The chosen study by Laux examines the association between deferred tax assets and liabilities and future tax payments. The authors hypotheses are based on previous literature, and the findings suggest that an asymmetrical correlation between deferred tax figures and future tax payments in the reviewed firm (Laux 1357). This study serves to empirically validate the prior theoretical assumptions, thus offering a new perspective on the research of deferred tax assets and liabilities.
The author also states that the study could potentially impact accounting standard-setters, as it identifies a significant gap in the ASC 740 (Laux 1381). The present paper aims to provide a summary of the research study and to speculate on its significance to further research.
Summary
Using financial statements information, the author performs an empirical analysis by conducting a cross-sectional regression analysis of future tax payments based on current taxes payable and the deferred tax variables. The findings are asymmetrical, with significant variations between deferred tax variables included in GAAP income before and after taxable income (Laux 1359). For instance, the deferred tax variable included in GAAP prior to taxable income correlates with future tax payments, whereas the figures included in GAAP income after taxable income do not (Laux 1359). The second part of the research also found that investors tend to value deferred tax assets and liabilities included in GAAP income prior to taxable income (Laux 1359).
Importance
The introductory part of the paper serves to identify the theoretical basis for the empirical study. For instance, the author reviews a variety of theoretical assumptions offered by previous studies. Laux notes that there is a significant conflict within the research community on the question of whether or not deferred tax assets and liabilities might be used to predict future tax payments (1358). Therefore, the study serves to provide empirical support for the previous assumptions.
The author also establishes the significance of the research question, explaining that determining the presence of a strong association between deferred taxes and future tax payments could be used to improve the current financial accounting standards (Laux 1358). According to Laux, accounting for the deferred taxes is a complicated and costly procedure, whereas the FASB is obligated to consider whether the benefits of reporting particular information are likely to justify the costs incurred to provide and use that information (1358). Therefore, determining the usefulness of deferred tax accounting in providing financial predictions could help to improve the standards.
Conclusion
Overall, the study provides some important insights into the accounting theory and standards. However, there are some questions on the topic that were not addressed in the research. For instance, if the deferred tax assets and liabilities included in GAAP income before taxable income are more valuable than those included in taxable income, would there be any way to use just those figures for tax payment predictions? Also, since the author notes that the results cannot be generalized to firms outside of the scope of the present research (Laux 1382), what are the firm characteristics that make the research results applicable to a firm?
These questions could be addressed in further research on the topic, as they would help to complete the empirical results achieved by the author. Further research on the association between deferred tax variables and future tax payments could be used to inform the standards of accounting reporting, making the procedure more cost-effective and useful.
Works Cited
Laux, Rick C. The Association between Deferred Tax Assets and Liabilities and Future Tax Payments. The Accounting Review, vol. 88, no. 4, 2013, pp. 1357-1383.
Tax departments are constantly seeking ways to improve their processes to provide more value-added services to Human resource management. Tax accountants can focus on value-added jobs that enhance their perceived value within the firm by using blockchain and Alteryx technologies tools to handle rule-based, repeated chores. The accuracy and efficiency of the repeated tax workflow process are improved by automating it. More importantly, automation enables a corporation like PWC to focus its company tax professionals on strategic challenges such as tax optimization.
Blockchain
A blockchain is a distributed or decentralized digital civic ledger used to tape connections across several processors so that any information connected cannot be changed retrospectively without causing modifications in subsequent blocks (Kim, 2021). Furthermore, blockchain has led to the elimination of probable intermediaries in the supply chain management sector, which could increase the cost of manufacturing and diminish net profit. KPMG accounting departments also use database management systems to ensure that data is entered correctly into their records, which reduces the impact of mistakes.
Blockchain and Tax Administration
One of the technologies that have the potential to change the way tax systems work is blockchain. It is now being implemented to modernize existing tax systems and administrations. Only the relevant tax administration would be able to view or update the information if it was stored on an authorized private blockchain (Kim, 2021). Through the linkage of bank accounts, taxes would be transferred immediately to the tax administration whenever a taxable event occurred, such as the payment for a good by a final customer.
Blockchain Advantages
The transparency of Deloitte Company holds great potential for reducing tax avoidance and tax evasion not only domestically but also internationally, in part because of streamlined and improved country-by-country (CbC) reporting. This application of technology is viable, provided the data stored on the ledgers are eligible for exchange under the provisions of existing international agreements and tax treaties (Lyutova & Fialkovskaya, 2021). Blockchain may mean increased reliance on the technical expertise of private parties when functions are outsourced.
Blockchain Disadvantages
The absence of a consistent regulatory framework makes investment in and operation of either public or private blockchains challenging, given the uncertain legal status of the applications and the contracts developed and implemented following the applications. Transition to the new, potentially disruptive technology is likely to be both resource and time-intensive (Lyutova & Fialkovskaya, 2021). Therefore, it is important to identify indications that suggest blockchain is necessary versus when identified deficiencies can be addressed by alternative means, such as enhanced databases or manual controls.
Alteryx
Alteryx Server is a software offering that allows Alteryx Designer workflows to be published, scheduled, administered, secured, and monitored. It also provides a way for users to run and interact with workflows built by other users (Baruti, 2017). Alteryx Server provides a central location to store workflows and built-in version control that tracks changes, who made the changes, when the changes were made, and grants users the ability to download any prior version. Version control adds a level of safety and security required by organizations scaling Alteryx across groups of users.
Alteryx and Tax Administration
Alteryx can transform the way businesses manage tax because it is the world’s most powerful data processing and analytics platform. One of Alteryx’s main goals is to assist businesses like Ernst & Young in gaining access to comprehensive analytics (Baruti, 2017). It will enable businesses to go deep into their data and pinpoint their most difficult problems. It also aims to standardize corporate data, determine its exact location, and verify it. Even if a problem only occurs once a year or even less frequently, Alteryx will identify it and ensure that it is resolved.
Alteryx Advantages
Alteryx’s advantages are that it automatically and intuitively prepares and mixes data, has a simple drag-and-drop interface, and takes almost no time to understand. The platform allows users to collect data in various forms and from a variety of sources, such as databases, warehouses, Hadoop stores, and Microsoft Office files (Baruti, 2017). Alteryx can be considered a comprehensive platform because it is neutral in its data outputs and covers most aspects of the analytics process. Rather than focusing on a particular technology, Alteryx ensured that its platform was compatible with all major data sources. Alteryx saves money and effort in the long term since it is customizable, personalized, and straightforward.
