Untiedt looks at some of the key aspects that encompass death, dying and other aspects. He affirms that death is familiar and universal to all societies in the world. Thus, this has ensured that there are tales, activities and even beliefs that involve death. These aspects cannot be separated from each other because they encompass uncertainty and anxiety.
Most people do not talk about death because it is perceived as a taboo. In fact, conversations avoid death aspects. Besides, it is a topic that fascinates all people in all societies. Although, writers have written on aspects of death, there are many aspects unknown to people.
What does Death Lore entail?
Therefore, fear, mystery and familiarity make death the focus of most folklore. This has seen the writing of many articles that try to address the issue of death. For instance, in Texas, publications on the same topic have facilitated folkloristic appreciation and understanding of the same.
Besides, this is aimed at educating the people of their culture without interfering with values that are upheld in society. Hence, Death Lore encompasses a number of articles, recollections and other topics on death from other parts of the world (Untiedt, 1). Further, it links the same to the beliefs and values of the people of the state of Texas.
Untiedt also explores the resting places of the dead people. For instance, he enlightens the people of Texas on the graveyards and all that go around them. Further, he looks at the challenges involved in cemetery space allocation. Besides, Untiedt brings out some of the bizarre wishes that are made by families of the dead people.
What does death encompass?
Moreover, the Untiedt highlights some of the death process and the ceremonies that follow thereafter. Besides, he addresses some rituals that are done for the dead. This is achieved through the use of narratives. He also incorporates the work of other authors such as Massingills and Oden to highlight the worth of death lore for the people in various societies.
In fact, death Lore highlights different perspectives about death in various societies. Therefore, there is the likelihood of raising many questions rather than giving answers. It has not been able to address some of the aspects that encompass the Texas Death lore. For example, death has not been explored in the computer age (Untiedt, 288). However, this does not deter a person from appreciating all that has been done by authors like Ward and Rushing.
Is the research done in the field of Death Lore enough?
What is more, there are gaps regarding the Texas Death lore. This has been intentionally left to facilitate other researches on the same topic. This would also act, as a motivator, to ensure that people are involved in carrying out research. Furthermore, this will ensure that there is extra exploration in the field of death. Thus, there will be more sources with appropriate and valid data to be used than before.
In summary, Untiedt’s literature highlights the relationship between the fascination and taboos regarding death. This forms the foundation for further research on issues of death. Therefore, it gives other authors a challenge that needs to be solved. In fact, his work encourages others to find anecdotal and analytic issues that underpin deaths in societies.
Works Cited
Untiedt, Kenneth. “Death Lore: Texas Rituals, Superstitions, and Legends of the Hereafter.” Journal of American Folklore (2008): 288- 290. Print.
Two belief systems influence the character of Tom Sawyer in The Adventure of Tom Sawyer – religious dogma and superstition. Religion may be defined as the worship of the Supernatural or God. Superstition stems from ignorance and fear of the unknown. The question that arises is if Tom’s religious beliefs are the same as his superstitious beliefs or are they in conflict. Does an analysis of Tom’s beliefs redefine the two terms? The examination of Tom Sawyer’s character shows that Mark Twain used religion and superstition as compatible forces.
Tom’s Religious Opinions
In the novel, the adults in the fictional village of St. Petersburg, where Tom lived, gave importance to religious practices. They insisted on practicing religion seriously and so the children of the village were made to attend Sunday school and visit church. Tom’s religious beliefs are not very firm. For Tom, religion is a perfunctory duty imposed on him by his guardian, Aunt Poly. He attends Sunday school not to gain religious education but to play with other children. According to the village custom, Tom had to visit a church every Sunday. However, he had no interest in sermons. Instead, he merrily laughed at the yelping dog that interrupted the sermon being delivered in the church (Twain 47-48).
