Category: Stress

Introduction

Since the medieval days, western philosophers have often debated the nature of happiness and the definition of a good life (Collier, Frances, & Haliburton, 2015). Two of the most celebrated philosophers who have helped to expound on these issues are Immanuel Kant and John Stuart Mill. Socrates is another notable philosopher who has provided unique views about the good life. His works are widespread because he has provided the background for the development of these views by “newer” philosophers, such as Kant and Mill, who came after him. Indeed, Kant and Mill’s works seem to borrow from the principles of Socrates and other philosophers about ethics, morality, and good life. Although the timelines of their works seem to overlap, they share different views about happiness and the good life. This paper explores their different visions of life, through a critical analysis of their arguments about the morality and ethics of human happiness. In the context of this paper, the phrase “the good life” and the concept of happiness are used synonymously.

This paper is divided into eight sections. The first one outlines what Kant and Mill say about the vision of the good life. The second and third sections of this paper compare and contrast both visions to find out the areas of commonality and differences in both. From this review, the fourth section of the paper outlines the more compelling view, which is that Kant’s vision of a good life is more superior to Mill’s vision of the same. The subsequent section of our analysis delves deeper into this position by comparing the relevance and importance of intention vs. consequence of action. This analysis sets the stage for the sixth and seventh sections of the essay, which explore how Mill and Kant’s philosophies are useful to modern societies and the treatment of patients suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The last section of the paper is the conclusion section, which summarizes the main points of the study and reinforces the main arguments of the paper.

What do the Philosophers say about Good Life?

The Good Life According to Socrates

Socrates introduced the concept of the “examined life,” as a hallmark of his conception of the good life. He argued that through self-examination, people could find out “things” about themselves that would enable them to live a good life (Young, 2014). Stated differently, he proposed that self-examination would yield positive outcomes that would enable people to live a good life (Collier et al., 2015). In other words, he argued that the whole purpose of self-examination is to understand oneself and rebalance life in a way that would yield a “superior” quality of life. Based on this analogy, Socrates emphasized the importance of self-awareness as a prerequisite to the enjoyment of the good life. Broadly, this view demonstrates that the reward for self-examination is a good life.

The Good Life According to Kant

Kant’s description of the good life is non-technical because he points out that the good life is achievable by getting what one wants. Moran (2012) provides a more accurate definition of Kant’s vision of happiness by saying the good life is a product of continuous wellbeing and the enjoyment of life. Stated differently, Kant suggested that the good life is achieved through a complete satisfaction with one’s condition (Collier et al., 2015). Based on these definitions, his vision of happiness is synonymous with a man’s preservation and welfare because his definition of happiness is represented by a complete sense of satisfaction with one’s life and inclinations. In an article titled, “The Critique of Practical Reason,” Kant further delves into his vision of what constitutes the good life by saying “it is the state of a rational being in the world in the whole of whose existence everything goes according to his wish and will” (Hughes, 2014, p. 64). Here, it is critical to point out that Kant outlined a significant difference between happiness and pleasure. He said the good life is not associated with the joyous feeling of living a moral life; instead, it is defined by getting what somebody wants (Moran, 2012). Warner Wick, an independent philosopher, agrees with this view by saying that the good life is only achieved when people pursue their interests or get what they want (Hughes, 2014).

The Good Life According to Mill

John Stuart Mill says the good life is achievable if pleasure is maximized through the avoidance of pain (Young, 2014). In other words, he says the good life is achieved if there is freedom from pain. His arguments are based on a simple metric that gauges the good life on a continuum of pleasure and pain. Therefore, the good life is achievable if people are inclined towards pleasure and not towards pain. His argument is based on the principle that all that is desired and that creates a good life is appealing because of the pleasure it gives (Young, 2014). Using the principle of the greatest happiness, Mill says that people should seek the greatest enjoyment of life (through pain avoidance) to enjoy the good life (Collier et al., 2015). This view is also evident in his utilitarian ideology, which recognizes the power of sacrifice for the greater enjoyment of “the whole.” According to him, the greatest enjoyment of life would be possible if everyone is involved in the process (Young, 2014). Stated differently, Mill does not believe that the greatest enjoyment of life can be achieved through the happiness of an individual; everyone needs to be involved, or, at least, many people need to experience happiness for the good life to exist.

How are the two Visions Alike?

Although there are significant differences between Kant and Mill’s visions of the good life, notably, their views overlap on one key area of commonality – both philosophers agree that the good life could be achieved by pursuing pleasure. The degree of this pleasure is the only area of difference emerging in both visions (Kant says the good life could be realized through the pursuit of individual pleasure, while Mill says the vision is achieved through the pursuit of collective pleasure). Nonetheless, both philosophers agree that the pursuit of pleasure leads to satisfaction with a person’s life and hence the good life.

How different are the Two Visions?

Kant’s vision of the good life stems from his utilitarian view of ethics, which focuses on the moral law of duty (Hughes, 2014). In other words, he looks at the reason for doing something as the basis for happiness and a good life. Mill uses a different metric for defining happiness. He says that happiness is realized when there is the least suffering among people (Collier et al., 2015). He transfers this reasoning to his explanation of morality because he says that morality is achieved if there is a balance between happiness and suffering (Young, 2014). Here, he separates individuals from the concept of happiness by saying that the latter could be achieved even if a person is not involved in the general pursuit of happiness. In other words, he believes that happiness could be achieved if the majority population feels it (regardless of whether the minority experience it, or not).

This is a significant point of departure from Kant’s vision because the latter is more individualistic, in the sense that it focuses on the fulfillment of individual desires, as opposed to communal happiness, as a basis for the good life. Kant’s vision of happiness and the good life fundamentally differs from that of Mill because it is not based on morality. Comparatively, Mill bases his definition of happiness and the good life on morality. Stated differently, Kant says one person may not necessarily feel happy by doing what is moral (Moran, 2012). Mill believes otherwise because he says that the good life is only achievable if morality prevails, or a greater number of people feel pleasure, as opposed to pain.

Who has the more Convincing Vision of the Good Life?

Through our analysis of both Kant and Mill’s vision of the good life, we find that both philosophers have fundamentally different bases for defining what the good life entails. However, I believe that Kant has a more convincing vision of the good life because, by its definition alone, the good life is a personal experience, which one lives by engaging in activities that he/she considers worthwhile. I believe that this is mostly an individual endeavor. Therefore, the “greater good” principle outlined by Mill fails to hold credence because people do not often engage in the same types of activities, or consider similar activities to be worthwhile. If we were to further analyze Mill’s argument in a broader (universal) sense, we would find his arguments flawed in the sense that, what causes suffering, or pleasure, tends to change across cultures, events, places, and timelines. In other words, different things bring happiness to different people, cultures, countries, and even regions. Indeed, even in one family, it is difficult to find all members interested in doing the same things. Using this example alone, I find it hard to believe that the happiness of most people in a family should amount to happiness for the entire family. Comparatively, if we were to allow everyone in the family to pursue their versions of happiness, we are more likely to realize a goal where everyone is happy or is living the good life, in their way. In this regard, I believe that the “generalization” of the concept of the good life is the greatest weakness of Mill’s vision. However, the weakness in my argument is hinged on the fact that individual pursuit of happiness could infringe on other’s happiness and lead to the failure to realize the vision of the good life.

What is more important, Intention or Consequences of our Actions?

The balance between intention and consequences of action has subtly influenced how Mill and Kant define the good life. According to Kant, the intention is more important than consequences; however, according to Mill, the consequence is more important than intention (Collier et al., 2015). The differences in their views stem from their visions and understanding of morality. The intention is mostly denoted by a person’s goodwill, while a consequence is denoted by the effect that such intentions could have on society. Stated differently, when looking at the intention, we are examining the morality and ethics of our actions. I believe when evaluating the importance of intention and consequences, it is important to consider the context of analysis because this would be the guiding principle of our evaluation. The context of the good life provides us with one such focus because it directs us to where the source of happiness lies.

Similarly, I believe that intention is more important than the consequences of action because the latter is often subject to different factors. Comparatively, the intention is often unwavering and more common among different groups of people, compared to the consequences of an action. For example, we find that the will to “no harm” is common among many societies. However, how to achieve this goal varies across them. Furthermore, what may work well in one context may fail to work in another. Based on this example, I believe that people should be much more focused on intention, as opposed to the consequences of an action. This view is close to the vision of Kant and Socrates about the good life because it focuses on people’s desires as a source of happiness, as opposed to what society expects of them, or what most people deem ethical and moral.

How can these Findings Apply to Modern Society?

Modern society is different from past societies because new complexities and forces define it. For example, globalization is a real thing today and it influences different aspects of our social, political, and economic lives, in ways never thought before. Similarly, many factors are influencing the vision of different societies about the good life. For example, some previously conservative societies in Asia are today adopting the western lifestyle of consumerism and are using it as a measure of the good life. The same is true in Eastern Europe, which was mainly communist. Generally, there is a sense of commonality developing across different societies regarding the ideals of life that similarly influence our vision of the good life.

Buoyed by an influx of ideas from different parts of the world, modern society is increasingly finding itself spoilt by an ever-increasing number of options and a cocktail of ideas about life. These influences have affected our perceptions and ideas regarding the good life. Kant and Mill’s visions of the good life could be useful in providing clarity to a world characterized by increased options and a high influx of information about almost anything. Socrates’ vision of the good life also comes into sharp focus in this respect because he outlines the balance many people face between convenient conventionality and the truth that could come from self-examination. What we choose, between these two polar ends, would determine whether to consider the lives we live as philosophically “good,” or true to our identities.

How can these Findings Apply to People Suffering from PTSD?

People with PTSD are likely to experience depression, low self-esteem, and more likely to have suicidal thoughts compared to the general populace. Kant and Mill’s visions of the good life apply to this problem because they outline different thought processes that victims could use to get out of the quagmire. Furthermore, their philosophies could help improve the response and treatment of PTSD in psychology and therapy treatments. To have a better understanding of Kant’s vision of the subject matter, we base our analysis on his view of suicide. According to him, suicide is unacceptable and immoral because human beings have a duty to stay alive (Moran, 2012). Thus, he believes that the utmost duty human beings have in the world is to take care of themselves, before performing any other duty. The failure to do so would be disastrous because it would mean that a person would not be able to perform other duties required of him or her.

In the context of PTSD treatment, we find this analogy useful because it implies that suicide is not an option out of the problem and instead of wishing it away, or “putting an end to the misery” through death, victims of PTSD should seek treatment, as a prerequisite for their happiness. Based on these arguments, we find that Kant espouses two main arguments relating to PTSD. One is that victims of PTSD have to perform their duty, which is to get better, so long as they are alive. The second one is that they should try to live as long as possible (Moran, 2012). All these arguments encourage victims of PTSD to seek help because it is their moral duty to take care of themselves and their duty to stay alive.

Mill has a slightly different view of human suffering because his arguments are often informed by the difference between individual actions and collective actions. PTSD is mostly an individualized problem and affects the realization of the good life, as described in our text. If we were to apply the principles of Mill to this problem, we find that he justifies the actions that an individual would take when suffering from PTSD, regardless of whether such actions cause a greater sense of happiness or pleasure to others. Therefore, if PTSD causes greater harm to the people around the affected person, it would be prudent to address it. Mill gives no specifics to the kind of actions that victims could take to get better because he argues that people have a right to take their own life or be punished for causing harm to others (Young, 2014). This view is profound in his assessment of the “harm principle.” Unlike Kant, Mill is open to allowing people to harm themselves because it is their right to do so. However, he clarifies that this position does not mean that it is morally right to do so.

Conclusion

In this essay, I have explored the views of Socrates, Kant, and Mill regarding the good life. More importantly, I narrowed down on the views of two philosophers – Kant and Mill and explained the areas of similarity and differences regarding their visions on the same. Kant’s vision of the good life emerged as the superior view because it recognizes the concept of individualism, which characterizes most societies. In my view, Mill’s vision is relatively flawed because it generalizes people’s desires and perceptions of the good life. However, the weakness in my argument is hinged on the fact that individual pursuit of happiness could infringe on other’s happiness and lead to the failure to realize the vision of the good life. Regardless of these differences, we find that the good life is mostly described by engaging in activities that the concerned parties would deem worthwhile. These activities typically require a will to exercise human excellence. Nonetheless, it is important to acknowledge that developing, or exercising, the virtues espoused by Kant and Mill is by no means living the good life, in the simplistic sense of the phrase; instead, it is a way of doing so.

