Category: Suicide

Seeing an old person passing away is tragic; it seems that this person has just started getting the taste of life and finally gained the wisdom that people lack so much when making important choices in their lives, when his person suddenly has to leave. However, there is a sight even more tragic; that is the sight of a young person dying, since (s)he might have accomplished so much, and yet (s)he is no more.

There are millions of things that cause young people’s death, starting with road accidents up to terminal illnesses. However, according to what statistics says, suicide tops this sad chart. The existing evidence says that depression is the key reason for the young to commit a suicide. Therefore, by analyzing the environment in which modern young people live and checking it for the factors that can possibly induce suicidal attempts, as well as checking the young people’s reaction towards these factors and specifying the depression rates among the present-day youth, one can possibly make the suicidal rates among young people drop considerably.

The above-mentioned can be achieved by analyzing the students answers to the following question of a survey: “What do you do when you feel that everything goes wrong and that the entire world is up against you?” Since teenagers are apt to exaggerate their problems and, hence, feel depressed (Sebastian & Martin, 2010), the given question is crucial in determining the suicide rates.

Another issue that needs to be addressed badly is whether the target audience is susceptible to the behavioral tendencies that occur among the young people of the specified age. To be more exact, it is necessary to figure out whether suicidal attempts are becoming an absurd “trend” among the young people. It is important to keep in mind, though, that suicidal attempts can be turned into a trend for various reasons.

For example, a suicide might be considered a romanticized manifestation of despair in response to unrequited love; however, the given example is not the only possible suggestion. Another example of how a suicide can become a trend is the death of an idol of the youth culture, either natural one, or violent one, or a suicide itself. The latter case can be described as following the example set by the “idol.” That being said, it is important to stress that the second element of the survey tool is going to be represented by such question as “What do you think is wrong with the modern society?”

Though the given question does not exactly lead to defining the possible examples of suicide that a teenager might be exposed to, it allows to pin down very precisely what the surveyed person thinks about the society in general and its trends in particular. Being socially active is a very trustworthy indicator of a teenager’s social engagement and, therefore, a good way to test whether the participant of the survey is prone to the influence of the possible suicidal tendencies.

In addition, creating a personality cult, adolescents might actually consider the use of drugs and other hazardous substances as an integral part of belonging to the mini-society in question, which will most likely lead to substance abuse. According to what Finkleman (2011) says, many cities feature such services as the organizations “preventing tobacco, drug, and alcohol use” (169).

The third tool, which the given survey is going to consist of, will be the definition of the stress level rates among the youth, as well as defining the key factors that predetermine this stress. According to the data provided by Bushy and Napolitano, stress plays a great role in shaping people’s behavioral patterns, influences their mood and even defines their life choices. When stress pushes people too far, they are under a threat of a mental breakdown; taking into account teenagers’ unstable mood triggered by chemical and biological processes in their body, one does not need to be a psychic to realize that teenagers are often under too much pressure.

Once the latter becomes too high, the suicidal attempts become a very tangible threat. Therefore, as Bushy and Napolitano explain, it is necessary to check whether the target group has enough resilience to withstand the daily stress. What the authors define as resilience is actually the “the ability to withstand many forms of stress and deal with several problems simultaneously without developing health problems” (Bushy & Napolitano, 2010, 386).

The last, but definitely not the least, the fourth tool is going to help analyze the external factors shaping the suicidal rates among teenagers is the urban factor. Though also obviously relating to the range of stress factors, the given issue stands out of the rest of the elements of daily life that contribute to creating a stressful setting, since the urban life presupposes dealing with life problems on a much faster pace. Urban life also involves a number of environmental issues (Sebastian, 2010), which, along with the fact that in cities, people have considerably less personal space per capita, adds to the setting, making it even more stressful.

With that said, it is clear that the fourth element of the survey tool is going to handle the aspects of urban life and the impact of the related complexities on the youth. In addition, the given element of the tool can also help check the statement concerning the stressfulness of city life as opposed to a calmer, more laid-back attitude of the county dwellers. Hence, it can be concluded that the fourth element of the survey tool is going to be used to analyze the factors that the youth cannot change and, therefore, is being constantly exposed to.

The rural life, however, also has its negative aspects that make the suicide rates among youth rise. As the recent research says, the morbidity rates are higher in the rural area, along with the rates of chronic illnesses and “unique health risks associated with occupations and the environment” (Bushy & Napolitano, 2011, 403).

While the first to elements can be shaped somewhat, and even the effects of popular culture that appeal to the lowest common denominator can be driven to nil with the correct approach, the influence of urban life is completely unavoidable. It is also important to keep in mind that social life of a city dweller is much more demanding in terms of political and social activity, which can be considered as another factor influencing teenagers’ health negatively, i.e., making them even more constrained. Therefore, the fourth element of the survey tool is going to address the physiological factors that enhance depression in teenagers and, hence, make the latter commit a suicide.

Reference List

Bushy, A. & Napolitano, M. (2010). Rural health and migrant health. In Stanhope, M. & Lancaster, J. (Eds.), Foundations of nursing in the community (400–418). New York, NY: Elsevier.

Finkleman, A. W. (2011). Health care system. In M. A. Nies & M. McEwen (Eds.), Community/public health nursing (5th ed.) (pp. 163–179). New York, NY: Elsevier.

Sebastian, J. G. (2010). Vulnerability and vulnerable populations: An overview. In M. A. Nies & M. McEwen (Eds.), Community/public health nursing (5th ed.) (pp. 386–399). New York, NY: Elsevier.

Sebastian, J. G. & Martin, K. S. (2010). The nurse in home health and hospice. In Stanhope, M. & Lancaster, J. (Eds.), Foundations of nursing in the community (560–576). New York, NY: Elsevier.

Having read the article by J. M. Dieterle, I have learned about different arguments against PAS. As for me, the weakest issues against euthanasia are “acceptance of PAS will weaken the prohibition on killing; and citizens will begin to fear hospitals and medical personnel” (Dieterle, 2007, p. 128).

To my mind, the first reason is weak because PAS is not the mask of death penalty. For example, if a person suffers from cancer of IV stage and there are no analogizing medicine for him/her, and terribly suffers it is quite clear that there are no chances to survive for this person and he is sentenced to die in terrible pain, but there’s no word that a prisoner must be killed via PAS. The second reason is rather weak because euthanasia concerns diseases incompatible with life, incurable and inflicting too much pain, but simple flu is not the reason to claim for euthanasia.

The best theories are “patients might be pressured by family members or insurance companies to seek PAS; and vulnerable groups – the elderly, minorities and the poor – will be more likely to take advantage of PAS, due to discrimination” (Dieterle, 2007, p. 128). These are reasonable as family members and insurance companies can pressure on the patient because of money, and the elderly, minorities and the poor are the most likely categories to suffer from prejudices and depression, so emotions will be the reason for them to take the decision.

Women and Health

After reading some publications concerning HIV/AIDS and tobacco healthcare issues on the WHO site, I found out that there are present some inequities in gender treatment. The first reason because women fail to get medical treatment of necessary level is their position in society. They usually work in informal sector which doesn’t offer any medical insurance; they get lower positions with lower payment and often work in part-time jobs.

