Category: Systems Theory

There are number of theories which have evolved over a period of life with their unique explanation. Systems theory is one of them. Systems management theory is sometimes known as secret sauce of lucrative organization and is known as contemporary theory. Systems theory is compared to human being as it includes various key concepts such as synergy, interdependence and interrelation between different subsystems. Closed system do not interact with the environment whereas open system does. There is no such company that follow closed system, as every company has to do the Environmental Scanning which include analysis of the factors which may affect company’s performance such as technology, legal, economic, social and political environment. So closed system can be said as a myth. Systems theory covers the whole process of conversion of raw materials into final product.

In this essay we will analyze and evaluate how the Gorman applies systems management. It is a clothing brand which is based in Australia. According to Fitzsimmons, ‘Gorman is more than a clothing brand, it’s a cultural phenomenon’. By this statement we get to know that how much people like to get this clothing brand and it is a really big brand. Furthermore, Fitzsimmons argues that ‘The brand was founded 20 years ago in Melbourne by a former nurse turned fashion designer, Lisa Gorman. In a city that only wore black, Gorman turned fashionable Melbournians onto color. It was boutique, ethical and well-made, a niche now being filled by up-and-coming brands such as Obus’. This shows us that the city of Melbourne 20 years ago had no sense of fashion until this brand came. So this brand is having a special place in every Melbournians heart and has changed the sense of fashion over the years.

After analysing and evaluating different sources, Gorman showed good relationship with the manufacturers in 2018-19 such as China and India. Besides this, Gorman acknowledged that they are now producing at least 25% of the products from GOTS certified organic cotton. Apart from this, sustainable materials are also used by the company such as recycled polyester, tencel, recycled cotton fibre, and many more to have good environmental conditions. Furthermore, Gorman demonstrates that they carry fair and safe working conditions which includes fair wages, reasonable working hours, non-discrimination, sustainable development, fair and equitable treatments. After commencement of manufacturing, they come up with the output like jeans, skirts, dresses etc. At last, company gets feedback from their customers, it can be both negative as well as positive. Overall, Gorman receives good response from their customers. Currently, Gorman have closed all their retail stores for the safety purpose due to coronavirus (COVID-19), an infectious disease which is spreading at an alarming rate across the world.

The aforementioned analysis boils down to the fact that Gorman is dominating the way in both sustainability aspirations and practices. The systems management theory is an effective and efficient way to tackle any problem within the organization. With an open system, Gorman works as a team and carry all the essential requirements which are must for the consumers and producers to achieve the desired goals.

The view of organizations as open social systems that must interact with their environments in order to survive is known as the systems theory approach. Organizations depend on their environments for several essential resources: customers who purchase the product or service, suppliers who provide materials, employees who provide labor or management, shareholders who invest, and governments that regulate. According to Cutlip, Center, and Broom, public relations’ essential role is to help organizations adjust and adapt to changes in an organization’s environment.Cutlip, Center, and Broom.

The open-systems approach was first applied by Katz and Kahn, who adapted General Systems Theory to organizational behavior. This approach identifies organizational behavior by mapping the repeated cycles of input, throughput, output, and feedback between an organization and its external environment. Systems receive input from the environment either as information or in the form of resources. The systems then process the input internally, which is called throughput, and release outputs into the environment in an attempt to restore equilibrium to the environment. The system then seeks feedback to determine if the output was effective in restoring equilibrium. As can be seen, the systems approach focuses on the means used to maintain organizational survival and emphasize long-term goals rather than the short-term goals of the goal-attainment approach.

Theoretically, systems can be considered either open or closed. Open organizations exchange information, energy, or resources with their environments, whereas closed systems do not. In reality, because no social systems can be completely closed or open, they are usually identified as relatively closed or relatively open. The distinction between closed and open systems is determined by the level of sensitivity to the external environment. Closed systems are insensitive to environmental deviations, whereas open systems are responsive to changes in the environment.

The systems approach is an external standard that measures effectiveness based on long-term growth or sustainability. Effective systems are characterized by a steady state that systems theorists call homeostasis in order to “avoid the static connotations of equilibrium and to bring out the dynamic, processual, potential-maintaining properties of basically unstable… systems’. If an organization is able to maintain homeostasis, which includes not just survival but also growth, then it is effective. This perspective is broader and more comprehensive than the goal-attainment approach because it is not limited to measuring effectiveness as meeting goals determined by powerful internal coalitions that may or may not be propitious for the whole organization. Pfeffer and Salancik defined effectiveness as “how well an organization is meeting the demands of the various groups and organizations that are concerned with its activities.”

Most effective organizations, according to systems theory, adapt to their environments. Pfeffer and Salancik described the environment as the events occurring in the world that have any effect on the activities and outcomes of an organization. Environments range from “static” on one extreme to “dynamic” on the other. Static environments are relatively stable or predictable and do not have great variation, whereas dynamic environments are in a constant state of flux. Because environments cannot be completely static or constantly changing, organizations have varying levels of dynamic or static environments.

Organizations that exist in dynamic environments must be open systems in order to maintain homeostasis. Because dynamic environments are constantly changing, they create a lot of uncertainty about what an organization must do in order to survive and grow. The key to dealing with uncertainty is information. An open organization monitors its environment and collects information about environmental deviations that is labeled as input. Input can also be thought of as a form of feedback. The most important information is negative input, according to systems theorists, because this information alerts the organization to problems that need to be corrected. Negative input tells the organization that it is doing something wrong and that it must make adjustments to correct the problem; positive input tells the organization that it is doing something right and that it should continue or increase that activity.

Organizations then organize and process this information to formulate solutions or responses to these changes. As Cutlip, Center, and Broom noted, open systems use information to respond to environmental changes and adjust accordingly. The adjustments affect the structure or process of the organization, or both. The structure is what the organization is, whereas process is what the organization does. Adjustments are “intended to reduce, maintain, or increase the deviations”. For example, an organization can alter its structure by downsizing to remain competitive. Other organizations may change their processes in order to adhere to new environmental laws. Processing positive and negative input to adjust to environmental change is called throughput. In the throughput of information, the organization analyzes it and tailors it strategically to fit with the organization’s goals, values, and within the relationship context it holds with publics.

