating a compelling content, which is a well-thought and structured mix of design, content, and message. With the aid of a proper content, the audience will be informed before the message drives forward.
Storyflow Document Structure for a Powerful Message
powerful message is the starting point of the more involved process (Fig. 2).
focus on the message not the delivery.
adhere to the storyflow strategy designed by Morton (2014, Fig. 3).
Figure 3. The framework of the Storyflow Document. Reprinted from The presentation lab : Learn the formula behind powerful presentations (p. 93), by S. Morton, 2014, Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
A well-constructed message must evolve into the core of a story. Hence, the storyflow development is a process developed to achieve this goal and is perceived as the chapter headings of the presentation story. It highlights the structural elements, the high-level messages and the storys logical flow (Morton, 2014, p. 92). Furthermore, the storyflow structure aims at emphasizing the points one uses to move on to more detailed sections and provides rudimentary pointers within the script.
Business Audience Classification
The information in the presentation must be classified in accordance with the target audience and personality types.
Business groups can be categorized as:
factual,
visionary,
emotional.
Figure 2. Recommendations for an optimized PowerPoint presentation. Reprinted from The presentation lab : Learn the formula behind powerful presentations (p. 33), by S. Morton, 2014, Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
As for the factual group, data is of the utmost importance in the presentation; the factual audience makes decision that are based upon cold facts. The participants of the emotional group are driven by their heart and, therefore, pursue to feel good about the message or approach the speaker conveys. Morton states that such an audience implies a sense of volatility , which means they are quick to form opinions (p. 62). Hence, it is essential to establish the emotional bond with this kind of group. Ultimately, the visionary group appreciates the visual aids and perceives information accordingly. These are the people who ponder, consider a broad range of factors, and apply them widely (Morton, 2014, p. 62). Altogether, it is crucial to consider that most individuals tend to be the mix of all three aspects, however, in different quantities.
The Basics of the 102030 Rule
10 slides per 1 presentation.
20 minutes as a time limit due to the technical malfunction.
30 points is the smallest font size as the way to force you to add less text and actually know your presentation and just put the core of the text on the slide. The bigger font is the key to the effective presentation.
Black background.
Guy Kawasaki is an American marketing specialist and a Silicon Valley venture capitalist who developed his 10-20-30 rule of the PowerPoint presentation and presented it in The Art of the Start technology conference in 2006. Kawasaki (2006) compared the mistakes the entrepreneurs make in their presentations with a three symptoms disease that generally deny the principles of the unique proven team the speaker stands for. The basics of the 10-20-30 rule imply the following:
10 slides per 1 presentation is what a mind can handle ;
20 minutes as a time limit, taking into account the technical malfunction with projector and a laptop;
30 points as the smallest font, which is the way to force a speaker to add less text and actually know the presentation. Such an approach aims at putting only the core of the information on the slide; Steve Jobs, for instance, used 96 point text. According to Kawasaki (2006), the bigger font is the key to more effective presentation.
The 102030 rule by Guy Kawasaki
The ten topics that a venture capitalist cares about:
Problem.
Your solution.
Business model.
Underlying magic/technology.
Marketing and sales.
Competition.
Team.
Projections and milestones.
Status and timeline.
Summary and call to action.
Figure 4. The 10-20-30 rule by Guy Kawasaki. Reprinted from Slide Team, by Gunjan Gupta, 2019.
With that said, a small font reflects the speakers limited knowledge about presentation. Kawasaki (2006) also suggests the following algorithm: find the oldest person in the audience and divide his or her age by two this is the optimal font size . In addition, a marketing specialist talked about the final yet essential feature of the successful presentation, which is the black background. He emphasized that a white text says seriousness, gravitas, caring, and quality, which is a common principle for the movie titles. However, it is a more complicated task to place the white text on the black ground than vice versa but it creates a much more attractive presentation. Furthermore, Kawasaki (2006) highlighted ten major topics a venture capitalist should include within 10 slides of the PowerPoint presentation.
Conclusion
Presentation throughout a meeting might be a key to success of the entrepreneur.
Creating effective presentations is an important skill to obtain.
The analyzed strategies by Jeavons and Morton, as well as the alternative approach developed by Kawasaki, prove that it is vital to present information in a combined visual and oral format.
Figure 5. The percentage of visual and oral information perception. Reprinted from The presentation lab : Learn the formula behind powerful presentations (p. 126), by S. Morton, 2014, Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
The analyzed steps and strategies are required for building a presentation story that is not only important for a speaker himself, but also delivers what the audience truly needs. The audience is the determining factor in the presentation process and, therefore, all the mentioned methods should be developed within its context and categories. Wharton School of Business concluded that 67% of audiences considered the presenters who combined both visual and verbal elements as more persuasive, music to the ears of any sales presenter with a target to reach (Morton, 2014, p. 126, Fig. 5). With that said, by studying the power of visual aids one might develop effective presentation skills that will contribute to the successful business career.
References
Jeavons, S. (2019). Effective presentation skills for business meetings. HMC Sales, Marketing And Alliances Excellence Essentials, 1-3.
The use of technology in education is beneficial for both educational establishments and learners since it provides many opportunities. First of all, online education enables more people to obtain the necessary education. On the other hand, educators can concentrate on individual teaching and assessment strategies. It is necessary to point out that assessment plays a crucial role especially in online learning which presupposes that learners participate in an asynchronous environment.
