Category: Subculture

Introduction

The current paper will delve into a unique brand of creation, the young and foreign subculture. The young generation is forever a subculture, no matter what and how they dress, how they speak and react with society, and how they want to be regarded as new members of an ever changing world.

The subject for the photo under consideration is the young generation with its unique brand of dressing and interacting; the young who live in a foreign land, who, along with their kindred, have migrated into a changing and sophisticated society such as England.

Research

Our research uses as basis Hebdiges findings whose work Subculture: The Meaning of Style (1979) is a classics that should be a part of any cultural studies. As Pitre says, One cannot fully grasp Hebdiges ideas and arguments without at least a basic understanding of the schools of thought in which he was educated. Cultural Studies, also known as the Birmingham School, was conceived in a Britain emerging from the industrial revolution. The School drew on a combination of anthropology, history, literary criticism and theory, Marxism, media studies, semiotics, structuralism, as well as sociology, especially the Chicago and Frankfurt Schools. (Pitre, 2003 p. 9)

Hebdige is not the only author who provided a broad study of different subjects. In his work Subculture: The Fragmentation of the Social (2005) Jenks defines subculture as a group, an enclave, a cult or a distraction of antithetical values that are expressions of either frustrations with or interventions into the dominant structure of legitimation and control within society (p. 7) This author also investigates concepts of subculture, the history of this phenomenon, and summarizes the achievements of different researchers.

The works mentioned above confirm that every society has a subculture. We usually have this particular group because this phenomenon is an expression of a group of people, especially the young, who want to rebel or express their feelings against the established norms of the society they live in. Young people express their views and feelings in a very emotional way that differs throughout generations.

The young and the fashionists, the in thing, the lifestyle, are among a few of our present day subculture. They are distinct, easily recognized by the way they dress, act, and mingle with society. They are different but not separate from the rest of society.

According to Pitre, Hebdige defined subculture as equated with cultivation, refinement and a standard of excellence& and the other notion of culture is more generally based on it being a whole way of life. (Pitre, 2003 p. 11)

Hebdige (1979) carefully described fashion and the young generation of the late 1980s.

The chick thing is to dress in expensive tailor-made rags and all the queens are camping about in wild-boy drag. There are Bowery suits that appear to be stained with urine and vomit which on closer inspection turn out to be intricate embroideries of fine gold thread. There are clochard suits of the finest linen, shabby gentility suits& felt hats seasoned by old junkies & loud cheap pimp suits that turn out to be not so cheap the loudness is a subtle harmony of colours only the very best Poor Boy shops can turn out& It is the bouble take and many carry it much further to as many as six takes. (p. 23)

Hebdiges work suggests that the ideas are similar in any times since nowadays a boom of subculture phenomenon can also be observed. In our every day life some chick thing dressed in expensive tailor-made rags can be seen here and there. Surely, we see that it changes with the times but still it doesnt fade away completely which proves once more that a subculture never dies.

Hebdige (1979) described in fantastic detail a generation that seemed not to fade: With predictable regularity, bright young things were shown flouncing along Oxford Street in harem bags and beach shorts, bikini tops and polaroids in that last uplifting item for the News at Ten. (p. 24)

But Hebdige also spoke of postwar England which became a hotbed of immigration from former colonies. Those migrant workers became an intrinsic part of the British workforce.

Indeed, it is one reviewers opinion that what makes [Hebdiges] study important is the way it highlights the increasing vulnerability of the West to ideological currents once easily dismissed as distant illusions belonging to foreign lands and peoples. (Pitre, 2003 p. 211)

One more issue that attracted my attention is the regularity of the behavior patterns of young generation. How come they always display, in any time of history, such way of dress, thinking, actions, movement, or whatever they want to do? Is it because they always want to rebel? Or to experiment on the way they have lived? When we see this group of young people, we think of them as weird, very different, unworldly. But they are a part of us; they will always be with us. Yes, you will always have people like we are. They will always try to examine and ask why and how they have lived. The existentialist ideas are in them  in us. We remain curious and full of new thoughts and ideas that can never be interpreted correctly by the older generation.

The thoughts of the kind encouraged me to explore the meaning of the photograph of young Asians. The latter constitute a subculture simply because they have their own culture in the frames of a dominant trends and traditions of another culture (and so on, and so forth). Nevertheless, all I wanted was an original work, for this is what identity is all about. Identity is always original because it is always changing, forever and ever. And since I belong to this group, I know what we think and want in our changing and, rather, unique world at present.

There is still the punk, the colored horse-like hair, but along with these are the hip-hop and its unique kind of music, the technology generation where you see the young with all the new gadgets we can imagine  cell phones, video games, MP3, MP4, and all the other high-tech gadgets. And they are equipped with the new kind of lingo  text language. This is a new lifestyle of the young who, sad to say, can not be said as aware of the world around them.

I have thought of my own genre. I am different but some things do not change in me, no matter what subculture you can define and think of.

As Hebdige (1979) says, Style in subculture is, then, pregnant with significance. Its transformations go against nature, interrupting the process of normalization. As such, they are gestures, movements towards a speech which offends the silent majority, which challenges the principle of unity and cohesion, which contradicts the myth of consensus. (p. 18)

What do all these mean? I am in the best position to answer this question because I belong to it. For me, there is always my purpose why I do it, or why we do it. There are hidden meanings  in the words of Hebdige  that you should try to decipher. These hidden meanings make this subculture a very interesting subject for study which the older generation should be able to do in their life time.

Pitre (2003) says that, Simply put, subcultures fight fire with fire. Other useful features of Hebdiges study include his historical summary of postwar styles, fads, and fashions in Britain. As well, his assessment that expressive forms such as style are semiotically permeated with a plethora of cultural information are now generally accepted as a truism. (p. 46)

This makes Hebdiges book a classic. And to make the young generation, especially Asians in a far-away land, a subject in our study of subcultures, is a true classics, too.

We can see in the photo the unique style of the young with their own brand of clothes and accessories, but more revealing are the gadgets and electronic things they wear and handle, as part of their psyche. New Asians (or the young Asians), before they came to England, have always been mesmerized by the so-called gadget things, the digital and electronic paraphernalia, that are already a part of their psyche, so to speak.

The text lingo or text speak is a special kind of language employed into their way of communication. This language defies spelling and has a special meaning only the members of this young generation understand. If you are young but are not a member of this subculture, you may not understand it. You have to be a part of it. Examples of this language are shortened words that have special meanings.

The young Asians  a new subculture and a new generation in an England setting  gradually become a part of mainstream of the English society and workforce. With the migration of this new group of people, we can see a distinct people but not separate to the English society. They bring along with them their identity and culture, influenced much by the technology craze  cellular phones and other electronic gadgets. They want to be declared friends and normal people amidst a new environment.

They may be an assortment of different nationalities  Chinese, Indians, Pakistanis, Indonesians, Thais, and Filipinos. All in all, they are influenced by the English culture, likewise they influence the dominant culture they are in, in the form of music, food, fashion, and so forth.

With the migration of Asians in Great Britain, we expect some changes in both cultures, but more so, a new identity emerges.

Bibliography

Hebdige, D. (1979) Subculture: The Meaning of Style (New Accents). London: Routledge.

Jenks, C. (2005) Subculture: The Fragmentation of Social. London: Thousand Oaks, SAGE.

Pitre, S. (2003) Cultural Studies & Hebdiges Subculture: The Meaning of Style [Internet] Prof. Philip Tagg, PhD personal website. Web.

Introduction

Cosplay first appeared in Japan at the end of the 20th century and proliferated all around the globe. For many fans costume play is self-expression. Those, who are involved in cosplay, create clothes, props, wigs and etc., which help them to recreate the beloved characters. For some people, this activity became a hobby, for others, it is a lifestyle. For decades cosplay evolved into a big community, which involves people of different ages, professions, genders and unites them in their devotion to anime and video games.

