Category: Stress

The most popular means of evaluating stress levels is by conducting self-report surveys. In the surveys, individuals should respond to queries about their psychological or physical conditions. In the year 1976, Holmes and Rahe proposed that key life events, whether worthy or wicked, were possibly stressful (Holmes-Rahe-Stress-Inventory, 2011). The two medical doctors were the first to document the impacts of life events on humans in a methodical way. In their study, they noted that patients often experience a number of life changing events prior to the commencement of their stress. Based on the findings, the two doctors asserted that stress was responsible for a number of patients’ illness (Holmes-Rahe-Stress-Inventory, 2011). They proposed that stress results from modifications, which can cause huge vulnerability to physical and psychological health disarrays. The reflective essay below highlights on my current stress levels based on the Holmes-Rahe life stress inventory.

To evaluate my stress levels using the inventory, I was required to identify the major life changing events that I had experienced in the last one year. Thereafter, I was required to add the score of the events. The final score indicated a rough estimate of how stress had affected my health in the previous year. The major transformations noted in my report were changes in sleeping habits and a death of a close family member. On a Holmes-Rahe life stress inventory, changes in sleeping habits were equated with 16 points (Holmes-Rahe-Stress-Inventory, 2011). On the other hand, the death of a close family member was equated with 63 points. The final score of the two events was 79 points. With respect to the above points, it is apparent that over the last one year I have had minimal life changes (Holmes-Rahe-Stress-Inventory, 2011). In the inventory, an estimate below 150 points implies that I have a low vulnerability to stress related illness.

In the future, I should adopt appropriate strategies to ensure that my stress levels points remain low as possible. According to Dave Ulacia, by prioritizing tasks into urgent, not urgent, important, and not important categories I would be able to prioritize my time (Ulacia, 2009). Through this, I would manage and plan my time effectively. The above initiative will not only lower my chances of getting stress related illnesses, but will also increase my productivity.

Similarly, I should identify actions or events that make me feel stressed. Thereafter, I should identify precise, tangible, and realistic means of substituting stress-causing ingredients with more supportive and pleasurable actions and events (Ulacia, 2009). Through this, I would avoid being engaged in things that make me feel strained. When overwhelmed by stress levels in the future, I will possibly listen to soft music, take a nature walk, talk with a friend, or read a favorite book. By doing so, I will be able to relax my mind enabling it to tackle with the stress causing elements.

To manage the inevitable stresses, I should be ready to tackle life challenges whenever they occur. The above initiative requires me to plan ahead of stressful events and be positive (Giancola, Grawitch & Borchert, 2009). I should visualize myself undergoing through the challenging events successfully. When I fail to meet my expectations, I should have a backup plan. Through this, I would be able to tackle life challenges with ease and avoid stress related illness.

References

Holmes-Rahe-Stress-Inventory. (2011). Web.

Giancola, J. K., Grawitch, M. J., & Borchert, D. (2009). Dealing With The Stress Of College: A Model For Adult Students. Adult Education Quarterly, 59(3), 246-263.

Ulacia, D. (2009). Are You Working on the Wrong Things?. Web.

Introduction

Work stress refers to the side effects or harmful experiences that an individual encounters when the occupational needs of the job cannot be met. The client does not have the abilities, resources or requirements of the work. This literature review illustrates the plight of the mindfulness-based stress reduction process as viewed by Industrial and Organization psychology. These problems can either be psychological, behavioral or physical. What are the methods used to do the study? What are the findings? What are the weaknesses and how can they be improved?

The review further evaluates the understanding of the psychologists by asking these questions. What are the relations between these methodologies? In which way do they contradict? What are the weakness of the study and how can it be improved.

Industrial and organizational psychology (I/O) plans organizations to increase productivity and improve living standards. I/O psychologists try to resolve problems at the workplace through scientific knowledge. Work needs to be satisfying and improve the quality of life.

Stress Reduction and Attention Control

According to I/O psychologist work is done to obtain productivity and to improve the quality of life of the clients (Astin, J. 1997). They believe that any dissatisfaction that occurs in the workplace is either a problem or stress. Individuals need to be monitored closely and the organizational structure understood well.

Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) was started at the University of Massachusetts. It was concerned with mindfulness training on meditation and yoga. The program encourages the workers to avoid conceptualized destructive thoughts. This makes it superior to other meditations health benefits. Behavior can under certain circumstances undermine health either physically, emotionally or spiritually. Recruitment was used as a method where the IQ of the workers was tested. This however excluded those whose IQ was below 80 in the study. Samples used in the study always give wrong information. Workers were also given an opportunity to report their own views using questionnaires. This can always lead to unjust answers on focus and job satisfaction. MBSR encourages workers to maintain their work position despite the prevailing conditions is a threat. Some workplaces are pathetic and deprive the workers of their rights. The working conditions should be improved so as to provide a quality work atmosphere for the workers. Whereas other avenues would advocate for change in the workplace to reduce stress, MBSR encourages individuals to maintain their position of work irrespective of the conditions encountered.

Use of cognitive therapy

Workers can reduce anxiety by recognizing the causes of stress and anxiety. These effects are born in the mind of workers (Astin, J. 1997). The medical school used both learning and practice techniques. Individuals should grow in their emotional reasoning. The grouping used included the control and treatment groups. Emotional health improved in the treatment group whereas realized systolic reduction. In Harry and Mark’s work, they use mind-reading, control of fallacies, overgeneralization, personalization and filtering methods to understand the effects of emotion in stress resolution. However, these methods have gaps and allow the worker to assume responsibility as a way of stress reduction. As result, the workers tend to focus on sounds and images. This in return promotes an organized and integrated perspective at the workplace so as to maintain control and unity among themselves.

Use relaxation and meditation

Meditation and relaxation proposed reflective, reactive and adoption of maladaptive strategies to reduce stress (Stein, F. 2001). The qualitative method encouraged participation and openness. However, this can result in laziness and lead to sleeping on the job. Time for relaxation should be specified and slotted in the duty plan.

Use of feedback loops

Stress can also be reduced by focusing on mindfulness and attention control. The individuals are expected to develop sustained attention and extensive processing ability. Workers should have their own personal ways of reducing stress. Some of the ways suggested by the MBSR program include procrastination which can also be called bad faith, behavior or fear of failure or lack of reward. When such conditions occur, then anxiety mostly arises. The client is therefore expected to have regulatory measures which can help him maintain stress and at the same time be able to adapt to the changes.

The model has the capacity to attend to the changes taking place within the organization. When attention is accorded to the goal objectives of the organization then the workers are able to eliminate self-regulatory failures and any other subsequent anxiety.

Use of transcendent attention

Yoga’s Transcendent Meditation proposes systematic research methods to bring spiritual indication of health happiness, wisdom, success and fulfillment in the workplace. Workers can reduce stress by being focused beyond the prevailing organizational situations. The main focus is not on negative emotions or guilt. Workers can also use delayed gratification to effectively manage stress within the workplace.

Use of monkey mind and personal experience

According to I/O psychologists, stress can be reduced when a worker focuses on the existing experiences. They suggest that the more mindful an individual is, the less procrastination occurs. Research conducted on the correlation between mindfulness measures and procrastination appreciated self-control as the best means of managing stress and anxiety.

Develop measures that are not harmful

Workers can develop strategies that they can use as tools for interviews. This means that their effort should be in work and not making good stressors. For an effective assessment scheme to be attained, workers should avoid negative results at the workplace. Any decline in control measures should be encountered with a re-evaluation of the structures which can then be organized to promote change.

Replacing stress with humor

Humorous persons are good and simple to work with. A working environment should encourage fun and be enjoyable both to the workers and the employer. A control measure should be developed so as to avoid inappropriate humor or offenses in the workplace. Humor adoption in mindful and stress reduction motivates the workers and eliminates stress.

Personal coping strategies

The workplace should encourage functional mechanisms among the members. Once in a while, the employer can improve the nutritional diet of employees. This can be done by a nutritionist to conduct training to the workers on the best diet. Similarly, light work and exercise should be provided during breaks to ensure fitness in the staff. At the same time, the employer can incorporate counseling sessions based on mindfulness stress reduction.

Adopt changes that provide healthy work schedules

Potential duties satisfy the employees and reduce stress just in the same way dissatisfying schedule results in negative health consequences. An organization should not force workers to do overtime jobs but give them the right to choose so that their family relationships are not affected. In circumstances where individuals work in shifts, MBSR suggests a forward rotating shift to be the better option in managing stress. Workers should have the opportunity to be in both day and night schedules.