Alteryx Disadvantages
This tool’s free version has its limitations, as it does not allow for very large file sizes or complex data types. However, it can still be used to perform most basic data analysis tasks and is a good option for people new to statistical software who want to try out different scenarios before making any additional investments in a subscription-based plan (Baruti, 2017). Although Alteryx enables users to explore and perform basic data visualizations, it is not a good tool for building complex dashboards or reports. Many people have been disappointed with Alteryx because it can be difficult to learn (Baruti, 2017). Alteryx is a little expensive, which can be an issue for those just getting started.
Conclusion
The introduction of cloud-based accounting solutions has been revolutionary. Nonetheless, the cloud may likely fade in contrast to distributed ledger technology, which can become an inevitable digital disruption to alter the whole corporate sector. Since blockchain and related platforms such as Alteryx radically transform the way transactions are performed and stored, the accounting sector, especially tax management, is poised to undergo the greatest change.
References
Baruti, R. (2017). Learning Alteryx: A beginner’s guide to using Alteryx for self-service analytics and business intelligence. Packt Publishing Ltd.
Kim, Y. R. C. (2020). Blockchain Initiatives for Tax Administration. In 113th Annual Conference on Taxation. NTA.
Lyutova, O. I., & Fialkovskaya, I. D. (2021). Blockchain technology in tax law theory and tax administration. RUDN Journal of Law, 25(3), 693-710. Web.
The black tax as a forced measure of affluent black representatives to pay for their extended family life has an ambiguous impact and leads to a diminished quality of life through a number of psychological problems. This study evaluates black tax practices through an autoethnographic analysis of my personal life and the experiences of a focus group of six individuals, five of whom are members of the black community. A literature review is used to assess existing knowledge of the research problem. An individual and multi-stakeholder interview model is used to collect primary data, and reflections and ideas are recorded in a reflective journal.
Summary
Opening Paragraph
The Institute for Policy Studies reports that approximately one in three families (37%) have zero or negative wealth — the reason for this phenomenon of socio-economic inequality is the effects of the black tax prevalent on the African continent (Institute for Policy Studies, 2019, p. 4). The black tax burden is a socio-economic phenomenon arising from the compelled need of a member of the black community — predominantly African — to support his family financially. On the one hand, it is a necessity that brings the family closer together and creates strong kinship ties, but on the other hand, it is the price that the wealthier black person has to pay for virtually his entire life to the social injustices of the world. Black communities historically have fewer economic benefits than members of other ethnic groups. They are limited in their choice of school and the quality of education they receive, which affects their ability to pursue employment and, as a result, intensifies the gap between communities. Conducting an autoethnographic analysis allows me to explore the burden of the black tax through my example and the life practices of my kin and relatives, which in turn extends the theoretical framework of this phenomenon. Thus, the qualitative study of this problem is dictated by the academic need to develop ideas about the burden of the black tax.
Brief Review of Previous Research
Studying the effects of the black tax is a hot topic on today’s academic agenda: numerous authors have investigated the problem in various contexts. Gnanadass et al. (2022) refer to the black tax as the psychological burden that black individuals experience based on the perception of their construction by the white community (p. 61). In other words, the black tax is inextricably linked to black self-identity and determines the experience of their life practices. It has also been reported that the black tax is a common advantage practice in South Africa, whose cultural stratum includes extended families with multiple children and elderly relatives (Carpenter and Phaswana, 2021, p. 612). Thus, the black tax is a socio-economic burden that black members of society are forced to pay, contributing to the development of their extended family.
The academic study of the black tax has traditionally been associated with the educational system in which black students gain knowledge and experience. The emergence of the term has been associated with globalization processes that have resulted in more diverse students gaining access to education. However, the educational system was unprepared for the rapid redefinition of anti-black practices that initially articulated ethnic inequalities (Hunter, 2019, p. 130). It has also been reported that the black tax is spreading in academia, where black employees in academic institutions must spend more time facilitating the adaptation of members of their community as opposed to White professionals (Akin, 2020, p. 479). In other words, the black tax is built on underlying causal relationships, the essence of which boils down to a vicious circle in which an individual who has achieved some financial freedom is forced to give part of his paycheck to provide his family members with a better education.
Being forced to help family members with finances causes black individuals to work twice as hard as members of other communities. Research shows that regular remittances make black people feel dissatisfied with their savings and, as a result, limit their quality of life (Mangoma and Wilson-Prangley, 2019, p. 443). The situation is further exacerbated by rising unemployment in regions of South Africa and the resulting decline in the socioeconomic well-being of black families (Metelerkamp, Drimie, and Biggs, 2019, p. 155). Thus, academic discourse reveals the substantial cyclicality of the black tax problem and dictates the need to address it.
Problem Statement
My brief analysis of the academic literature reveals the significance of the black tax problem, the consequence of which is the compulsion to work harder and a marked decline in the quality of life for members of the black population. Individuals desire to pay for their family members’ lives can be understood in terms of ethical considerations of humanity and family cohesion but is called into question in the context of socio-economic equality. Members of other ethnic groups are often born into an environment that favors their healthy personal and professional development, which is unfair to black communities. The black tax problem is exacerbated by stigma, especially from family members who may misunderstand an individual’s concerns and label them selfish and unwilling to show concern for their relatives (Mbuzo, 2018). In the long run, the individual risks being held hostage to a situation in which family members — especially the unemployed — expect regular financial support without concern for the psychological well-being of the paying individual. However, there is a dearth of helpful knowledge in the academic literature regarding the personal experiences of individuals confronted with the practice of the black tax. The purpose of the current qualitative study is to explore, in an autoethnographic way, the unfair experiences of the black tax and the perceived consequences that have a destructive effect on my family members and me. From an academic perspective, this study makes a valuable contribution to the development of understanding of the black tax through the description of unique experiences. It is expected that the multiplication of knowledge on this topic will ultimately form a system of recommendations that will significantly change this practice.
Purpose Statement
Thus, the purpose of this qualitative study, based on an analysis of personal experiences and those of acquaintances who have encountered the black tax problem, is to explore this phenomenon. The research design explores the experience of the black tax by affluent professionals living in affluent areas of Pretoria, forced to pay for the lives of their extended family members from poor and rural areas of the capital. My personal life experiences and perceived consequences of having to pay this tax are explored in-depth both in individual interviews through an observation diary and in an interactive focus group comprised predominantly of affluent black professionals. The findings suggest how heavy the burden of the black tax is and whether it is perceived differentially by different individuals. All of this contributes to the ultimate goal of this study, which is to develop a better understanding of the black tax phenomenon for Pretoria residents.
