This essay presents a list of sustenance amenities and researches for people with PTSD. Moreover, it will provide information towards how easy or difficult it was to detect PTSD assets and facilities in the area and categorize several breaches in the public in relations of assets and facilities for those individuals who have lived through shock and are in danger of emerging PTSD.
List of sustenance amenities and researches for people with PTSD
Beras, E. (2013). With community violence, post-traumatic stress can be a hidden wound. This article reveals the story of Rachel Zwipf, who is moving to another town due to the terrible events that happened to her family. Judith Cohen, who is a medical worker, provides her commentaries on the case. She has treated a lot of individuals of different age; still she claims that the academics are still acquiring knowledge about the way the brain and body retort to shock in infantile and mature age. One of the effects they are aware of is that when an individual is confronted with hazard, their brain appears to be redone to assume menace. It stops responding as if the domain around people is harmless (Beras, 2013).
Hudenko, W., Homaifar, B. & Wortzel, H. (2012). The relationship between PTSD and suicide. The given research investigates the connection among PTSD and suicide and delivers material that assists in comprehending suicide. A vast amount of study designates that there is an association between a lot of sorts of distress and suicidal actions (Hudenko, Homaifar & Wortzel, 2012). For instance, there is an indication that distressing proceedings such as infantile cruelty can upsurge an individual’s suicide menace. A record of army sexual ordeal upsurges the hazard for suicide and deliberate self-damage as well, proposing a necessity to monitor for suicide hazard in this populace.
Jaffe, G. (2012). New name for PTSD could mean less stigma. The army field marshals and psychoanalysts are involved in a passionate discussion over whether to alter the definition of a disorder as longstanding as fighting.. The comparatively forthright application that instigated with the Army of the United States has elevated the new-fangled inquiries towards the reasons of PTSD, the best method to approach the disorder and the fences that stops people from receiving assistance and support. The alteration can have the foremost fiscal insinuations for health guarantors and national incapacity entitlements as well (Jaffe, 2012).
Tucker, D. (2009). Domestic violence, PTSD and brain injury: Military and civilian challenges – Part 1. The author investigates the soldierly and non-combatant challenges offered by home fierceness and performance, which is more frequently related to PTSD or TBI, in cases when they are attributable to involvements in a soldierly scenery or some other impact, for example, being a target for youngster cruelty or sexual attack or from brain damage influencing on the instinct mechanism of the victim. Moreover, the author will offer commendations for attorneys and adjudicators in addition to the assets for interference with the criminal and sustenance for the targets (Tucker, 2009).
Assessment of the gaps in the resources and services for people with PTSD
It was easy to detect PTSD assets and facilities in the area, as the society and the government are currently establishing a vast amount of amenities for this disorder. I would recommend the patient to review the sources provided to him and to seek assistance in the governmental facility. The people who are not engaged in this course and have no substantial acquaintance with PTSD be able to discover these assets.
A lot of gaps discourage people from looking for support for their mental health difficulties, counting their apprehensions towards undesirable occupation consequences, principles that treatment appears to be not operative, and the outlook of extensive interval periods and incomplete accessibility of sources. Women, even more so than male victims, express their apprehensions towards the probable side effects of the medicines, which are frequently applied to treat these complications. In my opinion, people should increase the awareness towards the support systems and their exceptional beneficial side that has no drawbacks to the mental health of the patient.
The paper analyses the article devoted to the examination of relationships between inflammatory abnormalities in fibromyalgia, psychological distress, and hormonal aging. Although fibromyalgia is primarily associated with chronic widespread pain and somatic symptoms, the inflammatory response is commonly observed in diagnosed patients. At the same time, the largest part of patients with the disorder have symptoms of depression, anxiety, and other forms of psychological distress which are commonly regarded as potential activators of inflammatory processes.
Introduction
In their article “Proinflammatory cytokines and DHEA-S in women with fibromyalgia: Impact of psychological distress and menopausal status,” Sturgeon et al. (2014) evaluate the role of salient patient characteristics such as psychological stress and menopause on the elevation of inflammatory processes in women diagnosed with fibromyalgia to investigate the influence of psychological functioning on inflammation developing during the course of disorder’s progression.
Although fibromyalgia is not considered an inflammatory disorder and is primarily associated with widespread bodily pain, fatigue, and somatic symptoms, such as headaches, the evidence provided by the study demonstrates that inflammatory processes can be frequently observed in patients with this disease.
The mechanisms activating fibromyalgia are diverse – “central nervous system sensitization, sleep disturbance, affective dysregulation, and genetic abnormalities,” – while inflammation symptoms associated with the disorder are regarded as “contributory factors” to fibromyalgia (Sturgeon et al., 2014, p. 707). The inflammatory abnormalities are provoked by the immune response mediated through the release of proinflammatory cytokines activated by an inflammatory stimulus. It is observed that patients with fibromyalgia have high levels of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines that are commonly correlated with psychiatric characteristic including major depression and fatigue which are associated with cumulative effects of distress.
