One of the most significant steps in any persons life is getting own education. In order to provide each person with proper education, it is very important to any teacher to choose the best educative models and methods and help students to enlarge own level of knowledge and practical and communicative skills.
Teacher training programs are considered to be a good start for understanding that linguistics and its diversity are important issues to discuss.
The book Relevant Linguistics: An Introduction to the Structure and Use of English for Teachers is a good source of information that provides teachers with strong background linguistic knowledge and with an opportunity to train their professional skills in order to cope with any linguistic situation that may happen during classes.
The ways of how descriptivism and prescriptivism are applied to English reading and writing, the dialects of English, which are inherent to the chosen community, and the examples of dominants dialects will be discussed in this paper.
For many reading and writing teachers, the value of learning linguistics is regarded to be considerable, because this course not only presents necessary information about language but also gives a kind of insight into one of the most significant aspects of human behavior.
The ideas of descriptivism and prescriptivism turn out to be crucial for those, who teach reading and writing English: some teachers still believe that it is important to prescribe how to speak English, and some teachers use another technology, describing how to speak English.
Many people find it very difficult to study grammar as it is a set of strict rules, which have to be followed any way by those, who want to speak correctly (Justice, 2004).
For a long period of time, educators use the prescribing approach in order to study their students what rules have to be followed, what it means to speak correctly, and why numerous exercises and practices should be used.
In fact, teachers do not want to concentrate on describing how it is to speak correctly, because they assure that following the already established rules is the only activity that has to be used.
This prescriptive approach proves that the value of reading and wiring English is closely connected to past studies and has certain grounds, which cannot be removed or neglected.
Another important issue that may raise the value of learning linguistics among reading and writing teachers is the presence of numerous dialects within one community.
English Language Learners (ELL) face too many challenges while reading and writing; the variety of dialects disturb students, and teachers have to be ready to support their students and improve the situations to teach and correct mistakes, which are made because of lack of practice and knowledge.
It may happen that certain ELL speak different dialects in one classroom; in my classroom, the dialects of British English and American English are the dominant ones, and it becomes very difficult to explain the students that both of their languages are correct, and it is not so important to discover the priority of their languages but to be able to think and speak properly.
English in the United States is considerably different from British English: various pronunciation, tones, colloquialisms, and spelling. These differences create certain challenges for tutors, who teach reading. One of the possible examples of the challenges with the dominant dialect may be observed at reading classes.
It is necessary to choose one standard for proper reading, the people, who speak these two dialects, cannot comprehend why one way of speaking and reading is appropriate and another is not.
Teaching reading and speaking is not an easy assignment for teachers, whose students prefer different dialects. Such situations help to comprehend the value of linguistics and the effectiveness of prescribing approach.
When students have one standard to follow, this provides teachers with an opportunity to use one criterion for evaluation of students skills. In the United States, American students, who speak American English from their birth, and the students, who have been speaking British English and now have to adapt to a new dialect, cannot achieve the same results.
This is why one of the most important teachers purposes is to create an atmosphere in order to support each student and not to show the priority of another.
After reading a book by Paul Justice about learning linguistics and challenges, teachers may face with, the concept of value of this course becomes more or less clear. For many reading and writing teachers, the value of learning linguistics has to be put on the first place.
The variety of dialects within one community, different levels of background knowledge and students attitude to the studying process require proper choice of educative programs and clear establishment of criteria.
Students have to have a chance to study linguistics on a proper level, and teachers should care about successful methods and models of teaching, which will never decrease the value of reading and writing.
Reference List
Justice, P. W. (2004) Relevant Linguistics: An Introduction to the Structure and Use of English for Teachers. Stanford, California: Center for the Study of Language and Information.
Language acquisition is a continuous process that begins early in life. The first language is usually easy to learn as it is introduced early in life. Children learn their first language through interaction with people who speak the language. This is usually easier than learning a second language as an adult.
The second or consecutive language acquisition occur simultaneously and later in life. Teaching a language can be challenging and will require understanding in order to be effective. Research on language acquisition or development has generated knowledge on the subject. This essay will discuss the development of language, and relate the theory to teaching and learning.
Language Acquisition
Challenges for teachers working on English as a Second Language
Language acquisition begins early in life. Children learn by listening and experiences in their first language. The second language is often taught and children further learn it from experiences. Teachers should look for effective methods of teaching English to their students.
The method should cater for the learning needs of all learners. The first challenge that the teacher should be able to overcome is to recognize learning challenges in their class and the needs of every student. This will help in the effective learning of a second language. The second language is often taught as a foreign language, alongside or after the acquisition of the first language. Students depend on the teacher to tell them the correct form of language.
The teachers challenge is to encourage students to try and learn the language on their own. This is usually a difficult task because most students are not willing to try this, particularly because they fear making mistakes. Teachers encounter students who have persistent use of their first language. The teacher can encourage students to use English only and introduce punishments to students who use their first language.
Poor class management and materials, as well as students who distract others pose a major challenge to the teachers. Discipline should be enforced. It is easy to divert from the lesson since the second language is secondary to the students. The teacher can avoid diverting the conversation and be keen to control students so that the students do not take over the class.
Teaching resources and teaching aids designed for specific needs of different second language learners are sometimes hard to get. Students deliberately see the second language as difficult and do not engage in practice. Teachers of a second language fear that incorrect model of the first language may affect the learning of the second language (Ortega 2009).
Challenges for Teachers working of English as First Language
Ortega (2009, p. 5) notes that, teachers who teach English as a First Language have challenges. The challenges include teaching materials, the design of the syllabus and learning exposure. Moreover, the techniques to be used in teaching, method of teaching, evaluation, and assessment designs are sometimes a challenge. The teacher has to come up with a method of interaction and understanding cognition of the students as they teach.
The teachers exposure to the language and activities used in learning in and out of class pose a challenge. The teachers depend on other stakeholders to make teaching a success. They require a certain level of autonomy to teach the language. Other problems that the teacher may experience are lack of motivation, low confidence and nervousness. Teaching the skills and cultural concerns becomes more challenging if the teachers native language is not English.
To make teaching less challenging, all the required teaching materials should be provided. Adequate training and a relevant syllabus should also be availed. Gibbons (2006, p. 45) mentions that, the method of assessment, evaluation, and techniques used should go hand in hand with the needs of the students. If one of the requirements is missing, the process of teaching a language may not yield the desired results.
Reference List
Gibbons, P 2006, Bridge Discourses in the ESL Classroom, Continuum, London.
Lightbown, M & Spada, N 2006, How languages are learned, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Ortega, L 2009, Understanding Second Language Acquisition, Hodder, London.
Saville- Troike, M 2006, Introduction to second Language Acquisition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
English is the most widely spoken language in the world today. Stemming from the British Empire dominance in the early days of civilization, former colonies of Britain either adopted English as their official language or as their second most important language after some indigenous languages.
Because its used in international instruction, learning English as a second language is a necessary undertaking for students and instructors especially given the dominance of the US and UK in global economics and politics. In Asia, all the learners whose first language is not English study the language as their second language.
ESL (English as a second language), ESOL (English for speakers of other languages), EFL (English as a foreign language) all refer to the learning of English by people whose fist language is not English. They may also refer to the use of the language by the same group.
Teaching of English is also referred to in different terms summarized in popular acronyms. ELT (English language teaching), TESL (Teaching English as a second language), TESOL (Teaching English to speakers of other languages), and TEFL (Teaching English as a foreign language) all referred to teaching English to non-native speakers.
There are many more terms used to describe teaching and learning g English. However, this research concentrated on the TESOL, which primarily involves the teaching of English to speakers of other language.
Learners and instructors of English all over the world including countries that have English as their first language have trouble in the process. According to Brown et al (1983), the difficulties that these learners face are especially compounded in situations where the native language is different from English like in Asia (p. 50).
Through contrastive analysis, for instance its easy to conclude that a person of Chinese origin will have difficulties studying English compared to a French man because of the close relationship French has with English. Errors relating to syntax and pronunciation emanating form the influence of first language weigh heavily on learners, which easily discourages the learners.
Demoralization of both parties can easily set in if no steps are taken to address the challenges that face such instruction. This paper therefore largely explored the elements of motivation in the foreign language teaching after tackling the problems that face the process such as anxiety.
The research also reviewed various existing literature on the subject of motivation strategies that have been put in place to ensure learners and instructors successfully deal with the challenges that they face in their course of learning.
Motivation and Foreign Language Learning
Motivation is important in foreign language learning because it helps students the morale to pursue the studies despite the challenges associated with it. In Asia, like many parts of the world where English is studied as a second language, its important for learners to be motivated to ensure they dont drop out of the ESL classes besides helping them better their performance.
According to Moriam, who carried out extensive research on ESL in Asia, motivation and language learning strategies are the most valued variables that help highlight the differences that exist in individual learners (2008 p.51). According to Moriam (2008) quoting Oxford & Nyikos (1989), self-perception motivation was the most important variable in influencing the strategy that a foreign language learner adopted (p. 52).
Similarly, motivated students of foreign languages in Asia have been found to be engaged in the use of learning strategies of all categories compared to less motivated learners.
Further, Moriam quotes Ehrman & Oxford (1995), who in another study found out that there is strong correlation between the motivation and strategy employment in foreign language learning. This study concluded that motivation had a positive relationship with the strategies used in language learning especially in settings such as TESOL in Asia.
According to MacIntyre & Noels (1996), situational learning attitude, integration, and foreign language anxiety were related with motivation in foreign language learning as well as strategy that is used in the learning approach among Asian learners. According to Schmidt et al (1996), the learning strategies of foreign language learners preferences for strategies and motivations are more or less the same.
Gardner et al (1997), says that there is significant relationship between the use of motivation and strategy in the learning g of foreign languages in Asia but achievement or success in the target language was not explicitly y related to the above.
Influences of the Motivation
Influences of motivation help students engage in activities that help reinforce motivation among learners. They help them keep a positive mind and attitude towards learning ESL. The influences of motivation to English speaking among foreign language learners in Asia, can take many forms.
According to Stein (2004), its important to positively reinforce the minds of learners, set clear goals and instructions in the foreign language classes create elements of surprise, encourage friendly competition while at the same time spicing up the student life in foreign language classes (150).
Influences of motivation among Asian learners according to Stein (2004) should be put in place to ensure learners are not overwhelmed in the course of the study.
The influences of motivation will ensure students develop a positive attitude to study the language even in the absence of instructors. Students will as a result be more confident in the employment of the strategies to avoid the anxiety associated with the learning of foreign languages.
Influences of English Speaking Ability
These factors determine the ability of learners to develop their ability to speak English. They largely involve the strategies that these students employ.
English speaking ability according to many scholars is a direct result of the strategies that both learners and instructors employ. The English speaking ability for foreign learners inn Asia can only be natured through assistance accorded by instructors.
Its important to note that the same style that is used in the US, UK and other countries that have English, as their first language is not the same that is used by learners taking ESL learners in Asia. In the Countries mentioned above, learning is more students centered and more often than not students do not lay emphasis on group discussions and communications (Neuman et al. 2006 p. 56).