Main Contributions of the Proposed Study
The present study makes multiple contributions to academic discourse. First, the study conceptualizes the black tax problem by collecting data from the most recent studies, and systematizing and structuring the known evidence. This will summarize the available data and assess the relevance of the current black tax agenda in the academic community. Second, the study contextualizes the effects of the black tax on affluent professionals from Pretoria, creating opportunities for analysis of personal life practices. Primary data collected through individual and multi-stakeholder interviews shed light on subjective assessments of the problem of unfair taxation. Third, in the long run, the research forms a practical value to form useful recommendations and strategies to minimize the undesirable effects of the black tax. The synthesis of academic data and first-person testimony allows us to correlate results and uncover any disruptive factors in the lives of members of the black community.
Discussion of Your Own Literature Sources
The burden of the black tax is a severe socio-economic factor that has an ambiguous impact on the quality of life of black individuals. The practice of the black tax determines an individual’s forced need to pay the bills for general expenses, medicine, and education for members of his or her family who lack the financial means to do so (Khalfani-Cox, 2021). This phenomenon exists because culturally black families — predominantly South African — find themselves quite extended: they include multiple children, elderly parents, and grandparents (Reyes, 2019, p. 783). The extended nature of the family entails the need to provide for each of them, which is a burden on the parents; as a consequence, already-grown wealthy relatives can financially help their family members. The ambiguity of this effect is that, on the one hand, the family is indeed better off due to outside financial support, but on the other hand, the burden of payment falls on the shoulders of the well-off individual, significantly reducing their quality of life.
The phenomenon of the black tax as a compulsion to pay for the lives of one’s relatives is not specific to regions of South Africa but is, in fact, present in any continent where extended black families live. In the United States, for example, it has been reported that the average annual income for a black family is less than 13% of that for a white family, inherently creating economic inequality (Bhutta, Chang, and Dettling, 2020). Regions of South Africa, however, are a traditional geographic locus for academic discourse on the issue, mainly because the preponderance of locals regularly experience practices of poverty and socio-economic inequality (Carpenter and Phaswana, 2021). Thus, it is correct to postulate that while the problem of the black tax is most significant for poor regions of the planet with traditionally extended families, the practice of this burden turns out to be substantially broader.
The historical roots of the black tax phenomenon stem from the practices of racism and the socio-economic dominance of white ethnic groups. Institutionalized racism, as Mdluli calls it, penetrated deeply into the democratic foundations of South African communities and significantly altered local practices (Mdluli, 2018, p. 1). It has been reported that the cultural influence of Western philosophy shifted collectivist views of local African life and created a condition for the development of the nuclear family (Mikioni, 2019, p. iv). Individuals were then able to break out of the family community and achieve individual economic well-being but often could not allow relatives to remain at the same low standard of living — it was for this reason that the enduring concept of the well-off blacks paying for the lives of their relatives emerged.
Consequently, an agenda is created in which even well-off Africans are disadvantaged by the racist practices of the world order. Access to knowledge and employment provides black individuals with a social elevator that enables them to take high-paying jobs, earn a steady income, and substantially improve their quality of life. However, the black tax takes this away because it forces such individuals to regularly give up some of their resources. According to Walker and Palmer, black students who find themselves surrounded by whites have to work twice as hard to achieve the same results (Walker and Palmer, 2020). Thus, research has shown that in highly valued academia, black people find themselves forced to spend personal time promoting the adjustment of members of their community. Specifically, Akin pointed out that black professors are 10% less likely to receive funding and grants from national institutions in the United States mainly because their research time is reduced by constant participation in diverse groups and support for ethnic minority adaptation, as opposed to White scholars (Akin, 2020, p. 479). Thus, the black tax cycle is marked as early as the knowledge stage, when black populations are systemically discriminated against and, consequently, cannot qualify for large payments.
The black tax is not a strictly financial term but also reflects the psychological characteristics of the phenomenon. Gnanadass et al. postulates the black tax as a problem that is viewed through the lens of black people’s perception of self-identity by white representatives (Gnanadass et al., 2022, p. 61). In particular, ethnic minorities are inherently disadvantaged because of the trend toward anti-racist attitudes in Western communities — in other words; they are held hostage to their image and forced to carry out life practices through it (Walker and Palmer, 2020). As a result, the psychological well-being of the individual forced to pay for the family suffers first and foremost. Research reports “a vexing practice that grievously affects most young, black professionals in contemporary South Africa” (Montle, 2020, p. 235). Living in a constant need to give away their resources, black individuals, even those who manage to reach some financial and professional heights, significantly reduce their quality of life.
Discussion of Your Autoethnography and Transformative Learning Resources
Autoethnographic analysis as a form of qualitative research allows for self-reflection and the use of personal experience to explore black tax practices. O’Neil showed that the autoethnographic method is rarely found in research, serves academic purposes, and stimulates professional development (O’Neil, 2018, p. 483). For this reason, I chose autoethnography as a form for the present research paper. Self-reflection allows me to evaluate my life practices and create my idea of how much of a burden the black tax is on me.
In deciding to conduct an autoethnographic analysis, a significant issue was the choice of tactics that would allow for valid data collection and reliable results. Turning Anderson’s research provides insight into that reflective journals are the right strategy for collecting information in qualitative research (Anderson, 2012, p. 614). Thus, when reflecting on my own black tax experience, I recorded all reflections in a reflective journal and referred to it every time I wanted to add something. The use of reflective journals, in turn, promotes transformative learning, allowing me to learn new information about myself and extrapolate it for research (O’Neil, 2018, p. 497). Thus, my ethnographic analysis allows for investment in this learning type and positively impacts academic outcomes.
In bringing the autoethnographic method to life, I tried to evaluate my life experiences as thoroughly as possible and capture any ideas directly or indirectly related to the black tax. In particular, I was faced with a disorienting dilemma when studying, during which researching new information about the black tax forced me to reflect on whether or not I had encountered it in my life and how I felt about the practice (Boyd, 2008, p. 213). It was difficult for me to objectively evaluate my experiences when compiling my autoethnography, so I intentionally chose to record any thoughts that occurred to me when thinking about the black tax.
