The nature of work has significantly changed during the past decades. The development of technology and services caused the appearance of many new jobs which deal with information processing, management, and coordination. The traditional forms of occupation were challenged by different non-standard forms of employment such as freelancing and self-employment. Still, with the advent of modern technology, work stress has significantly increased because of constant lack of time and high expectations, as well as competition among workers.
It is generally stated that the globalization of economy caused the increase of work pressure because of financial cuts in private and public sectors. The other reason is the segmentation of labor market that caused the growth of inequity in income among workers. The globalization of labor market increased the competition among workers leading to additional work stress. Such factors as outsourcing, mergers, and downsizing have also influenced the growth of work pressure due to the changing of work conditions.
It seems that the development of technology significantly increased the sources of work stress such as workload and undertime. Moreover, people have to work even more because of the invention of mobile technology and remote access to the workplace. Some people state that work stress has become something that is normal nowadays.
Work stress can be defined as a number of stressors a worker experiences at the workplace with negative responses to them. It is important to detect organizational development strategies to assess and battle work stress in the workplace. To cope with the stressors related to work and manage strain, it is important to identify the sources of stressors. Primarily, management should clearly explain the role of each worker and provide all the necessary equipment to perform the job. Secondarily, stress management should be focused on the way an individual appraises the existing job stressors and how an individual copes with them. Furthermore, such internal sources as lack of self-esteem and the sense of indifference to life should be taken into account. It is a strong possibility that some strains may develop if coping with work stress has been unsuccessful.
The main goal of work stress management is to minimize problems that may occur in the work environment and give the employees the opportunity to battle with the stressors that may appear during their work. It is generally agreed that work stressors may lead to negative physical and psychological consequences which can affect both the individual and the company. Therefore, stress in the workplace is considered to be an important problem which causes material and physical damage because of productivity loss and health disorders.
It is now generally recognized that work stress and unhealthy conditions in the workplace may cause cardiovascular disease. Therefore, it is important to identify the possibilities of helping employees identify and battle the stressors in the work environment. It is also important to help the companies prevent harmful work stressors and implement stress management policies. The organizations should evaluate the conditions of their work environment and detect those that can be referred to as harmful ones and threaten the employees. Still, management should distinguish between harmful and challenging stressors as the last ones may positively influence performance and motivation of the workers.
With the development of technology, work stress has significantly increased because of constant lack of time and high expectations, as well as competition among workers. The development of global labor market and the global economy has also influenced the level of work stressors. It is a widespread opinion that the organization should be involved in stress management.
In the 21st century, life has become extremely stressful, which why stress management serves as an area of intense interest for contemporary researchers. The source of the issue lies in several aspects, such as the increasing pace of life, interpersonal relations, and competitive workplace environment. Accordingly, people search for means of alleviating the pressure through an array of approaches, such as counseling or mediation. At the same time, while other types of intervention have received wide recognition, the importance of humor in the discussed context is often disregarded, despite its evident positive effect. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the importance of humor as one of the leading stress management strategies.
Alternative Means of Stress Management
Stress relief has become the subject of multiple studies in a variety of areas. The primary objective of contemporary researchers consists of two steps. First of all, it is necessary to identify the main sources of stress in today’s environment and classify them accordingly. Once the threats are determined, the next goal is to mitigate their negative effect. In other words, it does not suffice to know the sources of stress, as the crucial point of such research is to provide effective means of coping with the problem. Bansal (2018) refers to the workplace conditions as the main factor causing stress in modern society. It comes from the demanding nature of one’s position, as well as tasks, relationships with colleagues, and excessive workload (Bansal, 2018). In addition, Bansal (2018) states that a large portion of stress is caused by change, which can be extrapolated to all areas of human activity. Indeed, fear of the unknown entails, particularly stressful situations, which may have a detrimental effect on one’s mental condition, ultimately translating into physical health problems (Kalaivani & Rajkumar, 2017). Consequently, corporate studies have been paying increased attention to stress management techniques.