Tom does not always adhere to religious customs like saying a prayer before bed. However, religion has a moral effect on him. He feels guilty of stealing as his understanding of religion had taught him to believe so. He thinks stealing is a sin and is conscious of the divine consequences that incite fear in him. Thus, Tom’s religious beliefs were based on his idea of sin, punishment, and retribution.
Clearly, religion for Tom was a duty imposed by society. The religious beliefs were not strongly internalized. However, the fear of sin had created a strong impression on the young mind and the religious code had taught Tom about moral righteousness. Tom can be considered somewhat religious as he showed some understanding of the religious moral code of conduct. However, he did not feel that religious rituals were of great importance and could be ignored as per convenience.
Tom’s Superstitions
Superstition had a stronger influence on Tom’s character. Religion was a mere obligation to Tom, but superstitious beliefs helped him to make decisions. Tom’s belief in witches, devil, ghosts, and evil create a strong impression on the young mind that influences many of his actions. For instance, when Tom’s tricks to find the marbles fail, he is shocked to find that his superstitious belief had failed. Therefore, he uses another superstitious belief about witches to explain the initial failure.
Though it took him some time to find his lost marbles, yet, he was convinced that he had found them with the aid of the trick enshrined in his superstitious belief. This shows that Tom had many superstitious beliefs, which were open to interpretation. In another instance, Tom refuses to go out for a swim with his friends out of fear when he loses his bracelet that was supposed to protect him from cramps (Twain 135).
Further, Tom and his friends had a strong belief in the magical powers of dead cats (Twain 54). They believed it was a cure for warts and could be used to reveal hidden information. The incident when Tom and Huck went to the graveyard to perform a cure with the aid of a dead cat, they witnessed the murder of Dr. Robinson (Twain 189). This incident set in motion the other events in the novel. Thus, the juvenile superstition of Tom became the catalyst for the unraveling of the main plot of the story.
Tom’s superstitious beliefs influenced his decisions. He sincerely believed in his superstitions and was willing to act upon them that resulted in the unraveling of the main plot of the novel.
Are these two belief systems compatible or in conflict
Religion to Tom is a compulsion, imposed upon by the society. For him, religion is a mandatory obligation that forces the boys to leave their merriment to visit Church. Tom’s understanding of religion is mostly restricted to divine justice and retribution. His religious belief was an outcome of fear. However, religion did not have a strong effect on his decision-making. On the contrary, his belief in superstition influenced his actions. Tom, like the other boys of his age depicted in the novel, had an imaginative mind that believed in ghosts, witches, treasures, and magic. He believed that fantastical creatures and events were evil and must be feared.
Thus, Tom’s religious beliefs and superstitious beliefs arose from fear. Mark Twain writes in the preface to Tom Sawyer that the “odd superstitions” depicted in the books were “all prevalent among children and slaves in the West at the period of this story” (Twain 2). This confirms that superstitious beliefs were present among most children of the time when religion dictated the way of life in most villages. Tom’s religious beliefs create the root of his superstitious beliefs. Hence, religious and superstitious beliefs are compatible forces in the novel.
Work Cited
Twain, Mark. The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, Penguin, 2010.
Architecture, as we know it today, can be defined as a language that exemplifies the attributes of a particular culture or way of societal thinking. In essence, architecture expresses two specific characteristics; in that it has a functional characteristic which is embodied by the usability aspect of architectural projects (i.e. the building serves a specific purpose such as acting as museum, apartment building, library, etc.). It also has symbolic characteristic as embodied by how the form and design elements of a building are meant to connote some type of symbolic message (Sari et al., 2011).
It is this use of symbolism as a part of architectural aesthetics and design that will be focused on in this paper within the context of superstitions from different cultures and how they influence the functional and aesthetic design of architectural works. It is the belief of this paper that superstition in architectural design should only impact aesthetic elements in the design elements and should not impact the functional attributes of an architectural project.