Reference List
Akin, Y. (2020) ‘The time tax put on scientists of colour’, Nature, 583(7816), pp. 479-481.
Anderson, J. (2012) ‘Reflective journals as a tool for auto-ethnographic learning: A case study of student experiences with individualized sustainability’, Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 36(4), pp. 613-623.
Boyd, D. (2008) ‘Autoethnography as a tool for transformative learning about white privilege’, Journal of Transformative Education, 6(3), pp. 212-225.
Carpenter, R. and Phaswana, M. (2021) ‘Black tax: An international exploratory study in the South African context’, Journal of Economic and Financial Sciences, 14(1), pp. 612-621.
Gnanadass, E., et al. (2022). ‘“I’ll take two please… sike”: paying the black tax in adult education’, Adult Learning, 33(2), pp. 61-70.
Hunter, M. (2019) Race for education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Mangoma, A. and Wilson-Prangley, A. (2019) ‘Black tax: understanding the financial transfers of the emerging black middle class’, Development Southern Africa, 36(4), pp. 443-460.
Mbuzo, S. (2018) The conversation around black tax. Web.
Metelerkamp, L., Drimie, S. and Biggs, R. (2019) ‘We’re ready, the system’s not–youth perspectives on agricultural careers in South Africa’, Agrekon, 58(2), pp. 154-179.
Montle, M.E. (2020) ‘Examining the effects of black tax and socio-economic isolation of the black middle-class in South Africa through the study of Skeem Saam’, African Journal of Development Studies, 10(3), pp. 235-241.
O’Neil, S.M. (2018) ‘On becoming a better supervisor: a deconstruction of autoethnography as method for professional development’, South African Journal of Higher Education, 32(6), pp. 483-501.
Reyes, A.M. (2020) ‘Mitigating poverty through the formation of extended family households: Race and ethnic differences’, Social Problems, 67(4), pp. 782-799.
The chosen piece is an article by James Tankersley “Republican Tax Rewrite Helps Some Millionaires but Hurts Others”. The purpose of the piece is to explore the consequences of the recent tax rewrite, pushed by the Republicans. Although the President claimed that the new tax bill would benefit the middle class more than the very rich Americans, Tankersley argues that this is not true. The article was published in The New York Times, which is among the leading news resources in the U.S. Thus, the audience of the piece includes a wide variety of American citizens of all ages and races, who are interested in politics and current events.
The author begins by explaining the Republican tax rewrite; he states that “The bill delivers large breaks to high-earning owners of certain businesses, known as pass-through entities, which comprise most of Mr. Trump’s business empire, and to heirs of large estates, such as Mr. Trump’s children” (Tankersley). Indeed, the bill provides numerous benefits to business owners, while those earning large salaries will be subject to higher taxes.
Therefore, the bill brings further inequality to the more prosperous people of America. It is also impossible not to notice that the bill will be highly advantageous for the President himself, his children, and his political and business partners. Tankersley also refers to the earlier promise made by the President that the bill will benefit middle-class citizens more than those in the high class. However, the key group who will benefit from the bill are the top 1% of the population by income, earning over $500,000 – they would receive half of the bill’s benefits within a decade (Tankersley). Therefore, it is clear that the bill affects the population disproportionately and does not fulfill the President’s promise.
If these issues are left unaddressed, the bill will create disturbance among the general middle-class public, as well as high-income workers facing higher taxes. This could affect the political climate in the country and create issues for the President and the government.
One of the key lessons that can be learned from the event is that tax legislation should take into account the majority of the population, and not only its’ top 1%. The failure to recognize the power of the middle class in disturbing the political climate could, in this case, lead to significant political consequences, undermining the image of the President and Republican officials. Furthermore, it is crucial for political leaders to maintain integrity while introducing new legislation.
In the present case, very limited information about the bill was released to public initially; moreover, the President misinterpreted the meaning of the bill to promote it among the middle class. While the ability to market new legislation is important, a failure to maintain integrity could cause a significant backlash against the leader. An excellent alternative to the government’s actions, in this case, would be to involve the public, consider the interests of the middle class, and provide honest information about the proposed bill.
Overall, the article addresses the learning objectives by showing the importance of considering and evaluating the influence of all parties in the political decision-making process. Moreover, it highlights the need to address communities in legislation planning, as well as to be honest while presenting the legislation to the public. Although it is unclear how the situation will affect the President in the future, it is evident that the government’s actions were unwise. Thus, the article also shows why it is important to have political experience and skills that differentiate a politician from an elected official.
Work Cited
Tankersley, James. “Republican Tax Rewrite Helps Some Millionaires but Hurts Others.” The New York Times. 2017. Web.
The elderly people form a special segment of any society. This is essentially due to the unique age that requires them to be treated well by all. As people grow old, there is a decrease in their physical functioning, as well as a possibility that they lose the independent living status they initially held in society. Consequently, it is essential that governments come up with policies that provide guidance on how to assist the elderly in society.
This is to ensure that they too are able to lead their lives comfortably like the rest of society. This paper explores the policies that have been formulated by the Federal Government which primarily do concern the welfare of the elderly. Moreover, the paper will examine how these policies affect the elderly in the United States of America. These policies are outlined below.
Policy on Tax Breaks
Given that the elderly are limited in the way they can undertake normal activities that generate an income, the government has formulated a policy on tax breaks (Edwards & DeHaven, 2003). Here, there is the provision of preferential treatment to the elderly when it comes to payment of taxes. According to Conway and Rork (2008), despite the fact that there has been a decline in the tax breaks offered, they go a long way in assisting the elderly.
However, during the 2008 presidential campaigns in the United States of America, there were efforts by the candidates to reverse this trend. This was through offering additional tax breaks. For instance, Conway and Rork (2008) reported that President Obama (then a Senator) proposed to eliminate all federal income taxes on the elderly. This was to affect those elderly with incomes of less than $50,000.
Policies on Healthy Aging
The elderly need to be provided with a conducive environment that ensures that they age gracefully in society. As such, the United States government has policies that ensure that the health of the elderly is fully taken care of. One such policy, according to the Healthy States Initiative (2007), is the Decreasing Fall Injuries in Michigan. This policy was formulated in 2002 to cater to the elderly as it had been found that the majority of them suffered from fall-related injuries.