Main Body

Ger Tysk represents those for whom cosplay is an object of passion. She enjoys the creative activities related to costume play: prop-making and photo shooting. She spent years recreating weapons for herself and for other people who participate in conventions. In some way, cosplay helped Tysk to reveal her creativity, and to find something she is good at.

For some time Tysk was engaged in the creation of props for other cosplayers. At first, it was just a hobby, but later it became a small business. The pieces, which she made for others, and which were shown in conventions, drew attention and so Tysks work got prominent. Small business in the cosplay industry is frequent, but in the countries like Japan, where cosplay is a part of mass culture, companies gain great profits selling goods for anime and video games fans.

The cosplay community develops rapidly and gains popularity, especially among young people. Everyone has different reasons for entering the community. Some fans simply want to express themselves, socialize, and communicate with people of the same interests. Others want to show themselves, to draw attention, or even to become famous. The difference in motivations divides the community members and creates preconceptions, misunderstandings, and conflicts.

Nowadays discrimination and prejudices often take place in the cosplay community. One of the reasons is that most of the anime characters, which fans attempt to recreate, have unnatural features of appearance. Some features are exaggerated. Most of the characters have subtle body structures and are extremely skinny. In cosplay competition, the total resemblance to the character is highly estimated. Those who succeeded in purchasing a look of a standard anime personage become prominent. Those fans whose body isnt that skinny or whose face doesnt resemble a cartoon characters face usually receive bad commentaries. Negative responses often make fans lose motivation and quit their hobby.

Sometimes the incidents of sexual harassment also take place in the cosplay community. Frequently, young women wear garments that expose some parts of their bodies. Though partial nudity is a component of a cosplay look, often it remains misunderstood, and the fact that the main purpose of cosplay is a performance of the art of transformation is avoided. Of course, few people like to expose their nudity and to draw attention but for most of the cosplayers, it is simply a way to try on the characters form. The incidents of sexual harassment indicate the situation not only in the cosplayers community but in society as a whole. Unfortunately, prejudices and propensity to stereotyping always exist.

Conclusion

Despite all dissensions, many anime-lovers continue to become attracted to cosplay every day. The initial meaning of participation in conventions is performance, play, and communication. Though with the attaining of public attention cosplay faced negativity and miscomprehension, for many fans it still remains a great passion and a life-long hobby.

Introduction

The Punk movement of the 1970s is often regarded as a British working class movement, born out of the frustration of the politics that ruled the time and the influx of popular culture most of which was heavily back by America. American popular music has made its impact globally and has and will always be listened to all over the world; along with this, fashions and attitudes that are associated with it have also made their mark. This dispersion of American influences whether cultural, political or economic is often referred to as Americanisation. Many scholars argue that the masses are passive in their consumption of popular culture tend to resemble a zombie mob which follows and enjoys whatever commodities are dished out to them. In comparison to high culture, popular culture is often seen as a dumbed down material as opposed to the apparent highbrow elements in elitist high culture. It is often argued that a lot of what is deemed as mass culture braches out from the United States, which in turn is relative to Americanisation. The fears and anxieties expressed by critics of mass culture have been equally directed at the threat of Americanisation (Strinati, 2004, pg 19) the British punk movement could been seen as a conscious alternative to just that, though in order to understand this argument we must first understand where and what punk came from.

Main Text

During the early 1960s, the Americanisation of Britain was in full swing; with the war days out of sight the American way of life had become increasingly popular. The big Hollywood blockbusters, luxury items, commercial advertising, and glossy high life magazines had whetted the publics appetites. American society had the most developed mass culture, and thus represented the future towards which other comparable societies, such as Britain, were heading (ibid, pg 22). The Americans had seduced both Britain and the world with its self-promotion but at what price? On the other hand, too many the American way of life offered opportunities that Britain could only have dreamed of, the hope of a bigger, better more entertaining way of living, and the hope for a more prosperous future.

The music industry of the early 1960s was very much alike in both countries, with little or no distinction in terms of variety as the excitement of rock n roll is replaced by standardized music industry products such as Fabian in the United States and Cliff Richard in Britain (Longhurst, 2007, pg 107). In 1963 the beginnings of Beatle mania had manifested itself; the Beatles were Britains answer to the cries of the hungry youth of the day, who had grown tired of Cliffs rigid summer holiday and Lonnie Donegans skiffle. Although for Britain the Beatles were exciting and fresh in many respects the Beatles were partly located within more conventional forms and packaged in a show business sort of way (ibid, pg 107). The Beatles were as impressive as they were popular, although many argue that the Beatles sound was merely a collaborative reincarnation of earlier rock and roll just in the form of a boy band. The Beatles themselves were an Americanisation; although they were British born and bred, there was no hiding from the fact that there music was inspired by rhythm and blues artists and rock n roll both of which were of black American origin. It is undeniable though that the Beatles did start a musical eruption and the space for the development of rock music (ibid, pg 107) encouraging artists and bands to experiment and shake away the cobwebs of standardisation. Following the creative eruption of the 1960s, came the 1970s weakened in creative comparison to its sixties sibling, and along with it glam rock and Bowie but perhaps the most iconic of all the punk movement.

Punk started out primarily as a subculture, a small group of like-minded individuals opposing the dominance of society and the predominantly popular values that influence mass culture. Within a subculture like punk are a group of individuals who share the same conventions and attitudes. Hebdige identifies this as the symbolic fit between the values and lifestyles of a group, its subjective experience and the musical forms it uses to express or reinforce its focal concerns (Hebdige, 2002, pg 113) and a refusal to just slot in without question. Punks constituency was primarily white, working class and British; the movement itself erupted in 1975 and ended in 1978. However brief its impact, its message was one that turned society on its head, and questioned the governing frameworks of Britain. The 1970s bore Thatcherism, soaring unemployment figures, which were the highest since World War Two, and a crumbling economy encouraging the people of England to spend well beyond their means. Post-war social-democratic consensus which existed from 1945 to 1975 and ended with Margaret Thatcher and her Conservative government was characterized by mass consumption and bureaucratic organization as well as comparative job security and growing labour market; it resulted in structural changes at political, cultural, economic and ideological levels. The development of two political ideologies, post-war social-democratic consensus and Thatcherism saw the young and old of the British lower middle classes living in near poverty leaving the country in a state of recession. Punk historian and journalist Jon Savage writes that within one year of conservative government, the unemployment figures doubled: worst hit were the nineteen to twenty-four age group, the classic teenage constituency. (Savage, 2007, pg 355) Punk rock appealed to the youth of Britain as it was related to them.

American high lifestyles and the commodities that went in hand with it were predominantly popular within Britain. It could be suggested that people were spending more than they could afford due to the circulation of American products and lifestyles. This, with the promotion of mass culture and the early vast spread of Americanisation, had seduced the people of Britain and perpetuated a pipedream of bigger better lifestyles and fashions which were unaffordable to most Winning the war had left Britain with a fearful cost&war had twisted the balance of power from its previous axis so that Britain was no longer a world power. It was merely a small island held in thrall by the USA, both strategically and economically (ibid, pg 108). Britain was left downtrodden for some there were no jobs prospects for those who were no longer in education or could no longer afford to carry on with further education, they felt displaced and ignored. As Savage states in his book Englands Dreaming the only thing stirring within the nations youth appeared to be a desire for order and power (Ibid, pg 113). With little encouragement, and full of frustration with the governing state of the world and the mass offerings of the commercial music industry, punk was born. Cultural ideologue Theodor Adorno explores in one of his theories that The fantasies and happiness, the resolutions and reconciliations, offered by popular music and film make people realise how much their real lives lack these qualities and thus how much they remain unfulfilled and unsatisfied (Strinati, 2004, pg 61) Such fantasies were and still are displayed in forms of popular culture; people turned to punk because it disagreed with the status quo of Britain and the falsities it was seen as representing.