Sturgeon et al. (2014) state that psychological stress is common in fibromyalgia and over 65% percent of the diagnosed population have symptoms of depression, anxiety, and psychiatric distress. It is considered that stress and cytokine activity associated with it have an impact on the progression of inflammatory processes. It is identified that major depression and anxiety are correlated with the presence of such inflammatory markers like IL-6 TNF-α, IL-8, and DHEA-S which make significant contributions to inflammatory dysregulation. Based on this, the researchers regard psychological risk factors as crucial factors defining relations between fibromyalgia and increased cytokine levels.
The study sample comprised thirty-four postmenopausal and premenopausal women whose pain, depression, and anxiety anxiety-related indicators were measured through the administration of multiple standardized tests such as the Pain Anxiety Symptoms Scale 40-Item Version and the Pain Catastrophizing Scale. The researchers also sampled the participants’ TNF-α, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, and DHEA-S levels which then were analyzed considering demographic, biological, psychological, and cytokine variables.
Sturgeon et al. (2014) found out that IL-8 was correlated with depressive characteristics and pain-related anxiety in women with complete menopause, and IL-6 was linked to psychological stress in all study participants. The researchers emphasize the significance of studying inflammatory factors with consideration of patients’ aging milestones and psychological health to be able to understand their implications in fibromyalgia more thoroughly. Sturgeon et al. (2014) expected that “menopausal status would modify the salience of IL-6/IL-10 ratios in the context of psychological functioning” but the research findings did not support this hypothesis (p. 213).
At the same time, the researchers came to the conclusion that there may be dynamic relations between anxiety and stress-related DHEA-S and inflammatory responses. However, DHEA-S’s impacts are multilateral and complex to be simply characterized by correlations with cytokine levels and psychological symptoms. Therefore, further investigation of biological, demographic, and psychological stress variables is suggested.
References
Sturgeon, J., Darnall, B., Zwickey, H., Wood, L., Hanes, D., Zava, D., & Mackey, S. (2014). Proinflammatory cytokines and DHEA-S in women with fibromyalgia: Impact of psychological distress and menopausal status. Journal of Pain Research, 2014(7), 707-716. Web.
Recent research studies indicate that prenatal stress is associated with multiple negative health outcomes both in mother and an infant. The effects of early exposure to stress on the fetus are especially significant because it is observed that the excess level of maternal stress hormones provokes the adverse developmental outcomes: impaired physiological growth, shortened gestation period, cognitive and neurological underdevelopment (Monk, Spicer, & Champagne, 2012).
Stress usually occurs as a result of the external factors such as socioeconomic status, poor environmental condition, or problems in the relationships. Across the thirty states in the USA, over 70% of mothers encounter at least one stressful event throughout the pregnancy (Child health USA, 2013). It is observed that the excess level of prenatal stress more frequently occurs in the women from the minor ethnic groups, and the encountering with the stressful events caused by the social and economic factors is especially common among the American Indian mothers who report the experiences over six stressful occasions during pregnancy (Child health USA, 2013).
The adverse developmental outcomes provoked by exposure to stress may include severe impairments, psycho-emotional problems, and cognitive underdevelopment that may interfere with the social and academic performance of a child at the later stages of his/her development. Moreover, such adverse developmental outcomes may be regarded as new stress factors for the child’s family. Therefore, the intervention of prenatal stress exposure is important because it can help to avoid many social and medical complications.
The period of prenatal development may be regarded as a very subtle phase of the fetus’ growth. At this stage, the brain and its basic neurophysiologic functions commence forming, and any external influence and interference with the delicate and complex embryonic development may negatively affect the structure of the infant’s brain system. The prenatal exposure to stress has significant outcomes throughout the lifespan.
A growing body of research indicates that the maternal stress significantly affects the infant’s nervous system and shortens the period of gestation, and these negative consequences are considered the major risk factors for the occurrence of health conditions, emotional problems, and cognitive impairments in an exposed child (Humphreys, 2015). It is observed that along with the cognitive functions, the prenatal stress influences the formation of a child’s temperament which can be manifested in externalized behaviors, problems with anger retention, or an irrational reaction to challenges in life (Monk et al., 2012). Moreover, the problems may occur in the child’s inability to concentrate attention, or the delayed motor and cognitive development which may persist into adulthood (Monk et al., 2012).
The research of causes and effects of prenatal stress helped to achieve significant results in the elaboration of effective intervention practices that allow mothers to improve their life quality, reduce the level of stress hormones, and, as a result, minimize the negative developmental complications. Nowadays, the stress hormone cortisol is perceived as a main biological mechanism that increases the risks of the adverse health outcomes during pregnancy (Urizar & Munoz, 2011).
The investigation of the prenatal cortisol levels associated with the maternal anxiety, depression, or distress revealed the significant impacts on the mothers and their children. The research findings became a basis for the development of treatment practices such as cognitive-behavioral stress management aimed to decrease the level of cortisol in the pregnant women through their compliance with the standard behavioral strategies and performance of relaxation activities (Urizar & Munoz, 2011).