Clinics were established where such cases could be referred to by the families of the affected seniors. Moreover, family members were also trained on how to assist older people who had been affected by injuries related to falls. There is also a policy that provides caregiving options in Vermont. Established in 2005, the Choices for Care Policy allows the elderly in Vermont to where they would prefer to go for care. Given that the majority of the elderly prefer home care, this has seen a reduction in health care costs in Vermont. This policy is advantageous as it meets the needs of an aging society that wish to spend most of their time at home (Burgess & Burgess, 2006).
Federal Housing Policy for the Elderly
The United States Government has formulated a policy that ensures that there is a provision of quality housing for the elderly. For instance, the 2007 Hosing Survey in America showed that 6 percent of the elderly had benefitted from this policy (Sermons & Henry, 2010). The policy, which mainly targets low-income earners in society, has largely been beneficial to the elderly. Under this policy, there are various programs undertaken by the government.
References
Burgess, A. M. & Burgess, C. G., (2006). Aging-in-Place: Present Realities and Future Directions. Forum on Public Policy. Web.
Conway, K. S. & Rork, J. C., (2008). Income Tax Breaks for the Elderly—How Did We Get Here? Public Policy & Aging Report, Vol. 18, No. 4. Web.
Healthy States Initiative, (2007). Keeping the Aging Population Healthy. Legislator Policy Brief. Web.
Sermons, W. M. & Henry, M., (2010). Demographics of Homelessness Series: The Rising Elderly Population. Homeless Research Institute. Research Matters. Web.
My fellow citizens! Our local government has recently announced that they plan to impose a new tax on sweetened beverages, following the example of Berkeley. As you know, they already tried to introduce a similar tax in the fall of 2014, but it failed because we rejected it. Despite our previous refusal to accept this tax, the governors continue their efforts, using the universal concern about sugar and its negative impact on the human body, pretending to care about our health. They also ignore the social context: they know that this tax will be a severe burden to the poor and do-little harm to the wealthy. Considering these facts, I strongly recommend that you vote it down.
Popular Feedback
As you obviously know, it is the people who must be the true governor of the United States. We delegate our rights to the government, including the local government of San Francisco, so that they can perform the measures that are beneficial to us. To know whether the measures that they have enacted are beneficial or not, they ask (or we expect them to ask) our feedback. Only having taken our feedback into consideration, the statesmen should proceed or stop working in a particular direction.
In November 2014, the government proposed us to present our opinion regarding the so-called soda tax via voting. We did present our opinion, and it was negative. The measure needed two-thirds of voters to say “yes” since it had to assign money for a specific purpose. It got slightly more than a half. It is quite obvious that the people of San Francisco did not want this tax.
Now, in less than two years, they ask us to vote on the same tax again. Nothing could actually change in such a short period. It is clear that the local government is ignoring the popular feedback that it received that fall. Instead, they hope that if they formulate their proposition in a different way, we will be so blind as to accept it.
Using the Agenda
Not only do the public officials of San Francisco ignore our feedback, but they also use the current health agenda so artfully that some San Franciscans already begin to believe that the tax is beneficial for our health. As all of us know, in our times, a healthy lifestyle is a top priority. Many people are trying to form healthy food habits. Online journals, TV shows, newspapers speak of the severe danger that sugar poses to our health. Many Americans are doing their best to exclude sugar from their diet.
This hysteria creates the political stream, i.e. the public concern that presents an opportunity to enact a particular policy. Next goes the policy stream, which is the measures that statesmen propose to deal with the issue.
Dear citizens, our task is to create the problem stream. It is a serious obstacle that the policy meets. The simple reason why we should do this is that the politicians are hardly worried about our health. If they were concerned about the sugar in our diet, they would enact an educating campaign, ban the beverages that contain sugar or encourage the production of sugar-free beverages. Instead, they are proposing a soda tax because the only thing they need is higher revenue.
Social Context
While the local government manages to recognize and use the current agenda, it fails to perceive the social context, in which the current events are unfolding. It is a known fact that San Francisco is one of the most expensive cities to live in the entire country. In our city, a great income gap exists. There are wealthy neighborhoods, and there are disadvantaged neighborhoods. If a San Franciscan is wealthy, they know they do not have to worry about food. If they want healthy, green, nutritious food, they will buy it without any concerns. However, if a San Franciscan is poor, the picture is entirely different.
This disadvantaged person most likely cannot afford a lot of healthy food. They will rather buy cheaper food that would give them a high level of food energy. Sugar is a rich source of food energy, as professionals say. Therefore, instead of helping San Franciscans to maintain a healthy lifestyle, which is the excuse of our government, the soda tax would limit the access of the poor citizens to food energy. During the November vote, it was the poor neighborhoods that rejected the tax; the wealthy ones supported it. The local government either does not understand or ignores this problem.
Call to Action
By this memorandum, fellow citizens, I would like to call you to action. I have demonstrated that the local politicians pay no attention to our feedback, use the public concern over health issues, and ignore the social context in order to push us to vote in favor of the new tax. What I am proposing is to vote it down. Moreover, you should spread the information presented in this memorandum. Post it on the Internet, give it to your friends and colleagues, talk about it at family meetings. We should protect our city from this unjust tax.
The European Union (EU) has made enormous progress in its attempt to create a harmonious economic system whereby the economic activities taking place in the region are for the benefit of all the member states. The EU Customs Union removes the customs barriers between all the member states of the EU to prevent direct or indirect discrimination of the goods imported from other member states and defines a common customs policy towards the goods produced outside the union. But the establishment of a uniform tax regime to implement the principle of freedom of movement of goods as one of the four fundamental freedoms for the entire region has not been smooth and the European Court of Justice (ECJ) has tried to deal with conflicts related to taxes, charges, and duties.
The discriminatory tax provisions run from Article 110 through article 113 in the Treaty for the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU). The same provisions appear in the Treaty of the European Community from section 90 through section 93. Being aimed at harmonizing the indirect taxation on the territory of the EU and ensuring an effective operation of the internal market, ECJ faced several difficulties caused by the enforcement of these regulations. Law concerning the discriminatory tax provision contains controversial moments due to which difficult questions arise in particular cases. The European Court of Justice (ECJ) must be involved in investigating every case and have the final say in the decision.
The first of the topical issues deal with the similarity and substitutability of national and imported products. The application of article 110 TFEU presupposes that the competing products are to be compared based on their similarity instead of identity, though there is no restriction for differentiation approach towards taxation of goods based on objective criteria, such as manufacturing processes, for example. The problem is determining and evaluating these criteria. Two products are to be taxed identically if they possess the same objective characteristics from the consumers’ and fiscal points of view. If the taxation criteria chosen by the state result in higher taxation of the imported goods in particular cases, ECJ considers this case to be an infringement of article 110 TFEU.