The range of proposed solutions to the issue of stress is broad and encompasses a variety of approaches. First, Bansal (2018) proposes structural changes, aiming directly at the source of the problem. The list includes such means as redesigning positions within an organization and establishing a clearer understanding of the role’s expectations on behalf of the management. In addition, Bansal (2018) mentions several techniques, which can be used at a personal level. People are encouraged to seek professional counseling, which may be expensive for some individuals. Next, relaxation techniques, such as meditation and breathing exercises, are referred to as effective interventions. Finally, Bansal (2018) suggests that support groups of family members and friends can help the person overcome the negative effect of stress. Overall, the proposed list does not directly mention humor as one of the possible solutions. Nevertheless, the importance of it cannot be disregarded in the modern environment.
Workplace-related Stress and Leader Humor
As mentioned earlier, competitiveness and difficulties of today’s corporate environment account for a considerable amount of stress, which an average person experiences on a daily basis. Challenging tasks and tense relationships with co-workers may create an unfavorable atmosphere within an organization. As a result, the stress accumulates, eventually leading to the workers’ health issues and the team’s poor performance. Therefore, the issue demands intervention from the management, and one of the effective approaches is directly related to humor. Cooper et al. (2018) argue that humor is an indispensable resource, which leaders are capable of utilizing in order to relieve the tension within their teams. The research suggests that humorous interaction initiated by the manager leads to the employees experiencing positive emotions, thus improving interpersonal relationships and promoting productivity (Cooper et al., 2018). Accordingly, it is possible to say that positive emotions are the direct opposite of stress, and their prevalence will be able to alleviate the discussed issue.
Humor in the Context of Change and Existential Anxiety
On the other hand, while the workplace environment is the leading source of stress in one’s life, the tension may also be caused by other factors. Bansal (2018) mentions the fear of change among the main issues causing stress, and this problem can be encountered throughout a person’s life. Generally, all changes are associated with a certain degree of anxiety, meaning that each individual experiences extreme stress if they realize they do not have control over their own future. In a particularly severe case, this issue may entail an existential crisis and anxiety related to it. This phenomenon usually occurs whenever a person faces major challenges or even life-threatening situations. The described condition was the focus of research conducted by Morgan et al. (2019). A practical study has revealed that humor is a highly promising instrument in terms of its stress relief capability, confirming its anxiety-buffering role. People, who participated in humor-induced interactions amid existential anxiety, demonstrated significant improvements, which proved that this approach is, indeed, beneficial (Morgan et al., 2019). Therefore, humor demonstrates the potential to relieve stress in severe conditions, such as existential crises.
Humor and Stress Caused by Global Issues
Sources of stress vary greatly, encompassing all areas and levels of human activity. While some of them exist on a personal level, which is caused by the interaction between people, there are those that reveal themselves globally. Evidently, many individuals tend to experience heavy stress due to the issues which concern the entire planet. The situation is aggravated by the fact that there is usually a sense of lack of control in this scenario, which is another factor contributing to anxiety. In the year 2020, the whole world was affected by Covid-19 pandemic. As a result, in addition to feeling anxiety in regard to friends’ and relatives’ lives, billions of people remained confined to their homes. As expected, the pandemic and the lockdown became additional stress factors, making the situation more difficult. Zahoor (2020) explored the use of humor, and Internet memes, in particular, in the context of pandemic-induced stress. The study showed that the linguistic humor related to the Covid-19 situation proved the essential role of humor as a coping technique amid global issues (Zahoor, 2020). Therefore, humor is an effective tension relief tool on all levels.