All these issues create financial barrier for women to receive necessary health care. The reason to overcome this problem is removing of this barrier either by making cheaper or free health care (though taxes will increase) or by removing sexists’ stereotypes about some professions, and, especially, leading and top-positions which are usually obtained by men. The second reason is that women receive lower healthcare because they are major contributors in it. Doctors do not want to snail with them, as they need too much attention and too much time and effort. Again, the decision for this is removing sexists’ inclinations in society.

And the third reason is why women cannot receive necessary care is “profoundly affected by the ways in which they are treated and the status they are given by society as a whole” (WHO, 2009, p. 4). It means that women are less respected and in some countries are considered less important than men are. If it is because of some religious beliefs, then this problem cannot be solved, and if it is because of a tradition, set of mind of the whole country should be changed and women must be equaled in rights with men.

“Nancy Cruzan vs. Director”

The main issue of this case was that Nance Cruzan, as her parents claimed, must be “terminated in her artificial nutrition and hydration” (“Nancy Cruzan vs. Director”, 1989-1990), as she is in so-called vegetative state after a car accident. The Court declined this petition as according to the law Nancy has the right of protection of her life and the evidences of her former housemate that she would not like to live like a vegetable were recognized as unconvincing. I disagree with this decision as she has the right to live, but if she is in coma for a too long period, her brain is too severe injured and she will never return to normal state and now she is only wasting federal money.

Besides, she is now dead. She doesn’t perform any moves, breathing, etc – it is performed for her by machines. This case impacts morality and common sense, as it is terrible to kill a person, but if he or she is actually dead and their brain performs no activity some points and issues should be taken and thought over.

Reference List

Dieterle, J. M. (2007). Physician Assisted Suicide: A New Look At the Arguments. n.p.: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

Supreme Court of the United States. (1989-1990). Nancy Cruzan vs. Director. n.p.

World Health Organization. (2009). Executive Summary: Women and Health – Today’s Evidence, Tomorrow’s Agenda. Geneva: WHO Press.

Introduction

People die for a variety of reasons, brought upon both by accident and specific conditions. While inevitable, death presents significant interest for research, especially in its connection to other factors. The causes of death in a demographic or populace can tell researchers much about the surrounding political, cultural, social, and economic conditions. In this vein, one of the most “telling” types of death is suicide. Each year, the world loses considerable portion of its population to suicide. However, the specific demographics more likely to take their own lives are different depending on their location, income, living conditions, and many other factors. For example, some studies show that suicide patterns within East Asia and the West vary both their prevalence and gender composition (Snowdon, 2018). Suicide mortality, too, is a metric that is often changing depending on outside circumstances, prompting research (Alothman & Fogarty, 2020). Analyzing disparities between suicide rates has the potential to point at emergent systematic problems, along with the currently existing historical issues. The present study aims to examine the differences in rates of suicide across countries, using age, generation, sex, and GDP as points of comparison. In particular, the work attempts to determined the existence of differences among male and female suicide rates, accounting for the effects of age (AGE), and generation “Gen”, across countries. Data will be primarily drawn from the World Bank organization, which aggregates statistical data from around the world.

Description of the Data

The World Bank is an organization collecting publicly available data on global development and statistics. The overall purpose of the organization is to improve data availability among the population, making research into both worldwide and local trends more convenient. The World Bank Data Catalogue organizes and presents all of the collected information in an online format. It is important to note, however, that the World Bank assumes no personal accountability for any errors, omissions or discrepancies of data, instead acting as a tool for public access. Datasets from the World Bank can be sorted into a variety of categories, including country, age, sex, number of suicides, GDP, and others. The collected statistics cover a total of 101 countries over a period of time found to be statistically significant. Specific variables, including sex, age, generation, and a specific time period between 1985 and 2016 was considered. Generations X, Z, Silent, GL generation, Boomers and Millenials were included in the analysis.

Analyzing the figure, there are clear trends relating to the prevalence of suicide among populations. As a whole, the number of yearly suicides decreased from 1985 to 2015, however, significant fluctuations of numbers are present. 1995 was a year of an all-time high in suicides around the world. The period between 2015 and 2016 is noted for a sharp drop in suicide rates, which, however, has high probability of being incorrect. Most likely the recorded data for the dataset does not include all of the information regarding suicide rates, affecting the appearance of the graph. Analysis of bar chart regarding mortality by country also reveals interesting patterns of mortality.

Europe surpasses other continents based on suicide rates, followed closely by Asia and Oceania. Comparatively, Africa’s rates of suicide per 100k people are especially low. Additionally, data regarding suicide by sex also displays differences in population. Every year men take their lives twice or even thrice more often than women, peaking in 1995 specifically. While a decrease from the all-time high is evident, the present rates of suicide for men are higher than they were in 1985. Women peak in 1995 as well, with a similar peak in 1990.The subsequent rates of suicide rapidly decrease over the years, going lower than they were at the start of the data collection.

Proposed Analysis

Marginal longitudinal analysis is used to reach population-average conclusions. The present research seeks to examine and compare differences between male and female suicide within different nations, making this approach the most suitable. The analysis is used to showcase differences between populations of interest, namely age, sex and GDP per capita. This method does not account for individual-level differences in data, instead focusing on overarching trends. The Generalized Estimating Equations, or GEE method will be additionally used to create a marginal model for the effects of variables on Suicide Rates. An interaction for two variables of Sex and Years is permitted, meaning that the response trajectory can vary depending on the former. A total of 4 correlation structures will be discussed – independence, exchangeable, AR-1, and unstructured. The first disallows any responses to be correlated, while the second ensures that each pair of responses are correlated equality. AR-1 allows correlations between close variables to be higher, while the unstructured correlation structures gives all correlations the capacity to vary freely.

Analysis Results

GEE model can be analyzed using summary measures and residuals. Applying similar summery measures to the QIC values should produce an appropriate correlation structure. Table shows the recorded range of residuals depending on choices of correlation structure. The independent correlation model shows that lowest QIC values, and a smallest residual min. value. Further examination suggests that the use of an exchangeable structure is justified, having strong values according to the table. Therefore, the study will apply this structure as its main correlation structure.

Conclusions

Data collected and analyzed as a part of this work suggests that there are differences in male and female suicide rates, when accounting specifically for age, GDP and autocorrelation appropriate for this type of data. According to the model, it is expected that male suicide cases outnumber the female ones at a rate of 3 to 1, or even 4 to 1. In the late 90’s especially, the trend can be easily seen within the data. Suicides were at an all-time high in 1995, gradually declining from that point onward. On a global scale, probability of suicides increases with age, where 75+ year-old people have the highest rates of suicide. Distribution of suicides depending on generation varies, with the silent generation having the highest recorded rate of suicide among all others. The majority of aforementioned trends apply to at least 90 countries included in the review, with certain exceptions.

It should be noted, however, that cultural, historical, legislative or religious factors were not accounted for as a part of this work. Socially-different factors may have a large contribution towards suicide prevalence (Abrutyn & Mueller, 2018). Culture, social stigma around suicide, prevalence of religious condemnation of suicide, among other factors, is likely to influence suicide rates. Further analysis of various variables regarding suicidality is needed. Consideration of social, economic, cultural, religious factors as a necessary part of discussing suicide is necessary.