However, those students taking English as their second language in Asia need to engage more in-group discussion to enhance their skills. Moreover, it will help them because their backgrounds are not English oriented, unlike say American or British learners whose families speak English hence playing a big role in the language development.
Foe Asian learners, language acquisition techniques like vocabulary, listening, and speaking tasks are primarily aimed at improving the speaking ability of the learners. Its therefore imperative for learners to engage more in activities that help in the development of the above through strategies especially those of socio=affective nature.
One of the strategies that are recommended by experts that will help Asian students improve their speaking ability is the use of first language during instructions. Students through L1 are able to better express thoughts especially when their language skills have not fully matured (Neuman et al. 2006 p. 60).
Speaking ability has been shown to be greatly influenced by the strategies employed by the students. Many researchers have proven that learners more often than not employ meta-cognitive strategies compared to socio-affective strategies.
On the other hand, cognitive strategies are the most used by these learners. Its therefore important for learners and instructors fuse all the strategies in triangulation so as to achieve the best results in speaking ability.
Anxiety in Foreign Language Learning
Learning of English as a foreign language Is not always smooth. Many learners in Asia like all other ESL learners experience many problems including Foreign Language Anxiety.
According to Young (1992), FLA is quite common among Asian ESL university students and other learners who are taking a foreign language class (p. 67). Young (1992) further adds that sometimes the anxiety is quite severe to the point that learners have difficulty in concentrating, sweat, become forgetful, and exhibit avoidance of the lessons (p 25).
Many instructors according to Young (1991) assume that lack of motivation among students when they exhibit anxiety symptoms in the TESOL classes (p.79). He further adds that a study carried out among Asian language instructors whose fist language is not what they are instructing also reported some anxieties comparable to those that occur in students. Its important to understand the, meaning of FLA before any analysis is done.
FLA can be described as the feelings of worry, uneasiness, nervousness, or apprehension that native learners experience when using or learning the language. According to Selami et al (n.d), anxiety is the power less state where a person is an emotional state and an individual perceives and prepares for danger (p. 2).
Selami et al (n.d) quoting Gardner (1985) says that language anxiety is a complex state where self-perceptions, beliefs feelings, and behaviors arise from the unique setting that is brought or set by the learning of a foreign language. (p. 2). Selami et al (n.d) further FLA as the apprehension that arises when a situation demands the use of a foreign language, which the individual thinks he/she is not proficient in (p. 3).
The language can be English or any other foreign language that a learner may be involved in. According to experts, any second language context is likely to cause un-easiness when learning one or both productive skills or perceptive skills.
According to psychologists, FLA is a specific anxiety reaction that occurs in the anxiety contexts where some individual may feel more anxious in some situations than others do (Huitt 2007 p. 84). Its human nature for one to be anxious when engaging in activities such as foreign language learning. A detailed look at the causes will help many in understanding FLA.
Causes
Experts cannot precisely point to specific causes of foreign language anxiety. However, Selami et al (n.d) cites listening and speaking as the most common causes of FLA (p. 45). Selami et al (n.d) asserts that students in TESOL classes cite numerous causes of FLA. Besides the causes cited in the above section, Von Worde lists speaking activities on top of the list that students feel are the chief cause of anxiety.
Also cited are incomprehension, negative and unfavorable experiences in the classrooms, native speakers, and methodology used in the instruction, and pedagogical practices used in the instruction of foreign languages (p. 109).
The activities under these broad categories of causes account on most times, the anxiety that learners feel. According to Crookall & Oxford (1991), uncertainty relating to communication apprehension, fear of negative evaluation and test anxiety contributes to the uneasiness that breeds FLA (p. 307).
When the learners listen to other individuals or when they participate in speaking activities, they are more likely to suffer from communication apprehension. Selami et al (n.d) adds that more often than not, these individuals have mature ideas and valid points of communication but lack of confidence in their expression skills of the language they study holds them back from expressing themselves (p.4).
The fear from failure of low performance breeds test anxiety while negative evaluation is brought by the fear of judgment from onlookers, classmates, and instructors. According to Selami et al (n.d) this fear stems form the fact that the learners think they cannot make a good impression of themselves before others (p.4).
If in all the above cases, the learners feel that their language ability is scrutinized and negative feedback is likely to be given, their anxiety levels rise. Selami et al concludes that these learners have pre-conceived perceptions about failure and their lack of confidence in their skills level compounds the situation. This apprehension compounds their fear in academic failure that may actually lead o actual failing (p. 4).
Speaking Anxiety in Foreign Language Learning
The anxiety that ESL learners is according to psychologists perfectly normal. Psychologists classify fear of public speaking and oral communication activities that have a psychological dimension. Giving speeches in public according to some scholars is comparable to other human fears such as phobias for snakes and heights.
Learners in foreign languages have a Herculean task when speaking the new language since they are expected to perform impeccably. Young (1992) says that more often than not, it ends up exposing their inadequacies that generate panic and fear (p. 90).
Pedagogical and instructional practices
This relates to the test anxiety that has been discussed above. The most stressing of the tests that many students cite are the listening and oral tests. Many scholars have different views about the pedagogical and instructional practices as explored here.
According to Liu & Jackson, some students complain that classes move quickly hence, they do not have enough time to absorb what is given out during the lessons (2008 p. 36). Liu & Jackson further allude that students have issues with instructional styles where instructors come to class and sometimes call out names of the students in setting order to undertake a task before the class.
Its builds tension and anxiety and many students can hardly concentrate, especially those that feel that their language skills are poor. Another pedagogical concern that scholars have cited to be making a big contribution to FLA is the mode of error correction.
According to Lin (2009), some instructors reprimand students too harshly for making errors. Such unwarranted correction by instructors according to Lin contributes to a student loosing focus and makes them feel stupid. The likely outcome of such a scenario is anxiety anytime the learner attends the class.
FLA is a negative development in any ESL class. This research therefore wont be complete if the effects of FLA are not tackled.
Effects
The effects of foreign language anxiety cannot be overstated. According to Horwitz & Young (1991), many studies have concluded that FLA greatly impedes the production and achievement of foreign language development (p. 4). In fact, a report by Campbell & Oritz concluded that almost half the population of learners of foreign languages suffers from FLA (1991 p. 86).
The report further concluded that the FLA that these learners experience pose potential challenges though hindering the acquisition, retention, and proclivity of the language skills that the learner acquires (p.10). The most vulnerable bit is the academic performance of the student.
Kroll (2003) emphasizes this point by saying that research by various scholars has concluded that FLA is the leading cause of a drop in students confidence, self-esteem and level of participation in TESOL classes (p. 173). Anxiety leads to the erection of mental blocks that during TESOL classes. Learners confidence wanes and they are likely to employ avoidance strategies to the lessons.
They also lack the confidence to do a self-assessment to identify their weaknesses. According to Kroll (2003) anxious students tend to be forgetful easily forgetting the lesson contents besides showing little or no interest in participating in class (p. 178). The learners rarely ask questions nor do they answer questions and show passiveness in class work activities.
Crookall & Oxford say that the effects of FLA extend outside the classroom. The biggest a casualty of this is the showing of communication apprehension where anxious individuals will be less willing to communicate, tend to be quiet. The lack of communication easily wrecks havoc on their social life where these individuals are easily considered anti social, untrustworthy, physically attractive, tense, and less competent (1991, p.47).
Krashen (1985) as quoted in Olah (2006) alluded that FLA contributes to major inhibition of a learners ability to process incoming language skills effectively short-circuiting the process of acquisition. Anxiety impairs the cognitive function the learners interfering with the interaction that is present among anxiety, task difficulty, and ability to understand.
As a result, learners who show anxiety may acquire less skill besides being unable to put to practice to what they have learnt. Because self-confidence, ego and self-esteem is considerably bruised, learners encounter difficulty in achieving proficiency in the second language (Crookall & Oxford (1991 p. 45).
Motivation Strategies for Oral English Proficiency
Numerous strategies are used by ESL learners. These strategies vary according to student preferences as well as the environment where the teaching is conducted. Many scholars have different views about the strategies.
Its therefore important that their views are looked into to gain an insight about the strategies used by learners. These authors have various definitions and meanings attached to the motivation strategies for achieving proficiency in English.
A study carried out by Olah (2006) among Japanese ESL learners concluded social strategies that are used in universities and high schools in the teaching of English played a big part in achieving proficiency in the language (p. 1). Mingyuan (n.d) says that there is great variance in the speed of learning bys students in a language class despite having access to the same teaching staff and learning materials (p. 51).
According to Mingyuan, the individual differences that learners have constitute the basis of the variable that determines language learning outcomes and proficiency (n.d, p. 51). Mingyuan seems to pay emphasis individual learning strategies employed by individuals in their quest for proficiency.
According to Green & McGroarty (1985) as quoted by Mingyuan (n.d), learners who better in their own languages showed better proficiency levels in their foreign language learning. At the same time, these learners showed a greater tendency in to use greater and frequent use of strategy.
According to Mingyuan (n.d), learning strategies that lead to proficiency can be defined as the mental and/or behavioral activities employed by students that or learners of language use and/language on the overall learning process or some specific stage of language use and/ or acquisition (p. 52).
According to McGuinness (2004), definition of language proficiency and the strategies used independent on the classification that language experts have attached to language learning strategies. McGuinness further points out that there are two main ways of classifying language acquisition strategies (p.53.).
McGuinness says that two main classification methods have been in existence and are most commonly used in the classification of strategy. According to McGuinness, one involves Oxford et al (1987) which laid emphasis on five factors general habits of study, functional practice, meaning of speaking and communication independent study and practice and use of mnemonic devices.
McGuinness (2004) reckons that all strategies that are formulated to assist in TESOL learning should be influence by the above factors. They should adhere to most if not all of the elements that are described above.
There are however other strategy classifications presented by other authors. According to Chamot (1990) as quoted by Mingyuan (n.d p. 53). According to him, strategies helping in improving language proficiency and acquisition must fall within the metacognitive, socio-affective, and cognitive categories.
However, its important to not that proficiency is achieved through many independence strategies that may sometimes depend on n individual or a group of learners.
It is important to note that proficiency as used here refers to the accurate use of the language in this case English and relative ease in the expression by the learner (Hsu 2004 p. 19).
According to Olah, there was a significant correlation between memory, social and cognitive strategies and high level of proficiency experiences by the students under study (p. 187). One of the most important observations by Olah is that some strategies designed to motivate foreign language learners have proved unsuccessful.
He adds that in fact, the strategies have proved detrimental in the development of proficiency among foreign language learners in other words, not all motivation techniques are efficient in the teaching of English to foreign learners.
On the other hand, Olah (1996) defines second language learning strategies as steps that are employed by both instructors and students with the aim of improving learning of the second language, the use of it or both the above goals (2006 p. 189).
Olah also quotes OMalley & Chamot (1990) who define strategies used in foreign language learning as the special behaviors and thoughts that learners put to use to help them grasp information about a subject, in this case English. The important point Olah brings out in the two definitions above is the contrast between them.