It could be suggested that early Mass culture theorist Hoggart had already witnessed the beginnings of an Americanised state in his earlier work where he observed an influence exercised over the working-class community, most especially over its more vulnerable younger members (Ibid, pg 25). Punk opposed this new way of life and the debasement of working-class life and the gradual wearing down of the traditional working-class community (Ibid, pg 25) therefore resisting Americanisation and offering a British alternative.

The origins of punk are a little shaky, as many countries claim to have created it. As far as the origin of British punk rock goes, it is believed that it originated as a reaction to the progressive rock of the 1970s, as previously mentioned music in the 1970s prior to the spark of punk was rigid, its genres dissatisfying to some. It is also believed that punk rock in Britain was preceded by pub rock. Even though punk rock lacked musical intricacies, they were lyrically rich with political and social messages. They frequently dealt with taboo subjects. These political issues were generally those, which were being debated in society at large, and were mostly connected with issues related to the post-war social-democratic consensus and the nations state in the late seventies. The matter is that punk rock emerged in 1976 which is right between two political conjunctures of Britain in the post-war period and served as an expression of the youths dissatisfaction with the vestiges of the post-war social-democratic consensus such as, for instance, racial tension in the United Kingdom or womens oppression along with some other gender issues and environmental concern. Punk movement can also be characterized by anarchism which the movement reflected in face of ideas of individualism and rejection of the power of the State. A few of the famous songs in the British scene were The Sex Pistols songs like God Save the Queen and Anarchy in the UK. God Save the Queen was written and released in defiance of the British national anthem and the English monarchy, Sex Pistols frontman John Lydon reflects There are not many songs  written over baked beans at the breakfast table  that went onto divide a nation and force a change in popular culture. No one had ever dared question the Monarchy so publicly (Lydon, JohnLydon.com). The track caused such contention that it ended up getting censored from being number one in the British charts and banned form certain radio play. But the intent of the song was misunderstood if anything the Pistols message was one of preservation of British social traditions and the rejection of Americanisation and the media circus that surrounded the monarchy and their infamy throughout the globe. People knew Britain for the crown jewels and the Queen not for its culture or achievements You dont write God Save The Queen because you hate the English race, you write a song like that because you love them; youre fed up with them being mistreated (Lydon, 2000, The Filth and Fury). Thus, punk rock explicitly took on political issues.

John Savage describes the Sex Pistols as appearing on the scene with all the force of a hand grenade tossed into an arrangement of gladioli. (Savage, 2001, pg 352) This statement reflects the impact that punk had on Britain. Never before had anyone dare to musically challenge a cultural hierarchy making the punk movement as original as it was phenomenal. American punk rock bands like Television, Suicide and The Ramones had to play many concerts and release their records away from the mainstream media limelight, which resulted in American punk rock growing at a steady rate. On the contrary, the British punk bands from their very initiation received national infamy. The world was slowly Americanizing with the increasing adaptation of the young and the old. This is seen through a very small example of adoption of John Fiskes work concerning jeans as a wear for all. The punks took an Americanised fashion like the wearing of jeans, and wore them torn or with badges and pins holding them together. This comes back to the do it your self facet of punk rock and their rebellion against popular American cultural items like jeans. Torn jeans signify both a set of dominant American values and a degree of resistance to them (Fiske, 1991, pg 5). Punks constituency was anti-institution born out of the pressure of feeling that the institution subjugated through the Americanization of the society.

However British punk did start out as an advocate of non-conformist anti-institution culture that never believed in accepting what was taken on face value by the society. Punk rocker and frontman of many punk bands Dick Lucas once said I have never come to terms with the idea that I am part of society and should construct my actions to suit the prevailing moods of conformity, acceptance and achievement. Closed by the rigorous mind training of school and media, the mass mentality of Western culture [America] revolves around upholding the past to attempt to secure the future, whilst suffering the present as beyond its control, safe in the hands of government who feed the present to the masses as a product of technological/material/industrial progress (OHara, pg 30).

Thus British punk showed a distinct contempt for Americanization, globalization and mass culture. They were nonconformists of the institution as the growing inclination of the institution with its allegiance to America and everything American. As has been depicted by Savage punk rock in Britain is one such popular culture that had its roots in the subaltern rather than an elitist origin. Although Punk never officially declared a manifesto, if it did it would be one of anti-popular culture, and anti-American as it appeared at a time when Britains relationship with America had become strained. During the time of the British punk movement the influx of American culture exports had slowed down, as America was not primarily concerned with saturating other countries with its hegemonic American exportations, and by doing so enabled other countries to culturally flourish, developing and exporting there own definitive sounds and products, punk being one of them. Punk did not shake America in the same way it did Britain nor did it cause a media punk hunt as it did in England, grabbing constant headlines and a tabloid following, it even got discussed in the Houses of Parliament, it represented those who were neither right or left, it was for the in between and the dissatisfied, a political manifesto for those who had slipped down the cracks and society had forgotten.

Through the interference of mass culture and media a genre is able to gain a more popular status, meaning that even though punk rejected mainstream media and culture, it needed it and relied on it heavily. If the sex pistols jubilee stint hadnt got the media circulation that it attained perhaps punk has become as powerful and successful as it did. People used the punk movement as a political statement. Brit punk as a type of dole queue rock (Sabin, 1999, pg 155) demonstrated the social and economic upheaval the English lower classes were going through during this time. Punks sound was one of an anarchist viewpoint, one that believed in speaking out regardless of whether it was aloud or acceptable to do so. This directly opposed and questioned American mass culture and English politics as American popular culture is seen to embody all that is wrong with mass culture (Savage, 2001, pg 19). The Punks felt like they were outcasts and so segregated themselves they dressed in defiance of the popular trends, disregard social and financial frameworks, and listened to music that was nihilist in its view of the current western demographics. However, punk as a non-conformist sub-group was occasionally hypocritical of its self take the godfathers of punk the sex pistols for example they were managed by designer and husband to major fashion designer Vivianne Westwood, Malcom Maclaren. Who dressed and incorporated the Sex Pistols style into a line of clothing that was then made available to the public in his trendy Kings Road shop entitled SEX. Even the tabloid press who had originally encouraged a vendetta against all things punk began to embrace punk, publishing punk looks, dos and donts and recognising popular punk bands. Punk had begun to turn in on itself in light of what it had begun as; punk had become somewhat hypocritical of its self. Moreover, it could be argued that if punks constituency was one that did promote rebellious anti-American undertones why did British punk bands like The Sex Pistols seek promotion and recognition in the states.

Conclusion

According to Savage, British punk assumed the form of a pop culture that gained tremendous media exposure due to both popularity and infamy. Thus, through their music and non-conformist attitude these punk rockers rebelled against mass culture, Americanization, and globalization. With its DIY ethos, and have ago attitude British punk rock disregarded professionalism and the status quo of polished standardized music. However in its vanity British punk did eventually assume the form of pop culture which ended up in it gaining tremendous media exposure, which was also due to both its popularity and infamy, as Savage points out in his book Englands Dreaming. Thus, through their music and non-conformist attitude the British punk rock can be interpreted and still seen today as a rebellion against mass culture, Americanization, and globalization.

The Greenpeace and American Skinhead movements have come to attract a lot of controversies in regard to their intentions and legality of action in terms of whether they are meeting their objectives by fair or unfair means. There is a lot of concern amongst social organizations as also authorities in several countries about the validity of their actions in pursuing what they stand for. These movements have been described through studies, reports and interviews in regard to the intensity of their political and cultural influences on society. There are several arguments that doubt the authenticity of pleas by Greenpeace in being genuinely concerned about humanitarian objectives and there have been a large number of incidents that indicate its involvement in indirect terror practices which amount to literally pressurizing authorities to undo what has been done for the benefit of mankind. The beliefs of the Skinhead movement are viewed through their relationship with the Nazi inspired violent practices and attempts of causing disturbances in society. Their political viewpoints are also not free of conspiracies. This paper will examine all these aspects in the light of available research and facts from different sources.