References

Abrutyn, S., & Mueller, A. S. (2018). Toward a cultural-structural theory of suicide: Examining excessive regulation and its discontents. Sociological Theory, 36(1), 48–66.

Alothman, D., & Fogarty, A. (2020). Global differences in geography, religion and other societal factors are associated with sex differences in mortality from suicide: An Ecological Study of 182 countries. Journal of Affective Disorders, 260, 67–72.

Snowdon, J. (2018). Differences between patterns of suicide in East Asia and the west. the importance of sociocultural factors.Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 37, 106–111. Web.

The two completing needs of the veterans in the United States are the ability to access healthcare services and the lack of policies and practices that are specifically designed to address the healthcare needs of this population. Vyas et al. (2017) determined that veterans, in particular, do not receive the help that would address their mental health needs, which results in the high prevalence of mental health issues and high suicide rates among this group. This is the result of both access and the fact that there is a small number of programs that specifically target the needs of veterans in the domain of mental health care. This section will consider the policy briefs and issues relating to the unaddressed needs of the US veterans and discuss the ethical implications of the potential policies for veterans.

A relevant policy or practice of a healthcare organization that can be used to address the needs of veterans in the United States is the expansion of Veteran Affairs (VA) healthcare to address the needs of both the veterans and their families. More specifically, Firth (2019) states that only half of the registered veterans in the United States are enrolled in the VA’s services, which means that these individuals do not receive the appropriate care. Moreover, the families of these veterans also require help and guidance regarding the ways of helping their loved ones, for example, to help them deal with trauma and PTSD. Hence, the policy that allows expanding of the VA’s coverage is a vital one for enabling better care provision for the veterans and their families. The inclusion of the family members into the programs that target veteran care is essential for providing mental health care and support because the families of these individuals are in contact with them on a regular basis and can help the veterans recognize the symptoms of mental health problems and reach out for care.

The expansion policy needs to target the awareness of mental health care among the veterans and their families because not many veterans seek the proper care or are aware of the services they can receive. Firth (2019) argues that despite VA’s efforts, many of the veterans and their family members still do not seek and receive care and specialized facilities, which requires attention and practices that would target the promotion of mental care and normalizing seeking help for the mental health issues.

Some critique toward the expansion of the VA’s coverage from the ethical viewpoint can be offered. Mainly, the issue is that the healthcare coverage in the United States is a statewide problem since some groups of people, especially those living in underprivileged communities, receive no care or access to vital services. Therefore, the question of whether the veterans are the group or community that is in need of the additional benefits and policies that would help them receive better access to care arises since there are other vulnerable populations who may require can serve as much as the veterans. Hence, such policies and programs that target the expansion of care, mental care, and raising awareness may be critiqued considering that some populations in the country do not receive the basic care for their physical health. However, to counter this argument, one must consider the contribution that the veterans have made to the protection of the state and the latter’s responsibility to address the needs of these individuals properly.

One more policy that can help address the needs of the veterans and balance the ethical considerations discussed above with the veterans’ needs should address the most pressing out of the issues that the veterans face, which is the prevention of suicides. According to Hendin (2017), this community accounts for the majority of the suicides in the United States. Therefore, mental health coverage and a policy that would actively promote the provision of help to veterans would be essential for ensuring that this group’s health needs are addressed. Considering that the VA already states that only half of the veterans receive the care they are eligible for, a policy that targets suicide prevention and awareness has to target not only the veterans enrolled in the existing VA’s programs but all veterans. From an ethical perspective, suicide is the most detrimental consequence of lacking the appropriate care, which is why this issue must be a top priority for policymakers. Moreover, Vyas et al. (2017), Hendin (2017), and Beehler et al. (2021) state that the issue of veteran suicide is multifaced and requires the attention of specialists who will specialize in veteran mental care and understand the trauma that this particular group of people is exposed to due to their work. In summary, this section addresses the ethical considerations regarding the veteran care policies and justifies the need for the development of a specialized program that would target mental care and suicide prevention, as well as engage the families of veterans and promote awareness of the mental health care for this group.

References

Beehler, S., LoFaro, C., Kreisel, C., Dorsey Holliman, B., & Mohatt, N. V. (2021). Veteran peer suicide prevention: A community‐based peer prevention model.Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 51(2), 358–367.

Firth, M. (2019). Expand VA health care for veterans and their families.

Hendin, H. (2017). Healing the hidden wounds of war.Handbook of Military and Veteran Suicide, 166–177.

Vyas, B. B., Brown, L. M., Dosa, D., & Elmore, D. L. (2017). Managing suicide in the older veteran.Handbook of Military and Veteran Suicide, 201–212.

In the modern world, suicide is an essential mental health problem. People have a depressive condition due to suffering and daily stressful situations. The number of death and suicide attempts increases today, and it shows the actual public health problem. Although there are many suicide prevention consultations, suicidal inclinations can distort a human’s perception of reality and influence social interaction (Shepard, Gurewich, Lwin, Reed, & Silverman, 2016). The suicidal behavior appears from the interested public, mental, biological, and other particular causes, which insulate people from reality. For this reason, suicide prevention consultations acquire the top priority as one of the potent tools to improve the situation.

Significantly, a prior suicide attempt is the most critical risk factor for suicide in the general population. The primary goal of therapy or consultations aimed at prevention is to understand the risk for different groups and environments (Ribeiro et al., 2018). It is significant to a valid reaction to the individual’s problem. Mediation is one of the consultation models, which can be a part of social or family life (Stone et al., 2017). For this reason, the suicide prevention consultation should include this method. The suggested structure for a successful mediation might encompass the following elements:

1. A consultant has to analyze the live experience of the client. It will help to deal more effectively with the current situation and similar situations in the future. To define the reason through the routine, systematic collection of information should be aligned.
2. A consultant should conduct a comprehensive study of the case as the limited investigation will merely show the real cause of depression or a negative vision of reality.
3. A specialist should capture and analyze the situation. It concerns the solution of a specific kind of issue that could not be solved alone. The improved and expanded training can be more effective and understandable.
4. A counselor should deal more effectively with particular parts of a mental health plan and improve the abilities to work with the same program problems in the future.
5. A consultant should build the capacity of informal community care. Collaboration, coordination, and regularity of care are essential to the effectiveness of the program, and the quality of support.
6. A specialist should support patients and share innovation.

In general, every suicide prevention model consists of a series of interventions that should be started with detailed explanations and the establishment of trustful relations. This goal can be achieved by using a conversational tone and friendly communicational patterns (Breux, Boccio, & Brodsky, 2017). For a better understanding of the information, experts recommend speaking quietly and softly (Reyes‐Portillo, Lake, Kleinman, & Gould, 2018). All members of the suicide prevention community should become familiar with the program and decide how to collaborate to achieve better results and have a society without suicides.

Implementation of effective interventions in various settings demand in-depth research and evaluation of every case along with the analysis of possible approaches to surveillance. However, many people at risk of suicide do not access health services. Klonsky, May, and Saffer (2016) said that in community surveys up to 60% of suicide attempt survivors state that they have not “…been a patient of any mental health service or professional…” before their attempt (p. 310). The effects of these interventions on the risk levels and target outcomes should be checked, and their impact and cost-effectiveness evaluated. A practical approach requires a comprehensive and coordinated effort across all the systems and sectors that influence communities and their environments.