After an organization adapts to environmental changes, its actions and messages represent its output. The automobile industry is constantly enticing car consumers to try the latest models, hoping that it has responded to changing expectations. Recently, many auto manufacturers have attempted to color their products as “green” or environmentally friendly. However, messages are not enough. If the cars are not really friendlier to the environment, then these messages eventually will fall on skeptical ears and impugn the credibility of the organization. An organization measures the effectiveness of its output by seeking feedback. If its actions and messages were not effective then the process is repeated until the appropriate solution is found. If the organization is not able to adapt to the environmental variation then it will eventually cease to exist. The public relations professional engaged in an organization that takes a systems approach is continually focusing on feedback as a way of measuring organizational success.

The public relations professional can use the academic concept of systems theory to implement protocols for regular feedback to the organization, thereby aligning it with the desires of publics in its environment. This theory can also be useful in understanding the role of research and feedback in creating a thoroughly analyzed and consistent strategy. The analysis of information and creation of strategy known as throughput helps to conceptualize and justify not only the research budget of the public relations department but also the need for making decisions that strategically align the public communications of an organization with the information needed by publics. The practical implementation of this approach keeps public relations from being used as a simple publicity function, and places the function squarely in the strategic planning process.

Systems theory, however, is not without some shortcomings. The first shortcoming relates to measurement, and the second is the issue of whether the means by which an organization survives really matter. Robbins noted that one criticism of this approach is that its focus is on “the means necessary to achieve effectiveness rather than on organizational effectiveness itself.” Measuring the means, or process, of an organization can be very difficult when compared to measuring specific end goals of the goal-attainment approach.

Social work practice approaches are highly influenced by theory. The theory is something that helps us explain and predict human behavior. In social work practice, social systems theories shape many courses and programs. Social systems theory helps us understand that a person is a product of their social environment at multiple levels of that environment.

Early in their studies, students of social work learn about the centrality of social systems theories in social work practice, including assessment and treatment. In addition, social work is unique, compared to other behavioral sciences, in its emphasis on social systems theories and the person in environment perspective.

Social systems theories emerged from general systems theory which rose to prominence within the psychological and natural sciences in the early twentieth century. Available systems theory considered the whole of whatever was being examined as more than the sum of its parts. General systems theory looks at how factors affect the whole system or organism. Scientists in fields as diverse as physics and psychology began using systems theories to understand the world around them. There was great interest in the stability of systems and input, output, and feedback loops in systems.

By the mid-twentieth century, social scientists, psychologists, and social workers widely used general systems theory and systems thinking to develop specific ideas for understanding and addressing individual and social problems. Social systems theories rebuttal to the prevailing belief of psychodynamics and other theories that individual dysfunction and psychological issues originate mainly within the individual. Social systems theories held that individuals could not be viewed as islands. Instead, they are parts of groups, organizations, societies, and families. Furthermore, individual problems shape and influence many levels of an indivdual’s ecology.

Social systems theories help social workers understand many social problems, including family problems, child abuse, community dysfunction, and issues affecting individuals such as anxiety, low self-esteem, and relationship problems. Specific social work practice theories based on systems theory have emerged to help social workers understand and address individual and social issues. For example, family systems theory, developed by Bowen (1946), views the family as a complex system with its parts and feedback loops. Bowen developed eight interlocking concepts of family systems that practitioners could use to enhance family functioning.

The life model of social work practice is influenced by social systems thinking. The original model emphasized an approach with individuals, groups, families, and neighborhoods. But, it was revised to emphasize policy practice and policy advocacy. The ecological theory also influenced the life model of social work practice by emphasizing the exchanges between people and their environments”.

The life model requires the practitioner to examine a person’s environment and adapt to and cope with limitations and toxicity in one’s environment. Additionally, the life model may look at people in organizational environments or communities. The life model requires clinicians to examine critical events in an individual that may have impacted his development and attitudes, such as major life transitions, periods of increased environmental stress, or changes in relationships. Groups and organizations may support or hinder a person during these critical transition periods. These include family at the micro-level and schools at the mezzo level. The model also looks at how critical historical events and societal changes influence generational cohorts.

The socio-ecological development model is another specific social work practice theory based on social systems thinking. This model looks at how multiple social systems and levels of the social environments impact individuals’ experiences and behavior. For example, the micro-level is the location of intimate and family relationships, the meso-level is the location of institutions and organizations, and the macro-level is the location of society-wide factors such as culture or laws, all of which shape who we are and how we develop.

The socio-ecological model can understand the challenges individuals face at multiple levels of their social ecosystem and develop therapeutic interventions and programs that address these problems. For example, consider the issue of child abuse and neglect. For instance, risk and protective factors will significantly influence child outcomes at each level of the social ecosystem. Therefore, understanding the risk and protective factors at each level of a family’s ecosystem is critical to treating the child and working with the family.

The social-ecological development model can also be used to understand why parents abuse or neglect their children. Socio-ecological theories of why child maltreatment is perpetrated acknowledge the complexity of the social problem in a way that cognitive behavior theories may not. For example, a social worker might provide individual and family counseling or parenting classes to address a parent’s neglectful behaviors. He might also advocate for increasing government spending on afterschool programs, daycare, or mental health clinics as a preventive measure.

Social systems theories can also be used to understand and address violence. The United States Centers for Disease Control has officially endorsed a socio-ecological violence prevention model. The four levels of the CDC model are individual, relationship, community, societal. The CDC supports the design of both communities, interpersonal and family violence prevention programs. According to the CDC, “in o “der to prevent violence, it is necessary to act across multiple levels of the model simultaneously. This approach is more likely to sustain prevention efforts over time than any single intervention”.

Multisystemic Therapy is another treatment approach informed by social systems theory that has been used to address child and youth mental health problems, juvenile delinquency, and substance abuse. MST requires therapists to treat the whole family system and treat the child at multiple levels of his and his family system in the home and other community locations.