Job security and promotion can also help reduce stress at work

Occupation can be managed when there is job security. In most cases, workers do not want to participate in changes due to the fear of losing their jobs. The changes should be compatible with the intended effort to improve the working environment. Workers are allowed an opportunity to better their careers and have increased responsibility. This research only focused on job security leaving an important aspect of specialization which can cause pride at work and stress to the junior.

Have a healthy level of management

Subordinates attain their optimum productivity if each operates at a manageable standard. Working for too long or at a high pace gives shoddy results and poor health. Strategies such as breaks reduced overtime and having monitoring comity can help reduce stress (Zinn, K. 1985). However, this is not true in all circumstances. Psychologists should know that more challenging work leads to a good experience.

Incorporation of technology in the workplace

Technology can be disastrous when the work is poorly designed. It requires good knowledge to provide tremendous work. Every department should have an expert. The members of staff should also be involved in the acquisition of new equipment. It is essential because they are the end-users of the equipment. Through this, goals and satisfaction are attained.

The organization should allow mutual social support

Such measures comprise supervision and co-working support. Workers need to be trained in proactive monitoring. Stress is reduced when one receives positive feedback on the activity done. This stimulates the growth of the organization in line with proper communication. Through a strong level of support in the workplace, various conflict resolution measures are obtained

Employees should be allowed to take part in control and participation

Participation ability of the workers should be increased through frequent meetings at the same time autonomy helps in checking the performance level within the organization. In the study of mind-body medicine, the relationship between self-care techniques and how they affect human behavior are addressed. The course imparts personal and professional lives to learners.

Feedback is seen as a motivator to keep society on pace. The course also agrees with the MBSR studies. It equips the learners with emotional and mental satisfaction thus helping them reduce stress (Marc, B. John, C. and Suzanne, C.2008). This made most students focus on staying more in the present than in the present before taking the course.

Conclusion

It should be noted that stress is an attitude that is conceived in an individual’s mind. Postponement of duty can not resolve problems as experiments suggest. Work should rather be planned and cleared depending non the urgency. Giving employees a chance to control and participate in autonomic decision-making can result in general company failure. To improve this method, workers’ views should be addressed and only sensitive issues are adopted. Social mutual support encourages close interaction whereas technology advocates for a fast and stress-free workplace. Job security resolves stress by giving assurance in the job whereas healthy management encourages productivity. Humor is a tool that workers use to forget bulk responsibility. However, stress managing strategies allow workers to get the satisfaction of their work.

Work cited

Astin, J. (1997). Stress reduction through mindfulness meditation. Washington, USA: American Psychological Association.

Marc, B. John, C. and Suzanne, C. (2008). Mind-body medicine and the art of self-care: Teaching mindfulness to counseling students through yoga, meditation, and qigong: (Report). Journal of Counseling and Development.

Stein, F. (2001). Occupational Stress, Relaxation Therapies, Exercise and Biofeedback. USA: IOS Press.

Zinn, K. (1985). The Clinical use of Mindfulness Meditation for Self-regulation. New York, USA: Consumer Reports Books.

In today’s world, the tendency is that students to face a lot of challenges to succeed in their education. Stress becomes an integral part of the learning process since they are often pressed to receive high marks, having concerns about their future job opportunities and potential failures. Pascoe et al. (2020) conducted a study to assess stress levels among secondary and tertiary students. The authors initiated a narrative review to explore the influence of stress on participants’ academic performance, as well as psychological and overall well-being. The snowball strategy allowed the authors to find relevant scholarly articles to collect the necessary information.

The review includes the articles with various designs and countries as specific goals were not identified. The impact of stress was the main focus of this study that integrated such variables as sleep, substance use, mental health, physical activity, and dropout rates.

The results of the study by Pascoe et al. (2020) demonstrate that the majority of students report high levels of stress and negative effects on their mental and physical health. Depression and anxiety symptoms are noted as the factors that reduce academic achievement, which is especially relevant to male students, who are more likely to undertake higher education. Educational stress increases the risks of substance use as a coping strategy, which means that students need proper perceived social support to overcome this challenge. Several reviewed studies also indicate that sleep disorders and physical health deterioration are two more adverse outcomes of academic stress.

Namely, obesity resulting from unhealthy lifestyles or chronic loss of sleep can develop. In addition, the authors emphasize the risk of a higher dropout since students feel exhausted, ineffective, and depersonalized, which decreases their motivation to study (Pascoe et al., 2020). From a long-term perspective, these stress outcomes affect students’ adulthood, leading to lower-income, poorer physical and mental health, low self-esteem, and a lack of interest in further education.

The mentioned results make it clear that educational settings need to be adjusted to help students in becoming more resilient to stress. The first concept is student academic-related stress that integrates a range of factors, each of which should be considered in context. Teachers, parents, and counselors can work in cooperation to resolve individual issues faced by students. For example, those parents who cannot understand their child or do not have open relationships should rely more on the recommendations from social workers. If a female student has poor academic performance, insomnia, and low self-confidence, these problems should be considered interrelated issues.

The second concept refers to school-based stress management programs that are aimed at teaching students to build abilities and skills to cope with stress. Such programs are regarded as moderately effective ways to minimize negative health and social impacts.

Even though the content and resources of programs may vary, the idea of showing students how to address their challenges is relevant since unresolved stressors would make a significant imprint on their future lives. On a larger scale, reduced academic stress is associated with social, health, and economic benefits at a community and global levels. Accordingly, the choice of the interventions to be implemented through such programs can be different, depending on a country, culture, students’ age, parent engagement, teaching settings, and many other factors. Thus, the reviewed article provides important insights into the effects of academic stress and possible coping mechanisms.

Reference

Pascoe, M. C., Hetrick, S. E., & Parker, A. G. (2020). The impact of stress on students in secondary school and higher education. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 25(1), 104-112.

Introduction

Exposure to traumatic events may cause irreparable damage to a child’s mental health unless attended to correctly, which suggests that the problem of post-traumatic stress disorders (PTSD) in young patients needs to be elaborated upon in greater detail. According to the statistical data, the cases of PTSD in children are disturbingly high (U.S. Department for Veteran Affairs, 2018). For instance, the National Center for PTSD warns that a substantial number of young children of both sexes experience a trauma that leads to mental health complications (Targum & Nemeroff, 2019). According to the National Center for PTSD,

Studies show that about 15% to 43% of girls and 14% to 43% of boys go through at least one trauma. Of those children and teens who have had a trauma, 3% to 15% of girls and 1% to 6% of boys develop PTSD. (U.S. Department for Veteran Affairs, 2018, para. 1)

Therefore, addressing the issue of PTSD in children is believed to be one of the key priorities in public health management presently. However, the opinions about the approaches that have to be used to examine the problem, determine the patient’s needs and locate the appropriate intervention tools vary (Scheepstra, van Steijn, Dijksman, & van Pampus, 2017). Presently, the choice of frameworks based on which interventions for children with PTSD is created is mostly restricted to the use of social and developmental psychology. The proposed frameworks can be seen as legitimate, yet they have their problems, the lack of the clinical perspective and the propensity to change in responses toward different social scenarios being the key ones (Targum & Nemeroff, 2019). Therefore, an improved approach to reducing and curing PTSD in children will be needed. The purpose of this paper is to determine whether the application of the perspective of clinical psychology as the platform for treating PTSD in children will have better effects than the adoption of the methods rooted in social and developmental psychology.

Literature Review

Definition

The phenomenon of PTSD itself currently requires further research due to differences in the definition thereof in recent studies. For example, PTSD has only recently gained the status of separate disorder in the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of mental disorders (American Psychological Association, 2013). A recent study defines the phenomenon of PTSD as the “trauma- and stressor related disorder resulting from exposure to an event that is considered as traumatic” (Scheepstra et al., 2017, p. 1). According to the DSM V definition, the diagnosis of PTSD in children is based on the following criteria: exposure or witnessing of traumatic phenomena and having recurrent dreams linked to the traumatic experience (American Psychological Association, 2013). Showing dissociative reactions to key triggers, avoidance of such stimuli, cognitive and mood-related issues, and prolonged duration of disturbance are also essential criteria for PTSD (American Psychological Association, 2013). While the symptoms of the phenomenon may vary depending on the patient’s health status and other personal characteristics, as well as the coping mechanisms that they develop, the described criteria are the primary indicators of the problem.

Effects of PTSD on Young Patients

Resulting from a vastly traumatic experience, PTSD in children manifests itself in severe anxiety and aggravation of mental health issues with exposure to triggering factors. For example, recent research points to the possibility of mental disorders emerging in adulthood for children suffering from PTSD (Targum & Nemeroff, 2019). The propensity toward emotional numbness as the key coping mechanism is also widespread in children with PTSD (Coifman et al., 2019). Since the described response is very unhealthy and likely to lead to the aggravation of the problem, a clinical strategy for managing the disorder combined with psychological and developmental perspectives will have to be utilized to provide the grounds for recovery.