The federal government should use the framework to liaise with the Department of Health to build on and contribute to the national suicide prevention plan. The program must be supported by the national and international research communities, to maintain the connection and effectiveness. Only under these conditions, the number of suicides will be decrease, and individuals acquire the needed assistance in improving their mental states and eliminating suicidal behaviors.

References

Breux, P., Boccio, D., & Brodsky, B. (2017). Creating suicide safety in schools: A public health suicide prevention program in New York State. Suicidologi, 22(2), 14-25.

Klonsky, D., May, A., & Saffer, B. (2016). Suicide, suicide attempts, and suicidal ideation. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 12(3), 307-330.

Reyes‐Portillo, J., Lake, A., Kleinman, M., & Gould, M. (2018). The relation between descriptive norms, suicide ideation, and suicide attempts among adolescents. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 48(4), 377-498.

Ribeiro, J., Franklin, J., Fox, K., Bentley, K., Kleiman, E., Chang, B., & Nock, M. (2016). Self-injurious thoughts and behaviors as risk factors for future suicide ideation, attempts, and death: a meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Psychological Medicine, 46(2), 25-236.

Shepard, D., Gurewich, D., Lwin, A., Reed, G., & Silverman, M. (2016). Suicide and suicidal attempts in the United States: Costs and policy implications. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 46(3), 352-362.

Stone, D., Holland, K., Bartholow, B., Logan, J., LiKamWa McIntosh, W., Trudeau, A., & Rockett, I. (2017). Deciphering suicide and other manners of death associated with drug intoxication: A centers for disease control and prevention consultation meeting summary. American Journal of Public Health, 107(8), 1233-1239.

Durkheim’s influential works “Rules of the Sociological Method” and “Suicide: A study in sociology” exemplify rational thought and methodological accuracy. An inquiry in applying the rules for examining social phenomena is the core purpose of the essay since it is of high value for understanding the foundations of sociology. Precisely, the deliberate structure of Durkheim’s arguments, implementation of his methodology, and the relevance of his theory are to be analyzed.

Above all, it is essential to determine the relation of the suicide phenomenon to the field of sociological problems. One might assume that suicide represents a manifestation of a person’s individual desire to dispose of the existence, which is rather asocial, of a psychological phenomenon. However, according to Durkheim’s methodology, it indeed presents a significant sociological subject matter. Such a matter in the author’s understanding is that it occurs in a society within a definite group according to a specific pattern. Moreover, it could be explained via the deliberated cause and social fact that underlines it. Then, the suicide phenomenon can be viewed as a series of events that have in common the component of willful death. It occurs in a group of people in pursuance of some general principles and specific distinguishable social environments. Additionally, it could be elaborated that the cases of “suicides committed in a given society… [represent] not simply a sum of independent units, [but] a collective total” (Durkheim 2002, xliv). Hence, suicide can be considered a social phenomenon in its entirety if the methodology of Durkheim is taken.

Next, a remarkable feature of Durkheim’s work is the consistency of the methods he applies for the explanation of scientific terms or phenomena. For example, a specific device used by the author for the intelligibility of his thought is a specific structure. This structure consists of several elements that are present in his “Rules of the Sociological Method” and “Suicide.” The elements include raising a question about a concept out of the issues surrounding it, providing illustrations of the concept, giving it a concise definition, and critical conclusion. Thence, Durkheim reveals his ideas through a uniform structure that simplifies the reading of his materials.

The evidence of the similarities in structure could be examined by comparing the ways of presenting the concepts of suicide and social fact in the mentioned works. As such, the antecedent to clarifying the terms is questioning the existing knowledge about them and submitting appropriate instances of their manifestations in reality. For defining social facts, Durkheim denotes the existing inconsistencies in the use of the term by scholars. Then, he represents the social obligations he has to demonstrate the presence of external pressure on individuals (Durkheim 1982). Similarly, the author distinguishes between the everyday use of the word ‘suicide’ and its scientific meaning. After that, he provides various cases of suicides to represent the variety of its kinds and establish limits of the phenomenon (Durkheim 2002). As could be seen, both terms are introduced in the same manner: through the critical observation of existing ideas and illustration of the concepts.

Likewise, the definition of the terms is realized in a similar way in both Durkheim’s works. In the case of a social fact, he describes it as having “no existence save in and through the individual consciousness” and characterizing “ways of acting, thinking and feeling” (Durkheim 1982, 51). For suicide, he uses explicit formulation as follows: “any death which is the direct or indirect result of a positive or negative act accomplished by the victim himself” (Durkheim 2002, xl). The likeness between the two lies in the simplicity of the articulation and conciseness. Thus, the core part of Durkheim’s reasoning is the precise definition of the concepts he attempts to examine.

Finally, Durkheim applies critical thinking to evaluate the definitions he discusses before concluding the matters he is establishing. For instance, he describes the phenomena that are connected to the concept of social facts as well as their ensuing properties. Moreover, he examines the implications of the concept in reality by presenting various situations occurring in groups (Durkheim 1982). For suicides, the author raises several questions, such as about the relevance of an individual’s volition for self-destruction. In conclusion, he restates the definition: “suicide is… death resulting… from a positive or negative act of the victim himself, which he knows will produce this result” (Durkheim 2002, xlii). Therefore, to interpret a phenomenon or term, Durkheim connects his ideas in one pattern common to two of his works mentioned in the essay.

The methodology prescribed by Durkheim for examining social facts and phenomena is used by himself in his work “Suicide: A study in sociology.” Namely, he asserts that to judge the nature and effect of a phenomenon, one must abstain from feelings, emotions, and ideas that precede rational thinking (Durkheim 1982). As such, the author applies this principle of judging to interpret data about the rates of suicides in different seasons. First, Durkheim distinguishes between the regions from which the statistics come from and establishes the standard terms for the seasons. Precisely, he decides to unite the regions’ seasons according to the temperature and humidity instead of the months of recording the rates. Secondly, he provides examples of facts that correspond to or contradict the statistics that say that the highest rate of suicides is in summer (Durkheim 2002). In this way, Durkheim eliminates the prejudiced thinking that the direct influence of seasons on the motivation for suicides.

Furthermore, the most significant achievement of Durkheim’s work on suicide is in the application of the critical principle to refute the existing ideas about the phenomenon. Specifically, he discards the opinion, typical for his time and laity discussions, that most suicides are committed when the weather is adverse, dark, and depressive. He embraces the data saying that hot seasons correlate with high suicide rates, yet he refutes the physiological explanation of the fact. Other scholars believe that temperature and humidity affect the brain and provoke suicide. In contrast, Durkheim discovers the social cause for such behavior: the social life intensifies in summer and pressures individuals with suicidal thoughts (Durkheim 2002). Thus, the author challenges the existing ideas and interprets the data with careful examination of the social context.

The other effort was taken by Durkheim for classifying the suicide phenomenon according to his methodology. It should be noted that the author believes that social facts should be explained through the other related social facts. The reason for this lies in that the social phenomena are different from natural or psychological ones since society as an entity works in other ways than organisms or personalities (Durkheim 1982). Then, for distinguishing between different types of suicides and relating them with data, he invokes social tendencies. Such an approach corresponds to general notions of Durkheim about the reasoning in sociology.