Evaluation can be defined as a systematic process of collecting and interpreting information as a basis for decisions about learners (as cited in Duffy, 2005, p. 60). To evaluate the progress of each student it is important to take into account many factors: students academic performance, working experience, and even cultural background.
Main Body
There are many effective assessment strategies that can be used in every particular case. It is possible to distinguish two majors in nursing students assessment: academic progress and their clinical performance (Billings and Halstead, 2009). Thus, the most common assessment strategies include questionnaires and tests. However, recently educators start paying more attention to problem-based learning which presupposes that students should cope with specific clinical situations (Russell, Comello and Wright, 2007). It goes without saying that it is important to choose the right assessment strategy for every student.
For instance, it is essential to take into account students working experience. Thus, in the group in question two students do not have clinical experience: Olga Bartold and Joe Antone do not have any experience working in a health care environment. These students should be assessed using quite a specific strategy. At this point, it is necessary to point out that while assessing Barthold educators should also take into account her level of English proficiency. So, it is necessary not to overload the communication with this student with some difficult language. Nevertheless, there is no need in simplifying communication since the student will face the same situations in her working place.
First of all, Bartold and Antones academic performance will be assessed with the help of questionnaires and tests. It is necessary to use Blooms taxonomy while constructing the questions for these students (Russell, Comello, and Wright, 2007). This strategy presupposes that students will have to answer first easy and then more complex questions. However, it is important to remember that students should be continually challenged, they should not constantly be in their comfort zone, and this will stimulate them to try to learn more and work harder (Paterson & Pratt, 2007).
Thus, the questionnaires designed should also contain challenging questions and tasks. Apart from this, it is helpful to use the strategy of self-assessment (Young and Paterson, 2007). Reportedly, students are more critical of their performance and are encouraged to improve the assessment of their results (Young and Paterson, 2007). Thus, Bartold and Antone will be able to evaluate their own progress and see their strengths and weaknesses. Finally, these two students need to have a lot of practice in solving real-life problems. So, it is essential to focus on providing many problem-based tasks while assessing these students results which will enable them to be ready for new challenges in their working places.
As far as the rest of the group is concerned it is necessary to point out that those students have some experience in the healthcare environment and that is why the assessment strategy will be a bit different. Thus, Maria Sanchez, Dr. Ranzin and Martha Scott having a certain experience can concentrate on some more complex problems and more precise knowledge. Thus, their academic performance assessment strategy will be also based on tests and questionnaires but the questions will require more precision from the students.
It goes without saying that problem-based assessment will be also dominant. Of course, these students will need to solve more complex clinical instances. It can be also beneficial to launch discussions of clinical cases and providing certain solutions (both groups should participate in this kind of assessment). As for self-evaluating, it is also necessary to use it in this group. Thus, students will know what they should focus on and what needs thorough study and consideration.
Conclusion
Basically, the assessment strategies of the two groups of students differ in material complexity. This differentiation will be beneficial for the students since those who have no experience will not have to complete two difficult tasks, and more experienced students will not waste their time repeating what they know well, instead they will face new challenges. Thus, the students will not be discouraged to study new material and will be eager to fulfill the tasks.
Apart from this, the problem-based assessment will help the students to gain the necessary experience which can be used in their working paces. Finally, it is also important to take into account the cultural background of each student and launch a discussion of various clinical cases and healthcare practices which the student experienced in their native countries. This will be additional information that will enrich students knowledge and experience.
Reference List
Billings, D. M., & Halstead, J. A. (2009). Teaching in Nursing: A Guide for Faculty (3rd ed.). Philadelphia: WB Saunders.
Duffy, J.R. (2005). Want to Graduate Nurses Who Care? Assessing Nursing Students Caring Competencies. Annual Review of Nursing Education: Strategies for Teaching, Assessment, and Program Planning, 3, 54-77.
Paterson, B.L. & Pratt, D.D. (2007). Learning Styles: Maps, Myths, or Masks? In Young, L.E. & Paterson, B.L. (Eds.), Teaching Nursing: Developing a Student-Centered Learning Environment (78-97). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Russell, A.T., Comello, R.J. and Wright, D.L. (2007). Teaching Strategies Promoting Active Learning in Healthcare Education. Journal of Education and Human Development, 1(1), 21-30.
The quest for quality teachers is a substantial aspect that drives the urge to invest much in the education career (Brickman, 2010)1. On a local perspective, Cristina (2012)2, the Hon. Minister of Education and Employment at that time, stated that teachers continue to be the most important investment in high-quality education. Subsequently, over the past few years, steps have been taken to ensure this high standard of education.
The teaching qualification for primary education has been extended from a Bachelors degree to a Masters level with exit points at post-graduate certificate, and for the Early Years Cycle, which incorporate Kindergarten and the first two years of the primary education, prospective teachers require a Bachelors degree and a Masters in Teaching and Learning in Early Childhood Education and Care. In addition, two years of teaching experience are a requisite for graduates to qualify as teachers (European Commission, 2019)3 and obtain a warrant. Furthermore, educators undergo significant training from their undergraduate period and are expected to actively participate in management-led community of professional educators (CoPE) sessions throughout their professional career (Doe, 2020)4. They go through transformative stages, which determine their experience, professionalism, and competence in the teaching practice. However, research has clearly shown that parental involvement in childrens learning leads to greater attainment and adaptation (Epstein, 20105; Goodall & Vorhaus, 20116), hence the quality of teaching is also impacted indirectly by the qualities that the parents possess.