Symbolism and Superstition in Architecture
Before proceeding, it is necessary to delve into the concept of symbolism within architecture and how they are related to cultural superstitions. First, it is important to note that architectural projects, such as buildings, can be considered physical representations of a common cultural agreement involving aesthetics and design choices. For example, one of the most common cultural agreements associated with superstition can be seen in the design of mosques in Islamic culture wherein there is a general superstition surrounding their need to face Mecca.
As a result, the design orientations of mosques for several hundred years have focused on implementing this specific design choice in all current mosques. On the other hand, for a better impression of how superstitions influence design through symbolism, an examination of many of today’s classical cathedrals, such as Notre Dame, can be used as an example. Aside from their spires, cross shaped interior designs and vestibules, one of the most iconic design symbols that are associated with these buildings are their use of gargoyles on their facades. The use of these stone monstrosities was due to the superstitious belief at the time that putting monsters on the surfaces of churches would help to scare demons away.
Another interesting use of symbols in architecture is the use of curved designs in ancient China when it came to various architectural projects. The reasoning behind this design element rose from the belief that ghosts and spirits could only traverse the material world in a straight line. As a result of this belief, many Chinese buildings incorporated curved roof designs in order to keep spirits out. However, this use of curved design elements was not limited to houses, temples and important architectural structures; rather, it was also incorporated into road design.
The following is an example of a military road in China that was constructed to move men and materials from one base to another. As it can be seen, the curved design superstition was implemented in such a way that it eschewed logic completely in favor of conforming to a belief system involving spirits. A more logical and cost efficient means of construction would involve merely building the road in a straight line, however, given the potential that such an action may “attract spirits” what was chosen was a totally illogical and wasteful design method.
When taking these aspects of symbolism in architectural design into consideration, it can be seen that each culture has their own unique superstitions and attributes that “bleed into” the manner in which design elements are created. While this creates a unique and definitely interesting variation in the means by which different cultures distinguish themselves on an architectural basis, the fact remains that such elements should not interfere in the functional aspect of the design itself. As evidenced by the Chinese curved line superstition, this can have an adverse effect on functionality which can cause significant issues when it comes to adhering to proper cost effectiveness.
Cultural Superstition in Architectural Design
As explained by Casakin, (2012), if one were to examine aspects of modern day architecture, it would immediately be apparent that many of today’s modern buildings and architectural projects lack the overt symbolism found in architectural design 300 to 500 years ago. What is present is a more functional, ergonomic and standardized method of structural design that focuses more on practicality that on symbolism and superstitious heritage (Casakin, 2012). However, Liu (2008) explains that while cultural superstitions such as the use of gargoyles in Cathedrals and curved roofs in Chinese buildings have become a rarity in modern day buildings, this does not mean that all aspects related to cultural superstitions have been removed.
For example, one of the most common superstitions that pervade building design at the present is the lack of a 13th floor in Western building designs (Liu, 2008). While “technically” the 13 floor does exist, it is renamed as the 14th floor due to connotations regarding the number 13 and bad luck. Fortunately, the practice has become rarer as building designers become less superstitious; however, many modern buildings today such as One Canada Square in Britain still do not use the number 13. On the other side of world, a similar superstition pervades Chinese buildings wherein due to a quirk in the Chinese language the number “4” in the English language sounds like the word for “die” in Chinese. As a result, floors with the number 4 are renamed after the next denomination in the series (i.e. the 4th floor becomes the 5th floor; the 34th floor becomes the 35th floor, etc.).
Oddly enough, despite the number 13 having no overt negative cultural superstitions in China, building designers opt to not include the number in the floor layout of buildings as well. Other odd cultural superstitions can be seen in building designs in Hong Kong, Singapore and various parts of China where Feng Shui (i.e. a Chinese philosophy of harmonizing humans with the surrounding natural environment) is extensively utilized in order to orient buildings based on what is perceived to be the best in relation to the surrounding mountains, rivers, sea, etc. Feng Shui has become so pervasive in Asian architectural design that it has influenced the orientation of buildings, the placement of windows, the overall shape and structure of buildings and even the placement of columns to a certain degree (How’s the Feng Shui? 1995).