Then, the types of suicides, according to Durkheim, could be examined. He distinguishes between altruistic, anomic, egoistic, and fatalistic suicides. The first one occurs when a person decides to sacrifice their life for duty. Anomic suicide is caused by changes in the accustomed way of life of an individual. Next, egoistic suicides are committed by people who do not conform to the social rules of their groups. Finally, fatalistic suicides are the result of the unjust treatment of people (Durkheim 2002). Durkheim links the data about suicides with the social facts, as his methodology suggests. For example, he relates the high occurrence of self-morbidity among widows, older men, and servants whose governors died to the phenomenon of duty (Durkheim 2002). Since such occurrences can be explained by general tendencies in societies, the suicides could be said to be society-level processes. Hence, again, Durkheim’s reasoning within his methodology is logical and coherent.

To conclude, Durkheim invented a methodology for establishing and examining social facts and successfully applied it to assessing the suicide phenomenon. Nowadays, his approach to defining the social trends and their causes might still be helpful since it is logically correct and productive. Moreover, his concepts about suicide trends are yet applicable to some cases of suicide. Yet, the limitations of his theory are defined by the time in which he lived. The emergence of existentialism, for example, completely refutes the implications of Durkheim’s theory. As such, the so-called “deaths from despair” among North Americans could not be explained by the typological tendencies of Durkheim (Bellini 2018). Thus, the methodology of Durkheim is still powerful, while the theory of suicide does not apply to the modern world’s people’s behavior.

References

Bellini, Jason. 2018. “Why ‘Deaths of Despair’ May Be a Warning Sign for America – Moving Upstream.” Video, 2018. 18:00.

Durkheim, Emile. 1982. The Rules of the Sociological Method, edited by Steven Lukes, translated by W. D. Halls. New York: The Free Press.

Durkheim, Emile. 2002. Suicide: A Study in Sociology, edited by George Simpson, translated by John A. Spaulding and George Simpson. New York: Routledge Classics.

The ethics of assisted suicide and euthanasia have been debated for several years, and philosophers and religious thinkers have developed theories and arguments to address the matter. The pillars of these arguments and debates are inclined toward the broad fundamental principles of duties to society and oneself, together with the central question of the value of life. This paper seeks to discuss and determine Adam’s case using Kant’s theory.

Kant’s theory is a deontological philosophy that emphasizes responsibility, moral duty, and commitment to ethics. He underlines that the essential factor to consider while deciding is a duty (Hill, 2019). Suicide, he believed, was a paradigmatic action that violated moral responsibility rules. He felt that self-preservation is the appropriate or correct end of rational people and that suicide would be incompatible with the essential worth of human existence. Like some current opponents of assisted suicide, Kant contended that taking one’s own life was incompatible with the appropriate understanding of autonomy (Paterson, 2017). Kant defined autonomy as one’s conscious desires and inclinations to rational comprehension of universally true moral laws, rather than the freedom to do whatever one wishes. Thus, assisted suicide can increase autonomy in some cases, as it provides the right to end the person’s life if one wants it, satisfying one’s last conscious desire. Canadian laws allow euthanasia and assisted suicide when it ends the suffering of terminally ill adults who voluntarily agree to die. Still, in the case of Adams, the procedure’s risks outweigh the benefits: thus, the morally responsible person would not allow him to die (BBC, 2017). In that way, it would be better not to end his life in any case.

Assisted suicide jeopardizes both the profession of medicine and the patient-physician relationship. Medicine is dedicated to curing the diseased or, at least, improving their lives. Even terminally ill patients wait for doctors to give them relief, not death. Any attempt to utilize medical tools to induce or achieve death violates its core beliefs. Even if there is no abuse, allowing doctors to participate in the killings will erode patients’ trust and influence how both parties regard medicine.

References

Hill, T. E. (2019). Dignity and practical reason in Kant’s moral theory. Cornell University Press.

Paterson, C. (2017). Assisted suicide and euthanasia: a natural law ethics approach. Routledge.

BBC. (2017). I have a mental illness; let me die [Video]. Web.

Schilling, E. A., Aseltine, R. H., Jr., & James, A. (2016). The SOS suicide prevention program: Further evidence of efficacy and effectiveness. Prevention Science, 17(2), 157–166.

This study evaluated the Signs of Suicide (SOS) prevention program in reducing suicide attempts among the youth using a rigorous design.

The proposed article first notes that adolescent suicide is a leading risk of high mortality among teenagers and suicidal behavior later in life. The authors claim that SOS is a useful school-based intervention for identifying depressive symptoms and abnormal responses to stress. Consequently, the program can help teach students how to recognize suicide risk and receive help if the self-assessment score is high. Previous SOS assessments have involved post-tests only with no comparison to baseline. As a result, this study included a pre-test in order to compare the intervention and control before and after the program.

Basically, the research approach of the study is as follows:

• 1,575 ethnically diverse students (ninth grade) in 17 Connecticut high schools implementing the SOS program (Schilling et al., 2016).
• A pre-test assessment and a post-test survey was administered on the students after completing a 3-month SOS program.
• The intervention and control group were randomly assigned four schools each in the 2008-2009 academic year.
• The duration and number of sessions are not reported in the study.
• Data analysis involved a regression model to determine how SOS affected suicide outcomes.

The authors covered many topics, including:

• Goals and implementation of SOS programs in a school setup.
• Self-assessment procedures and individual scores for which help is indicated.
• The methodological rigor required and standards for evaluating the efficacy of SOS.
• Effectiveness of pre-tests and post-tests in comparing intervention and control groups.

Comparing the pre-intervention and post-intervention scores, the researchers conclude that SOS decreases suicide attempts in high-risk students. It also enhances their understanding and detection of depressive symptoms and promotes help-seeking behavior in depressed individuals or on behalf of their friends. Additionally, the rate of suicide attempts is significantly lower in SOS participants three months after the program than those who do not receive the intervention.

Thorn, P., Hill, N. T. M, Lamblin, M., Teh, Z., Battersby-Coulter, R., Rice, S., Bendall, S., Gibson, K. L., Finlay, S. M., Blandon, R., de Souza, L., West, A., Cooksey, A., Sciglitano, J., Goodrich, S., & Robinson, J. (2020). Developing a suicide prevention social media campaign with young people (the #chatsafe project): Co-design approach. JMIR Mental Health, 7(5), e17520.

This study assessed young people’s experiences of an inclusive suicide prevention intervention delivered through an accessible platform – #chatsafe.

This second article first discusses the efficacy of communication in preventing suicidal ideation and attempt. It highlights the benefits of social media in promoting help-seeking behavior because of the nonjudgmental conditions provided. The authors observe that suicide prevention programs that resonate with adolescents enhance awareness and attitudes towards suicidal behavior. Therefore, the article emphasizes the usefulness of co-design and delivery of the psycho-educational intervention (safe communication about suicide risk) in improving youth engagement.

The design of the study includes the following elements:

• 11 co-design workshops were held in four Australian territories (Thorn et al., 2020).
• 6-16 students attended each workshop that lasted 2.5-6 hours and completed a survey (Thorn et al., 2020).
• The study was conducted in the 2017-2019 period and involved youth (16-25 years) recruited via social media.
• Data analysis employed descriptive statistics and identification of themes to inform the next workshop agenda.