Reference List

Collier, C., Frances, R., & Haliburton, C. (2015). Bioethics in Canada: A philosophical introduction. Toronto, CA: Canadian Scholars’ Press.

Hughes, J. (2014). The role of happiness in Kant’s ethics. Aporia 14(1), 61-70.

Moran, K. (2012). Community and progress in Kant’s moral philosophy. New York, NY: CUA Press.

Young, G. (2014). Ethics in the virtual world: The morality and psychology of gaming. London, UK: Routledge.

The government’s lack of ability to balance its budget is fiscal stress. It creates a state of disparity in provisions of government services and the inability to cater for such services.

According to Mouritzen, fiscal stress creates a situation in which to “balance the budget, a government must increase taxes, reduce real expenditures or engage in some combination of the two” (Mouritzen, 1992). Schick noted that the government also experiences scarcity of resources in its budgeting (Schick, 1980).

This is because the public needs several services, but their willingness to pay for such services are low. Consequently, fiscal stress is always present in budgets of governments. However, it is the fluctuation of such resources in government’s budgets that differs among governments.

Levine noted that states and local governments should be in charge of balancing their budgets on an annual term. According to Levine, responsibilities of balancing budgets at the local levels make symptoms of fiscal stress identifiable at local government levels than at the federal government level (Levine, 1980).

The state government and local authorities may use different services they provide to the public to measure the level of fiscal stress. They look at the imbalances that occur when providing services and receiving funds for such services.

In addition, the need to spend and resources available do not match in most cases. For instance, the State of Michigan may experience difficulties in provisions of public facilities to its rising population.

A number of studies have emerged to address challenges which result from difficulties in measuring local government fiscal situations (Kloha, Weissert and Kleine, 2005).

As a result, studies base fiscal stress indicators on decisions of the local government and underlying economic situations, which cause fiscal crisis (Skidmore and Scorsone, 2009).

Causes of Fiscal Stress in the States

The state can experience both “short-term (transitory economic shock) and long-term (structural budget imbalance) fiscal stress” (Congressional Budget Office, 2010). These conditions may create a gap between the projected revenues and expenditures.

Transitory Economic Shocks

When economic situations are weak, the local government reduces its tax revenues and the state government reduces aid. There is an increase in demands for public services and loss of investment opportunities. Local governments rely on a stable source of revenue (property taxes).

This makes them experience minimum effects of fiscal stress than state government that depends on revenues from sales and incomes. For instance, in 2006, house prices fell by 27 percent.

This implies that the property collections shall fall in the coming years as the local government shall adjust its property tax systems to reflect the market standards (Feldman, Courant and Drake, 2003).

Thus, any decline in the collection of taxes shall cause fiscal stress as demands for public services increase (Pagano, Hoene and McFarland, 2012).

The state government provides “30 percent of revenues to local government” (Congressional Budget Office, 2010). However, this shall also reduce as income and sales taxes also drop.

The decline in state revenues also implies that the state government must cut its spending partly by reducing the amount spent on local governments. Both states and local government fiscal stress occur at the same time.

Consequently, states also reduce their aid when local governments also need it for provisions of public services. Some 31 governors had proposed to reduce spending on K-12 education due to decline in revenues (Congressional Budget Office, 2010).

Source: House Fiscal Office, 2012

States have a number of options in reducing their aid to local governments. These include education, Medicaid, and other services states can fund partially.

Economic downturns normally lead to increase in demands for public services due to unemployment and reduced work schedules associated with loss of health insurance.

Thus, these people turn to public services such as health facilities, public transport, libraries and social welfares for free or discounted services. There are also issues of crimes, which put pressure on police (Congressional Budget Office, 2010).

Structural Budget Imbalance

Long-term causes of fiscal stress are multifactorial. However, a common source of structural budget imbalance is the political situation at the local, state, or federal level. Different views emerge and affect the agreement on a budget.

Public unions and employee groups may also cause deficit. For instance, in California, Vallejo filed for bankruptcy based on “the inability of the mayor and the council to control costs of labor” (Congressional Budget Office, 2010).

Bankruptcy is a rare case but occurs for diverse reasons. The City Council increased wages and benefits of its public officials and ignored warnings to stop such practices.

Changes in demographic characteristics also cause fiscal stress. For instance, a high income household may move from an area and cause long-term imbalance in the budget. Such changes may involve transferring a business to other areas. This translates to a drop in the jurisdiction’s tax incomes.

Lack of proper financial control systems can also cause long-term fiscal stress in a state. In New York, questionable accounting method led to concealment of increasing deficit to the extent that it was beyond financing by the financial market.

Effective budgetary control should focus on debt, expenditure limits and balanced budget control. There should be regular auditing and oversight committees to regulate financial practices for transparency and accountability (Congressional Budget Office, 2010).

In some cases, fiscal stress may result from borrowing by the local government. Short-term debts may alleviate deficit in a budget. However, if the local government spends more that it can collect, then it may face fiscal stress in the future.

Symptoms of Fiscal Stress in the States

According to a study by Ivacko, Horner, and Crawford, the condition of fiscal stress of Michigan State has shown positive trends despite the widespread distress (Ivacko, Horner and Crawford, 2012).

Some of the symptoms of State of Michigan fiscal stress included a decline in property tax revenues, state aid, increase in demand for public services, and challenges with health care costs.

Decline in property tax revenues

The report reflects positive gains. However, Michigan State has serious fiscal distress. Property tax revenues are on the decline. This is the most crucial source of funding for the local government. The situation was severe in 2009 due to effects of recession.

The trends indicated declines in property tax revenues in various areas of Michigan. For instance, local governments of Upper Peninsula expressed optimism (35%) whereas those in the south regions showed high-levels of difficulties (81%).

Some regions in Michigan indicated growths in property tax revenues. About 17 percent indicated that the revenue had increased as compared to the previous year. However, the growth in property tax in Michigan remains sparsely distributed.

Decline in state aid

The decline in state aid is a major problem to most local governments. It affects 42% of Michigan jurisdictions. The decline in state aid usually affects large jurisdictions of Michigan where it was 68% in 2012. Conversely, less populated areas only reported a decline of 35% in 2012 (Ivacko, Horner and Crawford, 2012).

In 2010, 2011, and 2012, there were 86%, 61%, and 46% of aid respectively among various jurisdictions of Michigan. This shows a declining trend in provisions of state aid.

Other jurisdictions reported declines whereas others reported increments in state aid. In 2011, state aid was 15% whereas in 2102 was 9%. The trend was only common in less populated areas.

Increase in demand for services

Local governments experienced pressure from increased demands for public services. There were increments in demands for health services (64%), human services, infrastructure (66%), and security (59%) than witnessed the previous year. This shows how fiscal stress is on the rise in Michigan.

Challenges in provisions of health care services

The increments in costs of health care remain a challenge to Michigan fiscal stress. Only 46 percent of the jurisdictions indicated that they had fringe benefits for their employees. In Michigan, small jurisdictions rarely provide health care to their employees.

This is because some employees are not full-time employees. The general trend is that health care costs in Michigan increased considerably from the previous years’ costs.

Effects of Fiscal Stress on State governments

Fiscal stress of today is severe in Michigan and other states. Michigan has a budget deficit of $1.4 billion in the fiscal year 2012. As a result, the state has embarked on a tax balance in order to reduce challenges in its structural budget.

Decline in revenues due to tax cuts

During 1990s, most states experienced growth in revenues. This was due to robust stock market, increasing consumption, and returns on capitals. However, recessions have changed these trends.

For instance, the decline in housing pricing led to tax cuts. These figures show the decline in State of Michigan revenues between 2009 and 2012.

Source: usgovernmentspending.com, 2012

We can now see the effects of economic slowdown of 2008/9 on Michigan revenue growth and subsequent spending, and how it has created fiscal stress.

The long-term deficits in collections did not match economic growth of Michigan. States mainly depend on sales and incomes taxes. However, products subjected to taxes are on the decline due to slowdown in rates of consumption. Michigan has also noted the decline in state corporate income taxes.

This is because most firms have restructured to avoid hefty taxes from the state. Michigan has been relying on state income taxes. However, they cannot cover for the large deficits experienced from declining incomes and sales taxes.

Consequently, Michigan has tried to balance between reducing other taxes and increasing others coupled with reduction in spending on public services.

Decline in spending

Michigan has responded by cutting spending amidst the growing demand from the public (Reschovsky, 2004). This is an attempt to balance the revenue and the expenditure to reduce fiscal stress. Before 2003, most states had already turned to their rainy day reverses (McNichol, 2003).

However, they will be unable to do so due to procedurals barriers and limits. Consequently, tax increase and cutting spending are the only viable options.

Before the crisis of 2008/9, Michigan’s expenditure was already on the decline. This was not a mere crisis, but a serious fiscal deficit in the state. This trend is not likely to slow down soon. It will persist until the US economy improves.

There is a general cut of spending on education (K-12). In 2009, Michigan spent 33 percent of its annual budget on public education. However, this figure has declined by 1 percent in 2012 to 32 percent.

In the 2012/2013 budget, Michigan reduced University funding by 15 percent ($222 million) to $1.2 billion in order to reflect the economic reality of the state (State of Michigan, 2011). A number of education programs maintained their levels of funding or experienced slight reduction.

The State of Michigan has also reduced spending on Medicaid and health care funding by one percent between 2009 and 2012. According usgovernmentspending.com, Michigan shall reduce education spending to 22 percent. On the other hand, the state shall increase health care to 25 percent.

Consequences of States’ Fiscal Stress on municipal governments

Michigan fiscal stress affected municipal governments in a number of ways. Some jurisdictions reported declines in state aid. As a result, such municipal authorities shifted to other methods of managing fiscal stress.

The state will allow schools, municipalities and other local authorities enough time to control their affairs (Congressional Budget Office, 2010).

Decline in spending

There has been a general decline in spending at the local levels by the state. The state budget recognized the need for a budget cut in order to restore fiscal solvency. There were declines in spending on education. Overall, support for schools declined by 8.4 percent in 2012 due to technical adjustments in the budget.

Health care spending also declined by one percent in 2012 compared to the previous year. This decline occurred due to changes in tax rate. Michigan estimates that the cost of health care services shall increase to 33 percent in 2013 (State of Michigan, 2011).

These changes occur due to decline in “contribution to pension funds and health care funds” (State of Michigan, 2011). They also experience delays as fiscal stress persists. Michigan also noted that changes in tax collection shall affect both public and private pension incomes.

For a long time, Michigan has exempted some parts or all of pension income from tax. However, due to escalating fiscal stress, declining population, and the increasing number of senior citizens, the state believes that it is now impossible to exempt any segment of the population from supporting public services.

The state shall tax pension income. However, it will exempt social security benefits from any tax.

Increasing Taxes and Fees

In 2003, Finegold, Schardin, and Steinbach noted that states adopted various methods of responding to fiscal stress (Finegold, Schardin and Steinbach, 2003). These methods had effects on municipal governments.

One of the responses was to “increase taxes and fees so as to manage fiscal stress” (Congressional Budget Office, 2010). A combination of changes in the tax structure helped Michigan ease fiscal stress in 2012 as studies suggest.

Such taxes and fees make up for losses incurred during previous years. Michigan state budget of 2012/2013 changed its tax structures and allowed time for municipal authorities to adjust their operation.

Timing of Public services and Tax increase

Apart from increasing taxes and fees, local governments have also reacted by postponing payments and changes in enacting tax measures.

For instance, in 2003 Michigan proposed increments in taxes from business, gambling, and cigarette sales. These were temporary measures, spending solutions, and revenue generation strategies.

The state also decided to cut SCHIP, and postpone its planned increment. At the same time, it also cut spending on TANF.

Borrowing

Michigan State budget estimate for 2012/13 indicates that it shall borrow short-term funds to schools. This shall increase from the current $20 million to $ 30 million in 2013. This is a method of coping with fiscal stress at the municipal levels which require these services.

Short-term borrowing is common among local municipalities because it can fund operating deficits. On the other hand, states prefer using “long-term debts to fund capital budget and health care programs” (Dilger, 2011).

States Responses to Local governments’ Fiscal Stress

Michigan State has assisted “local governments that have experienced fiscal stress over the years” (State of Michigan, 2011). For instance, it has increased aid in some jurisdictions and collection additional tax.

However, the state has not taken any local government for oversight purposes or financial operation of the jurisdiction.

Before any local government adjusts its taxes and spending upwards, it seeks for aid from Michigan State. Ivacko, Horner, and Crawford observed that Michigan State increased aid in some of it jurisdictions in 2012. More than 15% reported increased aid from the state.