Greenpeace is a non governmental organization that operates on an international level with the objective of protecting and conserving the environment. In efforts to achieve its goals, Greenpeace takes direct action and does research and lobbying. In having a worldwide presence, Greenpeace has several offices in the US as also in over 40 countries. It frames its policies and line of action from its Amsterdam based office and in essence, is a global organization that has huge financial resources at its disposal by way of support from the over three million financial supporters that it has. The Greenpeace Foundation was originally founded in 1972 at Vancouver in Canada while protesting against the US decision to test nuclear devices in Alaska. Gradually the foundation evolved into a wide spectrum of collection of environmentalists that were reflective of the culture represented by the hippie culture and youth movements in bringing about significant social revolution during that time. The Greenpeace movement heralded a period of change that was for long hidden in the cultural and social background immediately preceding the formation of the Greenpeace Foundation. There appeared to be immense potential at the time for the development of new codes of behavior in regard to the environment and its social and political ramifications. However, in due course the attention of the organization came to be shifted more towards environmental issues such as global warming, bottom trawling, whaling and nuclear power, instead of just being engaged in anti nuclear protests.

However Greenpeace has come to be criticized in being very radical and alarmist in using ways and means that have come to be referred to as eco terrorism. Allegations have been made against the organization for having caused more damage to the environment than what it envisages to do. It has been charged with adopting practices which are not considered to be economically and environmentally sound and for giving more emphasis to non-human issues than for human causes. Such charges have been leveled against it not only by other environmental groups, but also by governments of several countries and political and industrial lobbyists. In 1986, Patrick Moore, the co-founder of Greenpeace had left the organization over differences emanating from the issue of his organization supporting the ban on using chlorine in water used for drinking, since he stressed the vital role of the same in maintaining public health. It is felt by many organizations that Greenpeace has become more politically motivated and does not essentially take up issues based on scientific facts.

Weyler (2004), who joined Greenpeace while he was still very young, has outlined the development of the movement from the days of the Vietnam War when local environmentalists had raked up the adversities resulting from the fallout of nuclear weapons testing. The activists had started a campaign to merge the peace and green movements during the time and the basic difference between previous efforts and that of Greenpeace pertained primarily to the difference in the media campaigns. Weyler has focused on the humanitarian efforts of Greenpeace during that time and justified the mix of civil disobedience and some indirect violence used in achieving the objectives of curbing nuclear testing by the US.

Radcliffe (2000) has traced the rising influence of the Greenpeace movement in mainstream politics and the increasing incidents whereby educational considerations and political agendas accept and use green issues to further their own objectives. Hence it is said that there has been a development of green politics resulting from such revolution in political and social green thoughts. Consequently, as observed by Radcliffe, green politics has become a term that is widely used by political groups and other action groups in making issues out of the environment to meet their agendas and motives. Hence it is essential to disintegrate the political actions from those that aim at bringing about reformist actions and those that wish to further the radical style politics. In effect, Radcliffe has provided the need to think whether movements such as Greenpeace are dominated by political aspirations and whether there is need for Greenpeace to bring about influences on political differences.

Taylor (2001) has described the world wide growth of environmental movements that have specifically become interested and skilled in the manipulation of the environmental regulatory system in the US. Such organizations are taking political advantage under the guise of seeking exemptions by feigning as organizations that should get exemptions due to the environmental protection efforts that they are said to be engaged in. It is true that several companies have become keen to take advantage of the regulatory provisions that provide tax concessions and exemptions on account of the environmental protection that they seek to bring about. But in fact most of such organizations have been exploiting their political connections in seeking exemptions at the cost of the tax payer. Taylor (2001) has effectively and logically argued that such organizations are more in the nature of being radical, anarchist, extreme, and nihilist entities and has termed them as having eco terrorist tendencies.

Greenpeace has been found to have engaged several times in eco stunts by encouraging the formation of human chains and by placing big protest signs on bridges, skyscrapers, trees and ships, thus putting to extreme danger both lives of people, and properties. There have been instances when Greenpeace has instigated violent reactions to support its arguments, which literally amounts to the use of terrorism in achieving its political aspirations.

Skinheads form a subculture and initially comprised youths in the United Kingdom who came from the strata of the working class, and gradually spread throughout the world. They are named after their style of having shaved heads and were much influenced by the Jamaican lifestyle of music and fashion. Skinheads are considered to be a sub group of the neo Nazi movements and portrayed themselves in a rather intimidating fashion that was replete with tattoos and a symbology that relates them to Nazi ideology. American skinheads are made up of different sub cultures and belong to traditional skins, racist skins, anarchist skins, anti racist skins and a number of other groups. Some have organized themselves into national, international or regional groups while some are independent of any group bindings. Typically, skinheads are associated with racist ideologies as related to the skinhead movement in the UK which picked up from the 1980s. They strongly believe, just as the Nazis did, that the whites are a much superior race genetically and are in risk of becoming wiped out in view of the rising influence and numbers of the colored races. It is this fear that is very real amongst them and makes them involved in the actions which have become very violent during the last few years. There has been an increase in the number of organized groups of racist skinheads and their rising numbers have greatly fuelled the increase in the incidents of skin head related criminal activities.

However Moore (1993) has supported the argument that the skinhead movement is based more on cultural perspectives than being politically motivated and has used reports of the Anti-Defamation League, the Southern Poverty Law Center, articles from newspapers and discussions with skinheads in coming to this conclusion. His book Skinheads Shaved for Battle: A Cultural History of American Skinheads has detailed the origin of skinheads, their development amongst the youth groups, and the evolving of their activities and ideas. Music has played an important role in their development and formation, and their activities have brought about a feeling of hatred against them amongst the general public in America and throughout the world. Moore has been specific in portraying the skinheads as fascists and racists and labeled them as working against the cultural and social set up in the country.

Hamm (1993) has written in his book about the relevance of Nazi ideology in being related to the increasing instances of crime and delinquencies by skinheads. Just as large-scale brutality was practiced by the youth in Hitlers regime, several crimes have been committed by youth on the same parameters in the present times. Such youth, in being neo Nazi skinheads, have used the same modus operandi as during Hitlers time by assaulting people with knives, ball bats, beer bottles, guns and explosives and sometimes committing heinous crimes such as murder also on foreigners and colored people. Hamm has concluded that there is a distinct similarity of such actions by the skinheads with the systems as prevalent during the Nazi regime. His book helps a great deal in understanding the extent of violence indulged in by the skinheads.

The most recent example of violence perpetrated by skinheads relates to the plot to kill Obama when two white supremacist skinheads were caught for planning to go on a killing spree with the ultimate objective of killing the Democratic presidential candidate Barack Obama. These skinheads were indicted with criminal conspiracy and threatening a presidential candidate, were charged with the unlawful possession of a gun as also with the plan to raid a gun dealer. Although the said conspiracy was not of a very sophisticated nature, it did spell the inherent violent nature of dangers lurking behind the skinhead movement. An article in this regard by Charles (2008), throws valuable insight into gauging the intensity and extremity of the skinhead movement.

According to Sickboy (2004), the skinhead is not about color, race, religion, and national origin. It is a brotherhood and sisterhood of individuals who share the same passions in what is called a skinhead. In being a skinhead himself, he provides his own views on politics as not being influenced in any way by orientation of any class or race. He believes that the cult of skinheads is in fact a way of life and any one who claims to be a skinhead does so by virtue of being dedicated to the belief of belonging to the creamy layer of the working class. He also believes that it is not within everybodys ability to become a skinhead since it requires a particular breed of character in understanding the pride that goes with a skinhead. Surely Sickboy provides a different basis for viewing and judging skinheads by way of what they do and say.

Some people who are directly associated with the skinhead movement have now started to call for a fundamental change in the tactics by throwing away the traditional garb of the culture that has enabled a negative influence on them. Skinheads are now being asked to grow their hair, remove or cover up their tattoos and to integrate themselves more into the mainstream of society, and perhaps wait until the right time comes to hit back in achieving their motives. Several music crews have come up in America that have turned their backs on violent practices and reinvented activities in clubs and other political affiliations. They have set their way towards appealing to the mainstream in using every possible tool at their disposal. Skinheads have been observed to have greatly reduced their rhetoric and started to shape their message in appealing to larger audiences. And they have started to get the desired response by using measures such as internet and popular music in reaching out to large number of people with their messages.