The authors covered a range of topics such as:

• Co-design of suicide prevention programs and their effect on suicide-related literacy and rates.
• Social media is a safe environment for sharing suicidal thoughts and seeking peer support.
• Offline and online suicide literacy interventions for high-risk youth.

The authors also note that suicide prevention campaigns that promote peer-to-peer communication (online) strategy can achieve better outcomes than traditional approaches. Further, the co-design process offers safe, youth-friendly conditions and tailored information on seeking help, including useful resources and support pathways. The authors conclude that such activities improve suicide literacy and equip young people with skills to communicate safely about suicidal thoughts.

Bailey, E., Spittal, M. J., Pirkis, J., Gould, M., & Robinson, J. (2017). Universal suicide prevention in young people: An evaluation of the safeTALK program in Australian high schools. Crisis: The Journal of Crisis Intervention and Suicide Prevention, 38(5), 300–308.

The study examines the effects of universal suicide programs on suicidal ideation.

The third proposed article is slightly different from the other two studies reviewed in that it evaluates the iatrogenic effects arising from school-based suicide prevention initiatives. It begins by providing worrying statistics of high suicide rates – suicidal ideation and attempt in Australia. While psychological outcomes of psycho-educational activities is mostly a subject of research inquiry, potentially negative effects, such as distress and depressive symptoms, are rarely investigated. Consequently, this study examines the efficacy of such interventions and possible iatrogenic effects associated with them.

The basic approach of this study entails:

• 129 students drawn from three Australian high schools were involved in an educational intervention (safeTALK training) (Bailey et al., 2017).
• Participants were consenting students aged 16-18 years in secondary schools.
• SafeTALK was delivered through a workshop, though the duration of the session was not measured.
• Each student attended one safeTALK workshop (a group of 30) that encompassed lectures, videos, and role-plays (Bailey et al., 2017).
• Pre- and post-test design with help-seeking behavior, suicide literacy, and suicidal ideation measured using a questionnaire.

The topics the study examined included:

• The problem of suicidal ideation and attempt among people aged 15-24 years.
• Types of suicide prevention measures, including those appropriate to a school environment.
• Evaluation of educational suicide prevention programs, especially multi-modal ones.

No evidence was found linking the psycho-educational program with negative outcomes, such as suicidal ideation. On the contrary, the training appeared to decrease distress and increase the probability of seeking help. The study concluded that universal suicide prevention programs in school settings increase awareness of risks, promote help-seeking behaviors, and have no negative effects.

Robinson, J., Hetrick, S., Cox, G., Bendall, S., Yuen, H. P., Yung, A., & Pirkis, J. (2016). Can an internet‐based intervention reduce suicidal ideation, depression and hopelessness among secondary school students: Results from a pilot study. Early Intervention in Psychiatry, 10(1), 28–35.

The study evaluates the efficacy of online psychoeducational interventions in preventing adolescent suicide.

The fourth proposed article delves into the potential use of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) delivered via the internet in modifying suicidal behavior among adolescents. Since schools are optimal environments for implementing suicide prevention interventions, the study included an internet-based CBT program tailored to high-risk learners. The setting is appropriate because students seek help for mental health issues from their teachers, thus the training can be a less-stigmatizing alternative to traditional psychotherapy.

The methodology adopted for this study includes:

• 11 secondary schools from Melbourne participated in the research (Robinson et al., 2016).
• 34 students completed the baseline survey but only 27 received the intervention (Reframe IT) – no control group.
• 21 finished all the eight modules of the program, each lasting 15-20 minutes (Robinson et al., 2016).
• Three post-intervention outcomes measured using a pre-test/post-test design: suicidal ideation, depression, and hopelessness.

The specific topics addressed in the research were:

• Depressive symptoms and hopelessness as risk factors for suicide in youth.
• Most effective and promising interventions for preventing suicide in school settings.
• CBT use with depressed adolescents in clinical contexts and adherence levels.
• CBT delivery over the internet is cost-effective and ensures better treatment outcomes.

In this study, the intensity of suicidal ideation, depression, and hopelessness declined significantly during the program. The authors establish that internet-based CBT is a safe and effective tool for reducing suicide-related behaviors in adolescents. They conclude that a significant reduction in suicide risk can be achieved with psycho-educational programs delivered through the internet. Further, this delivery approach is less costly and more accessible than traditional, face-to-face interventions.

Hill, R. M., & Pettit, J. W. (2019). Pilot randomized controlled trial of LEAP: A selective prevention intervention to reduce adolescents’ perceived burdensomeness. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 48(1), 45–56.

The study investigated levels of perceived burdensomeness towards family or friends after an internet-based psychoeducational intervention.

The final proposed article is unique in the sense that it examines how a selective web-based program (LEAP) can be used to modify perceptions of burdensomeness that are associated with elevated suicide risk among adolescents. The authors claim that unlike universal approaches that involve broad-based, population-level interventions, selective ones are more effective, as they focus on specific risk factors (Hill & Pettit, 2019). As a result, a CBT-based intervention delivered via the internet to target perceived burdensomeness can reduce suicidal behavior in the adolescent population.

The methodology used in this study included the following components:

• 708 adolescents aged 13-19 years were recruited from United States schools (Hill & Pettit, 2019).
• 100 met the inclusion criteria but only 80 provided parental consent.
• The LEAP intervention was delivered in four modules based on CBT principles – the duration of each session is not mentioned.
• Four post-test measures were used: perceived burdensomeness, depression, suicidal ideation, and participant satisfaction.
• Data analysis involved correlations and t-tests comparing intervention and control groups.

Some of the topics that were the focus of this study include:

• The benefits of selective suicide prevention methods over universal interventions for the youth.
• The specific risk factors for suicide-related behaviors in adolescent learners.
• The advantages of web-based programs over one-on-one delivery – overcoming barriers to health access.

In this study, post-LEAP perceived burdensomeness was lower than baseline scores. Additionally, depressive symptoms declined significantly in the intervention group compared to the control arm after the program but the levels of suicidal ideation were not any different between conditions. The selective intervention appeared to modify risks associated with high suicide-related behavior in adolescents. The authors conclude that factors that increase suicide risk such as depression can be addressed through a web-based psycho-educational intervention.

References

Bailey, E., Spittal, M. J., Pirkis, J., Gould, M., & Robinson, J. (2017). Universal suicide prevention in young people: An evaluation of the safeTALK program in Australian high schools. Crisis: The Journal of Crisis Intervention and Suicide Prevention, 38(5), 300–308.

Hill, R. M., & Pettit, J. W. (2019). Pilot randomized controlled trial of LEAP: A selective prevention intervention to reduce adolescents’ perceived burdensomeness. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 48(1), 45–56.

Robinson, J., Hetrick, S., Cox, G., Bendall, S., Yuen, H. P., Yung, A., & Pirkis, J. (2016). Can an internet‐based intervention reduce suicidal ideation, depression and hopelessness among secondary school students: Results from a pilot study. Early Intervention in Psychiatry, 10(1), 28–35.