In 2011, this figure was 9%. Areas, which received increased state aid, were mainly mid-size localities with 5,001 and 30,000 people.

In 2012, Michigan State shared a total of $25.5 million or 4 percent of its budget with cities, villages, and townships using estimated tax collections.

The state had the option of “redistributing revenues from various states to those which experienced shifts in populations” (State of Michigan, 2011). Such changes in populations create imbalances in revenue collections.

Michigan also adjusted taxes across various jurisdictions in its 2012 fiscal budget. This approach aimed at attracting business communities and discouraging people from moving to new localities.

In some cases, the state “reviewed taxes that local government imposed in order to increase high rates of taxes” (Congressional Budget Office, 2010).

Michigan sought to invigorate its economy through a tax structure that is “fair, simple, and efficient” (State of Michigan, 2011). The state needed participation of all citizens to fiscal stress.

Federal Responses to States Fiscal Stress

The federal government has the responsibility of assisting state governments with “grants, debt guarantees, loans, and other areas applicable through the tax code” (Dilger, 2011). Local governments depend on the state for power. However, the US Constitution protects states from interferences from the federal government.

Thus, it cannot introduce oversight bodies or force states to correct their challenges with fiscal stress. In this sense, the federal government has conditions that it attaches to aid given to state governments.

Federal government can give both direct and indirect aid to states. Directly, it is through funds or other forms of aid. Indirect aid may come in form assistance to a local entity.

For instance, in 2008, the federal government spent only 4 percent as state aid directly. However, forms of indirect aid from the federal government are difficult to quantify as there are no available data on them.

The federal government may use several strategies when granting aid to states. First, timing and triggering approach specifically to ease effects of fiscal stress on local governments. The timing of this approach may differ from those targeting stimulation of the local economy.

Second, targeting approach focuses on specific areas hit hard by fiscal stress. The approach stimulates fiscal stress and promotes recovery of the local economy.

Third, there is also temporary strategy. The federal government uses this approach to prevent long-term dependence that may cause deficit in its national budget.

Fourth, there is also consistence approach to state aid. This ensures that the aid is consistent with the objectives of the federal government budget. The objective of this approach is to enable local government manage risks.

Consequently, it stops local governments from future expectations in cases of crises. This method also ensures that the local government maintains accountability as it also ensures that states have flexibility in spending. It also prevents states from “substituting their fund for federal funds” (Dilger, 2011).

Federal aid is rarely an option for states because of fiscal stress. However, states, which experienced severe effects of the 2008 recession, got aid from the federal government. In 2010, the Congress approved “$10 billion as aid for states to channel to education programs and create jobs” (Congressional Budget Office, 2010).

In 2008, states and local governments received “$6 billion for the Neighborhood Stabilization Program” (Congressional Budget Office, 2010). This program mainly focuses on areas experiencing foreclosures.

For instance, in the fiscal year 2010, the federal government gave $36.1 million grant to Michigan. This grant targeted the US Department of Homeland Security (DHS). This is because DHS is directly responsible for the US homeland security.

States usually get aid from the federal government based on the revenue they collect. As a result, states focus on increasing taxes in order to receive additional aid from the federal government. For instance, in 2010, Michigan did not collect enough tax to match $2 billion in federal highway aid for five years.

Consequently, Michigan proposed to increase per-gallon gas tax from 19 cent to 23 cents in 2011 and 27 cents in 2013.

Indirect support from the federal government goes to community programs. For instance, women and local farmers have received direct aid from the federal government to support their programs.

According to the US Census Bureau report of 2010, Michigan remains among the top beneficiary from the federal aid in selected programs (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011).

Responses of State governments to Fiscal Stress

Some of the responses state governments apply in response to fiscal stress included the following.

Cooperation and privatization

States have turned to intergovernmental cooperation for provisions of public services. This method has become widespread among municipal governments of various states. In addition, state governments have shown interests in expanding this form of cooperation.

State governments have also turned to “privatization or outsourcing of services in order to reduce costs” (Ivacko, Horner and Crawford, 2012). In the year 2011, a number of large states expressed their interests to increase privatization.

Fund balances

Some state authorities reported fund balances at the end of the fiscal year. Many states have indicated that they will utilize their balances to alleviate fiscal stress. Most local governments do not have any balance at the end of fiscal year. Thus, this is not an effective option for managing fiscal stress.

On this note, most state governments have also expressed their interests to use rainy day funds. However, most states have indicated that this is not possible in their current fiscal situations. This indicates that such state governments have exhausted their reserve limits.

Large states show highest rates of reliance on rainy day funds and fund balances than small states.

Health care costs

State governments have shifted rising costs of the health care to their employees in order to reduce fiscal stress. In fact, most local leaders view this as a viable strategy for the coming years.

Most state governments with fringe benefits have shown interests in reducing such costs so that employees can cater for them. For instance, 81 percent of large jurisdictions of Michigan have also expressed their interest to reduce such costs and benefits.

Reducing staff, services, and increasing fees

New employees who join state departments have received low pay than their existing counterparts in many states.

However, small states are not likely to hire new staff in the coming years. Thus, pay cut is the viable option for them. Most states and local authorities have also encouraged early retirement in order to reduce staff costs.

Summary

Fiscal stress across most of the US states increased sharply from 2000 to present. Fiscal stress became severe after 2008 due to effects the recession. As a result, Michigan has faced some of the largest fiscal gap in history.

However, alleviating fiscal stress in Michigan shall be difficult because of the aftermath of the recession and exhausted limits of rainy day reserves. In addition, the federal government does not want to grant aid to states because of fiscal stress.

Therefore, states like Michigan must find a balanced approach to reduce fiscal stress. A number of states have turned to increasing revenues and other cost reduction strategies.

Raising revenues and reducing spending can provide resources and save others during fiscal stress. Raising taxes can strengthen states’ tax sources. However, this may be a short-term approach, but states can use it to address long-term fiscal stress.

Conclusion

Recent studies have shown that Michigan fiscal stress has declined as there are improvements in many areas of fiscal stress indicators. Local authorities have expressed confidence that they are able to meet some challenges of fiscal stress than in the previous years.

This shows effects of approaches such as reducing costs, increasing revenues, and restructuring the budget to meet fiscal gap that Michigan used.

However, Michigan has reported mixed results. Large local authorities still have difficulties with their fiscal stress. Still, recent indications showing that the US economy has slowed down can negatively impact such gains made.

Recent changes in the State of Michigan fiscal budget and proposed tax increments can also drive other firms out of the state. On the other hand, any reduction in tax revenues can severely increase fiscal stress in Michigan. This implies that fiscal stress may persist for many years in the State of Michigan.

References

Congressional Budget Office. (2010). Fiscal Stress Faced by Local Governments. Washington, DC: CBO.

Dilger, R. (2011). State Government Fiscal Stress and Federal Assistance. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service.

Feldman, N., Courant, P. and Drake, D. (2003). Michigan at the Millennium: The Property Tax in Michigan. Michigan: Michigan State University Press.

Finegold, K., Schardin, S. and Steinbach, R. (2003). How Are States Responding to Fiscal Stress? Urban Institute Program, 58, 1-8.

Ivacko, T., Horner, D. and Crawford, M. (2012). Fiscal stress continues for hundreds of Michigan jurisdictions, but conditions trend in positive direction overall. Michigan: The Center for Local, State, and Urban Policy.

Kloha, P., Weissert, C. and Kleine, R. (2005). Developing and Testing a Composite Model to Predict Local Fiscal Distress. Public Administration Review 65(3), 313- 323.

Levine, C. (1980). Managing Fiscal Stress: The Crisis in the Public Sector. Chatham, MA: Chatham House Publishers.

McNichol, L. (2003). The State Fiscal Crisis: Extent, Causes,and Responses. Washington, DC: Center on Budget and Policy Priorities.

Mouritzen, E. (1992). Managing Cities in Austerity, Urban Fiscal Stress in Ten Western Countries. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.

Pagano, M., Hoene, C. and McFarland, C. (2012). City Fiscal Conditions in 2012. Washington, DC: National League of Cities.

Reschovsky, A. (2004). The Impact of State Government Fiscal Crises On Local Governments and Schools. State and Local Government Review 36(2), 86-102.

Schick, A. (1980). Fiscal Stress and Public Policy: Budgeting Adaptations to Resource Scarcity. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.

Skidmore, M. and Scorsone, E. (2009). Causes and Consequences of Fiscal Stress in Michigan Municipalities. State Tax Analyst Report, 9, 675-692.

State of Michigan. (2011). Michigan: Fiscal Years 2012 and 2013 Executive Budget Recommendation. Michigan: Department of Technology, Management and Budget.

U.S. Census Bureau. (2011). Federal Aid to States for Fiscal Year 2010. New York: State Data Center.

When emphasizing a syllable in a word and giving it a particular metric meaning, the accent makes it possible to understand precisely where it is necessary to make an accent in this word. When choosing one or more words in an utterance, the articulation clarifies what intonation selection needs to be made. As for the Arabic dialects themselves, in this case, the distribution of accents varies. Stresses and accents began to mix because the stimulus of a particular word was used. Nevertheless, the phonetic ratio of stress in Arabic may also be different.

The phonology of stress requires more initial effort than the phonetic manifestation of stress. Another reason of non-native-like stress patterns, according to study, is stressing function phrases that would not ordinarily be stressed in English. In the phonetic realization of stress, there is a more substantial transfer of L1 than in the phonological one. (Almbark et al., 2014). There was some evidence of phonological transfer, particularly in the assignment of accents to non-contrastive function words in a non-native-like manner.

Due to vowel alterations, learners of a second language are more prone to be affected by accent. L1 learners acquire words and information about the world at the same time, whereas L2 links between words and the world are primarily determined by the learner’s age. Long emphasized words are difficult to pronounce for learners who are impacted by accents (Almbark et al., 2014). They may decide to remove particular vowels from the words. Because they are already familiar with their first language, it is especially common among L2 learners. When the stressed syllable is only communicated through duration, intensity, and f0, with no vowel reduction in the adjacent unstressed syllable, they are unable to recognize the stressed syllable in disyllabic nonsensical word stress minimum pairs.

Finally, stressed words have an impact on the majority of L2 learners because it is not their native language. People have trouble pronouncing some words in their L2 due to the influence of their L1 accent. Many students find it challenging to accurately pronounce words in their second language due to the influence of the accent. Stress is a word that English speakers frequently use to express swiftly and precisely, especially in difficult situations. Because stressed words emerge clearly from the speaker’s mouth, listeners can quickly recognize them.

Reference

Almbark, R., Bouchhioua, N., & Hellmuth, S. (2014). Acquiring the phonetics and phonology of English word stress: Comparing learners from different L1 backgrounds.Proceedings of the International Symposium on the Acquisition of Second Language Speech, 5(1), 19-35. Web.

Introduction

In this case, we learn that Alan is suffering from devastation because of an accident that occurred at work. This has caused him a lot of stress and therefore, he finds it hard to cope with his employer and fellow employees. The United Kingdom has no discrete law that directly addresses stress at the workplace. This does not however mean that nothing can be done when such a case arises because some laws and regulations can be used to make sure that stress-related cases are handled appropriately. In this paper, we will look at the possible avenues that may be available to Alan in tackling his problem.

Main Discussion

Every employer has a contractual obligation with his or her employees. The employer, therefore, must make sure that employees are under good care. Every workplace should have a properly constituted consultation framework through which the customs and practices of the business are examined to ensure that employers do not execute changes and impose conditions that may affect employees’ well-being.

The business world nowadays calls on all employers to employ work policies that are family-friendly, policies that recognize that all workers need a proper balance between their work and their life in all the levels of employment. These policies will also act as mechanisms to ensure that those employers who violate the workplace rights of their employees face appropriate disciplinary measures (Work stress, 2011, p. 1).

Alan complains that his fellow workers are fond of bullying him. This is harassment that is prohibited by law. There are many legislations that government such as unethical business practices. For instance, the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act of 1974 stipulates that intentional harassment of an employee by his fellow employees or even employer is a criminal offense (Work stress, 2011, p. 1).

To clearly understand whether Alan was harassed or not, we have to understand what it means by harassment. Harassment is simply defined as the unwanted cause of action that an individual pursues against another person violating his or her dignity and causing distress or alarm. When related to the employment environment, harassment can be any action that leads to intimidation, hostility, humiliation, and degradation of an employee’s dignity from fellow workers or the employer. This is punishable under the law especially when those accused may have used insulting or abusive language. This is precisely the same as Alan’s case.