Despite the dwindling numbers, the propensity of skinheads to indulge in violent activities can never be ruled out and authorities are always concerned about law enforcement in this regard. Most of the original skinheads who perpetrated violence and hatred have been arrested and imprisoned and the intensity of their activities during the last few years has been considerably reduced. In some communities skinheads have clearly vanished but authorities still look at skinheads as belonging to hate groups who carry out hate crimes which amount to nothing less than terrorist activities. Hence there is still a strong need for such people to be vigorously investigated in all respects and prosecuted for all illegal activities.

References

Charles, D. (2008). Skinheads held over plot to kill Obama. Washington: Reuters.

Hamm, M. (1993). American Skinheads: The Criminology and Control of Hate Crime. Greenwood Press.

Moore, J. (1993). Skinheads Shaved for Battle: A Cultural History of American Skinheads. Popular Press.

Radcliffe, J. (2000). Green Politics: Dictatorship or Democracy? St.Martins Press.

Sickboy, (2004) A Rant of Enlightenment. San Francisco, CA: RoadDawgz and Pacific News Service.

Taylor, P. (2001). Ecoterrorism: an overlooked threat to the United States. Insight on the News.

Weyler, R. (2004). Greenpeace: How a Group of Ecologists, Journalists and Visionaries Changed the World. Vancouver, British Columbia: Raincoast Books.

Thesis Statement

Ryan Moores book contributes to the historical understanding of American culture by identifying the connections between macro-environmental changes in the United States and the formation of various youth subcultures and musical genres. As a rule, these two phenomena are studied separately, while the author attempts to highlight the relations between these processes. This is why this book can be of great value to readers.

Introduction

This paper is aimed at discussing the book Sells like Teen Spirit: Music, Youth Culture, and Social Crisis written by Ryan Moore. In this work, the author attempts to examine how youth subcultures reflect political, cultural, and economic development of American society. This connection is of great interest to historians who attempt to examine peoples responses to the changes within a community. Ryan Moore attempts to show how particular age groups such as adolescents and young adults responded to the new economic policies that were implemented in the United States. Moreover, this book should be considered because it shows how youth subcultures became commercialized. Overall, one can say that this secondary source includes a detailed analysis of how socio-economic and cultural phenomena are interrelated.

The summary of the book

It should be mentioned that this text does not have a preface or introduction that can explain the authors motive for examining this particular question. However, in the first chapter, Ryan Moore says that he regards music as an emotional register of social change¹. In the beginning, the author shows that youth subcultures can be regarded as a form of rebellion against socio-economic changes that impoverished a great number of people in various neighborhoods. In particular, one can speak about the economic recession that increased unemployment in many communities such as the South Bronx². Furthermore, Ryan Moore focuses on the emergence of punk subculture which is regarded as a protest against the lack of opportunities for many young people. This is one of the aspects that should be considered. Additionally, Ryan Moore examines the development of metal subculture which began to emerge when the United States became less industrialized in part due to the liberalization of economic policies. To a great extent, young people had to struggle with a sense of disappointment that can be attributed to the economic recession, increasing the outsourcing of jobs or lack of ideology that could appeal to adolescents. This is one of the aspects that Ryan Moore examines.

Moreover, the author shows that some musical genres were driven by anti-commercialism. In this case, much attention should be paid to indie or alternative rock. Apart from that, Ryan Moore focuses on the transformation of gender roles. Additionally, he shows how the transformation of masculinity and femininity was reflected in various musical compositions³. These are some of the main questions examined by the author in this text.

The evaluation of the authors arguments

The main idea put forward by Ryan Moore is that youth subcultures reflect the political, cultural, social, and economic changes within a society. This is the main argument that the writer attempts to elaborate. One can say that this argument has certain strong points. First of all, the author provides a detailed examination of the primary sources which represent various youth subcultures. For instance, Ryan Moore examines the lyrics of various heavy metal bands such as Black Sabbath or Metallica⁴. The examples that he provides can substantiate his arguments. Additionally, the writer provides a detailed discussion of the trends that could have influenced the experiences of teenagers and young adults; in particular, one should pay attention to such issues as outsourcing, automation of manufacturing, or globalization⁵. This approach helps the author to establish the connections between social phenomena and the development of subcultures. Overall, Ryan Moores discussion is clear and well-structured.

One should bear in mind that this book has a very broad scope because the authors discussion covers a great number of questions and sub-questions. For instance, the author points out that the adolescents, who formed youth subcultures could represent various ethnic or racial groups. Moreover, their attitudes and perceptions of social changes could be different. Many of them had to grapple with the effects of discrimination⁶. This is one of the details that should be taken into account. In the review of this book, Eileen Luhr acknowledges the author for his willingness to consider the experiences of African-American teenagers⁷. These are some of the main strengths that can be distinguished. The information provided by Ryan Moore can help readers get a better idea about the cultural history of the United States and other western countries.

Nevertheless, some important limitations should not be overlooked. For instance, while reviewing this book, Ross Haefner notes that the author cannot explain how social or economic changes could have led to the development of some cultural forms or genres; for instance, this scholar focuses on such subcultures as trash or glam⁸ since they do not quite fit the assumptions postulated by Ryan Moore. In other words, it is difficult to say that every musical genre or culture is the only response to the changes in the macro-environment. Such an assumption would be very far-fetched. This is one of the details that should be kept in mind.

Other reviewers note that Ryan Moore excludes many extremely popular musical genres that continue to influence a great number of adolescents. In particular, Douglas Evans speaks about rap, gothic rock, emo, and many others⁹. Certainly, some performers, who represent these subcultures, do reflect political or economic changes within a community. However, one cannot say that the work of these people can be described as a responsible economic recession, unemployment or globalization. Thus, it is possible to say that Ryan Moores analysis may not fully explain the development of every subculture which emerged in the second half of the twentieth century. Thus, one should not assume that Ryan Moores claim can always be taken for granted. This is another aspect that should not be disregarded.

Apart from that, Ryan Moore looks at the formation of new art forms and subcultures from sociological and economic perspectives. However, he disregards the possibility that teenagers and young people tend to deviate from established patterns and norms. Therefore, it is quite possible that new musical styles and subcultures could have emerged even without dramatic social changes. This is one of the objections that can be raised. It is vital to remember that the actions of young adults can be attributed to the peculiarities of their psychological development. This explanation can be quite valid; yet, the writers overview of this process can also be of great interest to the readers because the writer shows how adolescents perceive the society in which they live.

Ryan Moores perspective is very interesting. He can focus on socio-economic forces that can affect the lives of many people in the United States and many other countries. For instance, he can speak about the liberalization of the economy. Yet, at the same time, he speaks about how these changes could be perceived by individuals and groups. The writer focuses on the complexities of ideological movements that emerged after World War II. This perspective enables him to describe the influence of external forces on the values of adolescents. For example, the author speaks about the paradoxical nature of libertarianism. On the one hand, the supporters of this ideology lay stress on the individual freedom which is valued by many young people.

Much attention should be paid to the sources used by the author. First of all, the writer relies on the study of secondary sources such as books that are aimed at examining various aspects of youth subcultures. Furthermore, he incorporates many academic works that are related to the development of capitalist societies. These academic enable the writer to identify the connections between the macro-environment and the experiences of young people. Nevertheless, at the same time, this ideology complies with economic forces that are often more destructive in their consequences but are largely invisible or appear to be natural and inevitable¹⁰. The representatives of various subcultures attempted to explore the underlying cause of various social problems in their compositions. It is possible to say that Ryan Moores perspective is very thought-provoking since the author prompts people to consider how individuals can react to significant changes within the economy or ideology. This is one of the questions that are not widely discussed in historical studies.