Finally, work with underserved and marginalized communities may also be informed by the life model of social work practice which, as noted above, looks at, among other things, the effects of community problems and governmental policies on individuals and communities. For example, using the life course model, a social worker might lobby the government to enact social policies and programs that help underserved communities, mobilize organizations and stakeholders in addressing community-wide problems, and garner resources needed by the community.

Social systems practice approaches are at the heart of social work. It helps social workers look beyond the individual to understand factors at multiple levels of clienclients’al systems that may be contributing to their struggles. Social systems approaches empower practitioners to address challenges at various levels of clienclients’al environments. Policy advocacy and community work are essential facets of social practices informed by social systems thinking.

A drawback of social systems theory as used in social work is that a psychological approach is sometimes needed for treatment; for example, an individual with severe mental illness may primarily need individualized psychotherapeutic counseling and perhaps medication.

Furthermore, interventions and programs informed by social systems theories are not always easy to evaluate. There are many moving parts to a systems treatment approach, and it may be challenging to identify which components of treatment are working. Furthermore, social workers are supposed to consider an indivindividual’so and the macro environment when using social systems approaches. Still, some social workers may lack the cultural competency to understand a client and cultural background.

Taken altogether, social systems theories and approaches are central to social work. There is enough evidence that many programs and interventions using systems theory approaches effectively address various presenting problems and challenges in the lives of our clients. Therefore, social work students should be well versed in social systems ideas and practice approaches.

Systems Theory – Introduction

Connolly, M., & Harms, L. (2015) wrote, “systems theories help us to think about these interactions between people and their social and physical environments” (pp. 47).

The approach to system theory is based on the central conviction that all facets of a human problem should be regarded as a whole. Systems are applied to components of a greater system that actually work to create equilibrium in human existence. Healy (2005) outlined three different types of systems; general systems theory, ecosystem perspectives, and complex systems theory. Firstly, this essay discusses the origins of systems theory and the relevant information including; key features of Systems theory, as well as those that distinguish it from other theories and models, secondly, discuss the positives and negatives of applying systems theory in a human and social services setting, as well as the historical and current practices, and finally issues of using systems theory in community and human services.

Definition and origin of systems theory

Teater (2010) describes System theory as the factors that influence a person’s behavior and life for example, a person’s family, community or friends, and how a change in one system directly or indirectly affects the system as a whole.

Within social work, the concept of systems theory was inspired by the work of biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy, it is important to note that the philosophy of Von Bertalanffy developed from the idea of cause and effect to describe growth and change in living cells. Bertalanffy, L. (1972) wrote: This view, considered as a method of investigation, we shall call ‘organismic biology and, as an attempt at an explanation, ‘ system theory of an organism” (pp. 410). Furthermore, von Bertalanffy’s research was continued and assisted by Uri Bronfenbrenner, a psychologist who studied human biological structures in an environmental setting. Through this, the ecological perspective was established.

The ecological perspective termed ecological systems theory emphasizes the interaction and interconnectedness across all levels of the system with the need to intervene to ensure productivity at all stages. The ecological systems theory uses ideas that link four different social structures surrounding an individual; these are known as micro-systems, meso-systems, exo-systems, and macro-systems. The microsystem refers to the immediate contact between relatives, peers, colleagues, teachers, neighbors, and other people with direct interaction that we have in our lives (Bronfenbrenner,1979). The mesosystem level is the relationships in one’s life between and that interact with the microsystems (Bronfenbrenner,1979). The exo-system is the environment wherein the person has an association however the person has a little active role (Bronfenbrenner,1979). The environment of the macrosystem is an individual’s cultural identity. Cultural factors include the individual’s and/or family’s economic status, and race or ethnicity (Bronfenbrenner,1979).

Furthermore, what has been known has general systems theory continues to evolve and transform to suit the environment in which this theory is applied, this brings Healy (2005) described the third wave of systems theory known as complex systems theory, as the understanding of complexity in an individual’s life has increased. Connolly, M., & Harms, L. (2019) describe, Complex systems theory is now used in a wide variety of disciplines and is particular useful in understanding resilience. Complex systems theory has also been recognized to be useful in working with indigenous communities (Green and Baldry, 2008).

Key characteristics of Systems theory

Systems theory is characterized by and notes that action is motivated by a multitude of factors that function as a network collectively. In system theory, a social worker must perceive and assess all the systems that make a contribution to the actions and health of an individual and work with the individual to reinforce those systems.

Systems theory is very pertinent to human service-related roles and the function they do to help their clients meet their needs. Some of system theory’s most distinctive features are; it consists of components, and each one is a sub-system in its entirety, each sub-system can impact the system as a whole, and the sub-systems consist of economic status, ideological point of view, and standing in society, all of these can influence one another. Payne (2014), describes “The main contribution of systems and ecological ideas to social work is to integrate interpersonal interventions involving individuals with interventions that also engage with families, communities, and other social agencies” (p. 184). The system itself forms the parts of the larger whole and that is who the individual is and where they reside, this includes their community, culture, government, and family unit. Each level in this unit coexists developing relationships between each, which is why a shift in any part can influence sections in the total system and then impact the individual’s perspectives leading to needing assistance to find balance again.

Systems theory in community and human services

Systems theory is based on the principle that in conjunction with their physical and social environment, an individual does not function in isolation but rather expands and evolves with all of its parts. Within the social work context, this can constitute an individual’s immediate surroundings, family, culture, religion, community, society, and their individual history. Systems theory notes that each system should be considered to comprise of several qualities that make the system a cohesive unit. Therefore, in regard to each level; micro, meso, Exo, and macro, community and human service workers should perceive each level on its own and then look at what caused the presenting issue, taking into consideration what has happened on one level can sometimes trigger a shift or reaction within the main system. In various disciplines such as psychology, political science, social work, sociology, physics, and biology, system theory can be found. (Hutchinson, et al 2014). Why systems theory has become so popular in the community and human services, According to (Hutchinson, et al 2014) “One explanation is that the different social science disciplines and occupations have a desire to say something about the big picture and the interactions between the individual and society.” Pp 221. Being able to grasp the bigger picture is something that professionals not only community and human services have been pursuing. Developing this idea in each diverse field is where systems theory as been useful throughout the years.