Summary and Conclusion
In conclusion, humor is a key instrument of stress management in the 21st century despite the fact that its importance is often neglected in favor of other interventions. Humor’s usefulness has been researched and confirmed in a variety of settings. First, it is effective in the workplace environment, especially when initiated and encouraged by the management. Second, humor helps people to cope with severe issues, such as an existential crisis. Finally, humor related to global issues over which one does not exercise control can help to mitigate the effect of said issues in terms of one’s mental condition. Overall, while the importance and effectiveness of humor are unquestionable, it is not necessary to resort to it as the only type of intervention. A combined approach, in which, however, humor plays a pivotal role, appears to be the best strategy for coping with stress.
References
Bansal, R. (2018). Stress management at workplace. International Journal of Techno-Management Research, 5(4), 29-32. Web.
The people’s life is full of different situations, which require from them to make decisions, respond appropriately, and act.
It is vital for people to stay confident and concentrated in any situation to make the best decision for quality outcomes;
Nonetheless, stress becomes an integral part of life so that coping with it is a crucial skill to preserve health;
The proposed strategies and examples should help students to understand different situations and overcome stress disregarding settings and external factors.
What is Stress?
Stress is a universal mechanism that allows all sentient beings to be flexible in different circumstances.
American physiologist Walter Cannon introduced the term stress in 1932. The term has become more widely used thanks to Canadian endocrinologist Hans Selye, who explained the underlying mechanisms of body adaptation (Tan and Yip 170).
All factors that cause pressure are called stressors or stressors. They can be of any nature: physical, chemical, geological (natural elements), biological, social.
Something unplanned can happen to you, but you can prepare yourself to stay calm and concentrated in any situation.
During the study of occupational stress management programs conducted by scientists, the most effective was the one, which included setting precise goals, solving current problems, identifying negative thoughts, time to rest, and time management.
Instead of trying to avoid or suppress them, try to accept it and understand that they are only temporary and will pass soon. In psychology, this strategy is called “decentralization.”
Take control of the situation
Healthy people identify the source of stress and do everything they can to get rid of it. Making some changes to your lifestyle and surroundings can significantly reduce your stress levels.
Sometimes, a little positive emotion is enough to reduce stress. Even in the most stressful situations, being able to laugh at how you overreacted or misunderstood something will help you turn your negative mood into a positive one (Zhang et al. 1296).
For example, you might say to yourself, “It was unwise for me to forget my wallet, but it’s good that I noticed it now, not at the checkout counter at the supermarket with a full cart of products.”
Time management
Very often, stress occurs when we do not have time to do what we need. Therefore, it is crucial to plan your time well in advance so that everything can be managed and avoided.
Avoiding a particular situation makes you delay it. You will not solve the problem if you are continually running away from it, so do not be afraid to face difficulties face to face (Zhang et al. 1296).
Acknowledge the fact that you do not avoid unpleasant feelings and prepare for it in advance using one or more techniques. One stressful situation alone will not change your life.
Conclusion
The stressful situations are unpleasant events; however, they are not inevitable or long-lasting.
The presented strategies allow people to be prepared and confident in to face stress and deal with it.
It is better to embrace the challenge rather than avoid it or behave as if nothing had happened.
Works Cited
Tan, Siang Yong, and A. Yip. “Hans Selye (1907–1982): Founder of the stress theory.” Singapore medical journal 59.4 (2018): 170.
Zhang, Yiwen, et al. “Promotion-and prevention-focused coping: A meta-analytic examination of regulatory strategies in the work stress process.” Journal of Applied Psychology 104.10 (2019): 1296.
Stress is an inevitable event that most people deal with on a day-to-day basis. It may also be viewed as a rejoinder, impetus, or transaction. Consequently, an individual’s reaction to stress is determined by their conceptualization of the event. The purpose of this paper is to explain how the transactional model of stress and coping can be used to explain and assess the process of coping in a group of intravenous users at risk of contracting hepatitis C.