For a long time, the cognitive and behavioral treatment was commonly regarded as an effective method for the reduction of stress and depression symptoms in non-pregnant clinical and regular population. But recently, the researchers could evaluate the efficiency of intervention in the pregnant women as well – the findings of the research revealed that by following the professional instructions and minimizing the psychological influence of external and internal stressors the women demonstrated the significant decrease in the level of stress hormones (Urizar & Munoz, 2011). In this way, the infants’ exposure to stress can be minimized, and the negative developmental outcomes can be prevented.
Recommendations
According to the evidence provided through the evaluation of cortisol’s negative influences on the prenatal development, the effective intervention practice should be aimed at the decrease of the stress hormone level in a pregnant woman. The practices included in cognitive, and behavioral stress management can help women to create a healthier environment for their infants’ growth. The effective stress management practices include training for the development of sound social relationships and improvement of own psychological and emotional state through the “reinforcing positive activities” (Urizar & Munoz, 2011).
Throughout the course of the intervention, the pregnant women learn to recognize their maladaptive emotions and thoughts and attempt to correct them (Urizar & Munoz, 2011). It is also important to raise a woman’s awareness of potential available social support networks. Since many pregnant single women feel stressed because of to the lack of social and family support, the provision of the information about the institutions where they can address for help may significantly relieve the level of their distress.
The cognitive behavioral stress management strategies help women to lead healthier lifestyles and improve the quality of life for themselves and their children. Health education and provision of risk information increases the level of awareness and motivates for the independent practice of the learned activities and knowledge after the course completion. And it is possible to say that the sustainable autonomous engagement in the practice of stress management activities leads to the normalization of cortisol’s level and prevention of prenatal developmental abnormalities.
Urizar, G. G., & Muñoz, R. F. (2011). Impact of a prenatal cognitive-behavioral stress management intervention on salivary cortisol levels in low-income mothers and their infants. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 36(10), 1480-1494. Web.
Students, amidst the stress of college routine, appear to struggle with the inconsistency of a healthy diet and a college lifestyle. It is common among college students to take the only vegetable that is fried. Students attending college from the very beginning think that they cannot afford fruits and vegetables. I am not an exception. I don’t take any fruits and vegetables, since it is quite convenient to snatch a junior bacon cheeseburger. Lack of fruits and vegetables deprives the students of vitamins and minerals. Students are normally ignoring the warning that deficiency of proper nutrition affects their wellness. The immune system and brain function are some of the first things to be affected by nutritional deficiency. As a result during the examination time, everyone is stressed out and sick. (Hyde, 15)
In the case of normal stress, there is the possibility of stress hormones returning to normal. However, when stressful situations continue, stress can become chronic and it tends to influence our entire body specifically, our digestive and immune systems, cardiac functions, brain chemistry, and hormone balance. Chronic stress decreases levels of serotonin that can give rise to depression, anxiety, and carbohydrate cravings. Chronic stress also results in enhanced cravings for unhealthy and or fattening foods. To illustrate, foods in high salt, sugar, or fat, or foods that are high glycemic rather tend to favor rapid blood sugar fluctuations. (Stress: The Mind-Body Connection)
Stress, particularly chronic stress affects one’s heart, jumbles the brain, and incapacitates the immune system from functioning like the protective system to safeguard the body against infection and cancer. However, more significantly, even stressful thoughts can dissuade one’s tissue of oxygen and the necessary chemicals to maintain your hormones in balance. To our misfortune, we are compelled to be exposed to disaster training several times a day amidst our high-stress society. This results in sparking up the hormones to snatch high-octane fat and quick-burning glucose for energy to flow to our brain, heart, and muscles. This arouses the necessity for the storage of more fat. Undoubtedly, cortisol enhances fat storage in one place, the worst place of all being the belly. Women appear to be more vulnerable in handling stress. Studies have revealed that postmenopausal women have remarkably greater blood pressure reactivity than men or pre-menopausal women when under mental stress. The existence of mental stress decreases the blood flow to the heart. The researchers concluded that women being stressed out in their everyday lives or who felt tense, frustrated, sad, and lonely; were twice as prone to a heart attack in the subsequent hours. (Gillespie, 62)
Irrespective of reduction in coronary heart diseases — CHD mortality in the US in the past three decades, CHD kills nearly 500000 American women each year, with African American women having a higher existence of CHD vulnerability factors and a higher death rate at a younger age than white women. Stress packs a whollop throughout your whole body and can influence the ability to ovulate. This accompanies an increment in testosterone and estradiol resulting in precyctic follicles to enhance with a drop in ovulation. When sheep are confronted with a barking dog or insulin-induced hypoglycemia they generate acute increments in adrenocortical hormone – ACTH, cortisol, epinephrine, and norepinephrine that can only be turned off by high doses of estrogen. The Growth Hormone — GH and estrogen cause the movement of fat in the body. The cortisol and insulin store fat. The GH heightens during sleep. Sleep deprivation inhibits sufficient generation of GH and melatonin to maintain blood glucose levels in check, and lower one’s metabolism by reducing the thyroid hormone levels, enhance your blood sugar, and accelerate metabolic aging thereby acquiring fat. (Gillespie, 62)
It is an obvious reality to fact that people under stress may gain weight. The Georgetown researchers explained why people who are chronically stressed gain more weight than they should be dependent upon the calories they consume. The crucial factor in this process is a peptide neurotransmitter known as neuropeptide Y or NPY. NPY is generated under conditions of stress, as a by-product of the fight-or-fight reaction through the sympathetic nervous system. An animal is prone to have a higher level of NPY under the conditions of chronic stress. Presently, it is discovered that NPY acting outside the brain in adipose tissue varies the metabolism of the animal to enhance the storage of fat. (Stress and weight gain)
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a common mental condition affecting many people who have experienced traumatic events. This health problem is common among veterans in the United States. Patients experience far-reaching effects, including depression, drug abuse, homelessness, and suicidal thoughts. This paper addresses the gaps in St. Louis’s programs and policies and health problems veterans with PTSD face. It goes further to identify ways in which CHNs can minimize such challenges.