His co-workers use insulting and abusing language when referring to him. It is an insult to call someone a codger basher as the other employees have done to Alan. This is intentional harassment and that is meant to intimidate and humiliate Alan. Mr. Philip. Being Alan’s manager and aware of Alan’s condition should have taken necessary measures to prevent this from happening (Stress & Law, 2011, p. 8).

Alan should also know that the law gives protection to people from any form of discrimination. Many laws have been enacted to protect people against discrimination. Among them, we have the Protection from Harassment Act of 1997(Work stress, 2011, p. 1) that outlaws any form of personal harassment. If there is any form of harassment in the workplace that may cause an employee to be stressed, then an employer can be held “vicariously liable” for the actions of his or her employees who are accused of bullying another employee even if the employer was not aware of the actions. In this case, Alan has alerted his employer but no steps have been taken.

Alan is, therefore, under the law to sue his employer who is vicariously liable for the harassment being done on him. This has, however, not helped Alan because his manager has not taken any measures. This has seen Alan endure working under stressful conditions (Stress at Work, 2007, p. 1).

These stressful working conditions have led to a deterioration in Alan’s physical and mental health to the extent that he is acting strangely. His employer is no longer listening to him, he is no longer taken seriously and even his complaints are just brushed aside.

This is discrimination basing on his health condition. The 1996 Disability Discrimination Act provides the rights for people with conditions like those of Alan. It stipulates that it is against the law for anyone to discriminate against others in employment because of their disability. Disability in this case means any mental or physical harm that has an untoward effect on an individual’s ability to function normally. Discrimination, bullying, and name-calling have stressed Alan disturbing his mental functioning (Cox et.al. 2006, 19)

Mr. Philip cannot use his mood to dismiss Alan just like that. After all, Alan’s condition was brought about by his negligence to Alan’s concerns. Alan has a right under the Employment Protection Act of 1978 to retain his job. Alan should, therefore, address his grievances to the Employment Tribunal because he is being unfairly dismissed. Mr. Philip knows very well that it is the bullying from his co-workers that has led to Alan’s condition. Laws in the United Kingdom require employers to take good care of their employees.

Mr. Philip should know better about this, and therefore, is culpable in Alan’s case. Instead of handling Alan according to his present needs, he goes ahead to treat him just like the other employees, ignoring his concerns in the process. When things get out of hand, Mr. Philips fires Alan and insults him by calling him gay. It seems that Mr. Philip is not aware of the Health, Safety, and Welfare Act of 1974.

Employers have a duty under section 2 of this Act to make sure that employees work under healthy and safe conditions that will promote their welfare. There is also the “Reporting of Injuries, Diseases or Dangerous Occurrences Regulations, commonly referred to in short as RIDDOR 95. These regulations give employees a right to report to their employers in all cases that may pose danger to them. These include bullying and harassment as in Alan’s case. Alan has done what he is supposed to do, report them to his employer. However, no action has been taken, meaning that Alan should sue the employer for negligence (Mathews, n.d., p. 1).

We are told that all these problems originated from an accident that Alan caused. However, we are not told the nature of the accident. Despite this, the Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations of 1999 calls upon all employers to carry out a risk assessment on health and safety issues in the workplace to ensure that employees work in safe conditions. They are also obligated to provide their employees with information on the possible risks and how to avoid them.

In this case, the accident may have been due to a failure on the part of the employer to do the above actions causing injury to Alan. After the accident, the employer knew that Alan was still at risk of being exposed to stressful conditions but went ahead to put him in the reach of other employees who saw it as a chance to bully him. Nothing was done to help Alan out of this situation even after complaining to his manager. This can be taken to be the negligence of which Alan has the right to apply for claims (Prospect, 2011, p. 1).

Alan should be thankful that there are Disputes Resolution Regulations through which he can process he complains. These regulations provide a legal procedure through which aggrieved workers like Alan can address their grievances. These regulations mandate employers to take the necessary steps to solve workplace disputes. In this case, the harassment and bullying should have been addressed through this procedure. If the employer fails to address the issue at hand through this procedure, as it has happened in Alan’s case then, Anan can forward his grievances to the employment tribunal.

These regulations also address issues to do with unfair, constructive, and wrongful dismissal where it stipulates that such cases should be resolved through local procedures of dispute resolution. The Employment Rights Act of 1996 states that every employee has a constitutional right not to be dismissed unfairly by his or her employer. Therefore, an employee is within the law to use against unfair dismissal so long as he has worked continuously with the employer for at least one year, and also the employee must have been dismissed. This fits into Alan’s case and therefore, he must apply against this dismissal (Disputes, 2009, p. 1).

Alan’s manager failed to provide a safe working place for him. Mr. Philip failed in his duty to take reasonable care of his employee. Under the foreseeability of injury clause, when an employer knows or is made aware that one of his employees is having some work problems, then he must work towards preventing any foreseeable risk of a future problem. Failure to take any steps, then the employer will be held liable for any foreseeable injury that may come about (Stress claims, 2008, p. 1).

In this case, Mr. Philip knew very well about Alan’s condition. Alan also went ahead to report to him about the bullying and harassment that was being done by the other employees. Mr. Philip just to Alan’s complaints lightly, an action that worsened his condition. By failing to take reasonable and appropriate steps to help Alan, Mr. Philip breached the duty of care as required by the law. We are told that Alan’s emotional well-being suffered, he lost weight and his behavior becomes strange.

This condition could have been avoided if the Manager had taken appropriate steps to safeguard Alan from harm. Tortuous liability principles also apply whereby an employer’s obligation to take care of his or her employees involves protecting the employees against emotional or physical harm (Day, 2009, p. 1).

Alan’s employer also failed in his duty to protect him against psychiatric injury. We have already seen that employers are under an obligation by law to act reasonably in providing safety in the workplace by putting place measures to protect employees from safety and health risks that are reasonably foreseeable. The accident in which Alan was involved called for necessary measures to help him work comfortably.

Moving him to a different working place was not enough. Furthermore, his complaints of being bullied and harassed made future harm to his health foreseeable. Failure by Mr. Philip to put in place safe and friendly working conditions or to give Alan the support he needed just shows how inappropriate he acted despite knowing that Alan had a pre-existing susceptibility. This is negligence, which is punishable under the law (Cox et.al., 2006, p. 14)

This is an issue that deals with work-related stress. Alan will be within his right under the law to sue his employer for negligence. He can also decide to apply for discrimination from his fellow workers or unfair dismissal by Mr. Philip to the Employment Tribunal. He can also make a personal injury claim either through a solicitor or if he’s in a trades union, he can use it to address his concerns. He should, however, know that there must be concrete evidence that his well-being was damaged by the conditions in which he was working (Cary and Cartwright, 1997, p. 56). He should also show that he raised his concerns to the employer, who failed to act upon them as required under his duty to take care of employees (Cox et.al., 2006, p. 14).

Conclusion

We have seen that employers have a contractual obligation to provide safe and friendly working conditions to their employees. To ensure that these obligations are adhered to, there are laws and regulations in place to guide both workers and their employers. In our case, Alan’s employers failed in their duty of care to see to it that Alan works in a friendly working environment. This caused psychological injury to Alan and instead of addressing the problem, Mr. Philip, Alan’s manager decides to sue. Alan has all the right as we have seen from the laws and regulations, to file a claim for harassment, negligence, and unfair dismissal.

References

Cary, S and Cartwright, C. (1997) Managing workplace stress. New York: Sage.

Cox et.al. (2006) Defining a case of work-related stress. Web.

Day, C. (2009) Work-related stress. Web.

Disputes. (2009) Resolving employment disputes. Web.

Mathews, P. (n.d.) Stress at Work – The Legal Implications. Web.

Prospect. (2011) Stress at work. Web.

Stress & Law. (n.d.) Work-related stress: What the law says. Web.

Stress at Work. (2007) Stress at Work. Web.

Stress claims. (2008) Work-related stress claims. Web.

Work stress. (2011) The law and work-related stress. Web.

The article in question addresses the correlation between the duration of a vowel and the type of focus or stress. De Jong and Zawaydeh (2002) address this phonetic issue on the basis of the Arabic language, attempting to observe a potential effect of quantity and voicing duration on the vowel duration and describe this influence. The authors refer to the concept of hyperarticulation that is used to describe transformations in speech style condition by an intention to realize stressed material by more intense articulatory activity. Similar effects have been described by them in the English language, which provided a solid foundation for this subsequent investigation into the patterns of Arabic. De Jong and Zawaydeh (2002) equally rely on prior observations, suggesting a speaker’s ability to create specific phonological contrasts through hyperarticulation to attract the listener’s attention to a specific segment. Hence, the article in question elaborates on a phonetic phenomenon that has been at the center of academic research for some time.

This piece of research aims to explore the relationship between stress, focus, and segmental contrast, resulting in modified vowel durations. At the same time, De Jong and Zawaydeh (2002) acknowledge the fact that the dynamic characteristics of durational lengthening are not universal. The authors refer to a number of previous studies that confirm this information, elaborating that hyperarticulation is more commonly observed within the final portion of a vowel. Nevertheless, most of these previous pieces of research are centered around the trends of the English language. De Jong and Zawaydeh (2002) note that Arabic is found to possess similar stress characteristics, making it a viable option to verify the central hypothesis. The key research question that is pursued by the authors is whether stress, lexical focus, and segment focus have an observable effect on the quantity and voicing of the speech.

The formulation of the research question has determined the selection of the methodology used by the authors. De Jong and Zawaydeh (2002) investigate the phonological phenomenon in question on the basis of a colloquial Arabic dialect. The study utilizes the input of four native Ammani-Jordanian Arabic aged between 17 and 28. The experiment incorporated a two-step design, with unfocused items and lexical focus items followed by a segmental focus. Table 1 of the article describes the target words, reflecting the phonetic similarity between them. More specifically, the authors observed the phonological transformations on the basis of shared phonemes within lexically different language items. Both lexical- and segmental-focus items were recorder with a portable cassette recorder and later analyzed with the use of SoundScope.

The findings of the article support the initially advanced hypothesis of the theorized effect of stress, lexical focus, and segmental focus on the durations of vowels. First of all, the findings reveal a 20 ms increase of stressed syllable duration as compared to their unstressed counterparts on average. On the other hand, focus did not yield an observable effect in this regard, not interacting with either quantity or voicing. Second, the effect of quantity was even more considerable with an average of 70 ms of difference between long and short vowels.

From one perspective, the article provides accurate research data that relies on prior findings in this regard. The emphasis on Arabic is another strength of this study, as it takes the subject matter into a new direction. The course of research is thoroughly document, which supports the validity of the findings, which, however, are only applicable to the discussed setting. The relatively small sample of four participants does not allow for generalized conclusions regarding the entirety of the dialect. Furthermore, the results may be different in the case of other Arabic dialects, which limits the contribution of the findings to the overall understanding of this language’s patterns.

Reference

De Jong, K., & Zawaydeh, B. (2002). Comparing stress, lexical focus, and segmental focus: Patterns of variation in Arabic vowel duration. Communications of the ACM, 45(7), 103–108.

Introduction

Victimization may occur at occasions. For example, it may be manifested in a relationship between offenders and the victims. Victimization can also occur when there is an interaction between the victim and the criminal justice system. This is resolved by the courts, the police officers and the correctional officials.

It may also occur if the victims interact with other social groups or within institutions. These include the business world, the media or social movements. The study of victimization may not necessarily deal with the victims of crime alone. However, it might cut across to all other forms of human rights violation.

Victimization

There are several forms of victimization and they include peer victimization, secondary victimization, revictimisation and self-victimisation (Hawker & Boulton, 2000). Children may become victims of their fellow children. In most cases, the victims are the targets of the aggressive behaviour of their counterparts.

When this occurs, it is referred to peer victimization. Interest in this particular form of victimization arose in the 1990s. This is because there were increased cases of school shooting, suicides and peer beatings. This prompted research to be done in order to investigate the bully-victim relationship.

Research showed that there were several negative outcomes that came about peer victimization. They included low school engagement, depression, low self-esteem, school avoidance and low school achievement among several other effects. Research further proves that the effect of peer victimization is especially prevalent in the middle schools (seeley, Tombari, Bennett, & Dunkle, 2009).

This is the case mainly because the children are trying to create self-schemas and developing self-esteem. It is during this stage that the children will greatly impact their adult lives. This is the reason why researchers are particularly focused on this age group.

Seely, Tombari, Bennett and Dunkle (2009) identified two strands of research that characterised peer victimization. They included the peer relationship strand and the bullying strand. The bullying strand looks at what forces the victims to stop going to school and suffer from its effects as other students adjust. The peer relationship strand, on the other hand, studies the major factors related to peer victimization and the results of it. It focuses on the mediating factors.