Schilling, E. A., Aseltine, R. H., Jr., & James, A. (2016). The SOS suicide prevention program: Further evidence of efficacy and effectiveness. Prevention Science, 17(2), 157–166.

Thorn, P., Hill, N. T. M., Lamblin, M., Teh, Z., Battersby-Coulter, R., Rice, S., Bendall, S., Gibson, K. L., Finlay, S. M., Blandon, R., de Souza, L., West, A., Cooksey, A., Sciglitano, J., Goodrich, S., & Robinson, J. (2020). Developing a suicide prevention social media campaign with young people (the #chatsafe project): Co-design approach. JMIR Mental Health, 7(5), e17520.

Research Question: Is there a need to legalize assisted suicide in the United States based on the current needs of patients and their families?

The Broad Topic: Assisted Suicide. This topic relates to the field of medicine and the field of research on fundamental human rights. This research topic allows me to identify and determine current trends in the development of assisted suicide. It is necessary to consider not only the technical and professional-medical points of view but also to specify the consequences of this approach to protecting the rights of patients and families.

The Main Keywords: Assisted Suicide, Human Rights, Patient Safety.

In this topic, a specific question is posed, to which an answer is to be given using the relevant academical research availiable, conducting surveys and data analyses. Consequently, the result of this work will be the provision of studied data that reflect the overall picture of the opinions of both professional doctors and patients and their families. Research question is both fairly broad and narrow as it focuses on discussing a common problem, but in a specific population. This research topic is academically researchable since it represents the study of a rather acute phenomenon in the modern world. Several studies reflect both philosophical and medical ideas about the need for assisted suicide (Calati et al., 2021). Thus, they represent a serious scientific base that can become the foundation of this research work.

This research topic answers several fundamentally essential questions for the work, namely who? and where? The problem is dealt with regarding the significance of assisted suicide for patients and their families. The question itself will be considered in regard to the Us citizents of states with legal restriction of the practice since there are a number of states where this method is legal. Therefore, it is possible to consider different statistics and data in different states.

Reference

Calati, R., Olié, E., Dassa, D., Gramaglia, C., Guillaume, S., Madeddu, F., & Courtet, P. (2021). Euthanasia and assisted suicide in psychiatric patients: A systematic review of the literature. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 135, 153–173.

Introduction

The study of suicide, suicidal ideations, and suicide attempts gained popularity after the publication of the book ‘Suicide’ in 1897 authored by Emile Durkheim (Minois 1999). The book, which focused on assessing the nature and causes of suicide brought alerted psychologists and sociologists on the prevalent rise of suicide. The youth, in particular, were the most affected. Various researches have shown that suicide studies among the gay, lesbian, bi-sexual, transgender and questioning youth (GLBTQ) had been sidelined. This has however taken a major turnaround with recent emergence in research on suicide, suicidal ideations and suicide attempts among the GLBTQ group being critically examined. It has been observed that suicidal deaths claim more than 4000 youths annually hence being ranked among the top three causes of deaths among the youths in the United States alone. This research will review different literature that concerns itself with QLBTQ suicide and further form an analysis on different opinions by the authors.

Scope of the Problem

According to Sears (2005), youths who are either gay, lesbian, bi-sexual, transgender or questioning youth, face social problems compared to their so-called ‘straight peers’. The social problems exhibit major risk factors such as lack of support from family members and relatives, bitter experiences such as bullying and all forms of abuse from their peers coupled with rejection by the community. This causes this group of youth to shy away from the society causing them to fall into depression and others resulting in to use of drugs which leads slowly to their deaths. They develop an internalized homophobia as a result of self-denial which in turn leads them to contemplate suicide as a solution to their unsolved conflict about their sexual identity.

Worchel and Gearing (2010) argue that due to the high numbers of reported suicidal deaths and attempts among the GLBTQ, it is apparent that counselors have failed in their bid to save the youth. They further state that the counselors either have ignored this particular breed of youths or they simply fail to apply the correct counseling theory or strategy as an intervention.

Applicable Counseling Theory Strategy and Technique

Several theories on counseling can be adopted by counselors to solve the problem of suicide among the gays, lesbians, bi-sexual, transgender and questioning youths. These theories include behavior and rational emotive therapy, family therapy, client-centered and holistic health approach. However, most studies indicate that suicide, suicidal ideations and attempts have become a crisis and therefore should be given first priority by counselors. The most ideal strategy therefore that needs to be applied is crisis intervention theory.

Crisis intervention theory is applied by counselors to offer immediate help to patients being faced with a certain crisis. The GLBTQ youth undergo a major series of social rejection and humiliation and this causes them to slowly withdraw from their usual self and become mentally distressed. King and Margaret Wheeler (2007) argue that 90% of these peer groups have contemplated or attempted suicide. This is a huge number and Crisis Intervention Strategy becomes the most appropriate to save them. The strategy has been proved to have the ability to reduce the intensity of the patient’s emotional and mental distress in a short period. This helps the patient revert to their usual self-being before the crisis. Counselors need to step in to save the youth from killing themselves due to social pressure before it is too late.

Literature Review

Numerous studies have confirmed that the suicidal numbers of gays, lesbians, transgender, bisexual and questioning youth were higher than those of their heterosexual counterparts. According to a survey conducted by United Nations (1996) in Massachusetts indicated that 42 percent of gay and bisexual men between the ages of 15 to 35 years had contemplated suicide as compared to only 17 percent of heterosexual men who were in the same age bracket.

The use of questionnaires by D’Augelli and Pilkington (2001) to determine various issues among the GLBTQ indicated that more than 40 percent of the youth questioned had often contemplated suicide with 30 percent stating that they had attempted suicide at least once in their lives. They further argue that in their research, they discovered that 20 percent of the youth were still in denial of their sexual identity and suppressed their inner sexual feelings. Another important quantitative study conducted indicated that there was an increase in the rates of youth suicides from 3.5 percent per 150,000 youth recorded in 1988 to 12 percent per 150,000 youth in the United States.

Several researches have also been conducted to establish the risk factors that led to suicidal attempts, ideations and deaths. Bochenek and Brown (2001) define the risk factors as disorders that are associated with a lack of biological, psychology or social protective support. GLBTQ youth face numerous risk factors such as ex-communication from their homes, discrimination in their normal social lives and rejection and ridicule from their peers. Statistics however indicate that 30 percent of suicidal ideations and attempts were due to extreme bullying by their heterosexual peers (Sears 2005). Bullying can either be physical or emotional. Physical involves beating up the youth and inflicting physical pain to the individual while emotional bullying involves name-calling, spreading rumors and using social media networks to shame the individual.

The National Association of School Psychologists (2000) revealed that bullying caused major negative effects to youths which led to most of them contemplating suicide due to the impact. They further argued that counselors failed to intervene on time during this crucial time and the youth fail to have a purpose in life. Bullying is still prevalent in most schools and this explains why the suicidal rate is higher among the GLBTQ youth compared to their heterosexual peers.