Epsteins Theoretical Framework
This research is based on parental perceptions in order to include their voice and uses Epsteins theoretical framework (Epstein, 2010; Epstein & Sheldon, 20197) as the foundation of analysis. Epstein (2010) states that parental participation is a key resource within an educational institution and proposed a parental engagement framework that includes six forms of involvement as shown in figure 1 below (Epstein, 2010, p. 295).
Figure 1 Epsteins Framework of Six Types of Involvement for Comprehensive Programs of Partnership with Sample Practices (Epstein, 2010, p. 295).
Epsteins proposed theoretical framework bears the same aims and responsibilities, that is, the holistic education of the main stakeholders. In type 3, Epstein (2019, 2010) for example suggests, that parents should form an integral part of our schools, whilst in type 5 Epstein (2019, 2010) stresses that parents support and advice needs to be given substantial weight and included into shaping a significant part of the schools development plan, which in our local context does not often occur.
Due to the introduction of the emergent curriculum as well as the project approach pedagogy in the early years, parents in Malta, are now being invited more often into the classrooms for the celebration of the project. These encounters create a bond between the parents and the educators, to the extent that most of the educators get well acquainted with the respective parents in their classroom, and sometimes even in the school which can be linked to Epsteins (2019, 2010) type 1.
Due to the current situation of the pandemic and online teaching platform, a new user-friendly interface (Microsoft Teams) was put into practice. In type 4, Epstein (2019, 2010) emphasizes the relative significance of supplying information and helping students whilst at home. This online link not only offers such an opportunity, but also provides the facility to both the parents and the educators to keep an open communication, which is also suggested by Epstein (2019, 2010) in Type 2.
Parental Involvement to Parental Engagement
Parental involvement needs to be not just a perception, but considered as a horizontal relationship. Goodall and Montgomery (2014)8 present a model of the progression from parental involvement to parental engagement. They emphasize upon the shift from the relationship between parents and schools, where the school is in control of the relationships and the transfer of information, to a focus on the relationship between parents and their childrens learning, where parents are engaged with the learning of their children not due to dictates from the school but because of their own perceptions of their role as parents (Peters et al., 2007, as cited in Goodall & Montgomery, 2014, p. 405).
Parental Engagement involves a greater commitment than involvement. It is more than just being involved in an activity, parental engagement generates a sense of ownership.
Epstein and Sheldon (2019) suggest that these terms should be replaced by school, family and community partnership as this emphasizes the shared responsibility for childrens learning (Epstein & Sheldon, 2019).9 This theory stipulates that when the internal and external models amalgamate and work in collaboration with each other, academic success is accomplished (Griffin & Steen, 2010)10. Hence, the three overlapping spheres of family, school and community (Epstein, 2005)11.
A whole school approach to learning targeting the home environment
Furthermore, research indicates that the most powerful effect on attainment outcomes is parental involvement in learning at home rather than parental engagement in school activities (Harris & Goodall, 2007). In early childhood education, parents involvement extends what the child is doing in class to an actual life situation at home (Zhou et al., 2020). Research has shown that what happens outside the school accounts for eighty per cent of the variance in how well children from various backgrounds perform at school (Rasbash et al, 2010)12. Conversely, Sylva et al (2004)13, state that what parents do is more important than who parents are . The quality of the learning environment provided at home has much greater significance to the childrens intellectual and social development, than the parents level of education, their occupation or their income. Reading with a child or creating play opportunities, for example, leads to a greater level of these developments. Parents with a high-level academic background and also parents who possess a low-level of education, but who are engaged in their childrens learning at home, can both provide their children with a good academic start. When children feel that they are being supported by their parents, positive behaviour develops, and parents are less probable to be faced with special educational needs. Reay (2004)14 however points out that parental involvement within schools and policies, does not always take into consideration all parental backgrounds, particularly those with a difficult socio-economic one, and thus may increase the inequality gap instead of decreasing it. Many parents still lack self-efficacy and support to engage, and are also facing economic challenges unfairly (Lareau et al, 2015)15, hence children also do not benefit equally from the engagement that exists.
Henderson and Mapp (2002) stress the importance of seizing learning opportunities during informal interactions. In order for parents to be inspired to offer their children informal and explicit learning situations at home, this type of knowledge needs to be yet developed. Parents could for example be guided on how involving children in daily routines such as preparing lunch, shopping lists, getting dressed, and enriching these routines with stimulating discussions, could trigger their childrens curiosity and exploration urge. This type of home curriculum could greatly boost childrens language development, cognitive development and academic achievement (Foster et al., 2005; Weigel et al., 2006 as cited in OECD p. 5, 2011).
A number of policies within Maltas educational context, consider the relationship between parents and schools as critical for students education (Ministry for Education, 2020-2030; Ministry for Education, 2014-2024). This importance is also reflected in the National Curriculum Framework for all, where it states that parental involvement in schooling is one of the most important factors for the successful educational development of the students (NCF, 2012). However, some research shows that parental involvement and engagement is still not part of the school culture in the local context (Cutajar, 2016).
Barriers to parental involvement and engagement
The parents perception that the teacher is the best candidate to educate their children (Brock & Edmunds, 2010) is one of the reasons that inhibits the parents from being actively involved in their childrens learning.