The Transactional Model of Stress and Coping
The Transactional Model of Stress and Coping was put forth by Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman to explain why stress is a pervasive occurrence in many people (Biggs, Brough, & Drummond, 2017). The theory proposes that stress is the outcome of a transaction between an individual and their surroundings. As a result, stress can be faced or avoided depending on the level of demands and available resources to deal with the burdens. For intravenous drug users, the urge to use drugs together with the risk of contracting hepatitis C is their prevalent stresses.
Concepts of Primary and Secondary Appraisal
The initial step in the model is a primary appraisal during which a person tries to determine whether or not a particular situation affects them directly. The mind will consider whether or not the problem at hand is substantial enough to cause stress. Three outcomes are likely: the event is trivial, has a positive effect, or the event is threatening. In this case, the risk of hepatitis C is real in injection drug users (Zibbell et al., 2018). Therefore, the problem is potentially life-threatening. Furthermore, intravenous drugs have other adverse health outcomes.
A secondary appraisal is the second step in the transactional model of stress and coping. During this phase, a person attempts to handle the situation in the best way possible to avoid negative outcomes. The person determines whether they have adequate resources to address their challenges. Drug users can determine whether they can ensure they use a new, sterile needle every time they inject drugs. They can also find out whether they have adequate resources to undergo rehabilitation and quit using drugs.
Coping Efforts
Two coping strategies are possible: problem-based and emotional coping. In the first coping strategy, the affected people have control over impending dangers and have ways of dealing with the problem to achieve positive outcomes. For example, the availability of financial resources to use sterile needles, willingness to quit drug use, or a supportive family to help with the rehabilitation process. Emotional-based coping happens when one realizes that they have little control over the situation. It may manifest in several ways, including avoiding or escaping from specific situations, accepting responsibility, and looking for emotional support from other people. Examples coping efforts include creating meaningful associations, turning to religion, looking for support from secular or faith-based groups. Negative coping strategies are avoidance and isolation.
Coping Outcomes
People struggling with addiction tend to withdraw from meaningful, healthy relationships and gravitate more towards people who share similar self-destructive lifestyles. Healthy relationships can improve an addict’s sense of belonging, self-worth, and awareness, which will be useful in helping them to take precautionary measures as they work towards quitting drug use. Religiousness is a source of hope, motivation, and emancipation, which promotes a sense of accountability in drug users, hence easing the road to recovery (Krause, Pargament, Ironson, & Hill, 2017).
Conclusion
Before understanding how people cope with stress, it is necessary to be cognizant of the various conceptualizations of stress. The transactional model of stress and coping is a valuable theory that is useful in helping intravenous drug users at risk of hepatitis C. Through this model, it is possible to devise appropriate coping strategies based on the victim’s understanding of stress.
References
Biggs, A., Brough, P., & Drummond, S. (2017). Lazarus and Folkman’s psychological stress and coping theory. In C. Cooper & J.C. Quick (Eds.), The handbook of stress and health: A guide to research and practice (pp. 349-364). Malden, MA: John Wiley & Sons.
Krause, N., Pargament, K. I., Ironson, G., & Hill, P. (2017). Religious involvement, financial strain, and poly-drug use: Exploring the moderating role of meaning in life. Substance Use & Misuse, 52(3), 286-293.
Zibbell, J. E., Asher, A. K., Patel, R. C., Kupronis, B., Iqbal, K., Ward, J. W., & Holtzman, D. (2018). Increases in acute hepatitis C virus infection related to a growing opioid epidemic and associated injection drug use, United States, 2004 to 2014. American Journal of Public Health, 108(2), 175-181.
Stress is a non-specific body reaction that occurs under the action of various extreme factors that threaten the violation of homeostasis and is characterized by stereotypical changes in the function of the nervous and endocrine systems. With acute stress exposure, the central nervous system is activated, which triggers a stress reaction. It activates various levels of the endocrine system, and the hormones produced affect the immune cells through the receptors located on them (Saladin, 2020). The biological meaning of these phenomena at the early stages of the development of a stress reaction is aimed at maintaining the functions of vital organs and systems. This increases the availability of energy resources, regulating regional blood flow, activating enzymes of cellular metabolism, and other factors of biological adaptation.