Social Psychology and PTSD

The application of strategies based on social psychology when addressing the problem of PTSD in children suggests mostly the provision of social support. Specifically, Coifman et al. (2019) explain that the adoption of the approaches such as the development of emotional working memory is based on the use of social psychology in PTSD. The introduction of the developmental perspective leads to the creation of approaches that encourage a more accurate measurement of PTSD progress based on the model fit (Coifman et al., 2019). However, the social dimension allows for locating short- and long-term changes in children’s well-being and behaviors.

Developmental Psychology and PTSD

The developmental perspective implies considering childhood PTSD as a trauma that occurred due to developmental issues and the influences that may have impeded a child’s psychological growth. Specifically, Danzi and Greca (2017) state that the incorporation of the developmental approach invites the opportunity to prevent functional impairment earlier. However, the proposed framework also fails to focus on several facets of a child’s functioning and the symptoms that they show (Targum & Nemeroff, 2019). Therefore, the incorporation of a different perspective that could embrace every single facet of a child’s response to trauma is needed.

Clinical Psychology and PTSD

The perspective of clinical psychology on the subject matter, in turn, suggests that the problem is considered from different facets. The clinical psychology approach toward addressing the health concerns of young patients with PTSD allows inferring the causes of the PTSD phenomenon and developing a comprehensive treatment model that would encompass social, psychological, and developmental issues. Rooted in the EBP principles, the clinical perspective will invite opportunities for a personalized approach to each patient and consider the tools that could be utilized to assist a patient.

It is also noteworthy that some of the most recent studies suggest combining each of the three approaches toward managing the needs of children with PTSD to reduce the extent of the adverse effects that the disorder produces. Known as the bio-psycho-social model, the framework can be seen as a fairly innovative tool for addressing the distress that young patients with PTSD experience. Due to the combination of the three perspectives, the bio-psycho-social strategy invites the opportunity to incorporate clinical and psychological interventions along with extensive support from family members and peers (Kent, Rivers, & Wrenn, 2015). However, the enhancement of the role of the clinical perspective requires a more detailed focus due to the importance of early prevention and control over the treatment process, which the clinical framework provides.

Methods

Design

Approaching the issue of PTSD management in children will require a profound analysis of the problem. Since the superiority of the clinical framework compared to the developmental and psychological strategies needs to be proven, quasi-experimental research based on the quantitative research method will be required. An ANOVA analysis involving a comparison between the outcomes in different groups in which treatment procedures are based on different types of psychology approaches will be used. Thus, the differences in variances and, ultimately, the efficacy of each framework on the management of PTSD in children will be identified to determine whether the clinical psychology approach leads to better results than more common techniques.

Participants

The research will be performed in a local healthcare facility. Children that have experienced PTSD will be recruited for the research. To accomplish the described goal, one will need the informed consent of their parents or legal guardians. Letters of informed consent will be sent for signing to a total of 200 parents whose children will be selected for the study. The sample size will be represented by 132 participants given the fact that the confidence level for the analysis is currently 95%. The age of the participants (10-16) and the presence of PTSD in the target demographic will be the key inclusion criteria.

Procedure/Measures

In the course of the research, the data will be collected based on the changes in patients’ health records. The pre-test and post-test data collection will serve as the foundation for the following analysis of the changes that are expected to be observed after the implementation of the three proposed approaches to managing PTSD in children. The data will be retrieved by including the responses provided by the participants before and after the intervention with the help of the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale (Mischel et al., 2019). The proposed tool is expected to serve as the basis for gauging the extent to which patients have been responding to trauma-related factors and the pace of their recovery.

Data Analysis

The information will be analyzed with the help of the one-way ANOVA test. The identified tool will help to determine the effects that different independent variables, specifically, the suggested approaches toward the treatment process, have on the well-being of children and their ability to overcome their childhood trauma (Scheepstra et al., 2017). Therefore, the assessment of the information to be acquired in the course of the research will be performed in a manner as accurate and comprehensive as possible.

As emphasized above, it will be indispensable for the research results to be credible and ethical, participants’ parents or legal guardians will need to sign informed consent papers. Thus, the key ethical concern of consent will be addressed. In addition, it will be necessary to ensure that patients will be provided with the maximum safety during the experiment and that their personal data will remain secure. The specified measures will help to keep the research ethical and treat participants with respect and dignity.

Conclusion

The management of PTSD in children remains a problematic issue in modern healthcare. Due to the lack of a clinical perspective in the management of patients’ needs, the opportunity for introducing an all-encompassing approach toward handling the instances of PTSD in children is missed. Therefore, effects of incorporating the clinical perspective into the current framework for addressing the health concerns faced by children with PTSD is needed. By conducting the analysis of the effects that each of the existing approaches, including the clinical one, produces on the target population, one will be able to create the strategy that will be most beneficial to patients. As a result, the problem of PTSD in children and the following development of mental health issues in the specified demographic as they grow older will be managed. A follow-up study may address the issue in question may be needed to locate further directions in the choice of clinical psychology as the tool for managing PTSD in young patients.

References

Coifman, K. G., Kane, M. J., Bishop, M., Matt, L. M., Nylocks, K. M., & Aurora, P. (2019). Predicting negative affect variability and spontaneous emotion regulation: Can working memory span tasks estimate emotion regulatory capacity? Emotion. Advance online publication. Web.

Danzi, B. A., & Greca, A. M. L. (2017). Optimizing clinical thresholds for PTSD: Extending the DSM-5 preschool criteria to school-age children. International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology, 17(3), 234–241. Web.

Kent, M., Rivers, C., & Wrenn, G. (2015). Goal-Directed Resilience in Training (GRIT): A biopsychosocial model of self-regulation, executive functions, and personal growth (eudaimonia) in evocative contexts of PTSD, obesity, and chronic pain. Behavioral Sciences, 5(2), 264-304. Web.

Mischel, E. R., Bynion, T. M., Leen-Feldner, E. W., & Feldner, M. T. (2019). An evaluation of the validity of a script-driven imagery procedure among traumatic event–exposed adolescents. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy. Advance online publication. Web.

Scheepstra, K. W. F., van Steijn, M. E., Dijksman, L. M., & van Pampus, M. G. (2017). Post-traumatic stress disorder in women and their partners, following severe post-partum hemorrhage: A study protocol for a prospective cohort study. Cogent Medicine, 4(1), 1-12. Web.

Targum, S. D., & Nemeroff, C. B. (2019). The effect of early life stress on adult psychiatric disorders. Innovations in Clinical Neuroscience, 16(1-2), 35-37.

U.S. Department for Veteran Affairs. (2018). PTSD: National Center for PTSD. Web.

Rape denotes an act of sexual assault that entails forceful sexual intercourse (Stanko, 1990). It is considered a criminal act and is punishable in every society. This vice comes with plenty of trauma for the victim in the psychological sense, which shatters the life of the victim (Adams, 2012). Rape victims need much counseling and close attention to recover from the trauma that follows it. Stanko (2013) notes that those problems that come about as a result of rape can subject the victim to mental torture and even develop into a sickness if unattended. Therefore, immediate attention can help resolve the problem before it gets out of hand. This essay discusses the rape of an acquaintance, the stress she went through, and the approach she used to cope with the problem.

Memories of the trauma experienced by the victim were still fresh in her mind three years after the sexual assault. The victim grappled with plenty of mental trauma after the incident. The problems she went through after the incident was shock and disbelief, followed by acute stress, which deteriorated the quality of her life tremendously. Additionally, she went through life with a lack of self-esteem, and nurturing relationships with other people became a problem.

The victim’s emotional and mental problems spiraled into a state of depression. She always felt sad and hopeless. Sometimes she would be found crying in seclusion. A significant loss of weight occurred, as she was unable to eat. Stanko (2013) observes that the feeling of depression is characterized by the loss of appetite. A depression patient feels lost in life and develops a sense of rejection, which can lead to suicidal thoughts (Stanko, 2013).

The victim also developed a sense of disassociation, where she felt that she was in another world. She often had nightmares as her mind was always fixed on the incident. Stanko (1990) notes that when the problem of disassociation becomes complex in a victim, it becomes difficult for them to function normally. The victim may lose concentration on work or studies in case she is a student. The situation of the victim in question was consistent with Stanko’s assertion as she became unable to undertake her normal chores due to the problems caused by the rape incident.