In community and human services, systems theory strongly works well when working with families, for example, when working with a family social services workers should take into account the individual family member’s biological, psychological, and social factors, ‘physical and psychological functioning, social relationships, and community or societal

structures that impact on the client’ (Hutchinson et al, 2014, pg. 180). This helps us to think about how the dynamics are continually changing as each member of the family deals with life both within and outside the family. Unique tools are often used in this theory, such as eco-maps and genograms. Such methods help to understand the various dynamics and causes of the ‘ systematic relationships ‘ of a client. Family systems theory still holds but has adjusted the core principles of general systems theory to consider and function with families. The household is seen as a unit that plays a crucial role for each and every member of the family. It suggests that a shift in one part of the group will cause a shift in the whole dynamic of the system, Nevertheless, this often varies depending on the family’s dynamics, habits, rules, and principles and their willingness to change.

Benefits and disadvantages of systems theory in community and human

The principles of systems theory are important in social work approaches as they provide a theoretical foundation for evaluating a client using an integrated approach by exploring all the structures in their environment. These principles are often used in human and community services, during the initial evaluation upon meeting a client the social worker should consider the client holistically, this is done by considering the emotional, biological, and social functions of the individual, as well as analyzing the role of other processes within the client’s environment, particularly those that would contribute to the presenting issue. The social worker establishes which system needs support on the basis of this determination. Although the client is an individual entity, the social worker may perceive that working towards the goal of mending the system that is in trouble and therefore mending the system as a whole, for example, if the microsystem is were the issue lies, such as family, the social worker and client then begin to work through the presenting issues and come up with an action plan and goals to help the individual find balance again. As described by, Adams, K. M., Hester, P. T., Bradley, J. M., Meyers, T. J., & Keating, C. B. (2014). Practitioners can benefit from the application of systems theory as a lens when viewing multidisciplinary systems and their related problems. It often tends to focus on inclusiveness rather than isolation, and links with all living things on earth. Teaching that compassion for others, therefore, is compassion for oneself. This is an extremely valuable perspective for clients experiencing problems of depression, isolation, anger, and self-worth.

A weakness in systems theory is that it assumes that any degree of influence at any level has control over the entire system and at any stage can dramatically impact how it fails or continues to thrive. We know that this is not the case since some issues might have a more significant impact than many others. Moreover, circumstances in life can change very quickly, and while something that an individual once deemed irrelevant can quickly have a significant impact. In the implementation of system theory in human and social services, being able to accurately predict so many parameters may not be feasible and is often a point of criticism of many. (Hutchinson & Oltedal, 2014). It is then a question of whether systems theory can accurately encompass the complexities of interactions and inter-relationships which emerge for an individual at any level formally or informally.

While many social workers embrace systems theory, research suggests that its main principles lack explanation. In order to remain stable, it puts emphasis on the idea of harmony between its systems. This means that only the changes that stabilize the system agree with it. Research indicates that systems theory has more influence on ‘ mathematics and biological systems ‘ than on social work (Hutchinson & Oltedal, 2014). This theory often ignores triggers within a culture, e.g. the macro system requires consistency and does not tolerate change, a sudden change can pose a significant threat to the system and thus create an imbalance to overall.

Conclusion

To summarise, systems theory can be one of a human and social service worker’s most valuable knowledge and important tool, it can be useful in determining and helping individuals navigate the various systems which are affecting their lives, requiring a thorough understanding of how components interrelate and impact each other. Systems theory as discussed above is not perfect and has areas that need improvement (Hutchinson & Oltedal, 2014). Though despite these limitations can very much still play a crucial role in the community and human services. Systems Theory seeks to help people who are looking for support, through its united look at life and how a person’s surroundings can cause the most influence on their state of mind (Teater 2010). Systems theory looks to deconstruct each layer and create a united individual. This paper presents an overview to General systems theory and discusses how it is utilized in a community and human services setting. It is just one of the many theoretical approaches and tools that social workers will apply throughout their careers.

References:

1. Adams, K. M., Hester, P. T., Bradley, J. M., Meyers, T. J., & Keating, C. B. (2014). Systems Theory as the Foundation for Understanding Systems. Systems Engineering, 17(1), 112–123.
2. Bertalanffy,L.1968. General Systems Theory: Foundations, Development, Applications. New York: George Braziller.
3. Bronfenbrenner, U. 1979. The Ecology of Human Development: Experiments by Nature and Design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
4. Connolly, M., & Harms, L. (2015). Social work: From theory to practice. Cambridge University Press.
5. Connolly, M., & Harms, L. (2019). Social work: From theory to practice. Cambridge university press.
6. Green, S. and Baldry, E. 2008. Building Indigenous Australian social work. Australia Social Work, 61(4): 389-402
7. Healy, K. (2005). Social work theories in context: creating frameworks for practice. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire; New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
8. Hutchinson, G.S., & Oltedal, S. (2014). Five theories in social work. Oslo: Universitestforlaget Retrieved from: http://docplayer.net/13905724-Five- theories-in-social-work.html
9. Payne, M. (2014). Modern social work theory. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.ezproxy.federation.edu.au
10. Teater, Barbra, and Kondrat. Introduction to Applying Social Work Theories and Methods, McGraw-Hill Education, 2010

Organization Name: North Western Mental Health

Management Theory #1: Systems Theory

Describe the management theory (making links to theoretical literature) (250 words)

Systems Theory is a non-concrete philosophical structure that however involves a highly experimental and analytical form of management science. Systems Theory proposes an evolutionary clarification for the supremacy of management in modern-day society. It also explains the role of compound organisations in today’s society; and forecasts that the density of organisations, and therefore the part of management, will possibly remain to increase – at least for so long as the competence growing potential of complication can continue to be more important than its inescapably increased business costs.