Additionally, stress is characterized by activation of the sympathetic part of the autonomic nervous system. Sympathetic innervation is the result of excitation of the posterior hypothalamus, and parasympathetic innervation is the result of the anterior hypothalamus. Sympathetic influences provide an increase in blood pressure, cardiac output, level of free fatty acids, and the level of triglycerides in plasma. Also, a decrease in blood flow in the kidneys and the lumen of arterioles in the skin. The task of the sympathetic department is to help the body survive at a critical moment, to give it as many resources as it needs to fight or escape (Saladin, 2020). Consequently, the goal of the sympathetic department is to restore and preserve the resources of the autonomic nervous system, and its activation occurs during sleep, food, and rest.
Critical Thinking
In my opinion, sometimes social life puts people in certain situations where it is necessary to prove social independence, material well-being, physical well-being, or the level of intelligence. This is usually found when students take exams and when a surgeon master a new operation. One of the best techniques to remember the information received is a technique based on associations. It is necessary to think and remember what symptoms and consequences stress can lead to, and thus try to refrain from any worries. This topic is significant for everyone because stress is an integral part of the life of any modern person. If a person begins to better understand the body and the processes that occur in it, one will be able to save his health from harmful effects and prolong his life.
Reference
Saladin, K. (2020). Anatomy & physiology: The unity of form and function (9th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.
The prefrontal cortex is positioned at the frontal lobe of the brain. It is the most evolved part of the brain, associated with the highest cognitive abilities including, personality development and planning. It receives information from different brain regions, processes it, and acclimates accordingly (Ford & Kensinger, 2019). Moreover, it contributes to several executive functionalities including, executive processing, attention focusing, language processing, the anticipation of events, impulse control, and behavioral adjustment. However, it is highly susceptible to internal and external factors, which can influence its functional behaviors. For example, overwhelming stress results in loss of cognitive abilities, and continued exposure can cause architectural alterations in prefrontal dendrites.
The prefrontal cortex responds to stressful conditions in different ways. For instance, it shuts down stress responses when the subject can manipulate the stressor. However, the inability to control the stressor can reduce the prefrontal cortex’s capacity to regulate stress responses. It plays a significant role in the top-down management of behaviors, which is crucial in mental representation. The mental representation is required for malleable goal-oriented behavior such as managing arousal state by projecting noradrenergic neurons that manage locus coeruleus firing. In addition, most noradrenergic neurons are positioned within the locus coeruleus.
They also have projections all over the cerebral cortex and subcortical areas, including the amygdala, thalamus, and hippocampus (Borodovotsyna et al., 2018). Exposure to stress escalates firing in the locus coeruleus leading to increased release of norepinephrine. The increased firing results in the manifestation of certain behaviors such as fear. Exposure to chronic stress can cause long-term changes in locus coeruleus firing and release of norepinephrine. This hinders the prefrontal cortex’s ability to perform executive processing.
Exposure to stress noticeably weakens the effectiveness of the prefrontal cortex while stimulating more primitive responses of the amygdala and rapid firing of noradrenergic. The prefrontal cortex has extensive connections to brain parts and can heighten or even impede their actions. However, the amygdala initiates and coordinates an insentient stress response throughout the body and the brain during stressful conditions (Ford & Kensinger, 2019). It activates the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal gland through the projection to the hypothalamus, which releases adrenaline needed for flight or fight responses. This results in a quick change of a subject’s behaviors, for example, prompting the freezing reaction by activating the periaqueductal gray.