It is further argued that mental illness is also a contributing risk factor that leads to suicidal ideations, attempts and deaths. GLBTQ adolescents are at higher risks of developing mental disorders than their peers. Institutional discrimination is also major factor that leads to the youth being depressed and resorting to suicide. This is prevalent especially in states which have implemented new laws that are discriminatory against them. It should be noted that most laws around the world fail to give protection support to the GLBTQ fraternity and therefore the community tends to shun them. Such state discrimination includes prohibitions of their marriages and poor health insurance that can cover both partners. This leads them to suffer from depression. The other risk factor worth noting is HIV/AIDS which can lead to suicidal attempts. When either of the youth contracts the disease, he further feels hopeless in life and therefore contemplates to end his or her life.

Suicide signs are prevalent among the youths though many authors argue that people tend to ignore them until after it is too late to act. Some of the signs include isolation from society, depression, engagement in substance drug abuse and irregular behaviors.

It is however possible to prevent suicidal thoughts by applying several protective measures. Ponterotto, Suzuki and Casas (2009) applied the triangulated mixed-method design to explore the application of different protective measures used in prevention of suicidal ideations, attempts and deaths among gay, lesbians, bisexuals, transgender and the questioning youth. They used the sexual gender identification questionnaire and both the Protective Support and Suicide Ideation Scales to correlate with each other. The research indicated that the protective measures with the help of counselors drastically decreased the rate of suicide ideations and attempts.

Ryan and Futterman (1998) argue that the main protective measure is unconditional support given to the patient no matter his or her sexual orientation. This entails the community accepting them as normal children and treating them equally as their peers. Affordable and fair resources should be evenly distributed among the GLBTQ group and made accessible without any form of discrimination. Any form of bullying whether physical or emotional should be condemned and punitive measures taken against those found guilty of such acts. This can be done by introducing policies in school environments or working environments. States should also review their rigid policies to include the members of GLBTQ.

Russel (2003) notes that there are no published books that critically and comprehensively analyze programs evaluations for GLBTQ. However, American Journal of Public Health (2001) gave a suggestion of the need to implement some of these intervention programs targeting the GLBTQ. One such proposed program is the provision of GLBTQ-sensitivity and anti-bullying training programs to both counselors and teachers. This is due to the fact that most counselors and teachers fail to intervene when the affected youth is bullied by his fellow students. The program is bound to work as the intervention will serve to reduce the rate of suicidal attempts and ideations among the youth. The program incorporated the Trevor Project which is a known organization that offers 24-hour phone hotlines to solve the suicidal crisis.

The other proposed program is the provision of grant incentives to learning institutions that support the GLBTQ Alliances. This ensures that they are given social network support by their school peers. Research conducted on the effectiveness of this program indicated that most of the youths who were in schools with this program felt more at ease with their classmates and performed better in class. They hardly missed their classes and social interaction was high.

It should also be evident that the literature review discussed seems to support the application of crisis intervention theory as a strategy to deal with suicide, suicide ideations and suicide deaths. Most of the researchers supported the Trevor Project approach which is a crisis intervention over the phone that helps the victims. The project has saved many lives and therefore should be incorporated by counselors to decrease the suicidal rates.

The Limitations of the Present Study

One major limitation notable in the studies is reliance on surveys as research methodology which involves the participants to directly contribute. This therefore means that the data acquired is subject to many limitations that apply to this kind of data collection hence making it unreliable. The disadvantage of relying on a survey for data collection is based on numerous reasons. Most respondents are in denial of the problem and hence are reluctant to reveal or disclose their sexual identity. This can be due to the social rejection that he has previously faced. The respondent may also be reluctant to admit to their thoughts on suicidal contemplation. On the other hand, the respondent tends to exaggerate their opinion on suicide contemplation and hence giving false information.

The other limitation of the study is failure of the researches conducted failing to offer a thorough distinction between suicidal ideations or thoughts that seem to place people at suicidal risk and suicide attempts from thoughts that are safe from putting them at risk. The researchers only claim that suicide thoughts often lead to victims committing suicide but it can also be argued that come of the victims fail to exhibit the negative thoughts yet they attempt suicide.

The recent studies also argue that GLBTQ attempts suicide due to certain risks such as mental disorders and HIV/AIDS. They however fail to explain how this leads to the victim committing suicide. The risk factors are new phenomena and therefore researchers have failed to produce a comprehensive analysis of the two leaving the application wanting.

The other limitation is the failure to research the prevention programs that can be made available to the patients. All the studies seem to mention one applicable project which is the Trevor Project. They further fail to comprehensively explain how the theory applied in the Trevor Project works and it is not compared with other programs that had been implemented.

Recommendations for Future Research

Due to the shortcomings mentioned in the above studies, several suggestions can be made for future researches. One such recommendation is adoption of several techniques of data collection instead of relying on surveys. Comparisons of data from different techniques will give an idea of a close data that can be relied on.

The other recommendation is the ability of the researcher to define and differentiate between the risky thoughts that can lead to victims contemplating suicide and pure thoughts. The research should also conduct thorough investigation on the how certain factors such as HIV/AIDS and mental disorders can lead to the suicide attempt. Being new concepts, the recent studies do not have a proven methodology of data collection that backs their claims. This appears unrealistic and emphasis should be placed on this area.

Finally, the implementation of available programs should be comprehensively researched on and the same compared to Trevor Project Program. This will broaden options available for prevention of suicide deaths, suicide attempts and suicide ideations.

Conclusion

Suicide, suicidal ideations, and suicide attempts among gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender, and questioning youth is still an alarming issue that needs to be addressed as a matter of urgency. From the literature review discussed, it is evident that a crisis interventions theory as a counseling intervention technique should be adopted and applied. This is because the increasing number of suicides is becoming a crisis that should be dealt with immediately. This idea has been supported by Trevor Program which has worked nationwide. The strategy seems to encompass all the other counseling programs at a go and within a short period.

References

Association of School Psychologists (2000) School Psychology Review, Vol 29, Issues 1-4. Michigan: National Association of School Psychologists.

Bochenek, M and Brown, W (2001) Hatred in The Hallways; Violence and Discrimination Against Lesbian, Gay, Bi-sexual and Transgender Students. New York: Human Rights Watch.

D’Augelli, R and Pilkington, W (2001) Suicidality Patterns and Sexual Orientation on Lesbian, Gay, or Bisexual youths’ Health Risk Behavior. Journal of Adolescent Health,30.

King, T and Wheeler, M (2007) Medical Management of Vulnerable and Undeserved Patients; Principles, Practices and Populations. USA: McGraw Hill Companies.

Minois, G (1999) History of Suicide; Voluntary Death in Western Culture. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.

Ponterotto, J, Suzuki, L and Casas, M (2009) Handbook of Multicultural Counseling. New York: Amazon Publishers.

Russel, S (2003) Sexual minority youth and suicide risk. American Behavioral Scientist, 6.

Ryan, C and Futterman, D (1998) Lesbian and gay youth; care and counseling. New York: Columbia University Press.

Sears, J (2005) Gay,Lesbian and Transgender Issues in Education: Programs, Policies and Practices. New York: Harrington Park Press.

Sears, J (2005) Youth, Education and Sexualities; An International Encyclopedia. New York: Green Wood Publishing Group.

United Nations (1996) Guidelines for the formulation and Implementation of National Strategies. New York: United Nations.

Worchel, D and Gearing, R (2010) Suicide Assessment and Treatment: Empirical and Evidence Based Practices. New York: Springer Publishing Company.