She found it difficult to talk to friends and other people in society. She always harbored the notion that she was the talk of everybody. Consequently, she tried to isolate herself to avoid embarrassment. In agreement with her action, Stanko (1990) argues that sexual assault makes one develop an attitude of rejection and helplessness. They end up keeping to themselves and trying to resolve their issues without any help from a second party. The incident also affected the spiritual wellbeing of the victim. She developed the feeling that she had been rejected even by God, whom she had believed in so much. As a result, she stopped attending church programs as she used to do before.

However, since life had to go on, the incident changed her life in a negative way. She started excessive drinking in an attempt to cope with the situation. At the time, she believed that becoming an alcoholic would alleviate the stress and the feeling of separation from society. Adams (2012) argues that most rape victims indulge in drug abuse in order to cope with the problems underneath. However, this habit can only relieve the pain for a short while but complicates the victim’s life further.

Drinking did not resolve the victim’s problems. She sought to find other alternatives. Therefore, she started talking to friends and relatives about the issue because she realized that doing so somehow relieved her pain. Apparently, this approach was the best strategy to resolve the problem because Stanko (2013) opines that victims of rape need counseling from immediate and close friends or relatives. It helps them deal with the emotional difficulties they undergo. Further, victims are advised to seek help from designated counseling centers or professionals. These centers usually have plenty of resources to help people who are suffering from trauma feel safe and loved (Stanko, 1990).

The victim also involved herself in physical activities, as advised by her counselor. Keeping oneself busy breaks the monotony of being alone, which could give way to negative thoughts and exacerbate stress (Stanko, 1990). Physical activities also give the body the stamina to overcome the difficulty and stay alert all the time. The physical activities helped much, especially in resolving the problem of being alone.

Based on advice and encouragement from her counselor, she was able to adopt a well-balanced diet. This change helped her to recover her strength and focus. It also allowed her to start having a better sleep. It is necessary that trauma victims give themselves enough time to rest after eating well in order to allow the body to replenish its used energy (Stanko, 2013).

The victim was also advised to develop a positive feeling about the situation and go on normally with her chores to eliminate the stress. She was encouraged to share her feelings with those people she felt comfortable with, but avoid those people who influenced her recovery efforts negatively.

The best precaution victims of rape should consider is that they should first report the incident to the police before taking a bath. It can seem to be irritating, but it is the best idea for a start. Once the incident has been reported, the police are in a position to assist the victim in managing the problems of insecurity that follow such incidents. The repercussions of rape can include many health problems, such as contracting HIV/AIDS and unwanted pregnancies.

Most rape perpetrators never use protection, and one can easily contract sexually transmitted diseases as well. Physical bruises are also associated with the act. The physical injuries occur when the assaulted person is a minor, and the perpetrator uses force. The force can even leave the victim with broken bones in some exceptional cases. Therefore, reporting the incident will prompt the police to seek a health consultant who can promptly initiate treatment for any health problems related to the incident. They can later refer the victim to a counselor who can assist in overcoming the psychological trauma that follows.

Sexual assault victims need time to recover. Thus, there is a need for patience from the victim and those around them. When rape instigated stress is carefully managed, a victim can recover quickly and return to their normal life. Perpetrators of rape are criminals that need to be punished severely to stop them from committing more similar crimes, which can lead to stressful experiences for other people. Potential victims should also try to avoid placing themselves in positions of vulnerability. For example, walking alone in the dark in unsafe places and wearing clothes that are too revealing is not advisable. Arguably, taking precautions is the best strategy for dealing with any situation.

References

Adams, B. (2012). Effects of sexual victimization on suicidal ideation and behavior in U.S. college women. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 28(1), 107-126. Web.

Stanko, E. (1990). Everyday violence (1st ed.). London, England: Pandora. Web.

Stanko, E. (2013). Intimate Intrusions (1st ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Taylor and Francis. Web.

Introduction

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is one of the most debilitating psychological conditions. The disorder may affect individuals from diverse backgrounds who were exposed to different traumatic and violent experiences at some point in their lives. PTSD is associated with multiple comorbidities, including anxiety, depression, chronic pain syndromes, substance abuse disorders, obesity, and heart diseases (van der Kolk et al., 2014). Besides that, PTSD substantially and negatively affects one’s performance of daily activities and significantly increases the risk of suicide (Pearce, Haynes, Rivera, & Koenig, 2018). Therefore, it is essential to implement effective treatment methods for those who suffer from this adverse condition in order to provide them with a chance to come back to normal life.

Nowadays, many types of PTSD interventions are available to patients. The majority of them are either pharmacological or psychotherapeutic in nature. However, the effectiveness of such traditional remedies as antidepressants and cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is currently under question. For instance, the results of a large control trial summarized by van der Kolk et al. (2014) revealed that 78% of participants still had PTSD symptoms six months after completing a behavioral therapy. Moreover, as reported by Hanling et al. (2016), the existing evidence-based PTSD treatments are effective only in 30-40% of cases. Therefore, besides exploring traditional treatments, a lot of contemporary studies investigate the effectiveness of alternative interventions as well.

Considering the ongoing debate on the effects of various PTSD interventions, the present paper will evaluate research findings on multiple types of treatment methods with the purpose of comparing their effectiveness. To attain the formulated goal, the paper will review high-quality peer-reviewed studies dedicated to the investigation of both conventional and unconventional treatment methods. The narrative will be arranged in three sections: psychotherapy, pharmacology, and alternative remedies. As part of each theme, the content and effects of the studied interventions will be described, and the comparison of researchers’ hypotheses, goals, and methods will be provided. In the final section, the effectiveness of all the explored interventions will be discussed to summarize the results of the present literature review.

Psychotherapy

A great variety of psychotherapies exist today, and many of them have a lot to offer for individuals with PTSD. A few possible treatments that were investigated in recent research studies include CBT, Psychodynamic Psychotherapy (PTD), Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR), and Cognitive Processing Therapy (CPT). These psychological and cognitive-behavioral interventions are characterized by different approaches. To comprehend those differences, the content of the analyzed treatment measures will be briefly explained in the present section. When doing so, the descriptions of methods and procedures utilized by the authors of the selected studies will be primarily referred to.

Procedures and Study Methods

CBT and PTD were researched in a study by Levi, Bar-Haim, Kreiss, and Fruchter (2015), who had a goal of comparing the effectiveness of these two methods. Levi et al. (2015) used two samples of combat veterans with chronic PTSD: 148 individuals were recruited for 24 weekly CBT sessions and 95 persons for 50 weekly PTD sessions. Noteworthily, participants were assigned by professional therapists to a treatment method non-randomly, based on their mental characteristics. Those with more severe social and personality issues received PTD, which had a goal of helping patients to restore their personal integrity and regain control of life experiences. This treatment method comprised three stages: 1) development of a therapeutic alliance between therapists and their clients, 2) analysis of patients’ unconscious problems associated with an experienced trauma, and 3) termination that involves a free expression of negative emotions and an evaluation of therapy results.

As for CBT implemented by Levi et al. (2015), it included five phases. The therapy started with psycho-education aimed to comprehend the impacts of experienced trauma and proceeded to the reconstruction of the traumatic event and the identification of mental, emotional, and cognitive blocks. The final stages of CBT involved the exploration of the meaning of a chosen traumatic event through in vivo exposure, a summary of the therapy, and termination. In spite of differences in the two treatment methods and sample populations employed by Levi et al. (2015), they were evaluated by using the same analytical methods and instruments, including pre-and post-treatment analyses, as well as intention-to-treat analyses during the follow-up stage.

Another intervention type, EMDR, was examined in the study by Acarturk et al. (2015), who examined the therapy’s effectiveness in a sample of randomly selected Netherlands-based Syrian refugees with PTSD symptoms (n=15). The therapy consisted of four stages, including history discussion and treatment planning, education about EMDR, recollection of traumatic memories, and identification of negative cognitions. The seven-week EMDR course ended with desensitization by performing horizontal eye movements while recalling a target memory and the development of positive cognitions. When analyzing intervention results, the researchers compared the exposed group of participants to a control sample (n=14) comprised of individuals who were enrolled in a wait-list and did not receive any treatment. Similar to Levi et al. (2015), Acarturk et al. (2015) collected preliminary information about participants’ PTSD symptoms and consequently contrasted that data set with post-treatment and follow-up outcomes.

The last therapy type that will be discussed in this section is CPT, which was explored by Pearce et al. (2018). In their case study, Pearce et al. (2018) examined whether the integration of patients’ spiritual values and beliefs into a CPT course can help them cope well with moral injury and distress whose role in PTSD progression and treatment are currently understudied. The intervention consisted of twelve sessions, including psycho-education; discussion of spirituality, compassion, and traumatic events; exploration of negative cognitions linked to one’s moral injury; and implementation of spiritual resources to restore trust and self-esteem. To evaluate the results, Pearce et al. (2018) compared patients’ PTSD diagnosis scores before and after the treatment.