The former definition laid emphasis on steps and actions while the latter stressed on thoughts and behavioral processes. It is important therefore that any strategies that instructors and learners employ consider the above elements. They are important for their successes and the achievement of proficiency.
According to Jin & Cortazzi (1998), the strategies that may be formulated and used in foreign language learning must fall or conform to the elements of the Oxford Strategy Inventory for Language Learning factors (p.21). The groups that Oxford formulated have a number of items that help in guiding strategy formulators.
According to Chan et al (2002), memory strategies that have under them nine items are the recommended by the Oxford research. The strategies include; elements such as use of imagery, rhyming, use of groups and structured reviewing.
A brief look into them will help understand how they work.
There are cognitive strategies that include reasoning, analyzing summary and general practicing. These strategies reflect deep processing that needs to be employed by the learner for him/ her to comprehend fully the language under study.
There are also compensation strategies that help in bridging the gap in the cases of limited knowledge. Instructors may engage learners in guessing meanings, and using gestures for the conveyance of meanings in cases where expressions are ambiguous.
In the learning of foreign languages, there should be metacognitive strategies. They include encouraging learners to pay attention to lessons, engaging in practice activities and opportunities, self-evaluation, monitoring, and doing more language tasks for self-improvement.
There must also be affective strategies that cater for the emotional needs of the learners. These strategies come in handy in the reduction of anxiety and self-encouragement that learners need ton progress in their language class.
Finally, there are the social strategies that help learners cooperate with native speakers to get a first hand feel of what communicating in the language is. The strategies help learners be culturally aware of their language they are studying and begin to appreciate and participate in the cultural activities associated with the language.
Despite the differences in strategy classification, all scholars agree that there is a big relation between the use of learning strategies and achievement of proficiency in foreign language learning.
Some of the approaches that fall within the above-defined categories and those that have been used in the achievements of proficiency results in TESOL include the use of communicative teaching approach, reduction of the level of task difficulty and building of a supportive learning environment for the learners.
Tackling the strategies in general does not give a comprehensive view on the techniques used in achieving proficiency among ESL learners especially Asian learners. Its therefore important for the research to focus a detailed look at the individual strategies.
Communicative Language Teaching Approach (CLT)
This is one of the most important techniques in ESL teaching and that is equally important in the use among Asian learners. The technique began in the 1960s in the UK as replacement for the structural method that was in place. Situational Language Teaching, which preceded CLT, was much criticized by scholars as not being all-encompassing in teaching English especially for foreign learners.
According to Kirsten & Sharon (2008), the functional view of language is the main theory behind CLT. They further add that despite the absence of literature on the theory, there are principles behind its existence and its operation.
According to Kirsten & Sharon (2008), the approach that is CLT involves activities that promote communication and learning (70). In the activities, language is actively used while undertaking tasks that promote learning. Similarly, learners get to use meaningful language that promotes learning (Kirsten & Sharon 2008 p. 73).
According to Swan (1985), the objectives of CLT emphasize the proficiency of the language especially English. The objectives ensure learners active proficiency by using the language they study in TESOL classes as a means of expression.
The students will also use the language as a means of expressing values and judgments in their everyday life activities. CLT also aims helping students achieve proficiency through expression of functions that meet their communication needs.
According to Swan (1985), CLT uses any activity that helps learners engage in authentic communication. Despite the generalization, Swan distinguishes two types of major activities that instructors should help learners engage in. the broad categories include functional communicative activities. These skills learners develop language skills and functions.
However, these activities must involve communication, which is central to the successful application of this strategy. Like other scholars, Swan also recommends social activities including role-plays, conversations, and discussions in the application of CLT (Gardner et al 2004 p. 34).
Communicative Language approach has been touted as one of the most efficient ways to help learners achieve proficiency in foreign language learning (Abbot 2000 p. 54). According to Harmer (2003), CLT as a method of teaching foreign language lays emphasis on the interaction of the participants as the main mode of learning (p. 45).
Harmer (2003) adds that the techniques has a close relationship with and serves as a response to the use of audio-lingual method. It can also serve as the extension of the notional function syllabus, which makes use of tasks in its learning approach in foreign languages.
Bax (2003) says that the technique is useful especially because it uses real life situations that require communication. Mostly, the instructor sets the situation which learners are likely to encounter in their real life experiences.
According to Abbot (2000), CLT can be described as asset of principles that help language instructors in teaching TESOL classes. It helps define the classroom activities that instructors and learners have to engage in to ensure proficiency in the foreign language being studied is achieved (p. 1). Abbot adds that the main goals of CLT are to achieve communication competence among the learners (2000 p. 97).
CLT according to Richards helps learners active communicative competence through grammatical competence. According to Abbot (2000), communicative competence that is achieved through CLT includes a number of aspects that help in foreign language proficiency. It helps the use of the language under study for different function and purposes.
It also helps learners know how to use language in different settings for instance in formal and informal settings. CLT will help learners achieve communicative competence though understanding of different texts for instance in sports, narrative and conversations.
Most importantly, according to Abbot (2000), CLT helps learners achieve communicative competence through imparting of skills that help them maintain a conversation even if one has limitations in the languages being studied (2000 p. 3).
Its important to note that CLT cannot succeed by its mere application. Many other factors should also be taken to consideration when applying CLT (Bax 2007). Many instructors prefer the use of CLT because it offers real life situations hence helping learners internalize the skills and how they are applied.
Reduce the Level of Task Difficulty
Task difficulty has been cited by Asian foreign language students and indeed other ESL learners as one of the leading causes of the course abandonment. Reducing the level of difficulty of the tasks carried out in and out of class is one of the best ways of ensuring ESL learners in Asia and elsewhere in the world stay and complete the course.
According to (Wharton 2000), many TESOL learners become reluctant in speaking the foreign language they are studying in class because of the difficulty of tasks that are issued by instructors (p. 90). Difficult tasks in foreign language classes demotivate students by making them develop a negative attitude towards learning the language.
According to Nation (2007), learners of foreign languages especially in TESOL classes can only perform tasks well id they have enough knowledge about the language they are studying. Many learners who fall in this predicament of tackling difficult tasks with limited knowledge are always unwilling to talk.
Many scholars have suggested many remedial measures aimed at addressing reduction of difficult task to TESOL learners.
Ellis (2005) suggests allocating more time to tasks that students are given during and after class hours (p. 76). Ellis further says that this can be done through allowing students more preparation time. This he says will help them undertake tasks without operating under undue pressures.
Preparation is key to learning in TESOL classes and learners will participation with relative ease when they are allowed enough time to do tasks within the knowledge context that they possess.
Nation (2000) asserts that its also important to allocate students tasks that are within their level of experience. Accordingly, Nation says that instructors should consider the background knowledge and experience of the learners before issuing tasks.
He suggests instructors pre-teach orals skill to learners before communicative tasks are allocated. Ellis (2005) adds that its important for instructors to grade the difficulty of the tasks they assign students before actual assignment is done.
Difficulty of tasks is significantly reduced when learners work in collaboration with each other. (Tsiplakides & Keramida, 2010), say that students or learner should be allocated tasks where each of them has a role to play (p. 106).
The role that the learner should reflect his/her strong points. Collaboration will help weak students improve areas. Its also helps reduce tension that is involved in engaging individual students in the TESOL class. Nation (2000) adds that collaboration is best achieved through pairing students or through group work.
One of the most common causes of anxiety cited by learners of foreign languages was lack of guidance or wrong approached by instructors. Similarly, lack of guidance from instructors is one of the factors that complicate tasks fro learners.
Nation (2000) says that guidance by instructors can be done through repeated input from teachers, guiding questions, and multiple-choice questions. Guidance will help students grasp task concepts they are not used to. It contributes greatly to the easiness that learners need to understand the language they are studying (McKay et al. 2008 p. 154).
In the quest to ensure tasks allocated to the learners are easy to understand, instructors are encouraged to attend to learners individually. According to (Oxford, 1999), every student has his/her unique needs and abilities (p. 97). Oxford adds that students can never perform on the same level regardless. He suggests development of different tasks that suit different levels of understanding as exhibited by learners.
Nation (2000) further advises that instructors should always adjust task demands in accordance to learners oral competence and individual ability levels. Scholars however advise that helping students overcome difficult tasks should be some sort of last resort help.
Instructors are advised to let students tackle the tasks first on their own before they get any help from teachers. That way they will be able to identify the areas that they think they have problems with for instructors to help in solving.
Build a Supportive Learning Environment
Learning cant take place without the support of teachers. Teachers have a primary task of ensuring the learning g environment is favorable for students to learn. Different scholars have different views on the need to have a supportive environment for ESL learners and, how it should be done. There views will help in articulating an insight into this strategy.
According to Tsui, foreign language learners need support from teachers and peers to succeed in the TESOL classes. The support forms part of the conducive environment that learners need (1996 p. 34). With the right environmental support, learners of foreign languages are more willing to speak in the language they are studying. A supportive environment can be achieved through numerous techniques.
One of the most successful techniques that ensure a conducive environment for foreign language learners is the presence of peer support in the classrooms (p. 40). Tsui says that instructors should consider allowing learners to countercheck their answers to their classmates before presentation.
That ways, Tsui says the students will be encouraged to speak up on the difficulties they encounter. According to Wharton (2000), the students can also be encouraged to hold discussions with their peers before any presentations made to the class (p. 209). That way, the students get to put to practice the communicative skills they have learnt besides gaining confidence about their spoken language.
According to Naughton (2006), its important that instructors be sensitive when grouping students to study groups (p. 169). A group environment helps students open up and learn better the target language. However, when grouped with group members they are not familiar with, students are not likely to open up.
McCroskey & Richmond says that many students will feel comfortable when assigned into groups with their close friends (1991 p. 84). Because the main aim is to ensure conversations in the target language, it is therefore important for instructors to group them with people they are comfortable with. They further add that the instructor can go a step further and allow students choose whom they would like to be groups with.
Another strategy that can make learning environments be conducive is through allowing students to use their first language in class, but only where necessary (Zhang & Goh 2006, p. 48). Nation (1997) says that students sometimes have difficulty in conveying messages in the target language especially when their skills are in the language are low (p. 205).
Nation adds that instructors should be positive and flexible in the use of the first language since its crucial in helping foreign language learners express their thought. He further says that the instructors attitude is important because it determines behavior of the students in the foreign language class. Students can easily feel humiliated through the instructors attitude towards their first language.
Many students find the classroom environment where they study foreign language to be threatening. According to Oxford (1999), its important that instructors ensure that the classroom environment where language study takes place is non threatening (p.101). The atmosphere and attitudes of both learners and instructors should be favorable to so as not to scare students from making communicative mistakes.
Young (1991) lists such mistakes as correction of students mistakes on the spot, random calling of students and calling on students when he /she appears to be not concentrating, he says that such actions only act to bring anxiety among the learners and minimal learning can only take place.
Promote Positive Attitudes among Students
Attitude determines to a great extent success in any learning activity. Promotion of a positive attitude among the students will help in improving their view ESL learning process.
According to (Tsiplakides & Keramida, 2010), students that have positive attitudes towards learning in the TESOL classes are less likely to have FLA and are more likely to participate actively in class work (65). The question therefore is how instructors and course directors create positive leaning environment where every learner will feel free to learn.