Gaps in Policies and Programs: Health Problems
In Missouri, veterans encounter various predicaments that make it impossible for them to lead high-quality lives. Currently, St. Louis City lacks adequate programs to meet the needs of veterans with PTSD. A study by Flowers, Cadavid, Galindo-Ciocon, Munoz, & Nash (2017) revealed that many victims had increased chances of becoming homeless. In St. Louis, there are specific programs implemented to address the needs of veterans with various mental conditions, such as PTSD.
For example, the St. Louis VA Healthcare System is a program aimed at treating and empowering suffering from this medical condition (U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, n.d.). The Missouri Patriot Paws is a non-profit organization that offers service dogs to first responders and veterans with PTSD. Its objectives include supporting veterans and training them to improve their self-esteem.
The Wounded Warrior Project is another program that focuses on the needs of veterans experiencing life-threatening conditions or mental disorders. A personalized model is designed whereby family members and caregivers of the identified patient collaborate to record positive health results (Flowers et al., 2017). Additionally, St. Louis City has PTSD Clinical Teams that equip affected veterans with appropriate skills to tackle the symptoms of PTSD.
Unfortunately, the implemented policies have failed to meet the needs of different veterans, such as the Welcome Back Veterans (WBV), the Veterans Health Administration (VHA), and the Military Health System. Consequently, most of these victims encounter numerous health problems. Many veterans with PTSD in St. Louis also lack adequate counseling, medical care, and health resources (U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, n.d.). They are usually unable to access high-quality therapy and drugs. The illnesses associated with PTSD continue to impact their lives negatively. Most of these people are at risk of becoming jobless and homeless.
Role of Community Health Nurses
Community Health Nurses (CHNs) in this city can apply different strategies to address the above gaps in programs and policies. Firstly, they should encourage all veterans and their relatives to alter their personal attitudes and embrace the power of counseling. This approach is essential since many victims fail to acknowledge that they have mental problems (American Public Health Association, 2014). Secondly, CHNs can introduce superior initiatives to train and empower veterans with PTSD. Such services will encourage them to re-pattern their lives and overcome their unique problems.
Thirdly, CHNs can apply their competencies in mental health screening and assessment to identify veterans with PTSD and provide sustainable care. Fourthly, they can work in nursing homes and other organizations to provide appropriate medical attention to veterans with mental illnesses. Fifthly, CHNs can volunteer with specific institutions and programs to offer adequate care to all patients (Flowers et al., 2017). Finally, CHNs should engage in policy formulation agenda to propose superior initiatives that will meet the demands of all veterans.
Conclusion
The above discussion has indicated that St. Louis has several policies and programs aimed at meeting the needs of veterans with PTSD. Unfortunately, such initiatives cannot empower all potential beneficiaries or transform their health experiences. CHNs should, therefore, work tirelessly to identify the demands of this at-risk population and implement evidence-based strategies to address them.
Flowers, M., Cadavid, M., Galindo-Ciocon, D., Munoz, A. P., & Nash, D. (2017). Impact of veteran-centric prepared nurses on veteran outcomes. International Journal Nursing, 4(1), 13-18. Web.
When performing this technique, a person breathes deeply so that the abdomen becomes expanded. According to Varvogli and Darviri, such manipulation of breath results in a decreased heart rate, blood pressure, and oxygen consumption. It is suggested that voluntary diaphragmic breathing allows resetting the autonomous nervous system through “stretch-induced inhibitory signals” (Varvogli and Darviri). This technique is very easy to implement at any time of the day and in any location. One should commence diaphragmic breathing after noticing some symptoms of stress and tension or for their prevention.