Importance and Implications

As the conducted review reveals, different study methods and designs were employed by researchers and described in the selected articles. These distinctions are important to note since they are associated with disparate levels of research credibility. For instance, non-random sampling utilized by Levi et al. (2015) may indicate that the results of their study are not generalizable to the general population. At the same time, the findings by Pearce et al. (2018) seem to be less trustworthy than those received by Acarturk et al. (2015) and Levi et al. (2015) because the former obtained evidence by using the case study design with only one individual in the sample. These limitations will be considered in the further comparison of treatment effectiveness in the final section of the present literature review.

Pharmacology

Nowadays, many classes of drugs can be taken as part of pharmacologic therapy aimed to combat PTSD. As stated by Stein (2019), patients can frequently be resistant to psychotherapy. Thus, the use of various medications can help to increase the efficacy of interventions and may be particularly effective in alleviating acute PTSD symptoms (Stein, 2019). The therapies that will be reviewed in this section involve the use of such drugs as ketamine and stellate ganglion block (SGB).

Procedures and Study Methods

Intravenous ketamine injections are a novel pharmacological intervention method for PTSD. According to Feder et al. (2014), ketamine is an antagonist of the glutamate N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor, which means that it works as an anesthetic and painkiller. Due to the features of the medication, it is frequently used for the treatment of patients with resistant depression symptoms, which makes ketamine a potentially effective remedy against PTSD (Feder et al., 2014). The efficacy and safety of this drug are explored in the study by Feder et al. (2014).

The authors of the selected study utilized a double-blind, randomized control trial design. They contrasted the results obtained from forty-one patients with chronic PTSD who were randomly exposed to either a 0.5 mg/kg dose of ketamine hydrochloride or a 0.045 mg/kg dose of placebo (midazolam) for more than 40 minutes. The assessment of drug safety and efficacy was conducted 40, 120, and 240 minutes after the injection, as well as on the second, third, and seventh days after the procedure. Noteworthily, all participants were asked to avoid using any psychotropic drugs, alcohol, and other substances during the trial period in order to measure the duration of ketamine effects. Those patients whose PTSD diagnosis score remained significantly low as per the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS) for two weeks after the drug infusion was freed from repeating the procedure.

Like ketamine infusions, SGB is a non-traditional pharmacologic treatment method for PTSD. The administration of SGB helps to both inhibit efferent sympathetic effects and relieve pain in the upper extremities and the head (Hanling et al., 2016). Hanling et al. (2016) explored the drug’s effectiveness in terms of PTSD treatment in their double-blind, randomized control trial since a few of the previous studies reported the beneficial effects of the medication in cases of depression. The researchers recruited a total number of forty-two individuals with both combat-related and combat-unrelated PTSD who had the CAPS score of 40 or higher. The participants were randomly assigned to either an SGB injection or a sham injection (placebo). Those in the sample exposed to the treatment of interest received an injection of 5 mL of 0.5% ropivacaine in the area above the right C5 or C6 vertebra. The same techniques and procedure steps, including ultrasound guidance and injection of moderate sedation medication, were utilized for the control group. Consequently, Hanling et al. (2016) conducted assessments one week and one month after the treatment and compared the primary and post-treatment outcomes in both study populations.

Importance and Implications

Both the selected studies employed similar study designs and almost the same sample sizes. Their main advantage is the double-blinded randomization, which means that both researchers and participants were not aware of what type of intervention was received by each patient in the trial. Such an approach allows minimizing the occurrence of behavioral changes that can impact the outcomes of the investigation (“Placebo and drug kits,” 2017). Based on this, it is valid to say that the findings obtained by Hanling et al. (2016) and Feder et al. (2014) are characterized by a significant level of validity and credibility, which will speak in favor of these studies in the further comparative discussion of interventions’ effectiveness.

Alternative Remedies

Today many patients and medical practitioners show an increasing interest in the use of alternative intervention methods, which include different types of physical exercising, homeopathy, naturopathy, and some more non-traditional treatment types. Many of these interventions are considered to be safer than conventional pharmacotherapies since they normally do not induce any severe adverse side effects (Engel et al., 2014). Besides that, some studies demonstrated that alternative treatments, such as yoga and acupuncture, can significantly alleviate the symptoms of such physical and psychological conditions as anxiety, depression, stress, asthma, hypertension, and diabetes (Engel et al., 2014; van der Kolk et al., 2014). The mechanisms of some alternative therapies’ function also imply that they can have beneficial effects in the case of PTSD. Therefore, such remedies as yoga, acupuncture, and aerobic exercise will be reviewed in the present section of the literature review.

Procedures and Study Methods

Aerobic exercise as a therapy for PTSD was investigated in a randomized control trial by Fetzner and Asmundson (2014). Based on the findings of a few previous studies, the researchers hypothesized that attentional focus inherent with physical exercising has a therapeutic effect, allowing patients to become distracted from negative thoughts and feelings. To verify this assumption and assess the effectiveness of aerobic exercise as a treatment method for PTSD, Fetzner, and Asmundson (2014) recruited thirty-three patients who were expected to complete a two-week course of stationary biking exercise.

The participants were randomly assigned to different groups with the purpose to either draw their attention to somatic sensations associated with the exercise (Group 1) or distract from those somatic sensations by making them watch a documentary during the intervention (Group 2). At the same time, Group 3 was allowed to complete the exercising sessions without any distractions or introspective prompts. To compare the outcomes in the three samples, Fetzner and Asmundson (2014) used data collected before the exercise course, as well as the results of immediate post-treatment assessment, one-week follow-up, and one-month follow-up. The differences in participants’ PTSD characteristics and previous fitness levels were considered during the analysis to eliminate the potential impacts of these variables on final study findings.

As a form of physical exercise, yoga is associated with a similar attentional focus as aerobic exercise. However, yoga also involves an element of mindfulness, which is linked to some promising favorable effects in terms of emotional regulation (van der Kolk et al., 2014). Considering the abovementioned assumptions, van der Kolk et al. (2014) investigated the effects of yoga therapy in the sample of sixty-four adult women with PTSD (CAPS score > 45). The participants were randomly assigned to either a ten-week yoga program designed by certified yoga instructors or to a supportive female health education course. While the first treatment option drew women’s attention to bodily sensations during physical activity sessions and incorporated meditational practices, the second one only instructed the involved women on self-care practices. To compare the effects in two population groups, van der Kolk et al. (2014) used both self-reported and objective assessment instruments before, during, and after the treatment. The researchers employed rigorous statistical analysis tools to reveal changes in symptom trends during both interventions.

The last alternative remedy that will be reviewed in the present section is acupuncture, which was explored in the study by Engel et al. (2014). According to the results of previous research projects, acupuncture affects the limbic system, prefrontal cortex, and autonomic nervous system, which are involved in the development of some PTSD symptoms (Engel et al., 2014). However, the mechanisms through which acupuncture works are not entirely understood, which makes the study of the intervention’s effects particularly important. Thus, Engel et al. (2014) compared whether the combination of a four-week acupuncture course with usual PTSD treatment (UPC) (n=28) would induce better patient outcomes compared to UPC alone (n=27). The exposed sample group received eight acupuncture sessions during which thin needles were inserted at certain bodily points in their subcutaneous tissues by professional acupuncturists for 15-30 minutes. As for UPCs, they comprised such traditional interventions as pharmacology and psychotherapy and differed in the case of every participant. Pre- and post-treatment outcomes were compared for both population groups, and differences in UPCs were registered to minimize the chance of outcome bias.

Importance and Implications

The three studies discussed above employed the same research design, which is associated with a substantial degree of validity. Nevertheless, the researchers used different sample sizes, and their study populations significantly differed in terms of demographic characteristics. For example, van der Kolk et al. (2014) focused on the analysis of female participants and, therefore, it is not clear whether their findings can be generalized to males as well. At the same time, Engel et al. (2014) reported a small sample size as the main limitation of their study, whereas the differences in participants’ UPCs could affect their study outcomes as well. Sample groups investigated by Fetzner and Asmundson (2014) were also relatively small and, moreover, comprised an unequal number of patients (thirty-three, twenty-five, and eight). In addition, their study lacked a non-exposed control group, which makes it difficult to tell whether the changes in participants’ conditions were due to the intervention of some other factors. Overall, it means that the findings of each of the three studies may need some further verification through further research with enhanced methods.