Young suggests a teacher learner centered discussion where both parties will discuss the importance of language use (1991 p. 83). Through discussions such as the above, learners will begin to appreciate the use of the language even if its not neither fluent nor accurate. Furthermore, the instructors and students can engage each other in oral activities, which will be guided by specific goals (2007 p. 39).
The oral activities that students and instructors will engage in will be rewarded accordingly to encourage students who in turn will change their perceptions about the use of the language. They will also learn to accept their mistakes.
According to Oxford (1999), instructors should always seek to boost students self-confidence. Course instructors and directors should come up with opportunities that will create classroom success (p. 47).
The sense of success and achievement that will be brought by self-perceived competence in communication will help boost their confidence. This can be done through the allocation of simple tasks that students can easily tackle. The sense of achievement that the students will feel will greatly help in boosting their confidence.
Lowering anxiety in the classroom is touted as one of the biggest steps instructors can employ in their quest to lay the development of language skill in foreign language learners.
Young (1991) says that it will help a lot if teachers of these students can dedicate some of their time in finding out what the sources of anxiety for the students are. The information they will gather will help in formulating strategies on how to overcome these anxieties.
References
Abbot, M. (2000) Identifying reliable generalizations for spelling words: The importance of multilevel analysis. The Elementary School Journal 101(2), 233-245.
Bax, S. (2003) The end of CLT: a context approach to language teaching.London: Cengage Learning.
Bax, S. (2007) The end of CLT: A context approach to language teaching: London: Sage Publishers.
Brown, Gillian, Yule, George (1983) Teaching the spoken language . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Campbell, C. M. & Ortiz, J. A. (1991) Helping students overcome foreign language anxiety: A foreign language anxiety workshop. New York: Routledge.
Chan, et al. (2002) Autonomy and motivation: which comes first? London: Language Teaching Research.
Crookall, D. & Oxford, R. (1991) Dealing with anxiety: Some practical activities for language learners and teacher trainees. New York: Springer.
Ellis, R. (2005) Planning and task-based performance: Theory and research. Planning and Task Performance in a Second Language. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Gardner et al. (1997) Towards a full model of second language learning: An empirical investigation, Modern Language journal, 81, 344-362.
Gardner, et al. (2004) Integrative Motivation: Changes During A Year Long Intermediate Level Language Course. London: Sage Publishers.
Harmer, J. (2003) popular culture, methods, and context. New York: Sage Publishers.
Horwitz, E.K. & Young, D.J. (1991) Language anxiety: From theory and research to classroom implications. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
Hsu, Y. W. (2004) An investigation of oral communication strategies: from the perspectives: London: Thomsons Learning.
Jin, L., & Cortazzi, M. (1998) The culture the learner brings: A bridge or a barrier. Cambridge University Press.
Kroll, B. (2003) Exploring the dynamics of second language writing. New Jersey: Springer.
Liu, M., & Jackson, J. (2008) An exploration of Chinese EFL learners Unwillingness to Communicate and Foreign Language Anxiety. The Modern Language Journal, 92, i, 71-86.
MacIntyre, P.D & Noels, K.A. (1996). Using Social Psychological Variables to predict the use of language learning strategies. Foreign Language Annals, 29, 273-386.
McCroskey, J.& Richmond, V.P. (1991) Quiet Children and the Classroom Teacher. ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading and Communication Skills. New York: Cengage Learning.
McGuinness, D. (2004) Early Reading Instruction. Cambridge: MIT Press.
McKay et al. (2008) Facilitating Adult Learner Interactions to Build Listening and Speaking Skills. New Jersey: CAELA.
Mingyuan, Z. (n.d) Language Learning Strategies and English Language Proficiency: An Investigation of Chinese ESL Students at NUS. Camberwell Vic : Australian Council for Educational Research,
Moriam, Q.M. (2008) A study on motivation and strategy use of Bangladesh University students to learn spoken English. Journal of International Development and cooperation, Vol. 14,no.2, 2008.
Nation, P. (1997) L1 and L2 use in the classroom: a systematic approach. TESL Reporter. London: Thomson Learning.
Nation, I.S.P. (2000) Creating, adapting and using language teaching techniques. Wellington: English Language Institute Occasional Publication No. 20. Victoria University of Wellington.
Nation, I.S.P. (2007) Vocabulary learning through experience tasks. Wellington: LALS, Victoria University of Wellington.
Nation, P. (2007) Frameworks for problem solving. Lecture Notes for LALS 516: Classroom Management. Wellington: Victoria University of Wellington.
Neuman et al. (2006) Handbook of early literacy research: Volume. London: Sage Publishers.
Olah, B. (2006) ESL Learning Strategies, Motivation, and Proficiency:A Comparative Study of Universityand High School Students in Japan. Vol.8, No.1, pp.189^205, 2006.12.
Oxford, R.L. (1999) Anxiety and the language learner: new insights. In J. Arnold (Ed.), Affect in Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Schmidt et al. (1996) Foreign Language Motivation: Internal Structure and external connection. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Selami et al. (n.d) Test anxiety in foreign language learning.
Stein, J.S. (2004) The culture of education policy. New York: Routledge.
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Tsui, A.B.M. (1996) Reticence and anxiety in second language learning. York: Cambridge University Press.
Young, D.J. (1991). Creating a low-anxiety classroom environment: What does language anxiety research suggest? The Modern Language Journal, 75(iv), 426-439.
Young, D. J. (1992) Language Anxiety from the foreign language specialists perspective:interviews with Krashen, Omaggio Hadley, Terrell, and Rardin. Foreign Language Annals, 25(2): 157-172.
Wharton ,P.G. (2000) Language Learning Strategy Use of Bilingual Foreign Language Learners in Singapore. Language Learning, 50 (2): 203- 243.
Zhang, D. & Goh, C. (2006) Strategy knowledge and perceived strategy use: Singaporean students awareness of listening and speaking strategies. Language awareness, 15, 199-219.
Arabic language happens to be one of the major languages of the world that has got very many existing varieties. In its study there may emerge diglossia, a situation whereby two languages find themselves being used by one language community at the same time (Al Batal 286). Diglossia therefore in the Arabic context is a subject that needs to be given a keen eye.
The subject of diglossia runs at all times alongside language and in its study it needs to be remembered that it can cause a lot of confusion and that is why it is the major subject that is dealt with in this study. In this proposed study, there are five chapters each of which is dealing with a particular issue in regard to the understanding of diglossia in the learning of Arabic as a foreign language.
The main objective therefore is to establish the effects of diglossia in a context where confusion may arise due to one failing to draw the line between the many varieties of Arabic in one context, that is, Arabic for formal use and the colloquial one(Al Batal 286). The introduction will contain background information, which is the subject under study.
This entails the global developments under the area of study, then the regional perspective and then the specific area and context of study for instance in a foreign context. The statement of the problem should also be included; this is a summary of the problem to be investigated, that is, diglossia in the teaching of Arabic as a foreign language. The evidence of the problem is also included in the first chapter so as to show that that problem actually is in existence.
Chapter two will contain the literature review which is an analysis of the existing literature relevant to the area under study which gives the researcher theoretical background of what has already been done by previous researchers. Besides providing insight of what has been done, the literature review is also important in guiding the researcher to make accurate interpretation of the subject under study because of the broad understanding of the subject.
The literature review is a demonstration that the researcher has done a broad comparison of the existing literature in order to address the loop holes that could be present. It also exposes the gaps in the area of study which can then be addressed subsequently in conducting the study. The third chapter will contain the research methodology to be used and in this regard, survey.
This is a methodology that allows a researcher to collect data through questionnaires and interviews. It also provides one with an opportunity to collect quantitative and qualitative data. Data so obtained is analyzed and interpreted to give the expected results as to what extent the study of Arabic as a foreign language been affected by diglossia.
More information can also be obtained through a desk review of the existing literature. When this is combined with the descriptive approach provides a broad perspective and understanding. Therefore one can easily draw a reliable conclusion of the findings. There is need to adopt an appropriate research design such that if one conducts the same study in a different setting apart from the context used here, the finds can be reliable.
Chapter four however, is concerned with the presentation of the findings as well as discussions on it. This chapter is structured into three major sections: one section for demographic characteristics of sample respondents, section two for findings and section three for discussions or interpretation of findings.
Chapter five on the other hand provides a summary of the research findings and the procedures used. It concludes and discusses the implications of the findings their meaning and significance. Finally, this chapter also deals with the recommendations or suggestions for further research which will serve as a conclusion.
Works Cited
Al Batal, Mahmoud. Diglossia Proficiency: The Need for an Alternative Approach to Teaching. The Arabic Language in America. Ed. by, Rouchdy, Aleya. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press. 1992.
In an insightful study on the use of first language in classroom, Cook (2001) revealed that most participants supported the application of the first language (Arabic) as a critical tool for mediation.
However, the application of L1 in L2 settings has generated controversies, especially in regards to its effectiveness in the environment where not all learners share the same L1.
This has called for the need to develop further insights into how the best application of language can form the bedrock of effective teaching and learning.
The need to examine the use of L2 in English classroom setting has also attracted a significant number of researchers.
However, research on the application of L2 in English classrooms in Saudi Arabia is inconclusive. This research seeks to examine whether the use of L2 in English classes in Saudi Arabia is an effective tool or a hindrance to learning.
Literature Review
A review of existing literature sources reveals that the development of effective teaching and learning practices has been an issue of concern to researchers the field of education.
This is because of the need to transform teaching and learning practices through adoption of better methods of content delivery.
It is against this background that the application of first language (L1) in mastering the second language (L2) has attracted considerable interest from researchers (Turnbull & Daily-OCain, 2009; Cook, 2001).
The proponents of this system argue that the first language forms the basis for creating meaningful connections to concepts in the second language (Cook, 2001).
Machaal (2010) theorized that development of language skills is important to overall development of learning capabilities in students. Macaro (2005) presented an insightful analysis of the code switching to L2 classroom through a review of past teaching and learning strategies. In his analysis, the author claimed that theory and practice have started shifting towards acceptance of judicious and theoretically principled use of L1 in L2 classes and vice-versa (p. 69).
On the other hand, in a survey involving 30 students, and 10 EFL teachers, Machaal (2010) sought to examine whether the application of Arabic language in English classes presented meaningful benefits to the learners.
After reviewing past literature sources and analyzing data collected from the sample participants, the author revealed that Arabic served as an important tool in theoretical and practical learning.
Based on scarcity of literatures on the amount of L2 language used in foreign classrooms, Duff and Polio (1990) sought bridge the gap in literature by examining how much foreign language is there in the foreign language classroom (p. 1).
In a study involving a survey of 21 sampled students conducted in the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), the researchers found and presented findings similar to past researchers (Macaro, 2005; Machaal, 2010).
Whereas there were a number of limitations to the study, the researchers revealed that the amount of foreign language in a foreign language classroom differs based on factors related to the demands of the learner.