Barriers between teachers and parents
Several strategies to encourage sharing of objectives and techniques amongst teachers have always been part of the schools agenda, but these strategies need to be further widespread to the parents on a different level. Some parents for example only gain information through other parents, most of whom are oblivious or misinformed of the teachers intent. Parents are expected to support the teachers pedagogy without being provided the necessary knowledge on how to reinforce the teachers teaching strategies (Epstein, 2010).
Furthermore, if knowledge of what is expected and what is required for the students success is extended to the parents, the parents will have a clear understanding of the goals set by the teacher for the students and the learning outcomes for the students will be exponential.
Types of Parental Involvement in Epsteins Theory
Epstein has analyzed different types of parental involvement that can help improve the performance of students. Students with parents involved in their education have higher chances of earning higher grades since they also attend school regularly and have better social skills (Newman et al., 2019). Additionally, promoting parental involvement is encouraged since students feel valued and motivated in their academic work. Education expert Joyce Epstein divided the types of parental involvement into six categories.
Parenting
Parenting is one of the factors that Epstein has analyzed in her theory. She argues that parents should ensure that they support their childrens education by providing a healthy environment that can guarantee that students can focus on their studies. In most cases, students from families with domestic violence issues experience challenges when trying to concentrate in school since they are mentally disturbed. Moreover, they develop poor social skills, impacting their academic performance. Consequently, parents can focus on the home environment and guarantee that children can acquire the needed support to improve their school performance. Parenting can also involve supporting children using government assistance programs and encouraging students to engage in different academic activities in the community. Parents can ensure that they help their children set their goals and develop strategies to help them reach them. Moreover, many students can express themselves to their parents without any fear. Thus, parents can learn the challenges their children face and develop solutions to these issues to improve their school performance.
Communicating
Communicating with other individuals is one of the ways that can help in building solid relationships. Many people learn about others by interacting with them and gaining information about their life experiences. Thus, Epstein states that keeping parents informed and ensuring that they can express their concerns and ask questions is essential to parental involvement. Communication can be achieved by holding meetings with parents and ensuring that they present their views about student performance. Communicating can also involve sending emails to parents about their childrens progress in school. The information can help parents involve themselves in improving the performance of their children. Sending student work home with complete information and a detailed explanation of their grades can be another important way of communicating with parents. The approach can help parents to be more concerned about the progress of the students. Additionally, it can motivate parents to ensure that they help their children in achieving better grades.
Parents can also be informed about the work students are doing in the classroom and how they can be helpful in these class works. For instance, parents can be encouraged to motivate their children and provide guidelines to them on ways that they can achieve their goals. In most cases, teachers are busy and may not interact with parents. However, teachers must ensure that they make themselves available to take parent calls and be part of parent-teacher meetings. The approach can enable a teacher to create a better relationship with the parents and engage them in school activities to enhance the students performance. Hence, communication is a fundamental approach that Epstein analyzed when focusing on parent involvement.
Volunteering
Volunteering is another aspect that Epstein has analyzed in her theory. Parent involvement can largely be improved by encouraging them to volunteer and participate in various practices that can help grow and develop their children (Epstein, 2018). Additionally, volunteering can involve classroom and schoolwork, which broadly enables students to focus on their academic goals. In this case, teachers can invite parents to help out in the school and confirm that they are aware of the various opportunities. For instance, they can be informed about office work, running concessions at games, and aiding safety patrols. The volunteer programs can also be introduced to ensure that parents are involved in decision-making processes in school.
Parental involvement does not necessarily entail encouraging parents to help their children achieve better grades but also being part of the school programs. Epstein reveals that parents should be encouraged to be part of the different activities in a school to help them learn more about projects that can help improve school performance. The volunteer programs are also important as they encourage parents to support teachers in school practices that involve the growth and development of the students. For instance, games in the school curriculum have been of great significance since they allow students to interact and develop their social skills. Therefore, Epstein has used volunteering as an essential type of parental involvement.
Decision-Making
The decision-making process in learning institutions can influence the performance of the students and the school. Many schools perform poorly due to poor decisions. Therefore, Epstein states that decision-making is a type of parental involvement that can help acquire different ideas that can develop a school (Ihmeideh et al., 2020). Moreover, schools that run as a partnership between parents and educators have high chances of developing since solutions to challenges experiences can be acquired easily. In this case, teachers can encourage parents to attend meetings and present their opinions regarding various issues. Additionally, they can be motivated to join Parents Teachers Association (PTA) and be part of the team that makes decisions.
Schools have different positions that require teachers and parents to vote. Thus, parents should be informed about these elections and be encouraged to take part in voting. Also, parents can be encouraged to vie for the various positions that can be used to develop the school and improve the students performance. Epsteins theory reveals that making sure that parents are aware of the local school board elections is vital since more parents can vote and vie for the positions, leading to the acquisition of the most suited candidates. The process can lead to better solutions and ideas being acquired during the decision-making process and improve the schools performance. The decision-making process can also involve other issues, such as focusing on the proper use and maintenance of school resources. Therefore, decision-making is another essential type of parent involvement that Epstein has analyzed as it can help improve student performance and the development of the school.
Learning at Home
Learning at home has been encouraged by many educational professionals since it helps students improve their academic performance. Modern technology has led to changes in the education sector, whereby students can participate in online discussions. Parents and other family members have been encouraged to help students with their studies as they can be great educational resources for the students (Hamlin & Flessa, 2018). Parents should be educated on the best ways to provide at-home learning by keeping them informed about the assignments and projects and their requirements. The approach can also allow parents to become more concerned with the progress of their childrens learning. Additionally, providing parents with the resources designed to enable them to understand the subject being taught is vital. In this case, teachers can ensure that parents better understand what the students should do to acquire good grades.