The main role of periaqueductal gray is the dictation of pain and responding with the appropriate behavior. Intriguingly, it is associated with assessing risk and reacting to the threats through defensive behaviors. It has two main descending pathways: the ventromedial medulla and the locus coeruleus (Brandao & Lovick, 2019). The locus coeruleus path transmits by norepinephrine, applying an ant-nociceptive effect upon the dorsal horn by stimulating alpha-2 receptors. This decreases the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex neurons firing, leading to loss of impulse control.
Acute stress weakens the prefrontal cortex functions on the working memory. The working memory has a system for sustaining, monitoring, and controlling information in short-term memory while connecting to long-term memory. However, exposure to stress weakens dorsolateral prefrontal cortex network connections. This is due to high levels of dopamine and norepinephrine that weaken close-by synaptic connections (Marttunen et al., 2020).
The dopamine levels cause changes in the mesolimbic dopamine system, which are crucial in coping with stress by tolerating adjustments to different environmental stimuli. Under stressful conditions, the dopaminergic reward system assesses situations and picks the optimal processing for dealing with the circumstance. Increased dopamine levels stimulate D1 receptors present in the prefrontal cortex impairing working memory.
Norepinephrine is released under stressful conditions, and its levels dictate the molecular switch, which determines whether the prefrontal cortex is engaged or impaired. Normal norepinephrine levels in non-stress environments engage alpha-2A receptors, reinforcing prefrontal functions (Marttunen et al., 2020). Furthermore, the stimulation of Alpha 2A receptors prevents cAMP signaling that closes potassium channels. This results in the strengthening of connectivity, thus allowing neural firing, which increases top-down behavioral control. In contrast, however, its high levels heighten the adrenoceptor, leading to potassium channels’ opening. This prevents neuron firing, hence hindering the working memory.
On the other hand, catecholamines in their high levels strengthen amygdala responses, which are more primitive. The amygdala plays a significant role in examining and reacting to environmental risk by assessing the emotional significance of the sensory information and provoking a suitable response. It has connections to brain regions that process higher cognitive and lower control functions. This enables it to control physiological responses based on the cognitive information available (Ford & Kensinger, 2019). There are feedforward interactions that are crucial in maintaining the desired fundamental state of the brain.
Under non-stress conditions, moderate catecholamine’s released, which engages high-affinity alpha 2A receptor, thus weakening the amygdala and regulating locus coeruleus neural firing. However, excessive stress activates the primitive circuits increasing the release of catecholamine. This causes activation on alpha one receptors that take the prefrontal cortex offline thus, reducing control of the amygdala, brainstem, and striatum. Hence, overwhelming emotions can result in illogical responses when faced with danger.
References
Borodovotsyna, O. Flamini, M. & Chandler, D. (2018). Acute stress persistently alters locus coeruleus function and anxiety-like behavior in adolescent rats. Neuroscience, 1(2), 7-19.
Brandao, M. & Lovick, T. (2019). Role of the dorsal periaqueductal gray in posttraumatic stress disorder: mediation by dopamine and neurokinin. Translational psychiatry, 9 (232), 508-516.
Ford, H. & Kensinger, E. (2019). The role of the amygdala in emotional experience during retrieval of personal memories. Memory, 27(10), 1362-1370.
Marttunen, V. Andreassen, O. & Espeseth, T. (2020). Neuroscience & biobehavioral reviews. Science direct, 118, (20), 298-314.
Humans often transport horses from one place to another for various reasons, including sporting, selling, slaughter, and breeding purposes. The available modes of transport are air, water, and road, but the common one is road transport, where horses are put in enclosed carriers or vans. The transportation of horses has not been an issue in the previous decades until recently when animal rights and welfare activism brought to the fore the possible discomforts associated with their transportation. Diverse forms of discomfort exist, which interfere with the well-being and performance of horses. One of the major problems is anxiety, which emanates from transportation stress. Piccione et al. recommend caretakers to assess the welfare of horses constantly during transportation (1). Constant measurement of the nervous system is critical because it regulates cardiovascular function, which effectively reflects sensitivity to stress. As transportation is a stressor, the nature of homeostasis in horses determines their abilities to return to normalcy after transport.