Justification
In an analysis of the socio-cultural context of English language teaching in the Gulf by Syed (2003), it was revealed that local problems require homegrown solutions. This implies that the application of L2 in English classroom in the Gulf does not lead to any meaningful benefits.
In his concluding remarks, the author pointed out that application of L1 in L2 classroom settings was appropriate for the achievement of a more holistic learning. This is because learning is a process that begins with the unknown.
The need to carry out research in this particular area revolves around the changing nature of learning and teaching and the need to develop effective responsive methods.
References
Cook, V. (2001). Using the first language in the classroom. Canadian Modern Language Review, 57(11): 402423.
Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches, New York: Sage.
Duff, P. & Polio, C. (1990). How much foreign language is there in the foreign language classroom? Modern Language Journal, 74(3):154166.
Macaro, E. (2005). Codeswitching in the L2 classroom: A communication and learning strategy. New York: Springer.
Machaal, B. (2010). The Use of Arabic in English Classes: A teaching Support or a Learning Hindrance? A Quarterly International Peer Reviewed Journal, 5(3): 194-232.
Syed, Z. (2003). The sociocultural context of English language teaching in the Gulf. TESOL Quarterly. 37(2): 33741.
Turnbul, M. and Dailey-OCain, J. (2009). Introduction in First Language Use in Second and Foreign Language Learning. Bristol, Buffalo, Toronto: Multilingual Matters.
Communication is typical of all kinds of non-human species. Communication is done with the purpose of the exchange of information between the individuals. Non-human species communicate in a non-linguistic way where their actions are designed to express certain kinds of emotions that can be compared to such human actions as frowning, crying, smiling, getting angry or annoyed (Eifring & Theil, 2005). To communicate, animals use their body parts eyes, mouths, teeth, paws, ears. They also add sounds to their communication. The kind of communication employed by humans is the most complex and developed compared to the interactions of non-human species (Eifring & Theil, 2005).
Human communication is done by means of languages. This way, language is something used only by humans. For us, language is one of the most important aspects of life; it helps us to express out abstract ideas, share thoughts, fulfil our desires and needs, interact with others and continue our culture. Even though there are a large variety of languages on our planet, they all share some of the similar features (Eifring & Theil, 2005). First of all, they all have inner systems and structures and rely on certain organisational rules. Secondly, they are the sources of creativity as they can produce an infinite number of variations of sentences and phrases.
How Is an Additional Language Learned?
Languages can be learned using different methods. The first one facilitates the explanation of the meanings of different words, word combinations, and rules. Another one is learned by being immersed in the environment of the additional language; this way is similar to the method we employ when we first learn to speak our native languages (Mackey, 2014). Both of the ways require a so-called re-wiring of the brain of the learner to adjust to new names of the objects and new associations. This takes some time, as certain processes in our brain need to shift and become more like the processes of the native speakers of the language that is learnt. This shift defines how well we know the language, and shows the level of our proficiency. The research conducted by the Swedish scientists determined that learning a language by means of being immersed in the environment is much more efficient than leaning through the explanation of rules (Mackey, 2014).
This occurs because the individual that has to spend time surrounded by the language learns by means different stimuli, they see the language, hear it, et to practice it, and they need to apply creativity as their application and comprehension of the new language determines their success in interactions.
How Should an Additional Language Best Be Taught?
According to the results of the research mentioned above, it is clear that the best way to teach an additional language is to involve the learners different senses and skills into the process of the acquisition of a new language. Unfortunately, the vast majority of the second language teachers have no chance of throwing the learners into the native environments where everyone speaks the studied language, and even if such method is available (trips abroad), it is always limited in time and does not produce much effect on the learners. In the contemporary classrooms, the teachers try to re-create foreign language speaking environments by means of assignments that require the visual and auditory perception of the second language, and creative self-expression through the communication of ones own thoughts and opinions in oral and written forms.
One of the main obstacles to fast language acquisition for the learners that study languages at schools is limited exposure to the language. The practical language acquisition keeps breaking up since the learners live in their native environments and are mainly exposed to the new languages in the classrooms. This way, the best way to teach a second language is by using consistent language exposure that enforces the re-wiring of the learners brains.
Why Should Additional Languages Be Taught?
In the contemporary world with its rapid globalisation, one is to be able to speak at least two different languages. This is necessary for successful communication with peers, friends and co-workers from all around the world. Besides, knowing foreign languages is helpful during travelling abroad. Moreover, knowing more than one language makes one a valuable professional almost in any workplace. Finally, and most importantly, based on the results of psychological studies, being able to speak several languages makes a positive impact on the individuals cognitive abilities (Merritt, 2013).
The scholars confirm that learning additional languages improves the students memory, facilitates multitasking, decision making and observation (Merritt, 2013). Besides, learning new languages improves ones knowledge of their native language because it develops a better understanding of language mechanisms and systems. This way, teaching foreign languages has a variety of reasons and uses. Teaching foreign languages as a part of the curriculum is not only useful for the students future careers but also makes them better and more skilful learners. This is why it is widely encouraged and recommended that children start acquiring new languages since childhood as this makes a positive impact on their future adult life and reduces the number of potential challenges.
Particular attention should be given to the development of extensive reading skills (ER) in the case of young learners (YLs) (Al-Jardani, 2012). The learners identity characteristics and learning patterns can either hinder or assist: YLs tend to be more quickly distracted and their attention span is shorter than that of older students, especially when tasked with difficult topics (Hakim, 2015). In addition, children are less capable of abstract thinking about language, and when provided with rules, they may choose to disregard them and rely instead on their own explanations (Al Malihi, 2015).
Children also require greater support and need extra motivation (Briggs, 2016). These characteristics are, however, general: the possibility of such generalization suggests that YLs need a particular teaching approach, which can be developed with the aid of these generalizations (Thomas & Reinders, 2015). The purpose of the study is to prove that Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) is applicable to the work with YLs and that TBLT provides an opportunity to apply learners skills in a motivational and engaging way.
Study Aims
The possibility of application of TBLT to develop ER skills in Arab YLs requires a thorough consideration of the learners specific needs and capabilities. The aims of the study include a number of specific areas to research, for instance:
investigating the effects of the environment on the reading skills of YLs;
researching the teaching implications for YLs and Arab students specifically (Shabani & Ghasemi, 2014);
investigating the relevance of TBLT in relation to YLs;
developing specific examples of effective tasks for promoting students learning;
developing curriculum guidelines for the emergence of sustainable ER skills in YLs.
Applied Linguistics and TESOL Concepts
The study will be carried out in accordance with the key concepts of applied linguistics and TESOL tenets. Thus, the research objectives include the L1 and L2 students acquisition and learning. The study considers how to promote the conjunction between task and orientation and task and meaning (investigating patterns) (OKeeffe & McCarthy, 2016). In addition, it is essential to find out how the educator can track and differentiate what was taught to YLs and what was learned.
Theoretical Framework
The research will include a thorough analysis of current literature in the field. Contemporary texts regarding reading comprehension and the usability of extensive reading enrichment programs will be analysed (Ahmed & Rajab, 2015). Different methods and tools to promote the required skills will be considered, for instance, the efficiency of introducing stories in English to YLs (Al Harrasi, 2012). Further, it is necessary to focus on motivational factors and on the importance of students attitude and the implications that has for the TBLT (Long, 2014). The variety of peer-reviewed articles and academic writings on the topic of strategies in learning and using a second language will make possible the careful examination of the most effective approaches to promote YLs reading comprehension (Cohen, 2014). In addition, it is essential to conduct research on the methods and practices of task-based language teaching in other countries in order to better target the most effective methods and then compare them with experiences of Saudi Arabia educators (Garton, Copland, & Burns, 2011).
Data Collection Methods
The qualitative study will be carried out based on structured and unstructured texts (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2013). The framework will consist of the latest research across academic resources and texts, including peer-reviewed articles and books. Thus, the main data collection tools will be literature review and analysis (Lichtman, 2012). If the research indicates it to be necessary, the research method can be extended through the application of quantitative research techniques to ensure collection of the most reliable results and to achieve validity (Wallace & Atkins, 2012).
Briggs, J. (2016). Read on! Extensive reading and young second language learners motivation and attitudes. Web.
Cohen, A. (2014). Strategies in learning and using a second language. London, UK: Routledge.
Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2013). Research methods in education. London, UK: Routledge.
Garton, S., Copland, F., & Burns, A. (2011). Investigating global practices in teaching English to young learners. London, UK: British Council.
Hakim, B. (2015). The role of learning styles in the success of TBLT in EFL classrooms in Saudi Arabia. International Journal Of Applied Linguistics And English Literature, 4(3), 205-211. Web.
Lichtman, M. (2012). Qualitative research in education. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Long, M. (2014). Second language acquisition and task-based language teaching. New York, NY: John Wiley & Son.
OKeeffe, A., & McCarthy, M. (2016). The Routledge handbook of corpus linguistics. London, UK: Routledge.
The purpose of Language Arts is to develop the childs oral and written language, as well as to teach the child reading and paying attention to her or his handwriting. All these activities should be perceived by the child as an adventure or an enjoyable task, not as a burden. Moreover, Language Arts classes consist of different activities that correspond to the major areas of the Montessori curriculum.
Major Areas and Teachers Role
The four major areas of the Montessori curriculum include practical life, sensorial life, culture, and mathematics (Lillard, 2016). Some teachers and educators also regard music and arts as an essential part of the Montessori curriculum. Each of the areas is focused on specific tasks and exercises for children. For example, in the Practical Life area children learn to perform such activities that they will later need on a daily basis, i.e. cooking, sweeping floors, washing hands, gardening, etc. (Machado, 2015). Language Arts can help children describe the activities they have been doing in the Practical Life area. The Sensorial Area is focused on the childs sensorial abilities; it is obligatory to engage the five senses of a child in the performance of a task. During sensorial tasks, children learn how to classify, separate, and combine things (Machado, 2015).
The Mathematics Area is linked to the Sensorial Area, as the numbers and quantities that children learn to recognize are presented not as abstract definitions, but as items that children can hold and feel (Gordon & Browne, 2016). Mathematical operations are also supported by different materials, for example, cards and tables (Gordon & Browne, 2016). Using their language skills, children learn to name and recognize mathematical symbols, as well as calculate.
The Culture Area often includes geography, history, zoology, science, and other areas that help children understand the world that surrounds them. As the founder of the Montessori schools believed that students needed to understand and be familiar with other nations traditions and beliefs to be a cultured person , the Culture Area provides children with information about other countries and what is unique about them (Montessori, 2015). Many of the materials presented in this area require the use of language skills, e.g. children learn names of the continents, cities, animals that live in different parts of the world, names of peoples and nations.
The teachers role is of extreme importance as children learn through their directress about the language and how it can be used. The teachers role is to introduce language to children by using different methods, e.g. poetry or books or conversations. When a child is trying to engage in a conversation with a teacher, the teacher is obliged to listen and help, as this conversation might be the foundation of the childs ability to understand and use language (Taylor, 2013). When a teacher is working with children who are not able to speak yet, she is allowed to talk to them, repeat words and sentences, as children absorb the language and learn to recognize its patterns.