Secondary victimisation may also be referred to as a double victimization or post crime victimization. This is whereby the victims undergo further victimization after encountering a victimization. This may occur when victim’s blame is done. Medical personnel or other persons may also show inappropriate post-assault behaviour towards the victim. This may cause more suffering to the victim. Secondary victimization may also be exercised by the personnel in the justice system. This may cause the victims to lose time or suffer due to the low income that is formed because of the reduction.

Examples of persons who suffer double victimization include the rape victims. This is especially the case in cultures that consider certain sexual experiences as a taboo. Virgins who suffer rape may suffer further due to the misconception that they are damaged and no longer pure. Such victims may be isolated from society or may even lack any family and friends. Some cultures do not allow such victims to get marry and in case they are married, such women are forced to divorce.

Victims of crime usually suffer the consequences of the crime. This could be in a form of emotional distress. Research shows that most of the victims of crime suffer psychological problems (Sebba, 1996). These include feelings of shame, nervousness, anxiety, self-blame, anger and fear.

Such victims may also have trouble sleeping. In this respect, the chronic post-traumatic stress disorder may occur. Victims of crime may also suffer stress after the crime especially when it comes at a time when the individual has already had emotional problems. The victims may show different psychological reactions. Firstly, they may view themselves negatively (Sebba, 1996). They may also have difficulties in conceiving the meaning of the world. In addition, they may increasingly believe that they are vulnerable.

Revictimisation is a phenomenon that may be experienced by victims of a crime (Finkelhor, Ormrod, & Turner, 2007). In this respect, the victims of a crime or abuse have a higher chance of undergoing victimization again. This can occur shortly after or at a later date in the adulthood stage of a child’s life.

This trend has been noticed especially when it comes to victims of sexual abuse. Studies show that the rate of victimization for people who have previously suffered sexual abuse is very high (Messman & Long, 1996). Furthermore, the revictimisation in the adulthood stage has not only sexual grounds but also happens in a form of physical abuse.

Revictimisation occurs for different reasons. When it occurs in the short run, it is usually due to the fact that the risk factors have not been mitigated. This means that when victimization occurs, the factors that led or contributed to the victimization should be changed or mitigated in order to avoid the same thing from recurring.

However, in some cases, the victim may not be in a position to control such factors. Risk factors may include having unstable relations within the family, drug addiction, dipsomania, inhabiting dangerous areas, having a high temper and unemployment.

When children undergo revictimisation in their adulthood lives, this becomes more complex. Research has shown that such individuals undergo some maladaptive form of learning. This usually occurs when the adult comes to believe and accepts abusive behaviour as normal.

In such occasions, the victims accept the behaviour and continue to become victims of it. They also expect such behaviour from other people. Such individuals unconsciously end up with abusive partners and are usually reluctant in getting away from abusive relationships.

Victimization may also occur at the workplace. This may be in the form of workplace bullying. This is whereby employees use aggressive or unreasonable behaviour towards their workmates. This may be in a form of verbal abuse, humiliation, physical abuse or other nonverbal abuse. Such behaviour may cause stress to the victims. Such victims are also usually prone to revictimisation since they usually appear weaker. The persistent victimization at the workplace may lead to employee’s burnout and decrease the productivity.

Conclusion

Victimization is the act of being made a victim. It may occur in different ways but all forms lead to negative effects. Victims of crime usually undergo the emotional distress. Most victims suffer common problems that include fear, shame, anger, nervousness and anxiety.

These issues may lead to post-traumatic stress disorder. Post crime victimization may also occur and this further adds problems to the victim since those who are supposed to help the victim’s recovery only add insult to the injury. Revictimisation usually occurs when the factors that have led to the initial victimization are not changed. Victimization is a serious issue that requires attention since it shapes the lives of the victim into their adulthood.

References

Finkelhor, D., Ormrod, K., & Turner, A. (2007). Re-victimization patterns in a national longitudinal sample of children and youth. Child Abuse Negl, 31(5), 479–502.

Hawker, D.S.J., & Boulton, M.J. (2000). Twenty years’ research on peer victimization and psychosocial maladjustment: a meta-analytic review of cross-sectional studies. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 41(4), 441-455.

Messman, L., Long, J. (1996). Child Sexual Abuse and its Relationship to Revictimization in Adult Women. Clinical Psychology Review, 16 (5), 397–420.

Sebba, L., (1996). Third Parties, Victims and the Criminal Justice System. Ohio State University Press, Columbus.

Seeley, K., Tombari, M. L., Bennett, L. J., & Dunkle, J. B. (2009). Peer Victimization in Schools: A Set of Quantitative and Qualitative Studies of the Connections Among Peer Victimization, School Engagement, Truancy, School Achievement, and Other Outcomes. National Center for School Engagement, 1(1), 13-46.

Introduction

Recidivism refers to a patterned behavior whereby an individual repeats the mistake that made him or her reprimanded. Even though an individual would have experienced some negative impacts of a certain behavior, he might be willing to repeat it without adequate reasons. Recidivism is mostly associated with hardcore criminals because they always go back to their initial behaviors even after being taken through a rehabilitation process.

In many societies, the term is used to refer to the rates at which former convicts are rearrested. Research shows that there is a direct relationship between criminal recidivism and stress management. People suffering from criminal recidivism are unable to manage stress because it is evident that nervous tension makes them to commit the same mistake that put them in trouble before.

This proposal suggests a study that would delve into the relationships between criminal recidivism and stress management. The study utilizes a quantitative method to arrive at certain conclusions. To arrive at these conclusions, the proposal looks at the previous works by different scholars in the literature review section. Under the methodology section, a clear sampling design and data collection techniques are discussed. The study looks at the issues surrounding reliability and validity because every study must meet a certain threshold.

Literature Review

A number of studies confirm that stress is directly related to criminal recidivism. The major aim of many criminal justice initiatives is to handle stress among former inmates because it would definitely reduce criminal recidivism. In this regard, reduction of criminal recidivism has been the subject of research for many scholars in the field of psychology and other social sciences.

Levenson and Morenson (2006) noted that many studies focusing on recidivism reduction try to understand some of the ways that sex crimes would be reduced. In this regard, other scholars such as Ryan and Yang (2005) observe that juveniles are always at risk because they often repeat the same mistakes that might compromised their integrity before.

Belenko (2006) contributed to the topic by observing that certain factors force individuals to engage in similar behaviors that put them in jail. These factors include drug abuse and mental problems. Policy makers and program implementers in many organizations dealing with criminal rehabilitation focus on reducing certain risk factors such as poly-substance abuse.

This is reduced through offering strategies that would reduce stress. Even though scholars have conducted extensive research related to the relationship between stress management and criminal recidivism, few of them have focused on bridging the gap between individual and social offender needs. In this regard, it should be understood that recidivism is an overarching phenomenon that ought to be understood through critical analysis.

The current state of research focuses on risks that are associated with recidivism meaning that these risk factors are directly related to stress. If these risk factors were managed effectively, criminal recidivism would not be an issue in the current society. Individuals in society are likely to repeat similar crimes because of the lack of basic needs such as employment and housing.

All these are caused by lack of efficient programs within society that would have helped ex-convicts to be incorporated back into society. If prisoners were provided with some of the basic needs that would help them cope with the challenges of society, they would not engage in criminal behaviors that characterize a number of ex-convicts. The society, through criminal justice programs, should come up with initiatives and programs aiming at helping individuals not to repeat the same criminal behavior.

To achieve this, some scholars suggest a number of programs including offering education to ex-convicts, which would help them in acquiring a decent job, offering employment related skills, providing treatment to reduce mental illnesses, and strengthening family relationships. Austin and Hardyman (2004) suggested that the behavior of each individual with a criminal record should be identified for easy categorization of individuals. Those at high risks should be offered treatment to help them cope with stress.

Categorization of individuals with criminal records is very important because it is true that each individual has different needs, which call for specialized strategies and programs. Some studies suggest that an individual with a past criminal record would be suffering from numerous problems meaning that different techniques would be applied to help such an individual cope with stress.

Flavin (2004) conducted an extensive study, which revealed that stable employment reduces the chances of an individual repeating a past mistake. Therefore, it is factual that employment is one of the stress management initiatives that reduce recidivism. Consistent and stable employment plays a critical role in alleviating the chances of an individual becoming poor.

Flavin noted, “Employment is a better predictor of recidivism than a summary risk index.” In particular, women offenders are better assisted through providing them with a stable job because economic conditions force them to engage in criminal activities.

This is true for single parents who struggle to provide their families. Holtfreter (2004) posited that economic hardships and lack of basic needs forces individuals, particularly those with families, to engage in certain actions that are inconsistent with societal rules and regulations. The situation is even worse for those who have ever engaged in crime because they would not find it difficult to repeat a crime.

Employment tends to increase the social capital of individuals, what is usually referred to as the networks of shared norms and values, which augments the access to the much-needed necessities (Flavin, 2004). From this finding, it is eminent that providing employment opportunities to individuals believed to have criminal records would reduce recidivism. In other words, offering jobs and other skills that strengthen an individual’s social capital reduces stress, which in turn contributes to social orderliness.

Research confirms that lack of employment results to idleness, which is the breeding ground for criminal behavior. People are frustrated because they lack something substantial to do meaning that they feel the vacuum by engaging in criminal behavior. Tewksbury and Lees (2006) agreed that sex offenders are likely to engage in the same behavior in case they lack an alternative means of attaining their economic objectives in society.

Messina (2006) was also of the same view, but he believed that those believed to engage in drug abuse would definitely go back to their initial behaviors when they lack something to do. As Vacca (2004) noted, employment reduces the chances of stress because it helps an individual in fulfilling other social responsibilities such as providing food for the family, taking children to school, abiding by with the law, and strengthening social networks.

Lack of housing facilities compels individuals to engage in crime. This implies that housing is a significant factor as far as reducing recidivism is concerned. The scenario is even worse for parolees who lack relatives and friends to support them after being released from prison. Barh (2005) noted that people feel comfortable when they are provided with a place to stay, with stable facilities. For an individual to continue with a normal life, housing must be available.

An individual is able to settle for him or her to look for a job. In fact, it would be difficult for an individual work without a housing facility. Moreover, social networking would be a dream without housing. Research shows that people living under stable housing conditions are unlikely to engage in criminal behavior. This means that those who live in good conditions are law-abiding citizens as compared to those who live in slums or in streets.

If an ex-convict is allowed to live in slums or in streets, he or she may perhaps come across another parole with similar problem. They would go back to their initial status since they would not be having other options of obtaining their basic needs. Nilsson (2003) observed that the issue of housing is usually faced by substance abuse offenders.

The findings of Barh (2005) confirmed that offenders moving within a short time would definitely reoffend as compared to those who move within a long time. With adequate housing, an individual would have a social capital and some form of investment that would encourage him or her to abide by the law. Such individuals would not engage in crime because they stand to lose a lot.

Laub (1998) conducted a study confirming that an individual with investments and high level of resources would rarely engage in behaviors that would put him or her at risk of being arrested.

In a different study, it was established that offenders who are provided with basic needs such as housing facilities would do everything under their power to avoid engaging in crime. Holtfreter (2004) conducted a critical study, which found out those women given financial assistance to establish small business and construct houses were unlikely to engage in crime.

The study established that more than 83 percent of women given financial assistance would comply with the law at all times. Therefore, it is confirmed beyond reasonable doubt that provision of housing services is just one of the ways through which criminal justice programs would reduce stress among recidivists. This would definitely reduce the rates of crimes that are executed by the ex-convicts.

In terms managing stress among recidivists, a healthy family and strong relationships between the ex-convicts and the community plays a critical role. In fact, establishing a strong link between societal members is one of the best ways of encouraging social conformity and law-abiding culture. Barh (2005) conducted a thorough investigation on the relationship of family ties and criminal behavior. His findings suggested that close relationships among family members, particularly the quality of the parent-child relationship, played a major role in reducing the repeated cases of crime.

Austin and Hardyman (2004) concluded their study by noting that, “healthy family relationships are consistent predictors of success after releases.” In fact, a number of studies confirm that the family would definitely determine whether an individual goes back to the initial behavior or adopts a new way of life.

This would be through offering support or withholding it. If the family supports an ex-convict, he or she would not repeat the mistakes that took him or her to jail. The family would perhaps support an individual through re-socialization, which would facilitate conformity to the law. Moreover, the family may ensure that social contacts between the offender and the family are extended beyond the family level.