Transcendental Meditation
This yogic technique requires a person to repeat a mantra every day while sitting with eyes closed for about twenty minutes. When doing so, one is expected to increase self-awareness by paying more attention to inner processes occurring in the body and mind. It is observed that a regular practice of transcendental meditation improves brain functioning and electrophysiologic characteristics, making a meditator more resilient to stress (Varvogli and Darviri). The completion of a meditation session each morning allows a person to become more alert to stressors they may be exposed to during the day.
Relaxation Response
The technique targets the fight-or-flight body response to stress by repeating a word or a sound that would help decrease the sense of danger. It has similar effects as transcendental meditation and should also be practiced for about ten-twenty minutes a day. It may be recommended to perform this technique in the morning or in the evening before going to bed for better sleep.
Autogenic Training
The technique can be regarded as self-hypnosis through the repetition of phrases about the feeling of heaviness and warmth in different body parts. By commanding the body to relax in this way, it becomes possible to reduce anxiety and achieve an overall positive effect on the autonomous nervous system (Varvogli and Darviri). One may perform autogenic training for approximately ten minutes when the first symptoms of tension appear.
Progressive Muscle Relaxation
The technique requires a person to tense and relax muscles voluntarily. Since muscle tension is involved in the body’s response to stress, the ability to relax muscles helps to decrease straining at the physical level. Additionally, by paying attention to body sensations, an individual will attain a favorable mental effect. It is valid to say that this technique can be particularly effective when practiced at the end of the day to prepare the body for sleep.
Our basic understanding of stress is that of a situation that goes far beyond a person’s realm of control. In the case of a woman, her inability to control certain marital situations causes her undue stress which manifests in various ways. It is these very manifestations and their effects on the health of a woman, in terms of heart risks and breast cancer survival, that shall be discussed in as great detail as possible within this paper. The term stress, is defined by Dr. Larry Alan Nadig in his online article “Stress: A Health And Relationship Killer” as the failure of a person to balance the demands of his life with his capabilities. In other words:
Stress is an internal process that occurs when a person is faced with a demand that is perceived to exceed the resources available to effectively respond to it, and where failure to effectively deal with the demand has important undesirable consequences. (Nadig, “Stress: A Health And Relationship Killer, par. 2)
Stress is already a common part of our daily lives. We live each day faced with the pressure of having to make various decisions that affect the way we conduct our lives and daily business. This is an illness that is highly complicated and just barely understood by medical science. It is a symptom of the way our lives have become so very hectic and choice-driven in the 21st century. Men, women, and children are constantly subjected to either mental, emotional, or physical stress because, as human beings, we are blessed with the ability to adjust and change our personalities and actions depending upon the needs and situations that we constantly find ourselves in. Since these changes are constant, we find that we are under constant stress to adapt our way of life and thinking to better suit the various situations that we constantly find ourselves existing in.
These factors are known as stressors. Ordinary folk know it as Strain and can be considered a negative effect of stress. Usually, these strains are found within the circle of activity that we conduct our lives in. To begin with, as a child, we were constantly faced with the stress of needing to make friends and be accepted by our peers. While in school, we drove ourselves to the limits of our stress capability by finding a way to balance school with our other social activities. As adults, the strain then came from having to perform well at the job where we earn our income in exchange for a little recognition, or perhaps, even a promotion, from the company. Once we find ourselves married, marital stress is added to the mix as both the husband and the wife find themselves embroiled in an almost daily battle to discover that middle ground wherein both parties can agree on something without having to duke it out with either arguments or physical action. Parents face the stress of needing to prove to the world that they can raise a child properly while continuing to have a career for themselves. All of these stress-related scenarios lead to various health problems for the person. These health problems, although medically diagnosed with a root cause, usually have an underlying psychological reason for existing. It is that psychological reason that is caused by the stress factor.
These negative effects manifest in various physical and mental activities of the person. In fact, there is even a term for this health risk. Steve Connor wrote in his article titled “ Marital Stress Can Cause Heart Disease” that the illness is known as Metabolic Syndrome and is defined by experts as:
… a range of risk factors that can lead to heart disease, stroke and diabetes. (Connor, Marital Stress Can Cause Heart Disease, par. 1)
Recent studies have shown that heart disease runs rampant among women who exist in a stress-filled relationship. This is because a woman has the tendency to overanalyze the various situations she finds herself mired in.There are actually a number of factors that contribute to the occurrence of heart disease amongst women in a stressful married relationship. Some of those factors include arguments, hostility, and conflict, and result in the female becoming depressed while she is in the relationship.
Stress has also been known to cause cancer in some female patients. The most common kind of stress-related cancer is Breast Cancer. I can vouch for this personally because I had an aunt whose problematic marriage caused her undue stress and led to her constant battle to survive breast cancer in the process. She had married a man 24 years her junior after spent most of her life raising her 3 daughters alone as a widow. After her children had settled into their own lives, she decided it was time to give herself a chance. Remarrying was the way she thought she could start over with her life.