Language Arts Materials
As decoding letters might be difficult for children, specific materials are presented to students to ensure that they are capable of linking the sound with a symbol. For example, if a childs name begins with a letter B, the child is presented with the sandpaper letter B; thus, the child can recognize the symbol that is linked to the sound. Without this activity, the child would not be capable of learning how to read because she would not know what sounds are related to these symbols (Lapp & Fisher, 2011).
When children are introduced to all sandpaper letters, exercises with the moveable alphabet can be performed. With the help of the moveable alphabet, a child will be able to compose words or phrases that she or he likes or that the directress dictates. As reading is a highly abstract activity, games with the moveable alphabet will help the child understand the rules of reading and how it is performed.
Writing and Reading in Classroom
In Montessori schools, writing is taught before reading. Sensorial classes develop the childs motor skills, whereby the child also learns how to hold and use objects similar to pens and pencils. Therefore, later, during the writing classes, the child does not experience many difficulties in writing; moreover, Montessori approach discourages any rush during these classes so that children are able to learn patiently and calmly.
Use of metal insets during classes is one of the most popular activities for children because they can also talk to their friends during it, but at the same time, they have fun tracing shapes and writing different words (usually names) with it. Another interesting combination of reading and writing is copying sentences from books. However, this activity is efficient only if the child has well-developed writing skills (Machado, 2015). Another activity that children also find interesting is writing on a chalkboard. Although this activity requires skill, children learn quickly how to hold a stylus. Some children prefer writing words themselves, while others include communication in the task and ask their friends or the directress to dictate words.
Reading activities are often performed in the form of a game or as reciting of poetry or reading a book in the reading corner. A game that can be used for reading activities requires children to use cards: one of the children can read an activity silently and then perform it to other students. The students need to understand what was the word behind this activity (e.g. jump, read, sing, etc.)
Listening and Speaking
Listening and speaking is nurtured by different actions of the directress and students during class. For example, specific topics are encouraged to be discussed, such as holidays, birthdays, cultural objects, pictures, etc. Children are also encouraged to talk about their interests, books they have read in class or at home. Moreover, special interest table can also be used to support communication. It is important to remember that the directress needs to speak to children on their eye level this method will help attract attention, but it is also used to establish an intimate eye contact rather than an intimidating one (Montessori research and development, 2013). Only if this type of contact is established, the child is ready to listen.
To nurture listening skills, the directress needs to pay attention to her tone of voice. It is necessary to speak in a quiet, respectful tone; as children are used to loud voices, a low voice might be perceived as something new and unexpected. Moreover, as children are used to listening to adults commands in a loud voice, calm tone of the directress will also help them understand that they are supported and respected (Montessori research and development, 2013).
Writing and Reading
It seems reasonable to point out that one of the unique features of the Montessori approach is that children learn writing before reading. Although it might seem odd, it is actually a more efficient way of learning, as reading follows spontaneously several months after writing has begun (Lillard, 2016). Children are taught the thumb-index finger grip that will be later used to hold a pencil. Once a child is ready to read, it is important for the teacher to be engaged in these activities as well, read to and with the child (ODonnell, 2014; Kirkham, 2010). Moreover, it is also important to introduce the child to lowercase letters, although some parents might find that writing in upper case is easier.
Direct and Indirect Aims
Like any other major area in a Montessori classroom, Language Arts also have direct and indirect aims. The direct aims of Language Arts are to teach children reading, explain them concepts of communication (oral), and teach students to express themselves through writing (Curricular report, 2012). The indirect aims include the development of students intelligence, improvement of their concentration abilities, fostering the ability to follow a process, teaching students how to solve problems, work independently, and complete full task sets.
References
Curricular report. (2012). Curricular report. Bella Mente Montessori Academy. A California public charter school. Web.
Gordon, A. M., & Browne, K. W. (2013). Beginnings & beyond: Foundations in early childhood education. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.
Kirkham, A. (2010). Helping your child in their language development. Web.
Lapp, D., & Fisher, D. (2011). Handbook of research on teaching the English language arts: Co-sponsored by the international reading association and the national council of teachers of English. London, UK: Routledge.
Lillard, A. S. (2016). Montessori: The science behind the genius. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Machado, J. M. (2015). Early childhood experiences in language arts: Early literacy. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.
Montessori research and development. (2013). Language Arts manual. Web.
Montessori, M. (2015). The Mass explained to children. Laren, Netherlands: Montessori-Pierson Publishing Company.
ODonnell, M. (2014). Maria Montessori. New York, NY: Bloomsbury Publishing.
Taylor, M. (2013). The Oxford handbook of the development of imagination. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
In this paper, the teaching of English as a foreign language (EFL) to young learners (YLs) in the Arab classroom is discussed. In particular, the task-based language teaching (TBLT) of extensive reading (ER) for EFL YLs from Oman is considered. The specific features of YLs learning styles are described and applied to the notions of TBLT and ER. The particular details of the implementation of TBLT ER for EFL YLs in Oman classroom are discussed as well. It is concluded that both TBLT and ER are applicable to the work with EFL YLs, and their integration provides EFL Omani YLs with additional English language exposure as well as the opportunity to apply their skills in a motivational and engaging way.
Young Learners
The term young learners can be defined as those who a learning a foreign or second language and who are doing so during the first six or seven years of foreign schooling (McKay, 2006, p. 1). In this work, students aged 7-10 years old are considered.
Characteristics of Children as Learners
The characteristics of young learners (YLs) can have both positive and negative effects on the learning process. For example, the positive features include their enthusiasm, creativity, readiness to work with the teacher, open-mindedness, a lack of inhibition, capacity for indirect (unconscious) learning, an instinct for interaction, and ability and willingness to take part in exercises that YL do not understand (Cameron, 2001; Halliwell, 1992). At the same time, it is more difficult to keep a child motivated, especially when a topic is difficult (Cameron, 2001).
Moon (2000) also highlights the instinct for interpreting the sense or meaning of a situation in YLs (p. 5), an aspect that was first emphasized in Piagets theory (Cameron, 2001, p. 4). Moon (2000) insists that despite distracting students from aspects of language (like grammar), this instinct has a positive influence on language learning by helping YLs attach meaning to the words used (p. 5). YLs are less capable of abstract thinking about the language, and when provided with rules, they may choose to disregard them and come up with their own explanations (Al Malihi, 2015). Also, children are more vulnerable to criticism and may need a greater amount of support (McKay, 2006).
These characteristics are generalized, but the possibility of such generalization suggests that YLs need a particular teaching approach that can be developed with the help of these generalizations.
The socio-cultural context of learning
Piagets theory implies that active indirect YL can be stimulated with the help of the environment (Cameron, 2001, pp. 3-5). However, this theory centers on the child and ignores the fact that the environment is filled with other actors. Vygotsky proceeds with this idea by putting the emphasis on the social environment, that is, the people who surround the YL, his or her socio-cultural context. The context contains actors who can facilitate learning, and this idea led Vygotsky to develop the concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD). ZPD suggests considering the intelligence of a child from the point of view of what he or she can do with skilled help, which can also be defined as scaffolding (Cameron, 2001, pp. 5-7). By paying attention to the settings and actors (primarily, parents) of the learning environment, the teacher offers YLs extra opportunities for learning. Moreover, the teacher is a part of this environment, and while he or she may lack the knowledge of the childs parents, he or she is most capable of providing skilled help.
Teaching EFL to Oman YLs
EFL YLs have certain specific learning features as well. EFL teaching presupposes working with the children who do not live in an English-speaking country (Cohen, 2014). EFL students are rarely in contact with the language that they are studying; because they have little exposure to the English language, they have limited opportunities for the application of knowledge, even though TV and the Internet may help in this respect (Al-Jardani, 2012). As a result, an EFL teacher in this situation would be expected to encourage YLs to both apply and be exposed to English as much as possible. Also, unlike students who learn English as a second language in an English-speaking environment and are thus motivated to learn since they need the language in everyday life, EFL students must find another source of motivation (Long, 2014). YLs enthusiasm for the learning needs to be discovered, nurtured, and maintained by the EFL teacher.
In Oman, the national language is Arabic, but English is widely used in various spheres of communication, which is why it is typical for Omani parents to want their children to take up EFL (Al-Jardani, 2012). English and Arabic are sufficiently different to cause certain problems in EFL skills development among Omani EFL children, which can lead to decreased motivation levels (Cameron, 2001). For example, Arabic-speaking EFL YLs face a number of challenges in reading, such as the differences between the alphabets, the different numbers and usages of vowels and consonants, and even the direction of writing. Similarly, Arab learners find English language consonant clusters difficult to read and discern; in Arabic, the maximum consonant cluster contains only two letters (Mourtaga, 2006, pp. 80-86). By providing skilled help, a teacher can facilitate the process of overcoming these difficulties and motivate children to proceed with their studies.
Reading and Teaching Reading to YLs
Reading is essential for a language user since it is a powerful tool in language acquisition. However, it is rather difficult for an EFL child to develop (Ahmed & Rajab, 2015), and the teacher needs to provide the children with skilled help in this process.
Extensive Reading
There are two key approaches to teaching reading: extensive and intensive. ER can be defined as reading as much as possible, for the purpose of pleasure or information rather than learning particular language features (Al-Homoud & Schmitt, 2009, p. 383). The materials are typically chosen by the readers themselves, but their teacher can assess the difficulty level to avoid the decrease of motivation and ensure the positive impact of ER (Haider & Akhter, 2012). In general, as stated by Haider and Akhter (2012), ER is likely to benefit from teacher supervision and help (p. 129).
In the long run, ER can be as effective as intensive reading with respect to comprehension, speed, and vocabulary acquisition, but it receives more positive feedback from students (Ahmed & Rajab, 2015; Al-Homoud & Schmitt, 2009, pp. 384-386; Briggs, 2016; Kuhn et al., 2006). Also pointed out by Green (2005), ER is especially important for EFL because it offers broad exposure to the target language and is second only to acquiring the language by living among its native speakers (p. 306. Despite this, learners typically do not develop their understanding and knowledge of grammar rules during ER (Haider & Akhter, 2012), but they may enjoy other positive outcomes. For instance, Al Harrasi (2012) points out that ER helps to develop a childs imagination and creativity, and Ahmed and Rajab (2015) also mention the development of good reading habits.
The fact that reading and ER have a positive effect on EFL progress has been proven by numerous studies (Al-Homoud & Schmitt, 2009, p. 384), including those focused on Arab YLs (Ahmed & Rajab, 2015; Al Harrasi, 2012). For example, Ahmed and Rajab (2015) carried out a longitudinal quantitative study with 112 primary school EFL Arab students. The study not only indicated improvements in language proficiency through the use of ER, but it also provided significant observations and implications. In particular, the authors highlighted the positive effect of extensive exposure to English in an environment that is almost devoid of it. Also, the study provided visible proof of enhanced motivation and enthusiasm, which are especially important for elementary-level classes because of the feelings of intimidation that children typically experience reading at that level of proficiency.