Systems theory assists us to describe an organization’s internal and external behaviour. Internally, it can be seen how and why people inside the organizations accomplish their individual and group tasks given to them. Externally, an organization’s transactions with other organizations and institutions can be evaluated. All organizations obtain resources from a superior environment of which they are a part of, in turn, deliver the goods and amenities required by the greater environment.

Provide evidence/examples of how you see this management theory being implemented in your chosen Human service organisation (250 words)

The North Western Mental Health applies an open-systems approach, which was first applied by Katz and Kahn, who revised General Systems Theory to organizational behaviour. Katz and Kahn (1966); Bertalanffy (1951), pp. 303–361. This approach categorizes organizational behaviour by planning the recurrent cycles of input, output, and feedback between the NHMH and its external environment They collect input from the environment either as information or in the form of resources. The systems then work on the information internally, which is called throughput, and issue outputs into the environment in an effort to reinstate stability to the environment. The system then pursues feedback to regulate if the output was operative in reinstating equilibrium.

Critically analyse (1) the benefits and (2) the challenges of this management approach (250 words)

Systems theory, however, is not without some limitations. The first flaw relates to dimension, and the second is the subject of whether the resources by which an organization survives really matter. Robbins noted that one condemnation of this approach is that its emphasis is on “the means necessary to achieve effectiveness rather than on organizational effectiveness itself.” Robbins (1990), p. 62. Gauging the means, or procedure, of an organization can be very difficult when matched to determining specific end goals of the goal-attainment methodology.

The system approach delivers a structure for operative collaboration of parts of the organization in a precise arrangement for the accomplishment of its objectives. It does not emphasise on one part of the organization. It contemplates the influence of the environment on the organization and vice versa. Collaboration of the external environment with the internal environment is the most noteworthy impact of systems theory. The system approach, consequently, examines the organization as an adaptive and vigorous entity.

Management Theory #2: Participatory Management

Describe the management theory (making links to theoretical literature) (250 words)

Participation as a management style was recommended in the traditional Hawthorne experiments of the 1930s. The experiments epitomize that when small groups of workers sense that their work environment is helpful, they gain more fulfilment and work better (Crane, 1979).

Participative management suggests that all employees have equal opportunities to add to workplace policies and choices that achieve business goals while endorsing career satisfaction. As contrasting to a despotic management style, where the manager accepts effective control and makes all the decisions one-sidedly, a participative manager asks for contribution from team members and contemplates on all opinions to find effective solutions to business problems and apply them to meet deadlines. As a result, employees feel more appreciated and often work harder on behalf of their employers under this style of management.

Provide evidence of how you see this management theory being implemented in your chosen Human Service organisation (250 words)

At North Western Mental Health, the fundamental of this approach stems from open, translucent communication between employers and employees, which nurtures mutual reverence and cooperation. In order to achieve this type of working relationship, participative managers implement several principles for connecting employees more enthusiastically in business operations. First, they share information about business development and progress permitting employees to feel entrusted in the company’s goals. Next, they arrange for training to boost employee skills and knowledge to rise positive job performance and improve operational results. Finally, managers ask for employee participation by looking for input for making business decisions and rewarding fruitful proposals or ideas.

Critically analyse (1) the benefits and (2) the challenges of this management approach (250 words)

From a business viewpoint, using a participative management method generates loyal employees eager to put their time and energy to see the company succeed. Employees often have ground-breaking ideas for reducing costs and removing waste, reshuffling procedures and increasing customer satisfaction. This organisational style also creates more operative leaders at all levels who can inspire and lead co-workers to achieve business goals across miscellaneous global boards which influence modern businesses. Additionally, business operations under participatory management organizations often report increased efficiency and presentation across all personnel levels.

Employees also take advantage with businesses run by participative managers. Since employees are likely to feel more appreciated under this management style, they are expected to have more career gratification and stay longer in their jobs. In turn, these experienced employees pass along their skills and expertise to new recruits to facilitate smooth business operations over time. This business management style also stimulates feelings of responsibility in employees making them more likely to pursue further education or training to improve their job performance and advance career opportunities while achieving the strategic goals of the business.

Whereas this style of leadership or decision-making leads to improved participation of all the employees, there are certainly some disadvantages too.

• Decision-making slows down: Participative management stands for increased participation and when there are many people involved in decision-making, the process certainly slows down. Feedback and criticism start pouring from each side. It takes time to authenticate the precision of measurements which means that decision-making will be decelerated.
• Security Issue: The security subject in participative management also arises from the fact that too many people are aware of the companies’ or organizations’ internal information. This information may take the form of critical information in the later stages. There is thus a bigger chance of information being disclosed.

References:

1. Tanuja, A. System Approach Theory of Management: Features and Evaluation. Retrieved from https://www.businessmanagementideas.com/management/system-approach-theory-of-management-features-and-evaluation/4703
2. Katz D & Kahn R L. The social psychology of organizations. New York: Wiley, 1966
3. Chikere, Cornell C.1 and Nwoka, Jude. The Systems Theory of Management in Modern Day Organizations – A Study of Aldgate Congress Resort Limited Port Harcourt. Retrieved from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/d1e4/03a4a017d00b081122c2a0abd1d7317f14fe.pdf
4. Advantages and Disadvantages of Participative Management. Retrieved from https://www.managementstudyguide.com/participative-management-advantages-disadvantages.htm
5. Katz D & Kahn R L. The social psychology of organizations. New York: Wiley, 1966