This would boost the confidence of the offender, forcing him or her not to engage in crime in future. Through family support, the convict would allow the provision of secondary needs, which is provided through string community ties. In their analysis, Ryan and Yang (2005) observed that the support that the family provides to juveniles determines whether they would recidivate. This implies that the family plays a critical role in ensuring that its members maintain law and order.

The family that is ready to welcome one of its members from prison would likely provide adequate support, which would go a long away in helping an individual to keep away from criminal acts. However, the family that does not appreciate the role of the member from prison would definitely demoralize such an individual to an extent that the family member would simply repeat the crime to survive.

A study conducted by Bayse (1991) observed that family members should be included in offering treatment to an ex-convict. This means that a family member would give encouragement to the patient hence allowing him or her to recover faster. This would also reduce the risks of recidivism.

Austin and Hardyman noted a positive relationship exists between family relationships and recidivism. In particular, the spouse plays a critical role in controlling the behavior of an individual as regards to criminal action. For a married individual, the relationship with the spouse would determine whether such an individual would repeat the crime.

In this regard, a welcoming spouse would give hope to the convicted individual while those spouses that do not welcome the criminals back to their lives are likely to discourage them, forcing them to engage in other crimes. In a study conducted by Hairston (1990), it was noted that the number of visits and contacts influence recidivist rates. The family has always played a critical role in the life of the individual, which is related to offering primary care. This aspect is always present in an individual’s life even after adulthood.

Regarding the use of substances, individuals commit crime under the influence of an illicit drug. This has always been due to stressful events that make individuals to engage in drug use. Research shows that over 80 percent of those arrested in the United States are tested positive with drugs. In a study conducted by Belenko and Pugh (2005), many inmates in the American prisons are users of alcohol and other serious drugs such as marijuana.

Therefore, a large number of crimes are committed under the influence of illicit drugs. The issue is prevalent in urban areas where drug acquisition is easy. Even though many individuals utilize drugs because of different reasons, stress is one of the major reasons, which forces people to engage in drugs. This affects people’s chances of employment because it has led to loss of jobs and inefficiencies.

Moreover, drugs are associated with violent conduct meaning that it results to other forms of crimes such as aggravated assault, rape, and carjacking. Belenko (2000) proved through research that drug users rarely comply with parole supervision requirements meaning that ex-convicts would reluctantly go back to their usual behavior in case they engage in drug abuse. Helping the offenders to rediscover their potentials and quit the use of drug is one way of reducing recidivism in society.

Stuart (2005) noted that drug abuse is the major cause of violent recidivism, particularly the domestic violence, which is performed under the influence of the illicit drug. Moreover, the study by the above scholar revealed that incarcerated women are more likely to have high rates of drug abuse, which leads to violent recidivism, as compared to incarcerated men.

The introduction of programs that aim at containing the prevalent rate of drug abuse would definitely reduce the rate at which offenders repeat the same mistakes that put them behind the bars. Continuous use of drugs is a sign of stress because people try to avoid the many problems that affect. Therefore, addressing the issues surrounding the use of drugs is one way of resolving recidivism cases in society.

Finally, a mental health problem is a factor that affects individuals as regards to recidivism. Studies show that a majority of prisoners are affected by this problem since the bureau of statistics in the United States suggested that sixteen percent of adult convicts had mental problems. The study further suggested that the rates could be higher, but they are mostly related to drug abuse.

The official data from the US bureau of statistics confirm that only five percent of the American population suffers from mental problems. It is shocking to note that a high percentage as sixty-seven represents those incarcerated. People suffering from mental illness are difficult to handle and even to treat because they require specialized services. Mental problems range from depression, drug addiction, schizophrenia to stress meaning that it is difficult to identify specific areas of concern.

Those suffering from mental problems would definitely engage in violent and other unethical behaviors that are dangerous to all members of the society. As earlier noted, addressing issues related to mental problems is costly meaning that it deserves adequate resources. Coming up with strategies that would mitigate these problems would be the best to apply as far as reducing recidivism is concerned.

Method

Participants

This study obtained its sample from three jails in one of the cities in the United States. Those sampled were 102 male inmates who. Between the ages of 18 and 21, there were twenty-three participants. The ages of other participants and their respective number is shown below.

22 to 25-18

26 to 32-20

33 to 39-14.

40 to 54-24

55 and above 3

Only seven inmates of those interviewed had been jailed once in their lives meaning that the rest were recidivists, who had committed a similar crime more than once. From the total figure, fourteen inmates had been twice while twelve were serving their prison terms for the third time in their lifetimes.

Moreover, the study revealed that nine prisoners were serving the fourth prison term in their lives while sixty prisoners were serving their fifth and above prison terms. This was a shocking revelation because it meant that the rate of recidivism was going up. As observed in the literature review, fifty-six inmates were single while only nine were married with children.

This shows that married individuals are unlikely to engage in criminal behavior after serving their first terms in jail. Sixteen individuals of those interviewed had divorced because of mainly drug abuse. Twenty-one inmates were in unstable relationships while others admitted that they were simply cohabiting. In terms of education, it was established that inmates interviewed had various qualifications since others were highly trained while others were simply school dropouts.

This proved that education is not an important factor when determining the relationship between stress management and criminal recidivism. Out of those interviewed, ninety of them confirmed that they had completed high school while thirty inmates had high education because they had diplomas. Twenty-two of the inmates had completed GED while nineteen had engaged in post-secondary training.

Twelve inmates were degree holders in various fields. Unlike educational level, employment is a key variable that influences individuals to engage in criminal recidivism. This confirms the data provided in the literature review because unemployment is an issue that makes people to engage in crime. Fourteen individuals reported that they had never been employed in their lifetime while forty-five reported being employed casually. Forty-three inmates reported to have been employed for very short periods.

Research Design

The main aim of this study would be to arrive at certain generalizations that would represent the bigger picture of the relationship between stress management and criminal recidivism. The study would identify some of the factors that influence criminals to repeat the mistakes that sent them to jail for years.

The study would therefore utilize a small sample of one-hundred and two inmates from one of the cities in the United States to arrive at the conclusions regarding criminal recidivism. Therefore, the survey design would take the form a cross-sectional study, which would be utilized to capture the views, attitudes, and behavior of inmates in a cross-sectional point of view. The main instrument used to collect data would be the questionnaire (Krathwohl, 2004).

There would be only one key method used to gather information in this paper. This would be through a questionaire, which will be delivered electronically to the sample population. The questionaire will seek to capture various actions of the sample population regarding their opinions on the relationship between stress management and criminal recidivism.

The second source of information that will be used in this research will be literature on various aspects of poly-substance abuse and the operational activities that take place within the selected individuals. The focus of the literature review will be to find information on the application of counseling techniques in organizations offering help to the addicts and also to determine the current state of research in relation to depression. The questionnaire will have four parts.

The first part will seek to capture the background information of respondents. The second part will deal with the demography and gender of the respondents. This will be to ascertain the prevalence of views in varoius categories in order to ensure that if any differences will come about then they would be captured in their demographic space.

The third part dealt with academic credentials and work experience of the respondents. The motivation for this section came from the understanding that different sections of population respond differently to issues, based on age and academic status. The fourth part will delve into the specific issues relating to the perception of the community on the effects of poly-substance abuse on depression.

The questionaire will also employ a mix of open and closed ended questions to capture different aspects of issues studied. Open ended questions will be used because they give respondents more time to figure out their opinions, which would make them volunteer more information related to feelings, outlooks and comprehension of the subject. On the other hand, closed-ended questions are analyzed easily.

That is why they will be used in this study. Each response can be coded for statistical interpretation. Nonetheless, closed-ended questions are compatible with computer analysis package. The technique is more specific meaning that its answers are consistent in all conditions. Finally, closed-ended questions take less time to administer unlike open-ended questions, which are detailed hence time consuming.

Data Collection Instrument

To understand the relationship between stress management and criminal recidivism, a survey would be designed. The survey would involve a cover letter outlining the major aim of the study meaning that consent will be sought from the local authorities, as well as the school administration.

The consent will entail the full details of the study, definition of major terms that would bring about confusion, major risks, and opportunities of the study, time limit, and commitment, the issue of confidentiality, secrecy meaning that inmates will be requested to participate voluntarily, and other instructions outlining the instructions for the completion of the survey.

As earlier noted in the previous section, the researcher would develop a survey consisting of five questions. These questions would be related to demographic variables such as age, as well as other variables such as the number of times that an individual has ever been incarcerated, the marital status of inmates, the level of education of an inmate, ranging from primary, secondary to tertiary.

Moreover, the employment history of the inmate would be determined through asking the inmates whether they have ever been employed. Each inmate would be given fifteen closed-ended questions that will be answered on a five-point Likert scale, which is intended to measure the attitudes of the respondents (Hughes, 1997). One would represent those respondents that disagree with the idea that offering support and other incentives would reduce the rates of recidivism among criminals.

Letter 5 would represent those who agree with the idea that they would be willing to continue with their lives if given incentives such as free treatment, provision of housing, and employment. The existing body of knowledge, which was discussed extensively in the literature review section, inspired the development of these questions.

Validity

The validity of a measurement instrument can be measured by the degree to which the instrument measures accurately what it is supposed to measure In this survey, content validity was measured where the representativeness, or sampling adequacy, of the content of the measurement instrument was checked with the help of experts in the field.

In this study, the validity of the instruments was preserved ensuring the accuracy of the measurement where each variable’s indicators of existence were extracted solely from the literature of the work of previous researchers in well-established papers.

The population characteristics, interaction of subject selection and research, descriptive explicitness of the independent variable, the effect of the research environment, researcher effects, data collection methodology, the effect of time have all been taken into account. In this study, internal validity was ensured through checking the representativeness of the sample.

The researcher ensured that the sample used, captured all-important characters at Ministry of Higher Education in the National Center for E-learning and Distance-learning. External validity was ensured through triangulation that is, the researcher used more than one technique in collecting data. Other than the questionnaire, the researcher observed the facial expression of the respondents and other bodily languages. External validity was also guaranteed by asking respondents to give their views.

Reliability

Reliability means appropriateness, applicability, and truthfulness of a study. It refers to the ability of research instruments to produce results that are in agreement with theoretical and conceptual values. The consistency of the measure, the probability of obtaining the same results again if the measure was to be replicated is referred as reliability. It is the relationship between the true underlying score and the observable score.

Internal consistency is also important for the survey since it indicates the extent to which the items in the measurement are related to each other. The most commonly used index of internal consistency is Cronbach’s alpha coefficient. This index ranges from zero to one, where a reliability of zero means no relationship, and reliability of figure 1 indicates a perfect and positive relationship.

Since the reliability declines as the length of the question increases, the questions would be designed to be straight to the point. The idea behind internal consistency procedures is that questions measuring the same phenomenon should produce similar results. In internal consistency reliability estimation, single measurement instrument is administered to a group of people on one occasion to estimate reliability.

Data Analysis

This chapter is dedicated to the analysis of the data to help confirm or reject the hypotheses developed in the research proposal. The previous chapter gave a detailed explanation of the methodology of the research. It clearly indicated the research methodology to be used in order to obtain the desired results.

From the discussion in chapter three, it was evident that the researcher intends to use two sources of data. The first source of information has been discussed comprehensively in chapter two of this research. The literatures are invaluable sources of information in any research.

Previous researchers have looked at this topic and other related topics. They have given a comprehensive outlook of this topic and have given out their findings. Their reports therefore are of great significance and any piece of scholarly or professional research cannot afford to ignore them. They help define the research, especially when it comes to giving necessary approach that a new researcher in this field should take.

A research is always a development on a finding made by others. It also refers to a body of knowledge that the researcher wishes to confirm, reject, or make developments on. It is therefore very important for any researcher to go through these secondary sources of information in order to determine the best approach to take, which would help appraise the existing pieces of information.

The researcher therefore reviewed literatures from journals, books, electronic resources, and reports on issues of recidivism and stress management (Diriwächter, & Valsiner, 2006).

The second source of information was collected from selected individuals within the three prisons in one of the cities in the United States. The process of collecting this primary data, as explained in the previous chapter, took two fronts. The first approach would use questionnaires, which would be sent to 102 respondents that were randomly selected.

The second approach would be by face-to-face interviews, which would cover over 50 respondents. In this chapter, the researcher would use qualitative approach to analyze the data, with a few data being analyzed quantitatively, as was explained in the above chapter. This would involve systematic empirical study of phenomena using statistical tools.

Data analysis refers to the process of transforming raw data into refined useful information that can be of use to people. Before settling on a method of data analysis, it is important that a clear data analysis approach be developed. The research can take quantitative, qualitative, or categorical approach.