Apart from that, it is important to remember that Ryan Moore relies on primary sources. First of all, the author refers to the lyrics of various musical bands that became very popular in the seventies or eighties. For example, when speaking about Metallica, he refers to such songs as Ride the Lightning, Fight Fire with Fire, or Fade to Black¹¹. This approach helps the writer to examine specific social issues that are reflected in the lyrics of various musicians. One has to admit that these texts are open to various interpretations. Therefore, one should not suppose that Ryan Moores analysis is always accurate. This is one of the shortcomings that should not be disregarded. Additionally, the scholar does not clear what kind of research methodology he applied while collecting or analyzing information. Overall, the writer relies on the qualitative methods of research, and they are quite useful for the formulation of theoretical models or hypotheses. Nevertheless, they cannot be used to substantiate an argument or assumption. Yet, one can still say that Ryan Moore skillfully incorporates various sources into his book.

One can say that this text can enrich many historiographical debates that are related to the origins and development of popular culture. This book and its reviews show that many scholars are interested in the factors that can shape youth culture. Historians attempt to examine how social, ideological, or political changes influence the experiences of people. The main contribution of Ryan Moore is that he relates the changes in the macro-environment to the life of people whose worldviews and values have not been shaped completely. As a rule, the behavior of adolescents or young children is studied by psychologists or sociologists. In contrast, Ryan Moore pays close attention to the impact of economic changes on the life of American youth. This is one of the main issues that should be distinguished. Judging from the reviews published in academic journals, this book has been well received by historians. They agree that Ryan Moore can see the connections between various macro-environmental forces and the subcultures of teenagers. In the opinion of these scholars, some limitations do not undermine the value of this book as a good source of cultural history.

Conclusion

Overall, Ryan Moores book demonstrates that the development of subculture may be driven by a great number of forces such as the changes in the economy of a country, mainstream ideology, perceptions of masculinity or femininity, or ideological shifts. The author gives a detailed discussion of how young people responded to various trends such as deindustrialization, unemployment, the conflicts between the right-wing or left-wing ideologies. Ryan Moore examines both primary and secondary sources to highlight the connections between the formation of cultural forms and the transformation of American society. Certainly, there are some limitations such as the lack of attention toward numerous musical styles that cannot do not fit the authors theory. Nevertheless, the value of this source should not be overlooked it can demonstrate how young people can respond to the changes in the phenomena.

Works Cited

Evans, Douglas N. Ryan Moore: Sells Like Teen Spirit: Music Youth Culture And Social Crisis. Journal Of Youth & Adolescence 39.4 (2010): 434-435. Print.

Haenfler, Ross. Sells Like Teen Spirit: Music, Youth Culture, And Social Crisis.American Journal Of Sociology 116.3 (2010): 1015-1017. Print.

Luhr, Eileen. Sells Like Teen Spirit: Music, Youth Culture, and Social Crisis by Ryan MooreReview, Southern California Quarterly 93.3. (2011): 358-360. Print.

Moore, Ryan. Sells like Teen Spirit: Music, Youth Culture, and Social Crisis. New York: New York University Press, 2010. Print.

Footnotes

1. Ryan Moore, Sells like Teen Spirit: Music, Youth Culture, and Social Crisis. (New York: New York University Press, 2010) 19.
2. Moore 4.
3. Moore 108.
4. Moore 88.
5. Moore 112.
6. Moore 49
7. Eileen Luhr. Smells Like Teen Spirit: Music, Youth Culture, and Social Crisis by Ryan MooreReview, Southern California Quarterly 93.3. (2011): 358-360.
8. Ross Haenfler. Smells Like Teen Spirit: Music, Youth Culture, And Social Crisis. American Journal Of Sociology 116.3 (2010): 1016.
9. Evans, Douglas N. Ryan Moore: Sells Like Teen Spirit: Music Youth Culture And Social Crisis. Journal Of Youth & Adolescence 39.4 (2010): 435.
10. Moore 100.
11. Moore 99.

Introduction

The punk subculture represents a broad spectrum of sociopolitical and artistic ideologies and forms of expression stretching back to at least the 1950s. Primarily, it has represented itself as a youth culture, with the primary means of expression through style, popular music, and the media. It is notable that punk emerged in a specific socio-economic context soon after the end of World War II. During the post-war period, youth culture developed together with economic growth, while punk flourished during the economic downturn. As a result of that, punk may be perceived less as an aspiration culture and more as a culture of revolt. In the documentary produced by Amplified (2021), History of Punk: Sound of Rebellion, the punk subculture is explored from different angles, with the musical aspect given the most attention. In the context of punk, music served as the prominent form of expression and the driving force for the rebellious youth.

The Punk Subculture in the Documentary History of Punk: Sound of Rebellion

The documentary traces the development of punk through the history of popular culture. One of the speakers, Legs McNeil from Punk Magazine, states that the core message of the subculture can be traced back to Marlon Brando in the movie The Wild One, which established a defining quote: Hey, Johnny, what are your rebelling against?  Whaddya got? (Amplified, 2021). The rebellious part of punk is very important because the youth saw the people around them getting too complacent. The Vietnam War was among the defining sociopolitical events that shaped the rebellious movements of the youth, even though they were called hippies during that time. Steve Jones of The Sex Pistols, the defining band for the punk subculture, stated that hippies were just like punks because they were not afraid to challenge the status quo and tell society that they were against war (Amplified, 2021). Therefore, the traits of punk can be found in the movements and music genres of every decade because the talented and the opinionated pop culture role models have always stood out from the crowd.

In terms of punks broader social context, it explicitly challenges the prevailing social and cultural norms. While the extent to which punks engaged with the critical approach to society varied, the subcultures impact on social commentary can be traced in its music, fashion, visual arts, and social spaces such as clubs. For example, the documentary discusses the impact of Iggy Pop & The Stooges and The Doors as bands that were not afraid to appear different in terms of stage presence, sound different in terms of instrumentalization, and write provocative songs (Amplified, 2021). The main purpose of punk artistic expression is to shock, which facilitates some space for social and political commentary, offering an alternative lifestyle beyond the mainstream.

The punks set boundaries between insiders and outsiders by positioning themselves as anti-capitalist leftists who went against the right-wing, authoritarian, and Christian ideologies. Therefore, it was pretty clear that individuals who did not share mentioned values could not become members of the subculture. The boundaries could be considered quite rigid because the definition of their position is clear, and there is not much room for interpretation, even though within the punk subculture, freedom of expression was welcomed. As new waves of popular youth culture emerged, such as goth and rock, the punk subculture took some of its traits and transformed over time. Of great importance for the punk subculture was the ability of its members to juxtapose themselves with mainstream culture. Bands such as Nirvana got well-accepted by the punks even though they emerged in the 90s because the philosophy of their music was rooted in rebellion.

The emergence and development of punk subculture show that culture is constructed within a specific context that influences the worldview and the set of values that define it. For example, in Great Britain, the punk subculture was the direct response to the growth and flourishing of the upper-middle-class liberalism of the 1960s, while the working class was pushed further to the line of poverty. The punk movement grew out of the dark social environment, ready to stand against the status quo and show contempt for society, the British government, and the traditions that have been embedded into society. Punks, therefore, were in opposition with society and attempted to create a more open environment that did not have a class divide but rather united people on the basis of their common values.

Conclusion

To conclude, subculture development goes along with the cultural trends and boundaries imposed on society. The greater and the more rigid the challenges, the more likely a subculture, such as those as punks, will oppose them and call for rebellion. This means that the changes to social and political structures are likely to be reflected in subcultures. Overall, in History of Punk: Sound of Rebellion, one can see the key messages of the punk subculture and understand how they have been transferred through music, which is also a mirror of human culture.

Reference

Amplified. (2021). History of punk: Sound of rebellion. Full documentary [Video]. YouTube. Web.