The other theme that arises from the provisions is their inconsistency in balancing the priorities of the Treaty against the needs of each member state limiting its opportunities for creating taxation regimes compatible with further national policies. The regulations proclaiming the freedom of movement of goods presupposes certain exceptions justifying certain barriers in case if their complete abolition results in the threatening of commercial property, health, or security of the country. The issue of environmental protection and wastes handling is an example of such an exception. Because recycling wastes are treated as goods, this process is incompatible with the principle of freedom of movement of goods. Another example of reasonably violating this basic principle is creating trade barriers during the mad cow disease to prevent the health threat.
In an attempt to strike a balance between the member states’ national interests and the overall European Union objective, the European Court of Justice (ECJ) has worked with other organs of the union to ensure that there is a consideration for the special cases of the members. Still, a lot of questions remain unsolved while further development of jurisprudence is required for clarifying the most controversial moments of the discriminatory tax provisions to harmonize the priorities of effective operation of the internal market with the needs of an individual member state.
References
Barnard, C., 2007. The Substantive Law of the EU: The Four Freedoms (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
Burgess, M., 2000. Federalism and European Union: The Building of Europe, 1950-2000.NewYork: Routledge.
Craig ,P & de Burca, G., 2007. EU Law: Text, Cases and Materials (4th ed.).New York: Oxford University Press.
Dinan, D., 2010. Ever Closer Union: An Introduction to European Integration,(4th ed.),New York: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
Folsom, R., 2008. European Union Law in a Nutshell.(6th ed.),New York: West.
Foster, N., 2009. Blackstone’s EU Treaties & Legislation 2009-2010 (20th ed.).New York: Oxford University Press.
Keyes, C., 1991. The European Community and Environmental Policy: An Introduction for Americans.Baltimore: World Wildlife Fund Publications.
Kuilwijk, K., 1996. The European Court of Justice and the Gatt Dilemma: Public Interest Versus Individual Rights? (Critical European Studies Series, V. 1), New York: International Specialized Book Services.
Tax constitutes one of the fundamental sources of government revenue. However, governments should ensure that the tax laws are formulated effectively to stimulate economic growth. This paper entails a discussion on the pros and cons of the federal tax law coupled with why the federal income tax law should be replaced. This paper evaluates the economic implications of the replacement on the US economic growth.
Analysis
Pros and cons of the federal income tax rate
The US government has considered implementing a progressive tax system to generate revenue to support economic growth through government spending in different economic sectors. Under the progressive tax system, the US citizens will pay taxes depending on their earnings (Grier par. 2). Thus, wealthy citizens will pay a higher tax rate.
The federal income tax in the US is considered too intrusive and invasive to the consumers’ personal income. Implementation of the federal tax policy would have a significant effect on the US economy. First, a high federal tax rate would lead to a significant reduction in the consumers’ purchasing power. This scenario would arise from a reduction in the consumers’ disposable income hence slowing down the rate of economic growth (Murphy and Higgins 6).
One of the benefits of implementing the federal tax rate is that it improves the effectiveness with which the US government would develop its revenue collection. For example, the imposition of different components of the federal tax, such as the value-added tax rate, would improve the government’s capacity to collect revenue. Through the implementation of the federal tax rate, the US government would broaden its economy.
Moreover, the government will be in a position to allocate the tax revenue generated equitably across different economic sectors and industries. This aspect would broaden the economy. Poterba states that a broader tax system would culminate in an effective movement of resources between different economic sectors hence increasing the size of the economy (452). Blakey asserts that firms “pay taxes on their sales but receive credits for taxes paid on their purchases” (28). Based on this aspect, the value-added tax, the US government would be in a position to reach economic activities that were not accessed under the federal income tax.
By broadening its revenue base, the government will be in a position to increase its spending on different economic sectors such as the environment. For example, the government’s capacity to invest in programs intended to minimize climate change would be increased remarkably.
The integration of the federal tax rate would improve the government’s capacity to ensure equity in the administration of the tax law. Under the federal income tax rate, the employees are subjected to the unequal tax rate. Therefore, the federal income tax is discriminative to consumers within the high-income bracket. The application of the federal income tax means that highly productive employees are punished for their effort. However, this situation is eliminated under tax reform.
In addition to the above aspect, the imposition of the federal tax rate would significantly reduce the cost incurred by the government in the process of enforcing the citizens to comply with the stipulated income tax. Conversely, an additional government cost would be created in enforcing the value-added tax.
Economists are of the view that the integration of the value-added tax would culminate in an increment of savings in the total compliance costs. Thus, the federal tax rate is very effective in promoting the level of investment. Bankman and Griffith indicate that the level of savings is correlated directly with the level of investment (52). Therefore, the federal tax rate will play a critical role in establishing a balance between the deficit and supply units.
Replacing the federal income tax rate would contribute to considerable promotion in the rate of economic growth. Blakey affirms that the federal income tax rate reduces productivity hence limiting employment creation (28). In addition to this situation, the imposition of a progressive tax system would culminate in an increment in the rate of inflation.
This assertion means that the consumer price index would increase substantially hence affecting their level of consumer spending. Under the economic circumstances characterized by a high rate of inflation, consumers mainly consider the consumption of basic products. This observation means that the performance of firms that specialize in the production of luxury products and services would be affected adversely.
The negative effect associated with reliance on the federal income tax rate is further underscored by the Phillips curve. The Phillips curve stipulates that an inverse relationship exists between the rate of inflation and a country’s level of unemployment. Therefore, tax reforms such as tax cut and elimination of federal income tax rate stimulate a country towards the attainment of full employment. The tax rate will lead to a reduction in the rate of inflation hence
Furthermore, the consumers will be certain on how the rate of inflation would change hence increasing their capacity to determine the cost. Therefore, incorporation of the federal tax rate would lead to a significant increment in consumer spending due to growth in the consumers’ purchasing power.
The imposition of the federal tax rate would shift the burden of taxation to consumers within the low-income tax bracket. Therefore, the ability of consumers within the low-income bracket to meet their consumption needs would be reduced significantly. This aspect would stifle the rate of economic growth. Poterba identifies the rate of consumption as one of the fundamental economic components that stimulate a country’s real Gross Domestic Product (453).