This research took a quantitative approach. Depending on the type and accuracy needed, data analysis can take a simple descriptive form or a more complex statistical inference. The technique used in the analysis can be univariate analysis, bivariate analysis or multivariate analysis. In selecting the appropriate method, a researcher should ensure that assumptions relating to the method are satisfied.

In analyzing the collected data, the researcher will use appropriate statistical data analysis tools such as descriptive and inferential statistics in analyzing quantitative data.

In relation to the quantitative analysis, the most commonly used sets of statistics include mean, frequencies, standard deviation, median, and percentages. The researcher will code and enter the quantitative data into Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 20). Using SPSS, the researcher will use cross tabulation to present the information.

The tabulation would help give a clear picture of the impact of drug abuse on the psychological health of an individual. The researcher will also use descriptive statistics such as mean, standard deviation, percentage, and frequencies to describe the properties of the target population.

Further, the researcher will use tables, figures, and charts to present the findings of the study. Because the research entails determination of the impact of drug abuse on the emotional wellbeing, there will be some form of comparison. The comparison will be done on how depression changes the attitudes of individuals. Correlation analysis would be important to make this a success. Therefore, chi-square tests will be used to test the hypotheses.

Inferential statistics like chi-square tests help to test whether the observed relationships between the variables are genuine. The statistical significance level used in the research is 0.05 indicating whether the observed association occurred by chance in 5 out of 100 results. Chi-square is the most widely used measure of association in social science research, being suitable for use on nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio data.

Results

In offering a thorough analysis to the relationship between stress management and criminal recidivism, a comparative review of the average score of those with stress in each group would be undertaken.

Moreover, the researcher will come up with a scatter plot to establish the pattern among variables. In this regard, it is expected that the results would confirm the hypothesis stating that a relationship between stress and recidivism exists. Inmates who go though some forms of treatment are always expected to stick to the societal rules and regulations.

Moreover, the results are expected to confirm that recidivism rates would be low in case the criminal justice department aspires to train inmates in order to equip them with adequate skills so that when they leave the facility, they would be competent members of society. A statistical package for social scientists was the major tool used to analyze data in this study. All variables were subjected to some form of analysis to establish their reliability.

Discussion

The study conducted proved a number of facts that were present in the literatures reviewed in the previous chapter. One of the factual information is the rates of criminal recidivism is always low when inmates are provide with services and resources such as free treatment, housing, support services, and financial assistance.

In the literature review section, available literature conformed that employment, mental health treatment, and provision of counseling to drug addicts are some of the ways through which recidivism would be reduced. Regarding the views of the respondents on the support they would receive from their relatives and the community, a majority were optimistic that they would quit their unruly behavior when given adequate support.

However, only a small percentage confirmed that they would really be supported. This means that lack of support amounts to criminal recidivism. In order to end criminal recidivism, management of factors that cause tension between criminals and other members of society should be managed. Participants complained that criminal record of accomplishment has always jeopardized their chances of integrating well in society.

This means that they lack employment whenever they are released from prisons. In fact, the ideas of Western (2002) are in line with this claim because poor records affect the chances of ex-convicts in any society. Some inmates were of the view that better jobs and high earning employment would reduce their chances of repeating similar mistakes that took them to jail. This implies that the prison department should provide adequate knowledge to inmates to make them competent in society.

Limitations

This study would suffer from issues related to validity and reliability because of the sample used. The sample is too small to be scientifically significant. Moreover, the sample did not involve all genders because only the views of men were heard. This is a challenge because the views of female inmates are equally important.

Finally, the major limitation to the study is the sampling procedure and design because the one utilized was not representative. The sample should have been obtained randomly to minimize biases and increase the chances of each inmate being sampled.

Implications for Future Research

Future researchers should always ensure that the sample used is adequate meaning that it should be large enough to accommodate the views of the majority. The one used in this study do not bring about the generalizations in the desired manner.

Moreover, future researchers in this study should ensure that both genders are involved in the sampling process because the views of each inmate, irrespective of gender count in a serious topic such as this one. Finally, demographic variables ought to be utilized effectively in future. These variables include age, level of education, and marital status.

References

Austin, A., & Hardyman, D. (2004). The Risks and Needs of the Returning Prisoner Population. Review of Policy Research, 21(1), 13-29.

Bahr, S. (2005). The Reentry Process: How Parolees Adjust to Release from Prison. Fathering, 3(3), 243-265.

Bayse, D.J. (1991). Family Life Education: An Effective Tool for Prisoner Rehabilitation. Family Relations, 43(3), 254-257.

Belenko, S. (2006). Assessing Released Inmates for Substance-Abuse-Related Service Needs. Crime and Delinquency, 52(1), 94-113.

Belenko, S. (2006). Assessing Released Inmates for Substance-Abuse-Related Service Needs. Crime and Delinquency, 52(1), 94-113.

Belenko, S., & Peugh, J. (2005). Estimating drug treatment needs among state prison inmates. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 77(1), 269-281.

Diriwächter, R. & Valsiner, J. (2006). Quantitative Developmental Research Methods in Their Historical and Epistemological Contexts. FQS, 17(1), 8–26.

Flavin, J. (2004). Employment Counselling, Housing Assistance…and Aunt Yolanda? How strengthening Families’ Social Capital can Reduce Recidivism. Criminology and Public Policy, 3(2), 209-216.

Hairston, C. F. (1990). Family ties during imprisonment. Do they influence future criminal activity? Federal Probation, 52(1), 48–52.

Holtfreter, K. (2004). Poverty, State Capital and Recidivism among Women Offenders” Criminology and Public Policy, 3(2), 185-208.

Hughes, J. (1997). The philosophy of social research (3rded.). London: Longman.

Krathwohl, D. (2004). Methods of educational and social science research: an integrated approach (2nd ed.). Long Grove, Waveland Press.

Laub, J. (1998). Trajectories of Change in Criminal Offending: Good Marriages and the Desistance Process. American Sociological Review, 63,225–38.

Levinson, J., & Morenson, J.W. (2006). Risk Assessment in Child Sexual Abuse Cases. Child Welfare, 75(1), 59-82.

Messina, N. (2006). Predictors of Prison-Based Treatment Outcomes: A Comparison of Men and Women Participants. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 32(2), 7–28.

Nilsson, A. (2003). Living Conditions, Social Exclusion and Recidivism Among Prison Inmates. Journal of Scandinavian Studies in Criminology and Crime Prevention, 4(1), 57–83.

Ryan, J., & Yang, H. (2005). Family Contact and Recidivism: A Longitudinal Study of Adjudicated Delinquents in Residential Care. Social Work Research, 29(1), 31-39.

Stuart, L. (2005). Improving Violence Intervention Outcomes by Integrating Alcohol Treatment. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20(4), 388-393.

Tewksbury, R., & Lees, M. (2006). Perceptions of Sex Offender Registration: Collateral Consequences and Community Experiences. Sociological Spectrum, 26(1), 309-334.

Vacca, J.S. (2004). Educated Prisoners are less likely to Return to Prison. The Journal of Correctional Education, 55(4), 297-305.

Western, B. (2002). The impact of incarceration on wage mobility and inequality. American Sociological Review, 67(2), 526-546.

Sources of Stress in Detective Jones Life

There are three obvious sources of stress in the life of Detective Jones; the first source is the issue of his wife leaving him for an officer in another department. This was a major event in his life which was for the worse; it led to him being angered which made him take out his frustration on other people.

It was an embarrassing moment for him and it coincided with the time that the unprofessional behavior started. Another source of stress is the spread of the information that his wife had left him among his workmates and outsiders. The shame and embarrassment that resulted from knowing that others had information about his personal life which he had not intended to tell anybody could have led him to be stressed.

The changes brought about by the new chief plus rumors that are being spread about detectives rotating shifts every month has contributed to his stress. Another source of stress in his life is the fact that he was overlooked for promotion; instead, a junior officer who is a lady was promoted. To make the matter worse, the junior officer was less experienced than him, and he had served as a detective for the past 10 years and had been at the department for the past 15 years. This most likely led to him being angry and caused stress in his life.

How the Detective and the Department Should Deal With Detective Jones Stress

Lieutenant Smith should in no way excuse the behavior of Detective Jones even if this is caused by the stressful events that have been occurring in his life. This is because it is in no way appropriate to allow such a behavior to be existent in a department serving the public, and no matter what the cause is, the behavior is one that should not be entertained. The way Lieutenant Smith and the department choose to help him deal with stress is important as it determines whether he will overcome it.

The first step is that they should understand what Detective Jones is going through and not to be little or shame him. They should give him time to go through the process of grief resolution that is necessary for the stress that he is experiencing to resolve. They should also display a positive attitude towards him despite his behavior since this has been shown to be effective in helping someone dealing with stress as this will eventually rub off on him. The Lieutenant should refer him to a specialist like a counselor who can sit down with him, and take him through the steps of overcoming stress.

Morale Issues That Can Result and How to Prevent Them

One of the morale issues that can result from the behavior of the detective is the segregation of the detective by his workmates and none of them might want to work with him. Another is violence that can occur due to confrontation between him, and another officer. The detective’s behavior can lead to dissatisfaction from the public about the way they are being treated by the detective and this can be generalized to the whole department.

The bad publicity of the department that can result from mistreatment of the public can lead to low morale and performance in the department. To alleviate and prevent this, the lieutenant should talk to the Detective and make sure he gets the needed help that he deserves. The Lieutenant should also speak to the the other officers in the department so that they understand what Detective Jones is going through, and to have a positive attitude despite the bad publicity that might arise.

Management of the Stressful Events

Detective Jones can be assisted through the situation he has gone through by receiving positive support from the department; and by referring him to a counselor or psychologist who can help him. The detective can undergo an anger management program which is a therapeutic way used by psychologists.

He will have to undergo a number of exercises in this program to overcome the stressful event he has undergone. He can use relaxation techniques and undergo cognitive restructuring to overcome his problem. Other techniques that are useful in his situation are strategies to dealing with problem solving, and which improve communication.

Purpose of the Report

Nowadays, there are frequent accidents related to working in extreme temperatures, both hot and cold. Even though there are many laws and regulations in this regard, emergencies still happen. Primarily, this is due to the lack of a united, clear source of rules and regulations that would operate depending on the climatic zone. Furthermore, certain groups of stakeholders, such as employers and clients, are interested in the maximum productivity of their employees. Accordingly, employers often ignore working conditions norms. It formulates the purpose of the report, namely the comparison of norms and regulations for safe work at the provincial, federal and international levels.

Moreover, after the comparative analysis is done, it will be possible for one to develop possible proposals for improving the existing rules. It is formulated by the fact that data visualization will help determine all the advantages and disadvantages of the issue. Additionally, one will be able to suggest possible solutions to the problem in the aspect of the employees. It may include what needs to be done when an employer violates existing regulations or when working conditions are unacceptable. It will also be possible to determine which of the existing standards should be referred to when defining safe working conditions. Finally, given possible proposals and existing problems, one can suggest how to make the process of determining safe working conditions more consistent and fair.

Provincial and Federal Perspective

Nowadays, there is no single centralized system of laws regarding safe work in all areas in Canada. It also implies the temperature aspect, as each province has its own climatic and industrial characteristics. However, there is its own rules and regulations for safe working conditions in each region. In order to visualize this information, it is necessary to compare several provinces, and for this comparison, British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan provinces were selected. As one may notice in Table 1, the Saskatchewan province has one of the most detailed lists of norms and regulations regarding the current issue.

Table 1. Standards and Guidelines for Safety Work in Selected Canadian Provinces.

Note. The data retrieved from “Best Practice – Working Safely in the Heat and Cold”, Work Safe Alberta, on February 9, 2022.

Talking about the federal level, Canada has no specific norms and regulations regarding heat stress or heat exposure, as it can be seen in Table 2. However, to compensate for the absence of the clearly listed laws, the Government usually refers to Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) for heat stress as outlined by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) (Government of Canada, 2022). Under these regulations, certain rules for safe working conditions are formed. Namely, it is necessary to ensure that the worker is dressed in suitable clothing and consumes enough water and salt. Moreover, there is a division into acclimatized and non-acclimatized employees. To do this, studies of the well-being of employees in certain conditions are carried out, and depending on the indicators, individual characteristics of workers are distinguished. For example, if an employee’s performance does not meet the norm, certain measures are taken. Besides, Humidex Heat Stress Response Plan was developed by the Occupational Health Clinics for Ontario Workers (OHCOW).