Do note though the current proliferation of skyscrapers designs are not a result of cultural superstitions or any other form of cultural heritage that has been shared in between countries, rather, they are a manifestation of vertical urbanism. In most overpopulated urban centers, free space has become increasingly scarce as urban planners and construction companies attempt to create a balance between the limited space for expansion and the need for convenience and affordability as desired by today’s modern day consumer.
The result is the utilization of the concept of vertical urbanism wherein subsequent construction and expansion maximizes the use of limited space through the creation of high rise condominiums, apartment complexes and various other forms of modern day architecture which have increasingly followed the trend of vertical construction. What this signifies is that when it comes to modern day architecture, it does follow a specific design trend in maximizing space which has aided significantly in minimizing the incorporation of superstition in design elements, however, they do still exist to a certain degree as the next section will show.
Superstitions and Mexican Design
According to the article Great Design Around the World: Mexico (2006), the concept of superstition in architecture is not limited to its spiritual connotations, rather, it extends to formal manifestations as well. This means that when it comes to superstitions in architectural designs, this is not limited to ideas of “warding off spirits” as seen in the case of Catholic gargoyles or the Chinese curved line design, rather, these are meant to manifest cultural symbols as a means of implying a shared message through symbolism (Great Design Around the World: Mexico, 2006). For example, the Edificio Calakmul located in Santa Fe has massive circular window that directly faces the sun.
Once sunlight hits it, the intended effect is to symbolize a rising sun which has considerable spiritual connotations in Mexican superstition involving success, progressiveness and rebirth. Considering the fact that the Edificio Calakmul is considered the latest in Mexico’s “intelligent building” design, it can be stated that the intended purpose of the designer was to connote local superstition regarding the sun and incorporate it in such a way that it became a massive symbol (Great Design Around the World: Mexico, 2006).
It should be noted though that Mexico does share some attributes with Western building designers in that the number 13 is similarly not utilized and is either renamed or skipped over in its entirety when it comes to floor planning. Based on the perspective of Jafarizadeh et al. (2013), superstition in architectural design is actually a manifestation of incorporating familiar symbolism so as to make people feel more “at ease” so to speak since they would recognize signs and symbols that would place them into a more comfortable psychological state (Jafarizadeh et al. 2013).
For example, the use of slanting designs in Mexican architecture is attributed to the Mayans and how a slanting vertical design is meant to symbolize Mexican superstition which correlates the design with mountains and rising from the earth towards the heavens. As such, it was a superstition based on the belief that the design had a distinct correlation with success and strength. Examples of the use of this particular design element can be seen in the Mexican Stock Exchange, the Iglesia de Bosques de las Lomas Church, Torre Insignia and Torre Mayor, and the Plaza Moliere.
It should also be noted that there are also certain religious superstitions at work within Mexico’s architecture industry wherein there is a considerable pervasiveness in the implementation of cross shapes (Arcos Bosques), arches (Torre Arcos Bosques) and curved designs (Plaza de Residencias) which Jafarizadeh et al. (2013) described as manifestation of religious superstition meant to create a level of protection for buildings by creating a correlation between religious symbolism and protection against the elements. What this shows is that superstition has a considerable degree of influence in the design and creation of Mexican architecture as evidenced by the various examples that have been shown in this paper. Jafarizadeh et al. (2013) explains that that level of integration into architectural works is often a result of societal predilections towards belief in superstitions and oral traditions resulting in their integration into many aspects of modern day society.
Influencing Design
It is the opinion of this paper that influences in design as a result of superstitions from different cultures should primarily be isolated to aesthetics rather than anything related to the functional application of the design itself. For example, when it comes to superstitions involving numerology and its application in floor plan development, it simply does not make logical sense to continue the practice based on what a culture perceives as “bad luck”. While it may be true that societal preconceptions do have a considerable degree of influence when it comes to design inspiration, the fact remains that architects need to focus on the facts and not on the basis of some form of belief that has no real world bearing whatsoever.