Ensuring that parents can have ways to help the children learn at home is another essential aspect that has been encouraged in Epsteins theory. For instance, teachers can send home lists of voluntary reading and other practices to guarantee that their children study at home. Another aspect involves supporting children to practice home learning by providing the required resources. For instance, teachers can encourage parents to ensure that the students have gadgets that can help them interact with other learners online. Moreover, parents can guarantee that there is a conducive home learning environment. Therefore, learning at home is another type of parental involvement that has been encouraged by Epstein.
Collaborating with the Community
Parents should ensure that they are involved in different community projects. Typically, parents who take part in the development of society are likely to be concerned about the school system. To help parents collaborate with the community, teachers can provide information on public activities and help build a strong relationship between parents (Nor & Yasin, 2018). Community leaders can also be invited to the school meetings and present their views regarding ways to develop a school. Furthermore, the leaders can be encouraged to be part of parent events that schools use to improve their performance. Collaborating with community leaders can help in acquiring more ideas about developing the schools and the education sector. Activities to educate the students, such as games and music competitions, can also be created, whereby the leaders can inform the students on how to improve their academic performance. Therefore, the six categories of parental involvement that Epstein has addressed can help enhance students growth and development and academic performance.
Nor, N. M., & Yasin, M. H. M. (2018). The application of Epsteins model in the implementation of career transition programme for students with learning disabilities. Jurnal Penelitian dan Pengembangan Pendidikan Luar Biasa, 5(1), 7-13. Web.
Footnotes
Brickman, W. W. (2010). The Quest for Quality in Teacher Education. European Education, 42(2), 6773. Web.
Dolores, C., Adrian, C., James, C., & Kevin, B. (2012). The Council for the Teaching Profession in Malta: Teachers Code of Ethics and Practice. 128.
European Commission. (2019). Education and training monitor 2019 Spain. Education and Training Monitor, 2. Web.
Web.
Epstein, J. L. (2010). School, family, and community partnerships : Preparing educators and improving schools. ProQuest Ebook Central Web.
Goodall, J., & Vorhaus, W. (2011). Review of best practice in parental engagement. Education, 6, 11441159. Web.
Epstein, J. L., & Sheldon, S. B. (2019). The importance of evaluating programs of school, family and community partnerships. Aula Abierta, 48(1), 31. Web.
Goodall, J., & Montgomery, C. (2014). Parental involvement to parental engagement: a continuum. Educational Review, 66(4), 399410. Web.
Epstein, J. L., & Sheldon, S. B. (2019). The importance of evaluating programs of school, family and community partnerships. Aula Abierta, 48(1), 31. Web.
Griffin D., & Steen, S. (2010). School-family-community partnerships: Applying Epsteins theory of the six types of involvement to school counselor practice. Professional School Counseling, 13(4), 218-226. Web.
Epstein, J. L. (2005). Links in a professional development chain: Preservice and inservice education for effective programs of school, family, and community partnerships. The New Educator, 1, 125-141.
Rasbash, J., Leckie, G., Pillinger, R., & Jenkins, J. (2010). Childrens educational progress: Partitioning family, school and area effects. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series A: Statistics in Society, 173(3), 657682. Web.
Sylva, K., Melhuish, E., Sammons, P., Siraj-blatchford, I., & Taggart, B. (2004). The Effective Provision of Pre-School Education ( EPPE ) Project/: Findings from the Early Primary Years. Main, 16.
Reay, D. (2004). Education and cultural capital: the implications of changing trends in education policies. Cultural Trends, 13(2), 7386. Web.
Elliot B. Weininger, Annette Lareau, Dalton Conley, What Money Doesnt Buy: Class Resources and Childrens Participation in Organized Extracurricular Activities, Social Forces, Volume 94, Issue 2, 2015, Pages 479503, Web.
The role of doctors and teachers is crucial. In the past, these professions were appreciated; nowadays, people take them for granted. Doctors and teachers work with people and have almost the same salaries, but their working conditions and the results of work vary. The essay explains the differences and similarities between doctors and teachers.
First, teachers and doctors get almost the same salaries nowadays. The stats shows that people from the spheres of medicine and education can get about $30 per hour. They want to earn more, therefore they try to find additional incomes: doctors like to choose private instead of governmental organizations, and teachers take extra classes. Unfortunately, not all doctors can start working independently, thus teachers may take private lessons all the time.
Second, both professions are connected with providing people with a number of important services. Doctors treat people and promote health, and teachers learn people and promote knowledge. Still, usually, older people address doctors, while young people are in need of education. Even if the presence of doctors and teachers is indefeasible, the presence of doctors proves that people have some problems with health, and the presence of teachers demonstrates human abilities to obtain new knowledge.
At the same time, working conditions of doctors and teachers differ considerably: doctors are usually in need of electricity and clean rooms free from microbes, teachers may continue working without electricity in rooms which are far from being ideally clean. Though the nature of subjects teachers and doctors have to work with is not the same, neither the work of teachers nor the activities of doctors may be properly organized without specific books or drugs.