In dynamic systems theory, an “individual is viewed as a complex, multi-component system that self-organizes patterns of movement from the interaction of many subsystems… [the] motor development is considered a process of self-organization, brought about by the interaction between multiple factors” (Lloyd, 2019). The three different concepts that make up the dynamic systems theory: are attractors, self-organization, and control parameters. Each is important in their own way and contributes to the dynamic definition of multiple sub-systems in interacting together. The concept of attractors is a fallback of movement or decision that the individual is the most comfortable with. For example, when a baby is learning how to walk and when they fall, they resort back to crawling as their form of movement to get them from point A to point B. Self-organization is the adaptation of conforming to the behavior over a period of time. For example, when a baby starts having tummy time and eventually can go from being on their back to rolling over on their stomach by themselves. It does not take a motivation factor like with control parameters for them to accomplish the goal, but it does evolve over time for them to reach the end result. The last concept of dynamic systems are control parameters. “A control parameter does not control the change in behavior but rather acts as a catalyst for reorganizing behavior” (Jostad & Patnaik, n.d.). No matter what occurs between the individual and their environment, the control parameter will always remain a constant. If one component of the sub-system is altered by any degree, it would cause a shift within the whole system transitioning into new motor behavior. Control parameters is the best concept of dynamic systems theory that supports the superiority of DST in comparison to the other theories for motor development, especially with maturation theory in particular. Control parameters involve multiple sub-systems working together to achieve the task at hand and if one sub-system is off in any way it would affect the end motor behavior. The three components with control parameters that assist in a baby’s ability to progress from crawling to walking are walking surface, their motivation, and muscle strength.

The first parameter component that could affect a baby’s ability to go from their crawling period to their walking period step would be the walking surface that the child is learning their new motor behavior on. If in the beginning, the baby learns how to take their first steps on a hard surface floor like tile or wood then that would be their constant walking surface. Every time they would get up into the walking position and begin their steps the child would feel comfortable in knowing that with the hard-stable surface of tile or wood they would be able to walk. If the family moves to a new house or if the baby tries to walk in another room where the walking surface is more accepting with their weight being placed on it, for example, carpet or even a bed, there is a sub-system alteration that will change the new motor behavior of the child. Changing the walking surface that the child is comfortable walking on will eventually bring them back to what they are used to doing, back to their attractor state of crawling. With the change in the walking surface, there could be an alteration to help with a flat stable, and sturdy surface for the child to get accustomed to for progress with their walking. Besides the walking surface that has control over the child’s progression in their motor behavior, another parameter could also potentially be the child’s motivation.

The second parameter component that could affect the baby’s ability to go from crawling stage to walking may be their lack of motivation. Just like with any task or goal that is in place if a lack of motivation is present being able to fulfill the steps needed to complete the task will be even harder to achieve. Two potential options that could help the baby overcome this obstacle could be parental encouragement and/or toy reward. there could be a reward on the other side of the room for the baby to be pushed to want in their possession. If mom or dad were on the other side encouraging the baby to come to them and clapping and acting like everything is fun and exciting on their side of the room, the baby could take that as an enticing activity and a push to make the progression to make their way to their parents. Depending on the objects or mood the child is in at that particular point would depend on whether or not a motivating factor should be involved to push them to make their motor behavior. Another component that could be counted as a control parameter that would affect a baby’s motor behavior could be their balance control.

The last parameter component that would affect the child’s ability to walk could be their muscle strength. The balance control can be affected and altered if the child is wearing shoes because it could affect their muscle strength and throw off their balance. “When toddlers are learning to walk, they should be in bare feet or a soft soled shoe as much as possible so they can feel what they touch with their feet and develop muscle strength” (Department of Health & Human Services, 2014). Stabilizing and giving the baby support with their feet since their strength is still developing will help immensely with the walking stage. Each parameter if altered or changed could result in the sub-systems producing a new motor behavior.

Dynamic systems theory is not the only theory that is discussed in an individual’s ability to progress in their motor development. Maturation theory is another. Maturation theory believes the nervous system is the most important aspect. “Biological processes influence motor development” (Lloyd, 2019). A child’s motor development would solely be based on their genetics and that is what dictates the timeline of their motor development, as well as when each milestone in their life should occur. If maturation theory was true for all motor development and was the superior outlook on all theories describing how we get through each step of motor development, then we would all experience our milestones in exactly the same time frame as one another. There would be no exceptions or alterations that could be made because the central nervous system would dictate it all. There would be no need for research on why baby A and baby B started rolling over, crawling, or talking at different ages in their life or why some babies skip a step and go straight from rolling over to walking because our biological makeup would be the only explanation. The nature versus nurture case could be applied to the difference between dynamic systems theory and maturation theory.

Dynamic systems theory is described as an overall theory that showcases every aspect that could affect an individual’s motor behavior throughout their lifetime. It always remains as a constant and “focuses on the interaction between the performer and the environment” (Lloyd, 2019). The components of the walking surface, motivation, and muscle strength could all be control parameters that could shift the system and result in a new motor behavior for the child. In comparison with maturation theory, dynamic systems theory is able to explain that yes biological processes could influence motor development, but also nurture and outside aspects that the baby is surrounded around day in and day out influence the motor behavior results. Motor behavior does not involve just one system, it involves the union of multiple sub-systems working together to execute a motor behavior to its best ability.

References

1. Department of Health & Human Services. (2014). Children’s feet and shoes. Retrieved October 1, 2019, from https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/healthyliving/childrens-feet-and-shoes
2. Jostad, J. & Patnaik, P. (n.d.) Dynamical systems theory. Retrieved September 30, 2019, from http://content.csbs.utah.edu/~butner/systems/DynamicalSystemsIntro.html
3. Lloyd, M. (2019). Week 2 – lecture 1 human growth and motor development [Powerpoint slides] Retrieved September 30, 2019, from https://uoit.blackboard.com/webapps/blackboard/execute/content/file?cmd=view&content_id=_1235458_1&course_id=_41367_1

Assessment and Intervention, Theories and Methods.

This essay will explain and evaluate the theoretical bases and influences of two methods of intervention, namely Systems Theory and Attachment Theory. It will show how both approaches might be implemented in work with a service user, drawing on the contrasts and comparisons in how they would be applied as an intervention. Using research, the effectiveness of both approaches will be evaluated as well as the potential for discrimination within two particular areas, those being gender and power.