Unfortunately, the man she married was selfish and did not understand the meaning of compromise. So he bossed her around at every chance he got and my aunt, owing to the age gap, clearly always let him have his way in order to make him happy. What we did not realize at the time however was that she was suffering from tremendous stress in the relationship. Stress manifested itself one day when she was diagnosed with Stage 3 Breast Cancer. She managed to beat the cancer over time. Her husband also changed his ways a little and lessened the stress that she was often subjected to. But over the time covering her recovery process, he found himself reverting to his old ways. Thus returning the stress that caused the cancer in the first place.
Marital Stress has negative effects upon women who are recovering from serious illnesses such as breast cancer. These stressful marriages take their toll on the cancer patient and cause her to be less physically active and show more signs of complications when compared to those breast cancer patients in healthier marriages. Dr. Rick Nauert explained in his article “ Marital Discord Impacts Breast Cancer Survival” that married women, or women in general who have been diagnosed with breast cancer and/or have undergone treatment but exist in stressful relationships show slower signs of recovery than their counterparts involved in healthy relationships. He goes on to further illustrate his point by saying that:
Researchers found that, over five years, patients in distressed marriages had higher levels of stress, less physical activity, slower recovery and more symptoms and signs of illness than did similar patients who reported good marriages.
Everyday stress takes its toll on a woman’s body physically by activating the sympathetic nervous system and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis which, in the long run, causes the activation and existence of the various health problems due to stress-related illnesses found in the women of today. The information as indicated in the preceding pages merely scrapes the tip of the iceberg in terms of presenting the causes and effects of a stressful relationship on the health of the modern woman. These studies have made it highly obvious that stressful relationships are hazardous to any woman’s health and should therefore be avoided or minimized at all costs.
Doctors in some instances overlook the element of the client’s socio-cultural factors in assessing, evaluating, interpreting, and diagnosing the client’s symptoms. Many psychologists opt to use biomedical models when giving a final diagnosis of symptoms. This is because biomedical perspectives in understanding health issues have received great publicity in the recent past probably due to the practical aspect of it. However, integrating socio-cultural factors in diagnosing a client’s symptoms is very important. Socio-cultural models of psychology involve establishing socio-cultural influences that may have contributed to a given condition. According to Uskul and Sherman (2009), to develop a significant discernment of health and illnesses, we need to view the issue from both theoretical and applied perspectives. The theoretical point of view incorporates intense research to understand medicine in a better way. On the other hand, from the applied standpoint, understanding health incorporates the element of socio-cultural factors that contribute to health.
Health transcends physiology and incorporates other factors like environment and culture. Furthermore, some diseases are prevalent in some cultural settings and they seem to be non-existent in others. For instance, anorexia is rife in developed western settings while it does not seem to be a problem in African settings (Uskul and Sherman, 2009). Therefore, understanding the underlying socio-cultural factors in relation to these disorders makes health provision more efficient. Including these socio-cultural factors in the empirical work fosters cognition in health issues and determining cultural deviations in health-tied experiences. The big question remains; how does understanding and incorporating socio-cultural and stress models in diagnosis relevant? How relevant is this integration in the concerted efforts to give a better diagnosis? Well, there is solid proof through research work to substantiate the argument that socio-cultural factors contribute largely to the wellbeing of an individual as discussed next.
In research commissioned and funded by the Russell Sage Foundation of New York, researchers established that culture influences one’s health and wellbeing greatly (Schlesinger, 1968, p. 247). Culture functions as an insidious but systematic determinant regarding how people comprehend the world environing them. According to Gochman (1988), socio-cultural factors shape beliefs concerning the cause of sickness and the suitable forms of treatment (p. 249). Therefore, it is important to consider the client’s socio-cultural context in assessing, evaluating, and diagnosing symptoms. Cultural factors determine largely whether a patient is sensitive to the methods used to evaluate symptoms and this contributes largely to whether a patient will seek medical care or not (Gochman, 1988, p. 249).
The type of treatment chosen, the expected emotional expression, and the vehemence placed on decision-making, whether individual or collective, are part of cultural influences. Moreover, management of given sicknesses and the perceived outcome of the management procedure is a cultural phenomenon. Depending on what people believe in as defined by their cultures, they will respond differently to a given situation. The process of assessing and evaluating of client’s symptoms involves engaging the client in a talk to reveal more about the condition. A given socio-cultural setting may not embrace the issue of talking about some conditions openly. The doctor may have a difficult time assessing the patient due to a lack of information. However, with good knowledge of socio-cultural information about the client, it becomes easy to assess the patient.
It is evident that people have cultural guides that make them realize when regarded as sick, the causes of the sickness, the appropriate remedies, and how society expects them to behave in such situations. However, despite the strong link between socio-cultural factors and one’s wellbeing, it is important to establish whether these factors play any significant role in the expression of symptoms that may be useful in diagnosis. Different studies have shown that the readiness of an individual to show a given condition as a symptom depends on, and varies with socio-cultural settings (Gochman, 1988, p. 250). For instance, the expression of pain as a symptom differs from culture to culture depending on attitudes towards pain and the meaning attached to it. Different socio-cultural settings respond to pain differently depending on their behaviors and definition of pain. Therefore, in diagnosing a client, it is recommendable to learn his or her socio-cultural setting and establish their attitudes towards the same.