Finally, the results of doctor and teacher work vary. Doctors save human lives and promote health. Teachers promote knowledge and the development of personal abilities that can be used in life. Teachers open the door to a successful life, and doctors make this life safe. Human life is incomplete without teachers or doctors. Doctors may not only treat but prevent illnesses, and teachers can improve the already gained knowledge not only provide with new.
In general, doctors and teachers play an important role. It is hard to image this world without these professions, this is why people should respect both, teachers and doctors, because of their abilities to improve lives, make them safer and healthier, and share their knowledge and skills with the world.
As a result of the study, it was revealed that performing household duties increases the childs ability to follow instructions (Loderup et al., 2021). I can make this result positive by saying that the ability to follow instructions is disciplining and useful in adult life. In this way, the child learns responsibility and can also gain time-planning skills. I can also make this result negative by mentioning that the ability to follow instructions makes a person easily manageable and teaches obedience. This will inevitably lead either to active rebellion or too cowardly humility and hatred of performing household chores.
In the first case, research will be good since the general conclusions of the article indicate the beneficial effect of household chores on children. The information product obtained as a result of research takes into account not only a fragmentary fact but also the entire article. However, in the second case, research can be considered bad. In this case, an incorrect quotation is used. The presented fact is indeed mentioned in the article. However, the interpretation that was given to it do not correspond to reality and differs from the general meaning of the original article.
Of course, there are always ways to spin the Statistics to make them favor my opinion. People tend to look for arguments in favor of their own judgments, so they can interpret the same fact in different ways. This is due to confirmation bias and is caused by a persons desire to prove his own opinion. In order to spin the Statistics, a biased search for information can be performed or a biased interpretation of the facts obtained. Almost any information, as well as the outcome of any event, can be interpreted in two ways.
Reference
Loderup, C., Timmons, J., Kimball, E., Hill, E., Marks, L., & LeBaron, A. (2021). How do parents teach their children about work? A qualitative exploration of household chores, employment, and entrepreneurial experiences. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 42(8), 73-89. Web.
Grammar denotes the system of rules that guide the conventional setting and connection of words in a given sentence, which means that it addresses the structure or form of languages. There are numerous methods that teachers use while teaching grammar. Some of the approaches are the grammar-translation method, the audio-lingual method, and the direct method. Nevertheless, only the grammar-translation method has a heavy emphasis on grammar, as the other two do not center on the explicit teaching of grammar (Olivero, 2015).
Apart from the three methods, other approaches are used in teaching English, although they place a different weight on the language elements. For instance, the Silent Way has been increasingly employed to draw English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students concentration to form. It is best suited to teach the communicative components of language. It has been widely used as an approach of making learners perceive or raise alertness on the English language structure.
The color-coding method uses different highly adaptable tools, which are employed to make the learners mindful of the details of a languages grammar (Uehara & Noriega, 2016). The most useful tool is the color-coded chart that is made up of different words and colored rods to assist in the representation of dissimilar sections of grammar in a sentence. This method has been widely used in teaching grammar to female Saudi EFL learners in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The use of the color-coding method has been found to be effective since it captures the attention of learners and helps them to write correct sentences with ease.
Problem Statement
Female EFL learners have a very short concentration span. They have been found to become easily diverted even by minimal occurrences of friends passing by outside of the classroom. Such learners also face challenges in storing what is learned in the EFL class to long-term memory, particularly when they have a poor vocabulary in the language. This makes the practice of retention and incorporation of structures become a daily problem for the EFL teacher. This research study will seek to establish whether incorporating the use of colors in the EFL class enables minimization of the existing challenges.
Significance of the Study
There is an inadequacy of research on learning practices, particularly in language points such as the use of color-coding in teaching grammar to female EFL learners. This research study will offer literature with valuable information concerning the effectiveness of using the color-coding strategy in teaching grammar to female EFL learners. It will as well provide more data regarding the dissimilarities in the strategy applied to the competence level, gender, and supposed significance of grammar.
The study might also enable female Saudi EFL learners and teachers to gain knowledge of different practices that can enhance the learning and teaching of grammar. Increasing knowledge in the strategy that they presently employ, and examining its effectiveness, might also allow learners and teachers to regulate their learning and teaching.
Research Questions
The following are the research questions that will be used in this study:
What is the effectiveness of using color coding in teaching grammar to female Saudi EFL students?
How does the color-coding method boost teaching of grammar to female Saudi EFL learners?
Literature Review
This study will embark on the establishment of the approaches that EFL teachers employ when teaching grammar. It will also investigate the effectiveness of using the color-coding method in teaching grammar to female Saudi EFL learners. Moreover, the study will explore the influence of using color coding in teaching grammar to female EFL learners on their achievement. The review of the literature section will employ recent and credible peer-reviewed journal articles on the topic.
All the articles are relevant to the problem statement and research questions. They will provide a detailed discussion and in-depth comprehension of the use of color-coding in teaching grammar to EFL learners. A comprehensive assessment of the studies is important since it ensures extensive understanding that is vital for the avoidance and overcoming of the problems in the effective teaching of grammar to female EFL learners.
Using Color Coding
Studies affirm that while using color codes in teaching grammar to EFL learners, educators should understand the best practice of categorizing the words to be color-coded. There is a need to choose the criteria according to which the teacher will color the dissimilar words. Common alternatives are grammatical gender and portions of speech (for example, verb and noun). The teacher should understand the color scheme that should be used (Gómez-Rodríguez & Hernández, 2015; Bukhari, 2016). Once the teacher makes a choice anchored in the color-coding criteria, there is a need to decide the best means of coloring them. This could at times be an arbitrary choice, so the teacher should use the coloring scheme that best appeals to the learners.