Conclusion
Governments can stimulate a country’s economic growth by implementing different fiscal policies. One of the notable fiscal policies relates to taxation. Governments formulate different types of taxes to stimulate their capacity to generate tax revenue. Despite most governments’ reliance on taxation in generating revenue, it is imperative for policymakers to ensure that the tax policies are formulated effectively.
The US government is committed to undertaking tax reforms by replacing the federal income tax, which is based on a progressive tax system. Under the new federal tax rate, the US government’s capacity to stimulate economic growth will be improved substantially. For example, the government will have the ability to generate tax revenue from some economic sectors that were initially not taxed will be promoted. Additionally, the elimination of the federal income tax will ensure that consumers are taxed equitably.
Furthermore, such adjustment on the tax rate will culminate improvement in the level of savings, investment, and consumption. An increase in spending will lead to improved efficiency on the ease with which investors access credit facilities due to the resulting balance between the deficit and supply units. Subsequently, the level of unemployment will be reduced remarkably due to the creation of new jobs arising from growth in the level of entrepreneurship. In summary, the proposed tax reforms will promote the country’s economic growth.
Works Cited
Bankman, Joseph, and Thomas Griffith. Federal income tax; examples and Explanations, New York: Asphen Publishers, 2008. Print.
Blakey, Gladys. The federal income tax, Clark: The Lawbook Exchange Limited, 2006. Print.
Murphy, Kevin, and Mark Higgins. The concepts of federal taxation with tax cut, tax preparation software, New York: South-West Publishers, 2009. Print.
Poterba, James. “Economic analysis of tax expenditures.” National Tax Journal 64.2 (2011): 451-458. Print.
Expenses a Canadian employee receiving commission income can deduct from the Canadian Income tax return include the capital cost allowance (CCA), interest on car loan, and other expenses you had during the tax year for employment purposes. However, the expenses that can be deducted from the Canadian income tax return should not exceed the amount of commissions earned in the same tax year. Another option that is also available for the Canadian employees who receive commission income is to declare the income on behalf of a salaried employee which means that a person cannot count some types of expenses though can count the travelling expenses.
The difference is that an employee receiving commission income cannot count the travelling expenses because this part of the expenses exceeds the commission earned that tax year. In this respect, the expenses to be deducted include the amount that equals commission if the real expenses (for instance, travelling expenses) are higher than the commission earned that tax year including the capital cost allowance and interest on the car loan, for instance. At the same time, an employee that earns commission income can claim the expenses as a salaried employee and include the travelling expenses adding the capital cost allowance and interest on car loan if he/she uses motor vehicle to get to the place where the work is performed.
When an employee that earns commission income uses a motor vehicle to perform some work that is paid later, he/she should count the kilometers passed while the kilometers passed on regular bases should not be counted as a part of the travelling expenses in this case. For instance, if an employee uses a motor vehicle for both corporate and private purposes, he/she should distinguish between these issues and count only the kilometers passed on business while the total amount of kilometers at the end of the tax year should be also indicated in the form T777 called ‘Statement of Employment Expenses.’
The Form T777 is called ‘Statement of Employment Expenses’ and includes the expenses on accounting and legal fees, motor vehicle expenses (this means that only allowable expenses based on the per-kilometer rate should be indicated in this line), promotion and advertising, and other expenses. In addition, it is necessary to take into account the necessity of other important factors in the workplace and need for food and beverages that can be also claimed as well as all other employment expenses.
The costs spent on supplies should be also indicated in the statement of employment expenses. For instance, different office supplies such as postage should be indicated in the statement and can later be deducted from the Canadian Income tax return. The thing is that other types of expenses made in the tax year at the workplace/for earning income should also be indicated in the statement of employment expenses to be later deducted from the Canadian income tax return if a person is an employee receiving commission income.
Other types of expenses related to the maintenance of the motor vehicle, lodging, and parking should be indicated in the statement as well as musical instrument expenses, capital cost allowance, and work-space-in-the-home expenses (the information is retrieved from the official website of Canada Revenue Agency’s report on Employment Expenses 2010. The accounting and legal fees line includes different expenses spent on the search and obtaining of the salary collecting opportunities and rights.
Reimbursement received by an individual for the legal fees and accounting should be mentioned in the statement while listing the expenses. All the expenses listed in the statement of employment expenses can be deducted from the Canadian income tax return except for the line called food, beverages, and entertainment because a person can deduct only 50% of the amount and only if it was reasonable in those conditions.
A number of conditions should be followed to meet the deduction of expenses terms. So, if an employee is employed but has to pay for his/her expenses when the professional duties are required to be performed at home or in the area that is not located in the business location of the employer. The commission income is counted when a part of the income was gained in the following manner: an employee was paid some commission for services provided including an agreement made or contracts negotiated. Besides, a copy of Form T2200, Declaration of Conditions of Employment should be provided with the Form T777 called ‘Statement of Employment Expenses’.
The Form T2200, Declaration of Conditions of Employment includes the information about the employer, conditions of employment, and employer declaration. The conditions of employment include necessity of working outside an office/official location of business, having expenses that are not reimbursed, being from the municipality and metropolitan area (which is very important) during at last 12 consecutive hours of the working time. Period of employment, motor vehicle allowance, if any, and requirements whether an employee had to pay for some services or goods without reimbursement options.
A car fringe benefit arises where the employer provides the employee with a car as part of his salary package in the employment contract. In Australia, the Fringe benefit tax was introduced in 1986. The government designed the tax benefit to assist the employees calculate their employees non-cash benefits. The employees valued their non-cash benefits at too low a value which led to the government losing a lot of revenue1. The responsibility of calculating the non-cash benefits and tax was therefore transferred from the employee to the employer. In May 2011, the federal government implemented some changes to the income tax laws and one of the areas that was affected was the car fringe benefit calculations and the take home pay of employees.
Changes to the Car Fringe Tax Benefit
The government changed the statutory calculations for the Car fringe benefits with effect 7.30 P.M (Australian time) May 20112.
There are two methods that are used to calculate the tax for car fringe benefits. The methods are known as the statutory formulae method and the operating costs method. The operating costs method expects the employee to maintain a log book of all the business travels he has undertaken in order to determine the business percentage applicable to the car. Under the statutory formulae method, a statutory fraction is applied to the base value of the car to determine the taxable value. The statutory fraction depends on the total kilometers travelled by the employee during the year.