In the essay Can you hear me now? Sherry Turkle describes different approaches to technology and analyzes opportunities and threats of new communication methods. This essay was originally published in They say/ I say with Readings: The Moves that Matter in Academic Writing edited by G. Graff, C Birkenstein, R. Durst. On the one hand, the author argues that new technology has changed the life of modern civilization bringing new ease of communication and interaction. On the other hand, Turkle states that modern technology and new media are transforming society, its way of life, and communication patterns. The five arguments discussed by Turkle are the new state of self, lost time, tethered adolescence, discontents of the virtual environment, and split attention. Society is overly dependent on technology paying more attention to the advantages and opportunities of these technologies rather than their harmful and negative impact on their lives.

On the one hand, new media and technology allow global society to view and understand political changes and conflicts in these countries and respond to global violence and misbehavior of some nations. Personally, I agree with Turkle that: “We live in techno-enthusiastic times, and we are most likely to celebrate our gadgets”. In the Internet era, we can all read first-person reports from all sides of the argument. Technology improves communication between people and makes their life easier and more pleasant. It frees society from waiting for a morning newspaper or evening news. Technology allows people to find news online and read any information from all over the world. More fundamentally, new technology posited a universal network of individuals connected and communicating and sating individual needs and desires through the ether. “The new state of self” leads to a new community of people. On the other hand, the author is right that “These days it is easier for people without technical expertise to blend the real and virtual lives” (Turkle). This view is already a common-place descriptor of ‘net heads’, heavy consumers of the new media. Technology connects the center and the periphery and allows people to belong to many communities. It will be fair to admit that communication is a necessary and indispensable part of any person’s life. And in past times communication between people separated by distances was difficult to realize because mails and telephone were the only means of communication in those days. Nowadays due to the development of technologies Internet has become available for almost everyone in the world, and thus such media as videoconferencing appears not only useful but also accessible. This technology includes text, video as well as audio communication in real-time and two-way. Turkle’s idea that technology becomes a culture is true because modern man cannot live and perform effectively without new technologies and new media.

I constantly disagree with the author that we lose our time because of technology. Technology helps us to save time usually spend on routine operations (such as writing a letter, cooking, cleaning, buying, etc.) and travel to a friend. The market is intolerant of time-wasting; there is not enough time to read out-of-date research. So society needs to get closer to technology, needs to be faster and easier in use. It needs to have an interactive relationship with the purveyors of information, of ideas, of retail. It needs to have a long-term strategy for its research. Understandably, digital communication of various types is becoming more and more popular with the development and enhancement of technologies. Thus, it would not be wise to ignore the new technologies and to adhere only to traditional ways of communication.

The author argues that technology changes perceptions and interactions between adolescents. I agree with the statement that: “adolescents naturally want to check out ideas and attitudes with peers. But when technology brings us to the point where we’re used to sharing thoughts and feelings instantaneously” (Turkle). Modern people are overly dependent on technology using it in daily routines. The increasing role of technology in modern life is explained by its deterministic role in production. Since everyone depends on others in the technical division, life is threatened by scientific change. Mobile phones and personal computers, modern appliances, and cars simplify our life but make us dependent on technology. Turkle is right stating that: “the virtual life of Facebook or MySpace is titillating” (Turkle). People are overly dependent on technology because they cannot imagine their life without mobile phones and cars; without these devices, many people become helpless and vulnerable in the modern world. Again, Turkle is correct that people prefer to communicate with online others than interact with those “people they are meeting”. The basic assumption states that society is not predestined or otherwise forced to a particular technology. Thus, the way and mode of life are shaped by technological devices.

In sum, the ideas and causes mentioned by Turkle are well-developed and correct as the author evaluates objectively modern technology and its impact on society. As technology advances, people become bound by computers, from large ones handling medical and scientific tasks to microcomputers in cars, home appliances, games, entertainment centers, and everywhere else. Overdependence on technology is explained by the fact that people cannot live and perform well without technology and innovations that enter everyday life.

Works Cited

Turkle, Sh. Can you hear me now? ” in They say/ I say with Readings: The Moves that Matter in Academic Writing by G. Graff, C Birkenstein, R. Durst, W.W. Norton & Co.; 1st PAPERBACK edition, 2008. Print.

In the modern day, technology is advancing at an incredible pace. With new changes come new trends and tendencies in society. The Internet connected people all around the globe and changed the face of the society forever. The Web is an integral part of governmental activities, business, and social life. The advent of the networking technology gave way to new forms of social activism, protests, and plain hooliganism. In the modern day, the hacker subculture uses the Internet as a battlefield against everything they perceive as unjust, as well as a tool to mock, prank and abuse people. This report will discuss the origins and the modern state of the hacker subculture and try to explain why people join it.

The Nature of Hacking

The hacking first started as a subculture in M.I.T back in the 1960s. A group of enthusiasts searched to test the limits of programmable systems, including those of society itself. The hobby originally was aimed at achieving unique and clever results and was not associated with anything malicious. Their activities included tinkering with computers to increase their performance, creating some of the first computer games and playing small pranks on people, like placing fake signs (Kushner, 2014). The term “hacker” in its modern day meaning originated from that group. However, with the development of the computer networks, the meaning of the term started to change. The modern day concept of hacking is closely associated with criminals who compromise the security of computer networks for personal gain. However, the members of the subculture do not associate themselves with cybercriminals sometimes calling them “crackers” in an attempt to differentiate. They claim to believe in curiosity, responsibility and working for the public good.

Fighting for Justice and Freedom of Information

Modern era hackers are a vast and poorly connected subculture. The basis of hacker philosophy consists of several ideas, some of which were borrowed from the original hackers of 1960-70s, who also resented bureaucracy and limitations imposed by the government (Gehring, 2004). The hackers supposedly fight for the freedom of information, against dictatorship and injustice. They admire inventiveness and creativity and detest limitations and bureaucracy. Their campaigns include attacks on government and company websites, dissemination of various information and even personal attacks on people. The most prolific hacker movement today is called Anonymous. It originates from the website 4chan – an anonymous forum which gathered the most irreverent crowd of the entire Internet. The Anonymous movement was born of that crowd. The most outspoken activists among 4chan users started to form groups and work together. Those groups were disorganized and worked without any coordination going on crusades as much as trying to simply sow chaos for the sake of it.

Collectively they became known as Anonymous. The collective came into the media spotlight in 2008, after attacking the Church of Scientology. The organization accused the Church of censorship after it tried to take down a copyrighted video of Tom Cruise speaking about his beliefs. Anonymous used various means to shut down Church’s websites and disrupt its operation, including parades outside its offices in various countries around the world (The Economist, 2008). The religious organization remained largely unharmed but preferred to leave the video alone to prevent any future trouble. Another famous act by the hacktivist group was a coordinated attack on the websites of music and film companies. The Distributed Denial of Service attacks were declared to be the retaliation against the companies who tried to shut down websites hosting pirated content (BBC, 2010). Since then the Anonymous have carried out various campaigns aimed against authoritarian regimes of the Middle East, companies that have incurred the group’s ire and even terrorist organizations, like ISIS. The effects of these actions are hard to discern. Since DDoS attacks cannot take down sites for long periods of time the permanent damage done by them from the network security standpoint has been minimal.

Just for Fun

However, not all hackers act claiming to fight injustice. While one of the key principles of the original hacking subculture was to “do no harm” (Kushner, 2014) modern day hackers often act simply trying to have fun at the expense of others. Members of the Anonymous offshoot named LulzSec stole personal data and took down sites to have fun and attract the public attention. They targeted mostly videogame and television websites and did not claim to act against any sort of evil. Their actions lead to personal data being leaked to the internet and various services being disrupted (CNN, 2011). This example shows the chaotic nature of the hacker movement. Hackers do not have any clearly set goals or agenda. They act on their personal whims and desires. It is hard to discern what makes a hacker a hacker, aside from the general rebelliousness, denial of authority, and minimal technical knowledge.