Ultimately, the benefits of ER from the point of view of EFL teaching to YLs are apparent: ER provides a pleasurableand thus motivatingmeans of extensively exposing a child to English. It has been discovered that ER is often supported by teachers, but it remains rather innovative for the majority of Arabian countries (Haider & Akhter, 2012; Shabani & Ghasemi, 2014). ER can be carried out in a variety of ways, and TBLT is one of them; when implemented successfully, TBLT provides a flexible and non-constricting framework for ER (Green, 2005).
Task-Based Language Teaching, ER, and YL
TBLT is a relatively mature and famous approach (Butler & Zeng, 2013; Carless, 2003; Long, 2014), which has been used in teaching for almost 40 years. It is an interesting fact that TBLT was primarily developed in Arab and Asian contexts (Thomas & Reinders, 2015, pp. 12-13), which makes it likely to be appropriate for Arab learners. TBLT is a set of principles rather than an approach to teaching, but several key points need to be preserved to keep to TBLT.
Tasks and YLs
Tasks are a suitable approach to teaching YLs (Carless, 2002; Carless, 2003), and this fact can be explained by the specifics of TBLT. Samuda and Bygate (as cited in Harmer, 2008) suggest the following definition of a task: it is a holistic activity which engages language use in order to achieve some non-linguistic outcome while meeting a linguistic challenge, with the overall aim of promoting language learning through process or product or both (p. 174).
A task is the basis of TBLT learning activities, which indicates that TBLT is an upside-down version of the PPP approach. The PPP approach suggests asking learners to apply new knowledge (Production) after receiving the teachers presentation of it and Practicing it (Hakim, 2015). In TBLT, the priorities are reversed: the application of the language becomes primary with respect to its study (Najjari, 2014), and the language (the form) is not supposed to define the meaning (the task); rather, the former may and should come after the latter (Harmer, 2008, p. 175). This approach is useful for YLs since it does not focus on the mistakes and difficulties that a beginner in a language study is going to experience, but, at the same time, it is also suitable for EFL YLs since it entails an extensive application of the language.
TBLT and ER
TBLT can be directed at ER, which allows combining the advantages of both. In particular, TBLT has the potential of providing children with the skilled help that is considered a positive addition to ER (Haider & Akhter, 2012), the lack of which is capable of rendering the method ineffective altogether (Green, 2005). TBLT has three elements: pre-task activities, the task itself, and the post-task activities (Hakim, 2015). The first allows one to provide the necessary instructions and motivation, both of which are necessary for EFL YLs. Green (2005) especially points out that a lack of clear reading purpose makes ER ineffective (p. 310). The last element presupposes the revision and evaluation of the students performance, which provides another beneficial opportunity for EFL students to use the language (Shabani & Ghasemi, 2014).
The Use of TBLT
TBLT was found suitable for language learning in various contexts (Hakim, 2015), including YL work and reading skills development (Butler & Zeng, 2013). An important benefit of TBLT is its orientation towards practice (Najjari, 2014), which makes it especially suitable for EFL teaching since the latter is also concerned with the extensive application of language during lessons to compensate for its absence in the general environment. Also, TBLT is a learner-centered type of teaching approach (Hakim, 2015; Long, 2014), which puts it in line with the modern understanding of the role of the teacher as a facilitator (OKeeffe & McCarthy, 2016).
As a result, TBLT is viewed as an interactive, engaging, and motivating form of teaching, which is especially important for EFL YLs. However, it may also be interesting to point out another perspective on TBLT. Littlewood (2007) dwells on the motivational issues that a TBLT EFL teacher experiences in a classroom of Arab YLs (p. 244). This research shows that to make TBLT engaging, the teacher must make the effort to engage, and here a combination of TBLT and the motivational method of ER can be effective.
Implementing TBLT ER in Arab EFL Classrooms
The practice of teaching foreign languages (in particular, English compulsory education) to YLs is a relatively new but very popular trend in Arabian countries, and Arab teachers fully support this initiative (Al Malihi, 2015). The context of the country, in which the learning is implemented, has always been of significance for English teaching (Al Malihi, 2015; Carless, 2002; Hakim, 2015). In Oman, the lack of English context in everyday life is compensated by the opportunities for EFL YLs that have been introduced by globalization, which offers new channels of English exposure, and the governmental support of the EFL teaching (Al-Jardani, 2012). As for the challenges caused by the differences in languages, these are mitigated by the growing experience of Omani teachers (Al Malihi, 2015) and the integration of that of international Arab EFL teachers (Al-Homoud & Schmitt, 2009; Al Malihi, 2015; Hakim, 2015; Najjari, 2014; Shabani & Ghasemi, 2014).
The age of the selected population of students (7-10) implies that they may possess a variety of levels of proficiency. However, given that ER is appropriate starting at an elementary level (Ahmed & Rajab, 2015), it is not a problem; the concern lies in assisting students to find texts that are suitable for their personal level and interests. Here, the funding of EFL teaching should be mentioned: schools need to provide a sufficient number of books or access to electronic libraries (Haider & Akhter, 2012). Omani schools are typically provided with necessary materials (Al-Jardani, 2012), but EFL teachers should engage in the process and help their schools direct the funding and gather an appropriate library. Given the lack of natural exposure to English, such a library would ensure its compensation.
The financial aspect of TBLT ER is also significant for the use of technology-assisted techniques (Al Malihi, 2015). It has been proven that ER is likely to benefit from using computers for reading enhancement, especially for young readers and beginners, which implies that the advocacy for this approach to learning is also in order for a modern Arab EFL YL teacher (Al-Awidi & Ismail, 2012). Finally, because the Internet is one of the few environments in which Omani children are exposed to the English language (Al-Jardani, 2012), a teacher can encourage students to use the Internet for ER materials search. However, it is important to provide scaffolding and involve parents in the process of teaching children to use the Internet safely. Moreover, teaching children to use the Internet safely for educational purposes is likely to provide them with the opportunity to increase their exposure to the English language in the long term (Green, 2005).
As was mentioned earlier, TBLT provides more than enough opportunities for scaffolding, the importance of which is explained by Piagets and Vygotskys approaches. The literature choice and Internet instructions can be regarded as the scaffolding for the pre-test phase; as for the post-test one, it appears logical to develop appropriate but varied and creativity-related activities, especially with YLs who are naturally creative (Haider & Akhter, 2012).
This decision will also contribute to the childrens motivation. Also, in certain cases, these activities can integrate other skills, for example, speaking (a short performance) or writing (a written task, for instance, a short story about the future of characters from a book). Green (2005) especially favors the latter variant, motivating the choice by the opportunity to use the output (childrens works) as another level of reading. The author suggests that the existence of an audience makes writers more motivated. Moreover, because the writers level of English is comparable to that of the readers, it is easier for the readers to comprehend the texts. As a result, TBLT ER can provide both motivation and an opportunity for the additional application of the English language for Omani EFL students.
Naturally, the rest of the aspects of child involvement (for example, discipline, motivation, and the use of mother tongue) must be considered in an Arabian classroom as well (Al Harrasi, 2012; Littlewood, 2007). Here, the international experience of EFL teaching can be used to obtain ideas; for instance, the report by Garton, Copland, and Burns (2011) provides a number of interesting solutions to commonly encountered issues. For example, the authors dwell on the experience of an EFL teacher who resolves the motivation issue by providing children with a special reading space that has comfortable seats, including those atypical for a classroom (for instance, mats).
The experiences of EFL teachers appear to be a source of invaluable knowledge, but it is important to remember that individual institutions and even classrooms are likely to have specific contexts that need to be taken into account by the teacher. Similarly, it should be mentioned that our understanding of EFL teaching to YLs is still developing (Al Malihi, 2015). The specific environment, in which a teacher finds himself or herself, is likely to require creative, unusual solutions and suggestions. In the future, this experience can be used for the development of personal frameworks and to contribute to the growing bulk of research on the EFL YLs teaching.
Conclusion
The present paper regards the concepts of TBLT and ER as applied to EFL YLs teaching in Omani classrooms. The challenges that Omani children experience in EFL learning result in specific needs for such a classroom; apart from that, it also has the typical needs of EFL YLs, which includes the requirements for instructions, support, engagement, and motivation from the teacher and funding from the institution. The Omani environment provides opportunities for EFL children, which include governmental support and a growing bulk of teacher experience in overcoming challenges and offering skilled help. However, the environment lacks English language exposure, which makes the extensive work with the language in ER even more applicable to an Omani EFL classroom.
Apart from that ER is especially suitable for YLs due to its motivational nature. Similarly, TBLT is most appropriate for EFL YLs due to its student-centered and practice-based approach, and the potential for learners engagement and motivation. As a result, the effective integration of TBLT and ER combines their benefits to help in addressing the needs of an Omani YLs classroom by offering learners extensive exposure to the English language, as well as a chance to apply the English language in an engaging, motivational, and pleasurable way. It can be concluded that the application of TBLT ER in Arab EFL YL classroom is a justified decision, but its implementation requires a sufficient amount of customization and careful consideration of the learners specific and generic needs and opportunities.
Hakim, B. (2015). The Role of Learning Styles in the Success of TBLT in EFL Classrooms in Saudi Arabia. International Journal Of Applied Linguistics And English Literature, 4(3), 205-211. Web.
Halliwell, S. (1992). Teaching English in the primary classroom. London, UK: Longman.
The dissertations primary objective was to investigate two techniques for teaching English lexis vocabulary in Japanese high schools. In their verbal communications, the participants chosen for the study had hardly learned English language vocabulary. The dissertations secondary objective is to work out how these two techniques related to a participants (a) preferred learning style, (b) working memory ability, (c) vocabulary knowledge breadth, (d) passage comprehension, and (e) proficiency in English. According to its author, to successively achieve its second objective, the dissertation identifies the best predictors of vocabulary learning through oral output ( Vocabulary acquisition through, 2009).
Research questions
The first research question in the dissertation seeks to discover how the acquisition of English language vocabulary differs in three contexts. In the first context, a learner listens when they are not familiar with the new words used in the experiment. In the second context, the learner listens, and he or she can recognize target words. In the third context, the learner listens and recognizes target words, but he or she cannot define them in the English language. The second research question in the study seeks to determine the degree to which acquisition of English language vocabulary differs concerning a participants learning channel preferences. Having identified six possible predictor variables, the third research question in the study seeks to determine how well each variable predicts the acquisition of English language vocabulary among our participants (or learners) from an oral output. According to the author, these six predictor variables are working memory capacity, listening competence, grammatical competence, vocabulary size, learning styles, and passage comprehension ( Vocabulary acquisition through, 2009).
Methods and instruments
One of the key instruments used in the dissertation is the reading span test (RST) ( Vocabulary acquisition through, 2009). Alterations to the test enabled it to give an estimate of the participants capacity of working memory. In addition to these, the alterations ensured that the RST test was not too difficult for the participants. The alterations involved applying Tom Cobbs Vocab profile to examine the lexical composition of the sentences constructed for the study. The modifications ensured that 99.1% of the first 2000 words of the passage to be read by the participants comprised proper nouns that most Japanese high school students are familiar with e.g., London and Europe. An exception, though, was made to the word economics, which means that it remained unmodified in the passage( Vocabulary acquisition through, 2009). The rationale for this is that economics is an AWL word that the participants had learned, and therefore it was safe to assume that they had not forgotten it.