The other important aspect of socio-cultural influences on health is how individuals are willing to confer with a doctor and the subsequent utilization of healthcare facilities available. According to Gochman (1988), come critical aspects concerning a given sickness depend mostly on socio-cultural subsets (p. 250). These aspects include knowledge of a given sickness and its cure or prevention, medical incredulity, response to sicknesses. These aspects differ from culture to culture. Research indicates that within any given culture, there are distinct constructs of diseases and socio-cultural conventions in seeking help. All these factors assert the need to incorporate one’s socio-cultural information in the diagnosis of a particular ailment. Good knowledge of one’s socio-cultural setting provides the doctor with ample information to evaluate a patient. What do the stress models of psychology present on the importance of evaluating a client’s socio-cultural context in diagnosis?
The stress model of psychology adds more weight in considering the client’s socio-cultural context in diagnosis. Carpi (2006) concurs that the consequences of stress are more profound than people tend to think. Stress is not something that grips somebody and leaves passively with time. It permeates the core of one’s being changing the way he or she thinks, speak, feel or respond to particular issues. Stress is a disease. People respond to stress in a similar manner by which they respond to allergies (Carpi, 2006). Once stress occurs, the body undergoes a series of chemical reactions that may lead to sickness. It is difficult to divorce stress from common ailments and sicknesses. Some diseases like schizophrenia have a strong link with stress. This is a type of mental disease that arises when an individual losses touch with reality (Chamorro-Premuzic, 1996, p. 56). According to Carpi (2006), stress triggers critical areas of the brain like areas responsible for immune response. This creates a strong link between stress and diseases. Understanding and incorporating stress models in diagnosis thus becomes important in evaluating and assessing a patient.
The commonly known model is the ‘diathesis stress model’. According to Bennett (2006), diathesis stress model indicates that there is a predisposition which upon interaction with environmental factors, cause psychological disorders. In this model, the degree of the predisposing factors differs from person to the other. These predisposing factors are not sufficient to cause illnesses alone. Nemade, Reiss and Dombeck 92007), insists that other factors like psychological or environmental nature have to work with these predisposing factors to cause sickness. Stress and depression may act as the psychological factors in this context. Therefore, proper knowledge on one’s environment and the potential predisposing factors is important conclusive assessment, evaluation and diagnosis. This is because a doctor will be working on pinpointed areas rather than working on broad information regarding the patient.
As aforementioned, stress thus becomes a sickness. For instance, a person could experience stressful conditions like job loss and respond to it with anger and resentment instead of adopting healthy problem solving strategy. Despite the fact that this reaction maybe conscious or unconscious, there will be a maintained psychological arousal, that may lead to anxiety disorder. In diagnosing such illnesses, the empirical data from biomedical studies may not be sufficient to give sufficient diagnosis. A thorough knowledge of stress model of psychology and incorporation of the same in diagnosis, gives better results.
From the above discussion, it is evident that socio-cultural context of a client plays a crucial role in diagnosing a given disease. The evidence from both socio-cultural and stress models of psychology adds more weight on the importance of considering these aspects in the course of diagnosis. It is evident that health issues transcend physiology. Socio-cultural factors play a central role in determining the course taken in overcoming a given sickness. Research indicates that in every socio-cultural setting, there is a way by which individuals understand certain diseases. There is also enough evidence to conclude that socio-cultural factors affect one’s well-being. Moreover, some diseases are prevalent in some socio-cultural settings and not in others. This tells us that it is important to integrate one’s socio-cultural background in diagnosis. Integrating the socio-cultural background of a patient in diagnosis narrows the whole issue to specific areas handling them from the roots. Ignoring socio-cultural context of a client would be tantamount to addressing the face value of a problem.
Reference
Bennett, P. (2006). Abnormal and Clinical Psychology: An Introductory Textbook.
Carpi, J. (2006). Stress: It’s Worse Than You Think. Web.
Chamorro-Premuzic, T. (1996). Personality and Individual Differences.Web.
Gochman, S. (1988). Health Behavior: Emerging Research Perspectives. Web.
Nemade, R. Reiss, N. & Dombeck, M. (2007). Current Understandings of Major Depression – Diathesis-Stress Model. Web.
Schlesinger, B. (1968). Socio-cultural Factors in Health and Illness: A Selected Review of the Literature. Web.
Uskul, A. & Sherman, D. (2009). Culture and Health Psychology: Insights from a Socio-Cultural Perspective. Web.
The client is a female, 45 years old with a child. She suffered two road accidents with no major physical traumas. The first accident happened years ago and claimed the life of her friend. The client went through a therapy that helped her cope with the trauma and live on. The second car crash was more recent but happened a month ago. That was possibly a trigger event that brought back the memories of the major one. The client claims that issues began 3 weeks ago while the major accident, which causes problems, happened several years ago. That allows to say that this specific PTSD has a delayed expression. As for the PTSD itself, the client meets criterion A because she reported car accident involving death of the other passenger. She meets criterion B because all five intrusion symptoms are reported. Criterion C is met because the client mentioned not feeling good about driving. Criterion D is met because the client said she feels “horrible things about herself” and feels detached from her husband. The client meets criterion E because the client reported exhibiting flashes of anger.