The Allure of Hacking

What draws people to this movement? That is not as hard of a question as one might think. The hackers have an incredible allure created by the media. They are mysterious, powerful, and dangerous they can really change the world. Movies and books like Johnny Mnemonic and Neuromancer bread the image of a hacker as a type of modern wizard. A lot of people are drawn by that imagery and seek an easy and accessible way to achieve similar powers. And organizations like Anonymous offer the way for anybody willing. Just download a couple of simple programs and you can be a part of something huge and powerful, you can be one of the legendary cyberwarriors. The fact that many activities of the hacktivists are illicit only adds to the thrills, especially for those under the age of actual legal responsibility. Aside from that, many members of the hacker movements actually believe in their cause. They want to support absolute freedom of information or help to fight authoritarian regimes. Being part of an activist group online helps those people to become more closely involved in the struggle, without risking much.

Famous Hackers

The hacker movement has its own celebrities. Christopher Doyon is one of the most outspoken hacktivists who have been on a social justice crusade since the mid-1980s. He was one of the pillars of a Peoples Liberation Front, a vigilante organization supporting protesters from M.I.T. and Harvard (Kushner, 2014). The organization was funded by drug money and Doyon went to jail after selling LSD to a DEA agent in 1992, so his relationship with the law was never good. Returning from prison, he went on to participate in a DDoS attack against copyright organizations. In 2010, Doyon joined forces with one of the Anonymous groups on the behest of his long time friend who went by the alias Commander Adama.

He used the hacktivists’ enthusiasm to tear down a local government website. He was promptly arrested after the fact and got his laptop confiscated. Doyon was not discouraged and continued his activities with fervor, He followed the Anonymous activities and tried to use the organization to advance his own crusade. He executed DDoS attacks against various company and government websites until he was finally arrested and charged with causing damage to a protected computer. After his arrest, he revealed himself to be CommanderX – a name already well known amongst Anonymous groups. After his arrest, he was released to await trial but decided to flee to Canada.

However, Doyon’s acts of civil disobedience are child’s play compared to the activities of probably the world’s most famous hacker – Jullian Assange. He started his hacking activities in 1987 using the alias Mendax. Assange’ early exploits include the hack of the national terminal of Nortel company and alleged participation in anti-nuclear NASA hack (Khatchadourian, 2010). The name Jullian Assange became known to people all over the world after his project WikiLeaks published top secret governmental report, causing one international scandal after another. The first publication which caused an outrage was the record of 2007 Baghdad airstrike. It showed US military killing 2 Iraqi journalists. The case was kept under covers for three years before the WikiLeaks publication in 2010. After that, the site has caused a lot of controversy. Some consider Assange a crusader for freedom of information, others consider him a traitor publishing top secret materials and jeopardizing the national security of the US. The activist faces a likely death sentence in the US, which caused him to seek asylum at the Ecuadorian embassy in London. The exploits of Assange can be viewed differently, but there is no doubt they cause a huge resonance in media and politics.

Conclusion

The hacker subculture has grown immensely in the last 15 years. The mass media has created an idealized image of a hacker over the last 30 years. With the advent of Anonymous and growing availability of readymade hacking tools more and more people join in. They all act on their own whims and desires. Some want to fight for freedom of information and against restrictions and bureaucracy, others just seek to satisfy their sociopathic tendencies. All of them flock together into disorganized groups pursuing widely different goals. Famous hacktivists have emerged over the years. Many of them became known for petty hooliganism but others, like Jullian Assange, managed to affect the whole world.

The hacktivism can be viewed differently. For some people hackers are heroes. However, for me, it is hard not to view the hacker subculture as a mix of sociopaths and internet hooligans. Most of their activities are limited to minor civil disobedience and abuse of others. No matter, what their reasons are it is hard to sympathize with people who hack strobe lights into the website dedicated to epilepsy (Kushner, 2014). Most of the hacks performed by the groups like Anonymous have very limited effects. Only large-scale, well-organized projects, for example, WikiLeaks, have an adverse impact on society. Overall, the hacktivism seems like inefficient and dangerous forms of social protest. You hardly achieve anything by participating and risk finding yourself misguided

Online everybody claims to pursue a noble goal. But before you jump onto an opportunity to go on a social justice crusade, you should stop and ask yourself: what will I achieve by doing it?

References

BBC. (2010). Activists target recording industry websites. BBC News. Web.

CNN. (2011). Hackers pirate PBS website, post fake story about Tupac still alive.CNN. Web.

Gehring, V. (2004). Internet in Public Life. Lanham, ML: The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group.

Khatchadourian, R. (2010). No Secrets. Julian Assange’s mission for total transparency. The New Yorker. Web.

Kushner, D. (2014). The Masked Avengers. How Anonymous incited online vigilantism from Tunisia to Ferguson. The New Yorker. Web.

The Economist. (2008). Fair game. An online onslaught against Scientology. The Economist. Web.

Photo Sources

Delacroix, E. (1824).Young orphan girl at cemetery. Web.

Ghirlandao, D. (1490). An old man and his grandson. Web.

Michaels, G. (2012). Louvre. Web.

Monty, J. (2010).Pallet. Web.

Vinci, L. (1503). Monalisa. Web.

Zedekiah, M (2012). Tom Mboya. Web.

The gamer subculture is one of the most ubiquitous subcultures in the world spanning almost every single nationality, race, ethnicity and gender.

What must be understood is that considering gamers as belonging to a particular subculture isn’t a widely accepted notion by the general public since they consider gaming as nothing more than hobby, however, gamers have developed their own unique way of talking by incorporating game lore based abbreviations, developing certain distinct customs in regards to considering proper online gaming etiquette and have even created group hierarchies based on a person’s inherent skill with a particular game which is indicative of a form of subculture.

What distinguishes this particular group from any other subculture is the fact that a majority of its social interaction is based online. In-game messaging, message board posting and the use of voice services such as Vimeo in order to collaborate attacks and strategies online while playing a game are considered the primary mode of social interaction for gamers.

Based on my own experience as being part of this subculture most gamers would prefer real world social isolation while at the same time immersing themselves in online social interaction found in numerous Massively Multiplayer Online Role Playing Games (MMORPG) such as World of Warcraft.

On average, a gamer will spend literally hours improving their skills in one way or another by leveling up their online characters in order to show who the better player is. In fact, the gamer subculture revolves almost entirely around the concepts of competition and collaboration due to the main goal of some games which is to win through the use of effective tactics with your teammates.

It must also be noted that through online competitions certain norms of behavior have developed wherein respect is accorded to the best player, profanity and degrading comments are heaped upon the clumsiest player with mid range players often being the ones heaping the praise or insults.

While society in general considers gaming as nothing more than a hobby, some gamer’s lives revolve almost entirely around games with players often neglecting to sleep, eat and bathe in order to continue playing a game into well past midnight.

In fact, a gamer is often so obsessed with a game that they will avoid literally all contact with the outside world for days at a time in order to complete a particular game, level or merely level up their character. It is this obsession with gaming that characterizes the gamer subculture in such countries as South Korea even incorporating the concept of being a gamer into their mainstream culture as seen by their almost literal worship of the strategy game Starcraft.

On the other hand, it can be seen that the attitude of gamers eschewing normal social interaction in favor of personal isolation has resulted in the fact there are no physically distinguishing features differentiating a gamer from a normal individual. The gamer subculture does not adhere to any particular food, ways of dressing, or any specific ties outside gaming; the entire culture revolves around games, which is dependent upon games and moves from one popular game to another.

On the other hand, its massive popularity has resulted in it being ubiquitous in nearly every single country in the world with millions of people considering themselves a part of the gaming community. It is for better or worse a form of addiction that has taken on the guise of a subculture wherein people have quite literally devastated their lives for the sake of gaming.

Some have stopped caring about their spouses, going to work, going to school, or even thinking about their future. This is not an exaggeration but rather it is the dark aspect of the gamer subculture which mainstream society has accorded towards the majority of gamers when in fact it is applicable to only a few.