For example, when examining the case of the Chinese superstition involving curved lines and ghosts and the samples given, it becomes immediately obvious its application as an aesthetic design attribute is perfectly fine, however, once it actively interferes in the functional purpose of an architectural project then it cannot be considered a viable design element. It becomes wasteful, inefficient and actually detracts from the building as a whole. The work of Erzen (2011) explains that the development of architectural styles and methods of innovation in the various regions of the world is often the result of responses to the natural environment (Erzen, 2011).
This does not limit itself to aesthetic differences in design as seen in the opposing design elements of buildings from Japan as compared to those within Europe but instead encompasses unique architectural manifestations of internal and external innovative differences that impact not only the look of the building but the way in which it functions as a living environment (Agudo 2010). This can have long term influences on the development of architecture within a region and as such can be considered a means by which architectural development responds to the natural environment (Agudo 2010).
Within the context of superstition and architectural design, it can be seen that the design elements utilized are not a result of adapting to conditions within a local environment; rather, they are merely a manifestation of shared beliefs that were originally meant as a means of explaining natural processes but have been proven false as a result of scientific investigation. Taking this into consideration, it can be stated that the impact of superstitions from different cultures on architectural design should be limited primarily to aesthetic design elements meant to encapsulate the unique cultural attributes of a particular country. However, this should be limited to aesthetic appeal rather than consist of integral design aspects. Unfortunately, as seen in the case of Mexico and other countries, superstition and symbolism continues to be an ongoing trend despite the inherent dangers utilizing design elements based on superstition has on the structural integrity of the buildings themselves.
Reference List
Agudo, M 2010, ‘Late-Antique and Early Medieval Hispanic Churches and the Archaeology of Architecture: Revisions and Reinterpretation of Constructions, Chronologies and Contexts’, Medieval Archaeology, vol. 54, no. 1, pp. 1-33.
Casakin, H 2012, ‘An empirical assessment of metaphor use in the design studio: analysis, reflection and restructuring of architectural design’, International Journal Of Technology & Design Education, vol. 22, no. 3, pp. 329-344.
Erzen, J 2011, ‘Reading Mosques: Meaning and Architecture in Islam’, Journal Of Aesthetics & Art Criticism, vol. 69, no. 1, pp. 125-131.
‘Great Design Around the World: Mexico’ 2006, Architectural Digest, vol. 63, no. 5, p. 180, ‘How’s the Feng Shui’?’ 1995, News For You, vol. 43, no. 16, p. 3.
Jafarizadeh, R, Homaipour, H, Bakhtiyari, A, & Miremadi, A 2013, ‘The Overview of Cultural Dimensional Impact on Iranian Architectural Design in Foreign Project: A Case Study’, International Business & Management, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 31-35.
Liu, Q 2008, ‘The Art of Placement’, China Today, vol. 57, no. 3, pp. 28-31.
Sari, R, Şen, D, Al, S, Candaş Kahya, N, & Sağsöz, A 2011, ‘The effects of traditions, customs and beliefs on architectural design: The example of Turkey’, International Journal Of Academic Research, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 780-792.
Interestingly, superstitions are often very territorial in nature. They vary from one part of the world to another, and bring an almost unique flavor to the region that they belong to, shaping the lives of its people and their sense of culture. Furthermore, the more timeless a superstition may seem, the more believable it becomes. It is better to have accounts of several generations supporting a superstition’s ability to turn your life upside down – for better or for worse – than to simply read it off the internet. Somehow, the former never fails to lend an air of authenticity to a superstition’s power of bringing good or evil in your life.