The client is working at school, has a normal relationship with sister and adult son. Health and weight problems are absent.
The client does not seem to exhibit enough symptoms to definitely match any personality disorder. She reports absence of desire to talk to anybody or being talked to for 3 weeks, which may suggest schizoid personality disorder, but there are no signs of a restricted range of emotions. Same symptom may also match avoidant personality disorder but there is no report on reacting harshly to critique.
The Client’s health condition based on self-reported data does not arouse suspicion of any medical condition. Weight and eating problems are absent which speaks further to normal medical condition.
Client Strengths:
The client is a well-educated woman, which may give her the power to remain adequate in most situations.
Despite having lived through two episodes of car crash and lose a friend she managed to keep adequate social connections so far, which speaks to her mental resilience.
Being a churchgoer seems to benefit the client making her not abandoning the hope.
The client acknowledges the problem and wishes to resolve it to restore mental health.
Losing a person dear to her, she seems to begin caring more about lives of other people saying that she does not want to endanger other people’s lives.
She does not hold back her emotions and talks to her sister in seeking comfort.
The client does not let her mental problems affect her health condition through unhealthy eating
She keeps good relationships with her son, despite he is a distance away.
This case is a vivid example of PTSD. Problems at work and in the family are not rare in people with such conditions. There are possible indications of insomnia disorder (G47.00) with comorbid nightmare disorder during sleep onset (F51.5) that are sometimes associated with PTSD cases (APA, 2013). The client reported trouble going to sleep. As for insomnia disorder, she meets criterion A, because the client complained about her sleeping trouble. She also meets criterion E, because she has an opportunity to sleep. The client meets criterion G, as she currently does not receive any medications nor has a history of receiving them. As for nightmare disorder, the client reported seeing nightmares of her accident while being asleep. She meets criteria A, and D because she receives no medications and the dreams reoccur in the multiple sleeping episodes. However, further research is needed to confirm the diagnoses.
Reference
American Psychiatric Association [APA]. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. Arlington, TX: American Psychiatric Publishing.
Within the framework of the reviewed case, one of the key needs of the soldier is to be able to cope with anger and irritation. He was rather stressed because of the situation that occurred, and this led to complete discontentment. According to the presented information, he needs professional help and will not accept the existing state of affairs. When it comes to challenges, the soldier was exposed to a much lower level of happiness and demoralization due to the displeasing outcomes of his visit to Iraq (BenningTV, 2012). It may be concluded that he was on the verge of a nervous breakdown and could not be able to cope with his PTSD. Another challenge that was mentioned by him throughout the discussion was the fact that he did not want to become a copy of his alcoholic father. One of the strengths that were discussed in the case was the soldier’s attitude toward his colleagues and duty. He believed that receiving quality care is important and such assertiveness should positively affect his health outcomes. Therefore, an intervention intended to deal with his PTSD should be developed, and several recommendations regarding his treatment should be disclosed.
Social Work Intervention
First of all, we have to start with the rationale for the intervention and confirm the necessity to treat the soldier’s PTSD. The most significant reasons for this intervention revolve around the societal and economic issues associated with this disorder. Practical evidence shows that veterans’ treatment costs more than $1.5 billion per year (Daley & Munson, 2013). Therefore, veterans with PTSD are much more expensive in terms of health care than their associates without the disorder. The majority of veterans suffering from PTSD are receiving different compensations so it is important to attempt to develop an intervention that will not be as expensive as its predecessors. Within the framework of the current paper, it is proposed to implement a community-based health intervention. This supposition is based on previous research in the area and Rodriquez’s special needs. It is proposed to implement an evidence-based treatment to reach an adequate level of dissemination of non-pharmacological treatment and psychotherapy (Gitterman, 2014).
It is proposed to treat Rodriquez within a community-based setting because it will allow the specialists to utilize their primary care practices. In addition to this, the healthcare facility will assist Rodriquez in restoring his behavioral health and getting rid of the existing trauma. To follow these requirements, the healthcare facility will have to work in association with the PTSD Consultation Program (Daley & Munson, 2013). Such an approach will positively affect Rodriquez’s willingness to deal with his anger, and the practitioners will be able to offer him special training and health consultations. As a soldier with PTSD, Rodriquez will be exposed to several complications associated with behavioral patterns, but health care specialists will be ready to satisfy his psychological and emotional needs to decrease the possibility of recidivism (Daley & Munson, 2013). Specifically, the practitioner wants to perform several live presentations for Rodriquez. This educational process is expected to improve PTSD outcomes in the patient and become a useful source of knowledge regarding the disorder. It is advised to use pharmacological interventions only in the case if the soldier’s health deteriorates.