The term Systems emerged from the early studies of social systems by the sociologists, Emile Durkheim and Max Weber, as well as Talcott Parsons. Drawing from the natural sciences, psychology, sociology and in particular biology, the Austrian philosopher and theoretical biologist, Ludwig Van Bertalanffy (1971) developed General systems theory/ Bertalanffy discovered ‘that the whole was greater than the sum of its parts and that using this theory we could observe patterns and the way relationships were organized in any living system’. (Walker, S, 2012. p2 ).

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological System Theory (1979) superseded Bertalanffy’s general systems theory. Bronfenbrenner felt that ‘systems theory did not fully capture the complex dynamics that occur within social systems’ (Friedman, B, D, Neuman Allen, K, System theory). Bronfenbrenner began to focus on human biological systems within an ecological environment, i.e. the impact the environment has on an individual’s development.

From the mid-twentieth century, the main theoretical basis for social work focused more on the sociological rather than the psychological. Hollis (1964 ) encouraged social workers to recognize both the social and psychological aspects of intervention and the ways in which systems theory can be related to human beings.

Jane spent most of her childhood in care, as a result of sexual and emotional abuse from her family members and had several abusive relationships. Her current partner, Karl, has mental health issues that are exacerbated by the use of illegal drugs. Due to the growing concerns around Karl’s erratic behavior and his increasingly violent behavior towards Jane, the children are now subject to Child Protection Plans. Jane has a child from a previous marriage, Jordon, who was taken into care aged four after it was found that Jane’s then partner, Mick, was a ‘Person who Poses a Risk to Children’ (PPRC) and that Jane was unable to protect the children whilst in the relationship. Jane is currently 12 weeks pregnant. She does not believe that Karl is the father and disclosed that she had a one-night stand whilst out with friends. Karl is unaware of the pregnancy. Mabel, Jane’s mother, has recently been diagnosed with dementia. Jane and her mother have always had a fractious relationship and Jane believes that her Mother was complicit in the abuse she suffered as a child.

The use of a genogram (Hartman 1975) would provide, a snapshot of how that person or family is structured.’ and ‘an immediate visual representation of the individual or family being assessed’, in this case, Jane and her family. (Parker, J, Bradley, G, 2004. p40). Using an ecomap (Hartman 1975) would help to identify Jane’s current social context and dissect both the positive and negative factors in her relationships within the family.

Systems theory is used as an intervention and puts emphasis on the consequences of one person’s actions on another. An advantage of using this theory as an intervention is that ‘individuals are not seen as isolated, unconnected beings but social and affected by and influencing others around them, the organizations with which they have contact and, indeed, wider society” (Parker, J. Bradley, G,2004, p86). ‘Which is often explained as ‘person in the environment, (Teater, B, 2014. p16).

According to Coulshed and Orme, a substantial element of system theory intervention requires, ‘interviewing skills, assessment skills and counseling skills,’ and suggests that assessment helps to establish, ‘what needs to be done to maintain, improve or bring about change in the person, environment or both. (Coulshed and Orme, 2012. p22). The ecological theory identifies five environmental systems in which an individual interacts, meso, eco, macro, and Chrono systems and is akin to Thompsons’ PCF model (1997) of human development and fits with the framework for assessment.

Assessment is a continuing process that changes according to circumstances. It is used as a tool to gather information and knowledge about Jane, her family, and the environment in which they live. Germain and Gitterman’s life model talks about establishing an ‘active relationship based on mutuality and reciprocity.’ (Healy, K 2005.p 138). One of the first stages is to build a positive, empathetic relationship based on respect, trust, and honesty. Effective communication is an essential part of both the assessment and intervention process. Smith (2010) discusses the unequal dynamics of power between the social worker and the service user and suggests that in terms of practice, developing credibility and congruence will support the professional in gaining relational power.

When applying system theory, it can be difficult to know where to intervene due to the multiple and complex needs of the family. It is difficult to address Jane’s individual needs when using system theory as all issues are all interrelated within a system, therefore it’s essential to work with the family as a whole.

There is an immediate power relationship when both the social worker and service user initially meet. With this in mind, the social worker must ensure they are not using their professional power to become the expert in peoples’ lives but to empower Jane and other individuals within the family to become, ‘the authors of their own lives. (Coulshed, V, Orme, J, 2012. p226). ‘System theory uses a strength-based approach and focuses on supporting the family to identify the positives that exist within their systems. Once strengths are identified they can be developed into a set of ’SMART’ goals which can be used to empower the family to encourage change. Change and power are intertwined’ and ‘people have to experience themselves as having some power if they are to bring about changes. (Beckett, C, 2010. p131).

Another advantage is the unifying force that promotes partnership working with organizations and agencies. Referrals to specialist agencies will provide Jane with additional support to address specific issues. Power and status dynamics are an integral part of multi-agency working. Working within a multi-disciplinary setting, professionals will have to make judgments about the service user. However, professionals must remain ‘both congruent and non-judgemental in doing so.’ (Musson. P, 2017. p107). Ensuring that Jane and her family have equal opportunities to be involved in decisions regarding their lives is crucial to anti-oppressive practice.

The strength of systems theories is in its adaptability, and exchange of resources and energy from the different systems. The theory talks about all systems having boundaries within which energy is exchanged. General systems theory (1950) states that this interaction has two parts, closed systems, i.e. boundaries that do not interact with the outside world, and open systems, those where the boundary is permeable. All families have roles and in a healthy family, these roles are flexible. Each role is a way for each individual to feel like they have some control and power. When change occurs, boundaries become blurred and families often find interaction and communication difficult as each individual struggles with their own issues. Dysfunctional family systems leave the individual, i.e. Jane questioning what role they have/had in the family.

Social work has always had a focus on understanding the individual within their environment, and the impact of wider social factors on people’s lives ( Deacon, L, Macdonald, S, J, 2017. p82). Pincus and Minahan (1973) were amongst the first to apply systems theory to social work practice at a time when the theory was looking to provide social workers with a ‘ unitary model of practice, ‘one that could offer a holistic framework’ (Walker, S, 2012. p3). Its links to the family began to develop during the nineteen fifties and was an approach used to provide the understanding that ‘many human situations are more helpfully understood in terms of the interaction between individuals rather than in terms of individuals in isolation ( Beckett, C, 2006, p84).