In the adaptive RST test designed for the study, the author of the dissertation states that the participants listened to sets of English sentences and tried to recall the final word in each sentence and write it on the answer sheet ( Vocabulary acquisition through, 2009). In addition to these, the author also states that the participants were further asked to answer a true-false comprehension question given orally at the end of each set ( Vocabulary acquisition through, 2009). This, according to the author, ensured that the participants were processing the meaning of the sentences ( Vocabulary acquisition through, 2009). Test scores were determined using a variant of the Rasch model. The resulting scores known as Rasch logits (Bond & Fox, 2001) were considered apt estimates of an individuals working memory ability.
The second key instrument used in the dissertation is the University Entrance Examination Center Test (UEECT). In Japan, it is a requirement that all national and public university entrants undertake the UEECT test. The test includes a grammar and a listening section. In the dissertation, the UEECT test was used to estimate the listening comprehension proficiency of participants first, and second, the grammatical knowledge of participants. The listening section of the UEECT test, which comprises four parts and 25 multiple-choice questions, was used to derive an estimate of the listening comprehension proficiency of participants ( Vocabulary acquisition through, 2009). The results of this test for each participant were subjected to a Rasch analysis procedure. The outputs of this procedure were Rasch logits, which were considered apt estimates of a participants listening proficiency.
The grammar section of the UEECT test was used to derive an estimate of the participants grammatical knowledge ( Vocabulary acquisition through, 2009). At this point, the participants answered 20 questions taken from past UEECT grammar tests. The results of this test for each participant were subjected to a Rasch analysis procedure. The outputs of this procedure were Rasch logits, which were considered apt estimates of a participants grammatical knowledge.
Another key instrument used in the study is the Vocabulary Size Test (VST). According to the author of the dissertation, this instrument tested a participants breadth of vocabulary knowledge. The test involves choosing the correct definition of a vocabulary from a list of four possible choices. The VST test for the dissertation had 40 questions, and it was designed such that it measured the written receptive knowledge of the first 4,000 words of English ( Vocabulary acquisition through, 2009). The results of this test for each participant were subjected to a Rasch analysis procedure. The outputs of this procedure were Rasch logits, which were considered apt estimates of a participants breadth of vocabulary knowledge.
Another key instrument used in this study is the Learning Channel Preference Checklist (LCPC). The checklist, which was developed by Neff, is usable as a tool for measuring the learning preferences of students learning foreign languages (Neff 2006). Individuals who attain high visual scores are those that effectively learn foreign languages through visual information. Individuals who attain high auditory scores are those that effectively learn foreign languages through dialogues. Individuals who attain high haptic scores are those that effectively learn foreign languages through undertaking practical activities. In the dissertation, having obtained permission from Dr. Neff, the modification was made to item 35 on the checklist. The participants were then subjected to the checklist. The results from this stage enabled the participants to be categorized into the groups above, depending on where they scored the highest.
Another instrument used in the study is listening passages ( Vocabulary acquisition through, 2009). The participants of the study read nine passages taken from the Japanese TOEFL practice book and TOEFL tests. These passages were chosen because they contained an appropriate number of vocabulary and that they became understandable when the meaning of the vocabulary was provided. The passages had similar readability statistics, and their lexical compositions analyzed using Tom Cobbs Vocabprofile indicated that they were not too difficult. The results of this test for each participant were subjected to a Rasch analysis procedure. The outputs of this procedure were Rasch logits, which were considered apt estimates of a participants ability to comprehend passages.
Another instrument used in the study is the vocabulary checklist ( Vocabulary acquisition through, 2009). In this test, participants were asked to translate 57 words taken out nine passages from the English language into the Japanese language. Finally, the other instrument used in the study is the Immediate and Delayed Recognition and Multiple-choice Posttests test. The use of this instrument was necessitated by the realization that to test vocabulary knowledge, multiple tests have to be used. A single test only measures a single aspect of knowledge (Waring and Takaki, 2003). The results of this test for each participant were subjected to a Rasch analysis procedure. The outputs of this procedure were Rasch logits, which were considered apt estimates of a participants ability to acquire vocabulary.
Participants
The sample used in the experiment for this dissertation had 116 participants, 63 of whom were females, and the rest (53) were males ( Vocabulary acquisition through, 2009). The participants were second-year Japanese students of a privately owned senior high school located in western Japan. At the time of the study, these students had exhibited superior academic performance. These students studied English for 6 hours a week for four years. The study process comprised of reading, writing, and listening courses. At the time of the experiment, the reading and writing courses ran for 50 minutes a day and for 4 and 3 hours a week, respectively. The activities necessitated by this experiment were integrated into the students reading course ( Vocabulary acquisition through, 2009). At the time of the study, the participants of the experiment processed good listening skills compared with other Japanese high school studentsthe average score for these participants in the TOEIC exam done after this study was about 450 marks.
Main results
For the first research question, the study results revealed a significant statistical difference in vocabulary acquisition in the three investigated contexts. The contexts are discussed above in the research questions section. Vocabulary acquisition was effective in the first context than in the second context ( Vocabulary acquisition through, 2009). The third context was the least effective ( Vocabulary acquisition through, 2009). For the second research question, the study results showed no significant difference in vocabulary acquisition between the three preferred learning channels ( Vocabulary acquisition through, 2009). For the third research question, the results of the study showed that, of the six predictor variables passage comprehension, vocabulary size and grammatical competence were the better predictors of Vocabulary acquisition through, oral output ( Vocabulary acquisition through, 2009).
Conclusions
One of the main conclusions of the study is that the effective acquisition of lexical vocabulary is achievable by combining three elements. These elements as given by the author are (a) the judicious use of the native language on the teachers part, (b) a reasonably good level of lexical and grammatical knowledge on the students part, and (c) listening passages that are pitched at a level that is comprehensible to the learners ( Vocabulary acquisition through, 2009). The other conclusion made in the study is that English language vocabulary in the case of the participants studied is effectively learned through adaptive aural output, which is modified such that; vocabulary is introduced in the English language and its meaning explained using the Japanese language ( Vocabulary acquisition through, 2009). Folse (2004) also proposed this arrangement.
Sample proposed study
Title
The combination of classroom tasks that improve English lexis acquisition: An effort to improve the English language-learning curriculum in Japanese high schools.
Purpose of the study
Previous research has established that English lexis acquisition among the participants targeted in this study does not differ significantly between visual, auditory, and haptic learners. Knowing this, the purpose of this study is to investigate and determine the right combination of classroom tasks that optimize English lexis acquisition in (a) visual learners (b) auditory learners and (c) haptic learners. With its study focused on Japanese high-school students, the report further purposes of making recommendations on how to improve the current English teaching and learning curriculum.
Justification for the study
The curriculum proposed by this study is intended to form a basis for creating English learning classes in Japanese high schools in which learners are provided with equal opportunities for learning and acquiring English Lexis. Taking note that listening skills differ significantly among its targeted students, the study intends to achieve its purpose through designing a combination of tasks that optimize English lexis acquisition in a learners primary and secondary preferred learning channels. This idea is supported by Reid (1987 p. 101), who states that it is important to design flexible teaching methods that accommodate the variations in learning styles that may exist in a classroom. Kinsellas (1995) adds weight to this argument by stating that when lessons are presented visually as well as verbally, and reinforced through writing, drawing, or speaking activities, students are not only able to learn in the way best suited to their style but also to develop a full and varied repertoire of modality strengths (p. 175). Kroon (1985) and Rochford (2003) have argued that the degree to which an individual learns, among other things, depends on the extent to which the teaching method correlates with the individuals preferred learning style.
Research questions
Which tasks optimize English lexis acquisition among Japanese high school students who learn better from visual information (or who are visual learners)?
Which tasks optimize English lexis acquisition among Japanese high school students who learn better from auditory information (or who are auditory learners)?
Which tasks optimize English lexis acquisition among Japanese high school students who are haptic learners?
What combination and configuration of these tasks ensure optimal English lexis acquisition in a Japanese high school class containing a mixture of visual, auditory, and haptic learners?
How do you integrate the configuration and combination derived from the research question (4) above into the current Japanese high school English teaching and learning curriculum so that its quality is improved?
The rationale of the study
The study intends to be a pioneer research effort in improving English lexis acquisition among Japanese high school students.
Considering that good performance in English is a university requirement in Japanese national and public universities, the study also intends to build a curriculum that improves students performance in the subject.
This study can also form a basis for improving foreign language lexis acquisition in contexts where English is the target language.
Methods and instruments
The study will mainly make use of quantitative data in studying its subjects. The ultimate result of using quantitative data is that it will be possible to select the best listening skills for English lexis acquisition for visual, auditory, and haptic learners. To develop effective instruction procedures for the three categories of learners, listening tasks that trigger different learning styles will be used. The effectiveness of the instruction procedures will be measured quantitatively and qualitatively. The listening tasks will be designed in a way that they tap into the different learning styles. A quantitative measure of each listening task concerning a given learning style will reveal its effectiveness and, ultimately, its quality.
One of the key instruments in this study will be Neffs checklist. The checklist will enable the study participants to be categorized either as visual, auditory, or haptic learners (Neff 2006). The scores the participants will attain after undertaking the checklist will determine their category. A high visual score will imply that a participant is a visual learner. A high auditory score will imply that a participant is an auditory learner, and a high haptic score will imply that a participant is a haptic learner. Another key instrument in this study will be TOEFL and UEECT tests. Sets of questions will be devised from questions in previous TOEFL and UEECT tests. For each listening skill, participants will answer a particular set of questions. The average score will be taken as a fair estimate of the effectiveness of the listening task. Statistical hypothesis testing is the other key instrument in this study. The statistical hypothesis will be used to determine if there is any significant difference between the listening tasks and which tasks are better. The hypothesis will be tested at a 0.05 level of significance. After linearly combining the listening tasks, a further statistical hypothesis will reveal which combination is better.
Participants
Given that this is an addendum study, the same high school will be used. Given that one of the intentions of this study is to propose a curriculum that improves English learning in Japanese high schools, the sample chosen will contain students with different academic abilities. The study intends to retain the sample size of 116 participants with 63 females and 53 males.
Data collection and analysis procedure
The activities of this study will be integrated into the English courses of the participants. As such, the participants will not be aware that they are being studied. Data will be collected as test scores and compiled into descriptive statistics. The descriptive statistics will be used in the formulation and testing of the statistical hypothesis.
Definition of terms
Learning
According to Robinson (2001), learning is a result of the interaction between learner characteristics and the instructional contexts in which learning takes place.
Visual learners
Visual learners are individuals who get high visual scores concerning Neffs checklist. This implies that such individuals learn English lexis better through visual information (Neff 2006).
Auditory learners
Auditory learners are individuals who get high auditory scores concerning Neffs checklist. This implies that such individuals learn English lexis better through verbal information (Neff 2006).
Haptic learners
Haptic learners are individuals who get high haptic scores concerning Neffs checklist. This implies that such individuals learn English lexis better through practical activities (Neff 2006).
References
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