Comparison of Treatment Effectiveness

The majority of the reviewed studies revealed that the studied interventions were associated with statistically significant improvements in patients’ health conditions. For instance, the research of CBT and PTD conducted by Levi et al. (2015) revealed that both interventions led to better functioning levels and a considerable decline in PTSD and depression symptoms. Levi et al. (2015) observed that right after the treatment, 35% of individuals exposed to CBT were in remission compared to 45% of persons exposed to PTD. Moreover, 33% of CBT patients were still in remission during the eight-to-twelve-months follow-up compared to 36% of PTD recipients (Levi et al., 2015). It means that the differences in the positive effects of these psychotherapies are insignificant and can be considered long-term.

EMDR demonstrated some lasting positive results in reducing both PTSD and depression symptoms as well. For example, the severity of PTSD symptoms as per the Impact of Event Scale-Revised in the exposed sample group had dropped from the score of 64.80 during pre-treatment to 22.87 during posttreatment (seven weeks), and 18.93 during a four-week follow-up evaluation (Acarturk et al., 2015). At the same time, the outcomes in the non-exposed control group remained almost unchanged: 56.93 during pre-treatment and 54.21 during post-treatment (Acarturk et al., 2015). Acupuncture was associated with similar effects based on the results of the PTSD Checklist assessment. Those exposed to acupuncture and UPC together showed a decline from the score of 58.1 (pre-treatment) to 38.8 (four weeks) that they managed to maintain even during the twelve-week follow-up (Engel et al., 2014). In contrast, patients who received only UPC in the research by Engel et al. (2014) did not show any significant short-term or long-term positive changes.

Persistent favorable effects in terms of PTSD-related trauma regulation were also observed in patients who participated in a yoga course. While the control group that merely received education exhibited positive changes in symptom management during the intervention, only yoga class participants were able to maintain those changes (van der Kolk et al., 2014). At the same time, two other promising intervention methods, Ketamine infusions and a two-week aerobic exercise program were linked to short-term reductions in PTSD symptoms. The research by Fetzner and Asmudson (2014) revealed that 89% of participants in the total study population showed a significant decline in PTSD severity after exercising regardless of whether they received cognitive distractions or not. Ketamine intake also led to a drastic decline in the severity of PTSD symptoms, and the positive effect remained strong within 24 hours after injection (Feder et al., 2014). However, the findings suggest that in the latter two interventions, the gains can quickly be lost if patients stop the treatment.

It seems that the evidence obtained by Levi et al. (2015) is the most reliable since the researchers utilized the biggest sample sizes compared to other authors whose studies were discussed. Nevertheless, it is valid to say that the use of control groups by Acarturk et al. (2015), van der Kolk et al. (2014), and Feder et al. (2014) contributed to the reliability of their findings as well regardless of the small samples. At the same time, evidence received by Engel et al. (2014) and Fetzner and Asmudson (2014) has lower quality. The former failed to register the differences in participants’ UPCs, whereas the latter did not compare aerobic exercise intervention with a non-exposed group or a population receiving a different/regular treatment. Thus, it is essential to explore acupuncture and aerobic exercise further in the studies with better research designs.

Finally, the literature review results suggest that interventions associated with less positive outcomes are SGB and spiritually integrated CPT. Although Hangling et al. (2016) utilized rigorous study methods, they did not reveal any significant differences in the effects of SGB and sham injections on patients with PTSD. As for the CPT, a case study design employed by Pearce et al. (2018) was not enough to establish the effectiveness of the treatment. Pearce et al. (2018) indicated that the method of their interest might be beneficial in the treatment of PTSD since it targets patients’ moral and spiritual resources. Still, further empirical comparative studies and control trials are required to verify their hypothesis.

Conclusion

The literature review indicated that patients with PTSD now have access to many effective interventions. Psychotherapies (CBT, PTD, and EMDR) and such alternative treatments as yoga are particularly promising since their long-term effectiveness is verified by empirical evidence obtained in high-quality studies. Ketamine injections are also advantageous in terms of reducing acute PTSD symptoms. However, as a pharmacologic treatment, Ketamine may be associated with adverse side effects that are yet to be explored longitudinally. Overall, it is valid to conclude that in order to increase the chance of positive treatment outcomes, individuals with PTSD and their healthcare practitioners must consider combining a few of the discussed interventions. Even those methods whose effectiveness remains under question due to the identified research design limitations can potentially relieve some PTSD symptoms and improve one’s quality of life.

References

Acarturk, C., Konuk, E., Cetinkaya, M., Senay, I., Sijbrandij, M., Cuijpers, P., & Aker, T. (2015). EMDR for Syrian refugees with posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms: Results of a pilot randomized controlled trial. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 6(27414), 1-9.

Engel, C. C., Cordova, E. H., Benedek, D. M., Liu, X., Gore, K. L., Goertz, C., … Ursano, R. J. (2014). Randomized effectiveness trial of a brief course of acupuncture for posttraumatic stress disorder. Medical Care, 52(12), S57-S64.

Feder, A., Parides, M. K., Murrough, J. W., Perez, A. M., Morgan, J. E., Saxena, S., … Charney, D. S. (2014). Efficacy of intravenous ketamine for treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. JAMA Psychiatry, 71(6), 681.

Fetzner, M. G., & Asmundson, G. J. (2014). Aerobic exercise reduces symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder: A randomized controlled trial. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 44(4), 301-313.

Hanling, S. R., Hickey, A., Lesnik, I., Hackworth, R. J., Stedje-Larsen, E., Drastal, C. A., & McLay, R. N. (2016). Stellate ganglion block for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder: A randomized, double-blind, controlled trial. Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine, 41(4), 494-500.

Levi, O., Bar-Haim, Y., Kreiss, Y., & Fruchter, E. (2015). Cognitive-behavioural therapy and psychodynamic psychotherapy in the treatment of combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder: A comparative effectiveness study. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 23(4), 298-307.

Pearce, M., Haynes, K., Rivera, N. R., & Koenig, H. G. (2018). Spiritually integrated cognitive processing therapy: A new treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder that targets moral injury. Global Advances in Health and Medicine, 7, 1-7.

Placebo and drug kits in clinical trial design. (2017). WHO Drug Information, 31(2), 158-161.

Stein, M. B. (2019). Pharmacotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder in adults. Web.

van der Kolk, B. A., Stone, L., West, J., Rhodes, A., Emerson, D., Suvak, M., & Spinazzola, J. (2014). Yoga as an adjunctive treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 75(6), e559-e565.

Introduction

Some might think that when a soldier returns home from war, the struggle is over, and the person is safe and can return to regular life. But in fact, this opinion is far from the truth because those who manage to survive in battle often come back challenged with a severe psychological disorder, find themselves unprepared to living normally, and do not know how to cope with the distress.

The mental condition of a person who has experienced a psychologically damaging event such as war is referred to as posttraumatic stress disorder or PTSD. Reintegration of soldiers with PTSD into society has long been a difficult issue, but different approaches can help mitigate the consequences of traumatic experiences. The creation of special programs for the rehabilitation of veterans helped alleviate the problem of PTSD during the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan and facilitated the development of a support system that is currently used.

Creation of Support Programs for Veterans

The actions of activists that took place in the early 2000s can provide an example of a successful attempt to make a difference in the community. The creation of programs and non-profit organizations that were focused on helping veterans suffering from mental conditions is a major event that occurred during that time (“Winning the soldier’s heart”). The United States became actively involved in military conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan, which raised the problem of mental disorders among veterans. Many specialists who worked on such projects had their own experience participating in combat, and, thus, can understand the nature and specific features of situations and challenges that soldiers face when they return from a war zone.

Addressing the Problem of Suicide

The creation of such a program was critically important at that time because the rehabilitation of army veterans with PTSD was not addressed properly. It led to the situation when ex-soldiers who risked their lives for their country were left alone, helpless in the face of the problem they could not handle themselves. Thousands of veterans committed suicide after returning to the United States, exceeding the number of soldiers who were killed in action (Harmon et al. 15). Attending this issue, the programs helped many veterans to return to normal life.

Stimulating Discussing and Fighting Stigma

Another important aspect of the event was that discussion about the program drew public attention to the problem. Breaking the silence and starting a conversation about the situation regarding individuals who had PTSD was critical for fighting the stigma associated with it. Some tended to look at mental wounds as a sign of weakness of a solder. As a result, soldiers felt that had to deny that they need help, which only worsened their suffering (Harmon et al. 16).

Stimulating discussion allowed educating people in both military and civilian communities about the nature of the problem and helped encourage veterans not to feel ashamed and ask for psychological help when it was needed. Explaining different aspects of what it means to be a soldier is also a significant contribution this program made. Educating soldiers facilitates awareness, reduces stress, and most importantly helps soldiers find deeper meaning in everyday life.