Systems Theory is only a short-term intervention that avoids dependency. Families can return to healthier relationships and interactions known as, homeostasis, by changing the way in which they communicate and interact which each other. Whilst the theory used in social work practice ‘involves bringing about change through manipulating the systems, their relationships with individuals and others ’ (Musson, P, 2017. p60), one of its limitations is the concept of homeostasis. It only agrees with changes that stabilize the system and using this only allows for slow and steady change. Abrupt changes to the status quo can disrupt the macro systems which are reliant on particular parts of society remaining the same. This can prove to be oppressive when dealing with issues relating to inequality and diversity as, ‘such structural understandings see power, not as an entity to be possessed (and perhaps redistributed), but as an antagonistic social relation of power. Lipsky 1987 suggests that, ’structural relations of social oppression maybe internalized,’ and that, ’people may take on the attributions of inferiority that are imposed onto them by dominant groups. (Journal of social work. p37). Jane has been abused by males throughout her life which reflects the societal constructions of gender, that place men in the dominant role. As a result, Jane may have been left feeling powerless.

One of the advantages of systems theory is that it is broad and able to integrate with other interventions to effect positive outcomes. In order to address Jane’s relationships with her family, attachment theory can be used as a model of intervention.

Attachment theory was first developed by the British psychoanalyst, John Bowlby (1969) who with ‘insights garnered from evolutionary theory, ethology, systems theory and developmental’ (Aldgate, J, Rose, W, Jeffrey, C (2006). p68) created the theory of attachment. Bowlby examined the way in which relationships are formed and believed that human beings are predisposed to seeking attachments and that attachment to another individual is instrumental in emotional development. Although Bowlby was focused on the early childhood experiences of attachment, he also, ’assumed that it is active over the entire life span and is manifested in thoughts and behaviors related to seeking proximity to attachment figures .’( Mikulincer, M, Shaver, P, R , (2007). p12).

Attachment Theory can be used to explain how Jane’s childhood relationships with her parents/caregivers/family have impacted on her adult relationships and the relationships with her children. Research has found that ‘Early attachment patterns become deeply embedded in the neural pathways of the brain and the central nervous system.’ https://www.communitycare.co.uk/2016/12/06/attachment-theory-social-work-adults/

Ainsworth (1978) developed a three-category model of attachment styles; secure, anxious, and avoidant. Maine (1995) added a fourth attachment known as the disorganized attachment style which states that, as adults, individuals will seek co-dependent relationships which are dominated by a fear of abandonment. It also suggests that adults can choose who they attach to, normally partners who confirm their beliefs about attachment.

Jane had a difficult childhood stemming from the sexual abuse by her father and having spent most of her childhood in care in residential homes. Her adult life has been cataloged with a history of abusive relationships. Jane’s lack of attachment during childhood has left her feeling unworthy and unloved. Research by Henderson, Bartholomew, and Dutton (1997) has identified that insecure adult romantic attachment has links to intimate partner violence and is associated with shorter and more frequent relationships. Research indicates that ‘around one in five adults aged 16 to 59 (an estimated 6.2 million people) had experienced some form of abuse as a child, according to the Crime Survey for England and Wales (CSEW) for the year ending March 20162.’ https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/crimeandjustice/articles/peoplewhowereabusedaschildrenaremorelikelytobeabusedasanadult/2017-09-27.

Jane has endured a significant amount of change personally, structurally, and culturally throughout her life much of which has been beyond her control. The level of degree in which she will engage with services may depend on issues regarding experiences of attachment and rejection. The lack of services that are available to victims of domestic abuse may also be a barrier to accessing services. This has the potential for the social worker to perceive Jane as ‘difficult’ and dismiss her as refusing support. As a child, Jane has learnt strategies to keep herself safe which she has continued in her adult life. However, ‘as social workers, we must never think that we are “treating” a strategy or set of behaviors. ‘Our role is to help them over-applying that strategy in adult life, while also helping them add different strategies.

• https://www.communitycare.co.uk/2016/12/06/attachment-theory-social-work-adults/

The intervention itself has the potential to be oppressive. Keeping within the law and balancing the scales between keeping people safe and respecting individual rights can prove problematic. ‘Dominant groups in society use their position of power to influence subordinate groups’ (Frameworks for clinical practice).

It is important for social workers to develop a framework for understanding human behavior. Therefore, it is fundamental for the social worker to identify and understand the attachments Jane has had in her life and the impact they have had on her relationships in adulthood. As Any unresolved conflict or trauma will inhibit the intervention work.)

Initially, it is, as with system theory, necessary to create as Bowlby describes a ‘safe haven’ and ‘secure Base’, in order to work with Jane.

Attachment-aware practice helps the social worker to understand the client’s behavior and also the coping strategies employ in times of crisis. Professor Munro stated in her child protection report that all social workers should be trained in attachment theory and in the 2014 report on education for social workers, Sir Martin Narey advised that a newly qualified social worker should have a comprehensive understanding of attachment theory.

• (Payne, M, 2005. p143. Modern Social Work Theory. Palgrave Macmillan).

Payne describes the theory as a “generalized set of ideas that describes and explains our knowledge of the world around us in an organized way” (Payne, 2014. p5). The Professional Capabilities Framework, states that applying social science theory to social work practice is a professional requirement. Capability five specifically indicates “Apply knowledge from a range of theories and models for social work intervention with individuals, families, groups, and communities, and the methods derived from them”. A theory draws insight by gathering evidence through the scientific model in an attempt to understand the root cause Alongside this Jane is also trying to cope with her past traumas, including the impact of domestic abuse and sexual abuse which has affected her emotionally, social, and intellectual well – being. ‘Abuse and violence can have a serious impact on the way a woman thinks and interacts with the world around her and ‘may impair a woman’s ability to function in the ‘real’ world,’ ‘including finding it really hard to look after children as well as she would want.