The operating costs method however is not highly popular due to its high compliance costs. Employers prefer to use the statutory method as it has lower compliance costs and is simpler to use.
Previously, the statutory calculation had been based on the number of kilometers travelled by the employee as per the table below:
Distance travelled during the FBT year (1 April – 31 March)
Statutory rate (multiplied by the cost of the car to determine a person’s car fringe benefit)
Existing contracts
New contracts entered into after 7:30pm (AEST) on 10 May 2011
From 10 May 2011
From 1 April 2012
From 1 April 2013
From 1 April 2014
0 – 15,000 km
0.26
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
15,000 – 25,000 km
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
25,000 – 40,000 km
0.11
0.14
0.17
0.20
0.20
More than 40,000 km
0.07
0.10
0.13
0.17
0.20
Instead of the rate being applied being dependent on the kilometers travelled, it will be calculated at a flat rate of 20%. The rate will not be used immediately for all the categories of kilometers travelled rather it will be done over a four year phase as shown above in the table3. The tax changes will have a considerable impact on the employees take home package. For the employees who travel less than 15,000 Km they will from the first year enjoy the lower tax charges and a higher take home salary.
For those who travel between 15,000 and 25,000 KM there will be no tax advantage as the rate introduced is what was there previously. The employees who have entered into contracts of one to four years will immediately experience a reduction in their take home salary. They will now have to pay high taxes as shown in the table above. There are several objectives that a government has when it introduces a taxation policy.
The government aims to collect sufficient and adequate revenue for its activities. The taxation system should ensure economic efficiency, equality and fairness. The calculations should also be simple or easy to understand. There have been several arguments from different scholars criticizing the previous design of the fringe for promoting inequalities, economic inefficiency and increasing global warming. Research has also shown that the use of the statutory formulae method in calculating fringe benefits causes the government to lose revenue. The previous tax structure was therefore not achieving fully or adequately the objectives of a good tax system.
There will be a positive environmental impact in the country due to the introduction of the new car fringe tax benefit laws.
People will no longer travel longer distances in order to enjoy higher tax concessions. In the previous tax structure people who travelled more than 40,000Km were only taxed the benefit at 7% while employees who had only travelled 15,000 Km would be taxed at 26%. This has changed as the number of kilometers that one travels will be irrelevant under the statutory formulae method. The fringe benefits tax had caused employees to travel longer distances at the end of a financial year in order to ensure inclusion in
higher bands of kilometers. There were even observed incidences where the employees would lend their vehicles to their friends and neighbors to use so as to assist in increasing the number of kilometers travelled.
The previous tax benefit was also not consistent with the environmental policies of the government. The government of Australia is supposed to be in support of the world’s effort to reduce global warming. Efforts are to be demonstrated through the reduction of emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide from vehicles. However, the fringe benefit served to encourage more vehicle travel and thus high emission of greenhouse gases. The people end up using private cars especially during peak hours. The increased fuel prices and congestion in the cities did not improve the situation. The tax reform will now work to encourage employees to consider other forms of travelling. There has been high level of criticism that was directed at the previous car fringe benefit by various scholars in the area of environmental impact. The table below shows the increased greenhouse emission with increased mileage:
The statutory formulae method also caused a considerable amount of economic distortions when it came to collection of income. In analyzing the tax collected by the government over the economic period 2003-2004, the Institute of Chartered Australian Accountants found that the government collected less income by 43% by not using the operating costs method4. The use of the statutory formulae provides a concession to the employees. The method makes the employer under value the car benefits causing loss of revenue.
There are also no concessions or benefits for the employees who use other forms of transport such as public transport or cycling. The government changes to the FBT are therefore welcome as they reduce the tendency to prefer private transport to other forms of transport. The previous car fringe tax promoted income inequalities.
It gave rise to situations where the low to middle income people were being taxed higher than the high income earner which was not fair. When the tax benefit was introduced it was meant to benefit the domestic car manufacturer. However, the tax benefit has not had the intended impact. Car importers then were subject to several taxes and quotas. At that time 85% of the cars in the country were domestically made, however, by 2004 over 70% of cars in the country were imported. The subsidy in the tax benefit goes to benefit car importers and not domestic companies5.
The new law has brought fairness in the taxation process. The old structure assumed that the more one travelled, the more kilometers covered in relation to business activities. Therefore a traveler of 15,000 km was taxed at higher rates of 26% and the tax rates would reduce with more kilometers travelled. However, the assumption may not always be true. An individual could travel 15,000km on business and 25,000km for personal purposes and enjoy high tax concessions bringing about unfairness. Over the years the fringe benefits tax has caused employees to seek and demand motor vehicle salary packaging in order to enjoy the tax concessions.
Conclusion
The new fringe tax benefit reform is clearly a step in the right direction. It will reduce greatly the employee mileage. There will now be no great rush to finish certain levels of distances in order to get particular concessions. It will also make the country truly participate in world efforts to reduce global warming. The emission rates of carbon dioxide from cars will reduce. The government will be able to collect more revenue due to the application of the higher rates.
References
Black, C. (2008) Fringe Benefits Tax and the Company Car: Aligning the Tax with Environmental Policy. Environmental and Planning Law Journal, Vol. 25, No. 3, pp. 182-195.
Department of Human Services (2011) Budget 2011-12: Reform of the Car Fringe Benefit Rules. Web.
Diane Kraal, D., Yapa, P. and Harvey, D. (2008) The impact of Australia’s Fringe Benefits Tax for cars on petrol consumption and greenhouse Emissions Petrol consumption. Australian Tax Forum, Vol. 23, pp191-223.
Warren, N. (2006). Fringe benefit tax design: decision time. The Institute of Chartered Accountants in Australia. Web.
Diane Kraal, D., Yapa, P. and Harvey, D. (2008) The impact of Australia’s Fringe Benefits Tax for cars on petrol consumption and greenhouse Emissions Petrol consumption. Australian Tax Forum, Vol. 23, pp193.
Department of Human Services (2011) Budget 2011-12: Reform of the Car Fringe Benefit Rules. Web.
Warren, N. (2006). Fringe benefit tax design: decision time. The Institute of Chartered Accountants in Australia. pp. 18. Web.
Black, C. (2008) Fringe Benefits Tax and the Company Car: Aligning the Tax with Environmental Policy. Environmental and Planning Law Journal, Vol. 25, No. 3, pp. 186.