Influence on Present Situation

The event has had a positive impact on the current situation. Although further improvements are still required, now the community is more aware of the difficulties that veterans face when they come back to the United States. The innovative methods used in the program were studied and proved effective. Research provides sufficient evidence that participation in such programs significantly reduces suicide rates among veterans and has an overall positive effect on their wellbeing (Harmon et al. 16). Furthermore, data gathered by such organizations that worked at the beginning of the 2000s can be applied now to increase the effectiveness of new programs.

Future of the Problem

Based on how the situation has been developing over the last decades, the prognosis for the future can be quite optimistic. The development of new ways to approach PTSD that are both effective and inexpensive will provide everyone who needs help with appropriate treatment and support. Evidence-based methods and techniques will be further improved, and the number of professionals who specialize in the field will increase, leading to a higher quality of help. In addition to that, growing public awareness of the situation and efforts in education will facilitate the process of reintegration of veterans into society. Educating the public will also help avoid stigmatization and alienation of the affected individuals in the community, allowing faster and easier recovery.

Conclusion

Understanding the challenges of others, helping them to feel respected and accepted, and fighting stigma are necessary to promote diversity in society and create a better world for everyone. Non-profit organizations and programs that were created in the early 2000s and provided psychological help and support for veterans with PTSD and other challenging conditions showed that the problem could be addressed and lightened. Stimulating conversation, turning public attention to the issue, and educating people have led to a better understanding of the situation and helped dispel misconceptions and stigma regarding it.

Works Cited

Harmon, Lisa M., et al. “A Review of the Effectiveness of Military Suicide Prevention Programs in Reducing Rates of Military Suicides.” Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment 26.1 (2016): 15-24.

“Winning the Soldier’s Heart.” Washington Post, 2009. Web.

Abstract

Objective

The aim of the study is to investigate the connection between eating and stress. The main point is to investigate how our eating behavior influences our emotional state. It also aims at determining whether a lack of food influences our feelings and reactions to human and environmental factors. This study intends to explore all factors determining the link between eating and stress.

Methodology

The study is based on an online survey sample. The survey was based on an interview of 40 female samples aged between 20 and 30 years from Saudi Arabia. Out of 40 selected sample females, only 20 aged between 20 and 25 years completed a questionnaire form.

Hypotheses

There is a link between eating habits and stress. Lack of food influences the way we react to people and our environment. Failure to have a meal or two will cause stress. Finally, people tend to eat a lot of food when they have stress.

Results

The result obtained produced unpredicted outcomes. The results indicated that those under stress eat the same way those who are happy. However, the results were close to the hypotheses in terms of how a lack of food can cause stress. In terms of their relationship, the results were almost similar.

Conclusion

The results demonstrate the purpose of this study, which is to determine the link between eating and stress.

Research Question

• Do you believe the lack of a meal or two can cause stress?
• Do you consume a large amount of food when you are stressed or happy?
• Do you notice any change in your emotions when you are angry?

Introduction

Even though food is essential for the survival of humans, it also contributes to mental development and status. Therefore, food acts as a tranquilizer that stabilizes our emotional status and behaviors towards people and the environment. The rationale of this study depends on the fact that food is essential for our physical and mental development and behaviors. Eating habits may affect the emotional and physical response of an individual to their physical environment and people. At the same time, an emotional state of mind will influence the manner in which a person eats. From the results obtained in the survey conducted on 40 Saudi women, it is clear that there is a close relationship between eating habits and state of mind. This paper tends to explore the relationship between eating habits and stress.

Literature Review

In a study conducted by Nasser and others to determine whether perceived long-term stress among first-year students at King Saudi University causes abnormalities in eating habit and cardio-metabolism. A sample of 120 students: 40 men and 80 women were surveyed. From the research, 58.5 percent of men demonstrated negative results, while 60 percent of women demonstrated positive results (Goodhart, 2011).

Studies of humans have discovered that a decrease or increase in food consumption to respond to a stressful situation depends on the nature and severity of the stressor. The negative image of a person’s body and unhealthy eating can cause stress. However, stress can also cause unhealthy eating habits in an individual (Davis & Eshelman, 2008). The connection between eating and stress can be unfavorable in many ways. Stressful feelings can cause unhealthy eating behavior in different ways. Emotionally and the mentally unstable person may refuse to eat for the whole day. On the other hand, an individual who is overwhelmed with happiness may eat very little or refuse to eat anything at all (Liu, 2007). It is important to note that mechanisms that take place in our body are triggered by various chemical reactions.

Hormones play an essential role in coordinating the functions of the body. They are the chemicals that trigger appetite, stress, and happiness (McComb, 2007). The state of our environment determines the kind of hormones our body releases in order to trigger a certain body function. When an appetite is stimulated, it largely depends on the interaction we are currently having with people and our environment. For instance, if someone is annoyed, he or she will tend to avoid food because of the annoyance (Michelle & Christie, 2012). As a result, an individual in such an environment may tend to eat more food. Furthermore, extreme happiness can make someone feel full because of the excitement caused by his or her achievements.

Many theories have been used to explain the link between stress and eating. The psychosomatic theory explains the association between eating and stress. According to the theory, eating food when stressed up can cause obesity. This is because the body will tend to use them as defense mechanisms for emotional instability. According to theory, obesity does not just come because someone overeats. However, it results from overeating whereby an individual overeats to in order to defeat emotional challenges. It explains that obesity is caused by too much eating to fight emotional stress, anxiety, and anger (Davis & Eshelman, 2008).

According to the study by Goodhart (2011), the abnormal eating habit can increase the level of stress in an individual. However, an abnormal eating habit not only makes the body to have physical stress but also worsens mental stress. The main cause of stress in our body is anxiety, which may be driven by personal or external factors. For instance, a person who has bad relations with his or her partner can develop anxiety and become stressed-up. On the other hand, an individual may develop an unhealthy way of consuming food. Such cases may cause obesity and other food-related illness. In that case, a person may end up becoming stressful. The main limitation of this study is that it does not explain to what extent obesity causes eating disorders.

Hypotheses

There is a connection between eating and stress. Lack of food influences the manner in which we react to people and our environment. Failure to have a meal or two will cause stress. Finally, people tend to eat a lot of food when they have stress.

Methodology

This study was conducted through an online survey whereby the correspondents would give their answers to the researchers through their emails. Men subject women in UAE to many stressors. They are exposed to emotional stress on a daily basis. The survey sample consisted of 40 women who were interviewed online. The researchers distributed the questionnaire forms to 40 women aged between 20 and 30 years. Out of this number, only 20 participated and submitted the forms back through email. Those who participated were college students aged between 20 and 25 years. The respondents were evaluated based on the answers they gave to the questions.

Results

The questionnaire forms had three questions. The first question asked, “Do you believe lack of a meal or two can cause stress?” All 20 respondents answered the question in which 60 percent of them strongly agreed, 20 percent agreed, and 20 percent disagreed. The second question asked, “Do you consume a large amount of food when you are stressed or happy?” Of the 20 respondents, 50 percent strongly agreed, while another 50 percent strongly disagreed. The third question asked, “Do you notice any change in your emotions when you are angry?” All 20 respondents strongly agreed.

Analysis

The results obtained from the survey support the hypotheses of this study. From the study, we can conclude that there is a relationship between food consumption and stress. Based on the answers given by the sample to question one, going without food can cause stress. When the body fails to respond to a normal habit, it triggers abnormal psychological effects, which can cause stress. However, some people are used to staying without a meal. Such people will not develop stress because they will perceive the situation to be a normal one. The answers to the second question are based on the status of an individual. For instance, when some people are stressed, they tend to avoid food completely. Instead, they isolate themselves from everyone and stop doing everything, including eating. Such people, in many cases, spend the whole day sleeping or just seated.

Discussion

Some people may tend to eat a lot when they are under stress. This is the reason 50 percent of the samples agreed that they eat more when happy or stressed. When a person is sad, he or she tends to find things that will make him or she avoid the adverse situation. One of these things may be eating a lot of food. However, the category of these people likes consuming soft drinks more than any other food. At the same time, there are individuals who lose appetite when they are happy and overjoyed. The extreme excitement they have will make them lose their appetite. On the other hand, some people tend to eat a lot when they are happy

Therefore, we can say that the hypotheses developed for this study were relevant. However, the fact that people tend to eat when they are stressed or happy is uncertain does not mean the hypotheses are irrelevant. It gives equal results on both sides. This implies that eating habits developed when someone is happy or stressed depends on the person. It depends on the strategies an individual uses to avoid a stressful situation. Some people may find relief when eating, while other people may find relief from stress by doing other things. Even though the second question provided the expected result, the hypotheses developed for the study is relevant to findings. This is because the majority of the correspondents tended to agree with the hypotheses. Therefore, the hypotheses remain relevant to this study.