Whenever possible, the teacher should use colors that can be intuitively associated with different groups by some means. For instance, in a case where teachers choose to color-code words according to their grammatical gender, they may decide to color masculine words in green and feminine parts in pink (Baleghizadeh, Yazdanjoo, & Fallahpour, 2018). A different approach is the application of a given set of colors for verbs and adverbs (for instance, light green and dark green) and an unlike set for nouns and adjectives (such as dark blue and light blue) with the intention of ensuring that it is easy to make the required associations.
Teachers should know the best approach to coloring words since there are diverse means of doing it (Forero-Rocha & Gómez-Rodríguez, 2016). For example, a teacher could write the color-coded words in a suitably colored font, highlight words in suitable colors, or write down the chosen words on color-coded sticky-notes. It is also possible for EFL teachers to think of words that will be color-coded depending on the familiarity with them. With time, the teacher might choose to just color new words that are encountered in the course of learning and fail to color the words that had previously been taught (Xu & Yan, 2018). This could be a good way of attracting the learners attention to new words while enhancing their acquisition.
The Effectiveness of Using Color Coding
Color controls memory performance by improving concentration level and arousal. Color has been proved to influence the degree of alpha brainwave activity that is employed in the healthcare field to assess human alertness. Using the color-coding method in teaching grammar enables the learners to remember the structure taught to them easily (Hosseini, 2016; Tabatabaei & Khashavi, 2016). In this respect, color-coded words have been found to offer more effective study guides when judged against black and white material since they assist learners in the progression of processing new information while it is being taught to them.
In the process of learning English as a foreign language, Arteaga-Lara (2017) established that coloring new vocabulary words enable learners to understand them better. Although there are numerous possible methods that could explain the improvement, the widespread agreement is that color-coding new words improves the likelihood of their easily being encoded, stored, and retrieved successfully (Alzouwain & Lincoln, 2018; Gilbert, 2017). This underscores the value of using color coding in teaching grammar to EFL students since learners are able to facilitate their vocabulary learning process.
Theoretical Framework
Sociocultural theory denotes a theory of the development of higher psychological progressions, which take social interrelations to be the major learning and communication practices. One of the exceptional aspects of sociocultural theory is taking learning to be social in nature, where significance is attained through the application of language in the social sphere (Behroozizad, Nambiar, & Amir, 2014).
Unlike the supporters of cognitive theories who were concerned with the mediation between stimuli and response, sociocultural theory assesses the perspective of the conduct or social condition where the action happens. The fundamental presupposition in sociocultural theory is the notion that psychological formations do not arise in the thinking of learners; instead, they are generated out of continued interaction with the social settings. Therefore, the occurrence of psychological operations relies on social interrelations.
In line with Behroozizad et al. (2014), sociocultural theory perceives learners as active elements in the learning environment. Just as underscored in the sociocultural theory, female EFL learners in KSA are responsible for the betterment of the surrounding environment, as it has the strength to nurture them and support their learning. On the same note, EFL teachers act as crucial constructors in the teaching and learning environments. What the teachers believe strongly concerning language learning by the EFL learners will certainly have an impact on the teaching environment, although learners form the focus of the pedagogical endeavors.
In this aspect, the use of color-coding in teaching grammar will help teachers to reconstruct their insights into EFL teaching through constant practice and improvements. The major concentration of the sociocultural standpoint is not on the learners but on their environment (Ashtiani, 2017). Consequently, the use of the color-coding strategy in teaching grammar to EFL learners improves their learning and makes them understand what is taught to them with ease.
The most considerable contribution of the sociocultural theory to EFL learning and in accordingly reducing the challenges faced by learners is offering a supportive setting for cognitive development. For EFL learners to be successful in grammar learning, in the course of social interrelations in the classroom, it is vital to cherish and improve their learning environment.
Methodology
This study will be undertaken systematically to facilitate an enhanced comprehension of the effectiveness of using the color-coding method in teaching grammar to Saudi EFL learners in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. This section will present the methodological process employed in the study. The mixed-method used in the research is fundamental since it highlights the techniques employed by the researcher to realize the study objectives in the most successful approach. The systematic practice of solving the problem in a study is crucial since it makes the solutions be simply established, and the research attains high credibility and accuracy (Palinkas et al., 2015).
A successful methodology is important in data analysis, as well as interpretation, since it facilitates an improved resolution to the problem. Effective implementation of the set research processes requires proper planning with respect to responding to the research questions. The methodology of this study will assist in the realization of interesting and helpful findings in the effectiveness of the application of color coding while teaching grammar to EFL learners.
Study Design
This research will utilize both the secondary and primary approaches of data collection and a mixed-method (quantitative and qualitative) of analyzing data. Data for this study will be collected from King Abdulaziz University in Saudi Arabia. Apart from the case study method that will be employed in this study, there are other techniques such as thematic analysis, grounded theory, and the ethnographic method. However, the researcher considered the case study method the best since it allows for a detailed evaluation of the participants in the study.