Table 2. Rules and Regulations of Working Conditions in Canada.

Note. The data retrieved from “Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety”, Government of Canada, On February 9, 2022.

International Perspective

To effectively compare provincial, federal, and international regulations of safe working conditions, one should contrast several countries’ current norms. For this, the United States, Germany, Australia, and New Zealand’s laws related to appropriate employer and workers’ interaction were chosen. One identified that Australia, being a hot country, has relatively mild occupational heat stress risk. The highest degree is observed in military-related areas due to warm clothing and activities performed by participants (Jay & Brotherhood, 2016). As mentioned in Table 3, in New Zealand, the Health and Safety at Work Act by Work Safe NZ agency is responsible for administering most of the industry fields controlling its working conditions. In Germany, the Joint German Health and Safety Strategy (GDA) on the base of EU-OSHA was developed as a regulative method to control the workflow process (EASHW, 2022). Finally, in the United States, this issue is regulated by Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).

Table 3. Current Rules and Regulations of Working Conditions in Australia, New Zealand, United States, and Germany.

Note. The data retrieved from “European Agency for Safety and Health at Work”, on February 9, 2022.

The Executive Summary

One identified that nowadays, safe working conditions are regulated by several regulations, agencies, laws, and rules. It applies to provincial, federal, and international levels, and the absence of a single regulatory body might formulate some issues in this area. In places where there is no standards for heat stress, one developed rules and conditions which must be accomplished to meet the requirements. For example, in some areas, one must find out if the worker belongs to the groups of acclimatized individuals. Moreover, one must ensure that each employee is provided with water and salt intake.

Recommendations

In the absence of regulatory bodies, employers should refer to general rules listed under the hiring conditions. Regarding possible recommendations, one may propose developing a centralized regulatory system that would be based on united values, although differing depending on climate zone and country’s features. Moreover, these norms should consider each worker’s physical indicators, since people may work in high or low temperatures more or less effectively. Finally, it is necessary to implement international controlling body which would promote equal working conditions in multinational companies.

Conclusion

The reason why is there so little out there in terms of a set value is constituted by the desire of certain stakeholder groups (employers and clients) to make employees’ work as effective as possible. Due to this, in some cases, hirers ignore regulations, and it occurs at provincial, national, and international levels. The OSHA as a regulatory body is used most, since there is a European department (EU-OSHA).

References

Best Practice – Working Safely in the Heat and Cold. (2022). Work Safe Alberta. Web.

European Agency of Safety and Health at Work (EASHW). (2022). Web.

Government of Canada. (2022). Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety. Web.

Introduction

This paper considers the stresses and strains in the renaissance society after the plaque. In this essay, the stressors are outlined, a major stressor is identified from among the many and how the renaissance society responded to the stressor is discussed in detail.

Renaissance age refers to a period in history which was characterized by a movement towards intellectual reawakening among European scholars and academicians. It began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe by the 16th century. Its spread affected many spheres of life because it highlighted or pointed to the misgivings in classical civilization.

The plague was an epidemic catastrophe that swept across Europe from 1347 to around 1351. The catastrophe affected and shaped all aspects of human life, i.e., socially, economically, and politically. Depopulation and decrease of labor was a characteristic which accelerated changes that had already started to take root in urban and rural economies across Europe. In general, the idea of exchange of wages for skilled labor became entrenched, services were hastened, and social balance became less rigorous.

The Renaissance, which had all marks of a psychological movement, affected the perception of the arts, religion, and education. The plaque menace had resulted in most elites and educated clergy dying thus denting church vibrancy and general social participation. In fewer than four years, the disease had caused a series of death spanning from Asia, Italy, France, and many other parts of the world.

Stresses and Strains

There are many challenges associated with the plague which influenced the renaissance civilization. Those challenges or effects touched every aspect of life in Europe spanning from church, trade, music, art, agriculture, and every other part of society. One of the strains as a result of the plaque ravage was food insecurity.

As a result of the plaque, many people had not been able to produce food. Lack of food or poor performance of the agricultural sector had adverse effects on the general economy of most European States. The poor performance of the agricultural sector could largely be attributed to many deaths and incapacitation effected by the plague. The few laborers that could be found charged high wages for their services, which further dampened productivity in the agricultural sector.

The labor resource was generally strained and was a big strain on the industrialists and other business people (the elites and aristocrats). Given the laborers charged highly or demanded high wages, the prices of goods and services generally became high. As the cost of living went up, the workers in industries, other trade professions; skilled workers demand even higher pay so that they can be in a position to cope up with the rising cost of living. Workers had huge bargaining power since there was no competition.

The church in a bid to survive also gave in to tricks and became a strain in itself on the society. In the hope of creating clean methods of getting the extra income, they began to levy by force fees on funeral services. They could afford to do this because funeral services and arrangements were on high demand. The elites, i.e., Lords and nobility, were not spared from the economic suffering because their farmlands were.

Another strain on the general society was a rebellion by some peasant and poor communities. The rebellion by peasants caused a lot of jitters and strain in Renaissance society. In response to the economic pressure caused by laborers rebellion, the nobility put the kings and rulers, especially in France and Italy, under immense pressure to forcefully control trade through price fixing with the aim of stabilizing the economy.

Stabilizing the economy was critical for the nobility as it would mean an end to abnormal and unprecedented social mobility. Yielding to pressure, the kings or leaders, in general, used their status and immense power to make this possible. The poor or peasants and those who did rebel this market control maneuvers by those in power were massacred or silenced or suppressed through imprisonment.

The Upper class approached rebel peasants in a cunning way; they artificially created new taxes so that they swindle from the poor and peasants their hard earned money (David 1954, 81).

By so doing, they continued suppressing the peasants and making them even poorer and with no support at all, until they were unwilling and unable to rebel anymore. Some places like Paris and Florence, people who started rebellion were able to amass wealth for the first time. However, their fortunes were short-lived as they were compelled to give these profits to the wealthy.

The post-plague society was put under further strain by the war between the French and English. The war only made the situation much worse as it was costly in terms of personnel, machinery used, finance, and administration. Both nations suffered from losing huge sums of money in war expenses; money which would have been used more profitably, e.g., in buying food for the population which was dying from severe starvation.

The war weakened the economy further making it hard for states or nation to come out of the economic depression. This scenario increasingly made it more difficult for the lower and middle classes to sustain themselves. Those who were privileged, for example, the ruling elite, just watched without doing anything to help with the situation.

Another stressor or strain that people had to deal with is the tremendous stress surfacing due to the barren emotional disquiet caused by years of watching helplessly as a ravaging plague takes away people especially friends and family members. Such an experience was traumatizing; it created to shock, depression, and panic that spread across many towns, cities, and rural areas. For instance, the Black Plague was estimated to have destroyed one-quarter of European Population.

The black plaque is widely believed to have been one of the most pronounced epidemics in history. It is estimated that in England alone, between 1348 and 1351, one million people died. This was approximately one-third of its population destroyed by the virus.

This kind of happenings traumatized the whole society. As a result, some people got lured into becoming religious fanatics, believing that God will show them grace and save them. In their religious stupor, the traumatized mass moved around lashing each other with canes or sticks trusting that their acts appeased God.

Resulting from the psychological trauma and deteriorating economies, there was also a blame game, i.e., different groups blamed each other for the cause of the plague. For instance, it is reported that the Hebrew were suspected and blamed for having poisoned the wells from which the rest of the community drew water. Such suspicion led to several Jews being massacred. Other groups shifted blame to the church for being materialistic, more interested in politics as opposed to spiritual matters.

Over the years, the church had accumulated immense wealth. Some people began to think differently that God was punishing them because of the sins being committed in the church. According to this group, the church was supposed to be a holy institution taking care of the needs of everyone regardless of his status in life, and what he/she offered to it.

Another trend that had developed and later plaque the post-plague renaissance society was dread for other people. Some people, out of imaginary fears, continued to distance and separate themselves from mainstream society as a measure of avoiding the possibility of catching the plague.

In Europe, most families that survived from plague suffered from shock, because the plague disease came without notice, and it swept many people at once. The resultant psychological stigma and trauma continued to stress relationships among members of society.

The major Stressor

The major stressor in the post plaque renaissance society was a lack of meaninglessness or mere despair. The economy was poor due to the effects of the plague and war but also due to the general class system that did not give the poor, peasants and women an opportunity to benefit meaningfully from their efforts. Before the plaque, family link and tradition was so intact that in many European countries such as Italy, a lot of efforts were put in place in organizing and arranging them.

Parents had the last say for their children’s future wives/husbands, and this was determined by the class and status of the family where the girl/boy came from. The reason for parent involvement was to influence the future economic condition of the family. God was central in all decisions which were made regarding the marriage of young men and women. Generally, women during this medieval time were viewed as inferior to men. In social interactions, they were regarded more or less as men’s subjects.

The church, which was a poignant institution promulgated doctrines and teachings and enacted them as laws that gave men authority over women. With teachings that stressed respect for masters, the church in a way entrenched social inequality. With endorsement from the church, the elites, aristocrats, and men exploited the poor, peasants and women without remorse.

It was generally accepted as a natural law that women are born to serve men; thus, they should unquestioningly subserviently submit to their husbands. Women were not allowed to voice personal opinions or indicate that they could have personal judgment. Justification for such attitude was found in the book of Genesis where Adam beguiled Eve and not the other way round. Therefore, man’s directives and commands were taken more or less like godly dictates to be followed to the letter.

The post-plague renaissance period was marked by a revolutionalized way of looking at everything. The way people spend their leisure moments changed; this was both the peasants and the wealthy. Death was no longer dreaded, and people became a little more daring. Those who had escaped the plague felt glad to have cheated death. Such realization in itself emboldened them, i.e., if they had managed to escape death, what else was there to fear. Solemnity associated with funeral processions waned, and people started to approach them as mere normal occurrences.

A look into post-renaissance art indicates the extent of post-plague renaissance despair. It is during this period that much artwork, sculptures, architecture, and paintings depict a charmed life. The kings and wealthy merchants commanded and commissioned cathedrals, monuments, and sculptures, designed in a way as to remind the people of how the disease had swept away many people. Others were built to give honor to God for standing by his people in given regions or areas.

Response to Major Stressor

The post plagues renaissance society’s response to the challenge of or meaningfulness crisis was through rebellion. Signs of rebellion can be discerned in the abandonment and vandalism of churches. The rebellion in the art world best exemplifies the kind of rebellion that informed the response to the post plaque crisis. It is reported, for example, that church carvings was altered and made into coffins of totally different shapes that had pictures of copses on their lid.

This was to show a flattering image of the body inside the coffin wearing their best outfit. There were some paintings depicting people socializing with skeletons and were done under command of a powerful person called (danse macabre).

Many artists abandoned traditional ways of painting, which was characterized by Christian religious connotations or meanings. Artistic work from that period allude to the fact that the artists were depressed by death that engulfed them, this made them change the art world by painting pictures of sad and dead people.

Various art forms and styles were regenerated and old ones redone. This was a result of coming up with new painting and drawing to reflect modern civilization. Modern civilization was based on a rebellious attitude towards old structures, ways of thinking, and ways of organizing society.

Conclusion

The post-plague renaissance society was a strained and stressed society. Much stress and strain resulted from poor economic conditions but also the general desperation and hopelessness resulting from plague related trauma. As a result of the plague, the agricultural sector in most European countries was starting. Due to a reduced workforce, labor was expensive leading to many challenges for industrialists. The governments or leadership in the different states had a herculean task of managing society or maintaining law and order.

Governments were focused on how to jumpstart economies and bolster the morale of citizens. Incentives in the form of tax cuts for elites were adopted to encourage investment. However, nobility also pressured kings and rulers to increase taxes for common or peasants. Such like moves and the general experiences increased a general sense of despair among the majority citizens.

As a result of the general desperation among people, the basic response to the post-plague challenges was rebellion. Peasants rebelled against the elites and aristocrats. The decrease in population had led to increase in demand for laborers, thus affording peasant enormous bargaining power. Workers who had been working or elites at exploitative wages could now assuredly take off and travel around in search of better wages. They were sure of finding work opportunity that offered higher wages for their services.

It was not just the peasants and laborers who exhibited rebellious tendencies. As seen through art, even intellectual perceptions and interpretations changed dramatically in the post-plague renaissance age.

Old meanings ascribed to things like church artifacts no longer holds ground. An intellectual rebellion towards traditional tenets was the hallmark of that period. It is during those days that even conceptions about women began to be questioned. Women were now more involved in family affairs, taking on decision making roles, which was unheard off in the classical and medieval ages.

Bibliography

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