Conclusion

The study is based on the relationship between food consumption and stress. From the study, it is clear there is a close relationship between eating and stress. The manner in which a person eats directly relates to the mental state of that person. On one side, stress influences an individual’s habit of eating. On the other side, eating habits may cause stress. Some people tend to go without food when they are facing stress. Due to emotional instability, they do not think about food. However, some people may eat a lot when subjected to stress. This depends on an individual’s way of trying to overcome stress. For those who eat a lot while under stress, their favorite food is soft drinks and snacks. This may develop into serious health conditions such as obesity if it continues for a long time.

References

Davis, M. & Eshelman, E. R. (2008). The relaxation & stress reduction workbook (6th ed.). Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications. Web.

Goodhart, K. L. (2011). Eating disorders in women and children prevention, stress management, and treatment, second edition (2nd ed.). Boca Raton: CRC Press. Web.

Liu, A. (2007). Gaining: the truth about life after eating disorders. New York: Warner Books. Web.

McComb, J. J. (2007). Eating disorders in women and children: prevention, stress management, and treatment. Boca Raton: CRC Press. Web.

Mitchell, S. & Christie, C. (2012). I’d kill for a cookie: a simple six-week plan to conquer stress eating. New York: Dutton. Web.

Stress consists of various physical processes encountered by the body under certain situations. Such physical processes are not only hard to control, but also happen automatically. Stress is a combination of physical and mental processes. Stress levels differ from one individual to another with persons predisposed to mental illness and anxiety affected the most. Given that stress is so prevalent among us today, it is important to explore the various techniques available for stress reduction. The essay is an attempt to examine how we may reduce stress by changing such cognitive patterns as negative thought processes, as well as by changing behaviors that creates or exacerbates stress.

Reducing stress by changing cognitive patterns

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is one of the behavioral techniques used in managing stress. CBT rests on the premise that stress comes about due to our feelings about life events, and our reaction to them (University of Maryland Medical Center para. 2). As such, CBT dispels the notion that stress is caused by life events. For example, when faced with a given situation, it is our perception of potential danger that dictates our level of stress, as opposed to the actual threat of danger. As such, CBT integrates reasoning, perception, and learning with behavior (University of Maryland Medical Center para. 5).

When caught in traffic, my mind wonders to the time lost and how I may never recover it. As a result, I start my day with negative thoughts. On the other hand, there are individuals who choose to view the positive side of a traffic jam. This is the time for them to relax and listen to music. Consequently, they emerge out of this situation a happy lot. In the same way, negative self talk shapes our experiences and can either trigger a calm demeanor or a calm response.

Negative self talk may trigger stress. It is important therefore to identify negative thinking. For example, I have been doing a self assessment on my negative thinking pattern and have realised that I tend to filter out the positive aspects of a situation at hand and instead magnify the negative aspects. There are times when relaxing at home after a hard day at work, I find myself trying to recall how I had accomplished the entire task within the stipulated deadlines. Sometimes I even recall the compliments of my superiors for a through and speedy job. However, in case I forgot one minor step, suddenly all the good deeds of the day no longer matter.

Another example of my negative thinking pattern is my penchant for catastrophizing things that go wrong in my life. For instance, if the drive-through coffee shop happens to get my order wrong on my way to work in the morning, I get the feeling that the rest of my day will be total chaos just because of this one single event. I also have the tendency to personalize things or events so that in case anything bad happens, I end up blaming myself for the unfolding events. For example, in case I am involved in a minor car collision on the road and all the signs indicate that the other driver is at fault, I blame myself for not having been more careful with my driving.

One way of reducing stress is by changing the aforementioned negative processes and instead, to focus on positive thinking (Mayo Clinic Staff para. 3). Positive thinking entails creating a habit of behaving and thinking in a more optimistic and positive way. To start with, I need to identify the areas to change. In this case, I have identified my daily commute, work and relationships as some of the areas that I need to work on. When stuck in traffic on my way to work, instead of whining about the lost time, I should see this as a chance for me to relax while listening to soothing music. Another strategy is to banish the negative thoughts is to stop and evaluate my thoughts throughout the day (Mayo Clinic Staff para. 5).

In case I discover that my thoughts are negative, I should find a way to accentuate the positive thoughts, at the expense of the negative ones. A good sense of humor helps to relieve stress, especially when times are hard. Smiling and laughing makes one feel less stressed. I should also form the habit of practicing positive self-talk. For instance, when faced with a new task, instead of thinking that I have never done it before I should see it as a chance to learn a new thing. Even when a task appears too radical to change, I should not fear to take a chance.

Stress is a combination of physical and mental processes that happens automatically, and at times, may be too hard to control. Negative thought processes tends to worsen stress. One of the strategies used to reduce stress is changing the cognitive patterns and behaviors that either creates or exacerbates stress. To do so, it is important to an individual needs to first identify the areas that they need to identify. Once this is done, it is important to replace the negative thought patterns with positive thinking. In other words, we should form the habit of accentuating positive thoughts. We should also form the habit of practicing positive self-talk. Finally, we should not expect instant results because behaviors are not learnt overnight.

Works Cited

Mayo Clinic Staff. Positive thinking: Reduce stress by eliminating negative self-talk. Mayo Clinic, 2011. Web.

University of Maryland Medical Center. Stress- Lifestyle Changes. University of Maryland Medical Center Website, 2011. Web.

Nowadays stress is something that everyone experiences at least once in their life. The amount of pressure at school, at the office, or even at one’s own home can be manageable, but eventually, if not taken care of, the burden becomes unbearable. It is crucial for one’s mental and physical health to recognize signs of stress overload and to seek out ways to cope with it.

The first step towards successful stress management is acknowledging the threat. According to Seaward (2017), stress is “the experience of a perceived threat (real or imagined) to one’s mental, physical or spiritual well-being, resulting from a series of physiological responses and adaptations.” In other words, stress is simply a response to events or accidents, which erupt or threaten human’s general well-being.

Other researchers claim that stress occurs when there is a discrepancy between an individual’s expected and actual ability to deal with job tasks (Chan, Leung, & Liang, 2018). However, stress is not necessarily dangerous. After all, it is the main motivation for people to adapt or change their circumstances, just like an animal runs away from immediate danger. Stress grows into an overwhelming issue only when the feeling of tension becomes repeatable.

The outcomes of stress on one’s health can be both biological and mental. Some of those effects can be identified immediately, and the others develop over time. Usually, the immediate reaction to stress is the feeling of anxiety, irritation, shallow breathing, and a sudden increase in heart rate. On a short-term basis, these reactions produce a fight or flight response, a signal for the body to defend itself in a dangerous situation.

Nevertheless, if exposure to stressful circumstances continues for too long, the negative consequences may affect overall well-being. The body of a stressed individual becomes more accessible to viruses and diseases, experiences loss of appetite, headaches, and fatigue. The disturbed mental health is not strong enough to cope with the never-ending burden, which leads to constant mood swings, crying, excessive alcohol or substance use, depression, or even suicide. It is vital to be able to identify the signs of a stress overload beforehand and ask for help from a trusted friend or a professional. Moreover, there are many healthy ways to reduce the harmful effects of stressful situations.

In general, all positive methods of dealing with stress are divided into two categories: emotion-focused coping and problem-focused coping. An individual can often use a mixture of both at the same time (Feldman & Garrison, 2019). One of the ways to fuse handling emotions with problem-solving is journaling. It offers not only an escape from all the judgment, allowing to write whatever comes to mind without fear of being criticized.

What is more, journaling serves to clear one’s head by means of writing everything that causes fear and anxiety. In written form, all the problems suddenly become more evident and understandable, allowing the individual to rationalize the source of obstacles and to find out the way to overcome them. Journaling also benefits in the long run, giving the opportunity to reflect upon stressful situations in the past and find inspiration to figure out the issues that cause stress at the moment.

In conclusion, I would say that journaling is a reliable and healthy way to cope with everyday stress, as it helps me to make sense of the sources of anxiety. Especially when I struggle with my studies or personal life, I find comfort in writing without any filters or boundaries. After all, comfort is exactly what people need during hard times.

References

Chan, I. Y. S., Leung, M. Y., & Liang, Q. (2018). The roles of motivation and coping behaviours in managing stress: Qualitative interview study of Hong Kong expatriate construction professionals in mainland China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(3), 561.

Seaward, B. L. (2017). Managing stress. Burlington, Massachusetts: Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Feldman, R. S., & Garrison, M. (2019). Understanding psychology. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.