Because of their territorial character and claims of having history – personal or otherwise – on their side, superstitions tend to vary from one civilization to another. Sometimes superstitions in one region are almost the same as those in the other, making them part of a big harmonious family of superstitions, whereas at other times they may offer conflicting prescriptions to their followers with an almost nationalistic or religious fervor.
Chinese civilization dates back thousands of years and, therefore, has its own long list of dos and donts in terms of superstitions. The list is so long and extensive that I am not sure if anybody has ever managed to follow all of them. At the end of the day, I think people just tend to pick and choose the ones that seem authentic and easier to follow. My personal favorites are the ones that surround the Chinese New Year. It is not just one or two, but a collection of superstitions built around this festival. Building on each other, they warn of death and poverty on the one hand and offer promises of prosperity and health on the other.
The most interesting superstition, however, involves cleaning – or to be more precise, no cleaning at all – on the Chinese New Year’s Day. As a family, this means that we are all required to help in cleaning the house before New Year’s Day, especially making sure that our individual rooms are properly cleaned and have no clothes, books or other objects aimlessly lying around the room. All this however had to be done before the New Year deadline, and once done there is to be absolutely no cleaning on New Year’s Day. My parents would never fail to remind us that while the house was being cleaned to welcome good luck and prosperity in, we should avoid all cleaning on New Year’s Day as we may end up sweeping away good luck. For the same reason, all brooms and mops had to be kept out of sight.
Interestingly, if you did manage to leave any cleaning abject lying around on New Year’s Day, then you will have to wait till the next day to be taken to task for it since all bickering or crying needs to be avoided on that day, and my parents rightly felt that if one mistake had been made already then we did not necessarily need to follow it up with another. Of course, children often take advantage of this one day of immunity to be as mischievous as they please.
Back in China, I even knew a friend, Ma Ayi, whose grandmother would not allow her to wash her hair on New Year’s Day for the same reason. Since it is considered a good practice to get dressed up and sit in the living room to welcome good luck in, I would be advised of the same by her grandmother in front of everyone assembled in the room, with her telling me how she had not allowed Ma to wash up at all that day to make sure that she does not end up washing away her luck.. I am not sure which one of us used to be the more uncomfortable and embarrassed at that time, me or Ma. My own grandmother liked making sure that besides cleaning objects, we also left no knives or sharp objects lying about as this may injure the good luck entering the house. Interestingly, her list of sharp objects even included pencil sharpeners!
Of course, once New Year’s Day was over, all those that had failed in keeping the house clean could be taken to task and had to work extra hard in the second round of cleaning, which involved sweeping of all the floors. However, instead of sweeping dust outside the house, it had to be swept inward towards the middle. By starting at the doorstep, we were required to sweep inwards towards the centre of the parlor.
Once all dust and rubbish had been hence collected, it was carefully placed in different corners of the house for the next five days and no one was allowed to step on it during that time. This was done to make sure that any good luck still lying around was not accidentally thrown out or trampled upon.
My mother also believed that if we mistakenly end up sweeping the dust out over the front entrance, then one of the family members will be swept away by death as well. It was only after the fifth day that the dirt and rubbish hence collected and carefully placed around the house could be taken out, but even then we were only allowed to carefully take it out through the backdoor. However, once in the United States, the use of vacuum cleaner on New Year’s Day did present an interesting logistical challenge for quite some time!
Superstitions are an interesting reflection of our hopes and fears – things we would like to see in our lives, and things that we would like to avoid. They are essentially a cultural phenomenon, and hence like any other social activity or value system, they too have their own individual costs and benefits, advantages and disadvantages. They add to the unique identity and makeup of a culture, and are most often not repressive in nature.
They even offer us with an interesting insight into the mind of our ancestors, and how they lived their lives. For example, I am not sure if any one of my ancestors ever lost their ears by pointing towards the moon, as the popular superstition holds, but having known my grandmother, I am pretty certain that the very thought was enough to deter most of them from taking the chance!