Furthermore, the case study method allows the collection of data types from numerous sources with the aid of a range of techniques (for instance, interviews, questionnaires, and observation to mention a few). This ensures that the data gathered is accurate and reliable. From the data that will be collected from King Abdulaziz University, the researcher will assess the effectiveness of using the color-coding method in teaching grammar to female Saudi EFL learners. The study will also seek to establish the influence of the color-coding method on the achievement of female EFL learners.
In preparation for data collection at the institution, the researcher will first visit the offices of the president of King Abdulaziz University and the dean of students affairs to have unofficial conversations. The unofficial conversations will assist the researcher in having an extensive understanding of the observable facts supporting the research. For secondary data, the researcher will search for credible journals from sources such as Google and online libraries.
Study Participants Sampling
With the permission of the university management, the researcher will randomly contact 90 participants, who will include senior staff at the faculty of education, EFL lecturers, and female EFL learners, to contribute to the research. All the 84 participating learners will be female of 18 and 19 years of age. Some of the staff and lecturers will be male, and all will be aged between 30 and 50 years. The native language for the learners will be Arabic, and they will have to be students at the university.
Research Methods/ Instruments
The researcher will use different data collection instruments such as questionnaires, interviews, and observations. The most valuable instrument will be the questionnaire since it will seek to directly assess the effectiveness of the color-coding method in teaching grammar. The questionnaire will be versatile and exceptionally capable of collecting a huge amount of data fast in a form that is easy to process. The instruments used in the study will offer the researcher accurate, behavioral, and expressive data regarding the participants, which will form the foundation of the research.
Data Collection Process
Following the selection of participants, the researcher will use semi-structured questions since they will enable the collection of detailed information from the respondents (Appendix 1). The information collected will offer insight into the manner in which the participants will construe the research and understand the effectiveness of using color coding in teaching grammar to female EFL learners at King Abdulaziz University.
Prior to the issuance of the questionnaires to the participants, the researcher will shed light on the significance of the research, the form of questions to anticipate, the confidentiality of the shared data, and the autonomy to participate. The researcher will encourage all the participants to remain in the study to its completion and give them the opportunity to ask questions in case anyone will need an explanation on any issue. The questionnaires will then be issued to the participants. The length of the interview will be about fifty minutes. The researcher will use a tape recorder to improve the accuracy of data and ensure a permanent record for referral when necessary. The data held in the tape recorder will be transcribed immediately after the study.
In the exploration of sources that will provide secondary data on the topic, the researcher will first select the search terms that will enable the easy collection of pertinent resources. Some of the key terms that will be employed encompass effectiveness of using color coding in teaching grammar, color coding and teaching grammar to female Saudi EFL learners, and the effectiveness of using color-coding to teach grammar to EFL learners.
The key terms will then be used in the search for sources in reputable databases that include Google and libraries such as EBSCOhost, Emerald, and ProQuest. Out of the many applicable resources that will be found in the databases, the researcher will use his research discretion to choose the eleven most recent and credible journal articles.
Data Collection Analysis
After the collection of data, the researcher will use NVivo in the qualitative analysis of data. The quantitative analysis of the collected data will be done with the help of SPSS.
Ethical Consideration
Consent
The researcher will inform the participants that contributing to the research will be voluntary. In this respect, though it will be more honorable for the respondents to complete the study, it will be out of their free will as they will have the right to pull out any time if they found doing so necessary. The researcher will apply no coercion or inducements in an effort to persuade the respondents to contribute to the study. As a means of sticking to the standards of free disclosure, the researcher will inform the participants about the risks of taking part in the study. The researcher will seek ethical approval prior to the commencement of the study.
Privacy and confidentiality
The researcher will make sure that the data obtained are presented anonymously as a way of safeguarding the privacy of the participants. Apart from informing the respondents not to indicate their names, the researcher will also uphold confidentiality by ensuring that no other person has access to the data held in the tape recorder.
Generalizability
The study carried out will be limited to female Saudi EFL learners in an attempt to understand the effectiveness of using color coding in teaching grammar. This will make it hard to generalize the research to other languages or male learners, whether in Saudi Arabia or in other countries.
Limitations of the Study
Since there is a risk of misapprehension, there will be a need for readers to mull over possible limitations of the study. Irrespective of the endeavors by the researcher to gather data from different participants at King Abdulaziz University, the study will not represent proportionally every learning institution. Additionally, the use of only female learners makes the study biased hence affecting its credibility.
Time Table
The table below shows the timeline for the completion of the thesis, which will start in December 2018, until May 5, 2019.
Table 1: Timetable.
Conclusion
Grammar signifies the system of rules that direct the conventional setting and relationship of words in a given sentence; this indicates that it tackles the structure and form of languages. The application of the color-coding method has been established to be valuable since it captures the concentration of learners and assists them in writing correct sentences without difficulty.
Color-coded words act as effective study guides when compared to black and white material because they assist learners in the course of processing new information when it is being taught to them. This study will use both the secondary and primary approaches of data collection and a mixed method of analyzing data. From the data that will be obtained from 90 participants at King Abdulaziz University, the researcher will evaluate the effectiveness of using the color-coding strategy in teaching grammar to female EFL learners in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
Appendices
Appendix 1: Questionnaire
How effective is the use of color-coding in teaching grammar to female Saudi EFL students?
What makes the color-coding method to enhance the teaching of grammar to female Saudi EFL learners?
Why would you consider the use of color-coding better than any other method?
How does the use of color-coding improve the learning environment?
What can EFL teachers in KSA do to improve learners comprehension of grammar with the help of the color-coding method?
References
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