During transportation, horses experience the problem of dehydration. The assessment of heart rate is essential, for it is one of the indicators of stress and other physiological activities. Transportation of horses by road is worse than by water or air, for horses endure vibrations and noises of rough roads for a long period. The abnormal posture, coupled with being in an unfamiliar environment, causes stress that interferes with metabolism. According to a study by Niedwiedz et al., total proteins, which most associate with transient dehydration of horses, increase during transportation (195). Hence, there is ample evidence that shows the existence of dehydration and electrolyte disturbance.
Possible Solutions
As solutions to discomfort, anxiety, and dehydration, a transporter should make sure that the transportation experience of horses is comfortable. The objective of reducing anxiety is to make horses calm down and enhance their ability to adapt to transport disturbances. Caretakers of horses have suggested numerous interventions. To reduce anxiety, the speed of transportation by road should be slow with increased braking distances, but no emergency braking. In addition, transporters should not fasten the horses so that they can always change their positions while on transit. Tying them up also impedes their head movement to avoid toxic fumes such as ammonia and dust. For group transport, partitions are essential as they support and prevent horses from injuring each other. As horses are social animals, they like being in the company of other horses during transport. In some cases, in the absence of an equine companion, a mirror facing the horse is necessary to reduce stress. Air circulation requires optimization to alleviate respiration and increase avoidance of respiratory infections. In addition, a very high level of sanitation is essential to mitigate the development of respiratory infections. The floor of the carriage should not be slippery to offer support during a bumpy ride.
Dehydration of horses during transit has detrimental health effects. A Japanese study shows that a 454kg horse loses between 11-18 kg after just two hours of travel due to dehydration, largely due to sweating (Niedzwiedz et al. 195). Therefore, transporters should transport horses in enclosed carriages with optimum ventilation, especially during hot weather. Horses do not drink water during stops when traveling because of the anxieties associated with traveling and the fact that provided water is unique. Hay consumed increases the thirst of horses since they require water for digestion. Therefore, the solution is to use mineral oil before transit to smoothen the ingestion of hay as opposed to non-feeding. To reduce dehydration, serving the animal with a good dosage of salt within a period of not less than 12hours before departure is effective for salt enhances water retention. Additionally, during transit, it is highly recommendable to stop after every four hours and give the horses a bucket of water.
Questions
What is the appropriate method of transporting horses from one place to another?
What nature of vibrations has the most stressful effects on horses during transport?
Does the rate of heartbeat effectively indicate the level of stress among horses during transportation?
Does the transportation of horses for a period of fewer than 8 hours influence physiological functions?
Do horses adapt to transportation by stabilizing their disturbed physiological functions after a long period?
Why do metabolic mechanisms increase among horses during transportation?
What are the hormones that increase the rate of metabolism and the rate of heartbeat among horses during transportation?
Interesting Quotes
“Transport by road is more uncomfortable for animals than by rail or air” (Niedzwiedz et al. 193).
“Albumin, total protein, alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, total bilirubin, creatine kinase, and triglycerides were mostly influenced by the transport” (Niedzwiedz et al. 193).
“Future studies must determine the extent to which such diminished clearance rates are related to, and may explain the transient elevations in triglycerides during stress, and the clinical relevance of diminished stress-induced triglyceride clearance rates” (Niedzwiedz et al. 196).
“Horse transport includes a series of potential stressors such as handling, loading, unloading, unfamiliar environments, oscillation, and vibration of the mean of transport, noise, regrouping, poor ventilation, deprivation of both food and water” (Piccione et al. 3).
“The autonomic nervous system and its regulation of cardiovascular function have been considered suitable indicators of stress and welfare in humans and animals” (Piccione et al. 1).
“Even if the stress response is necessary for animals to overcome adverse situations that disrupt their homeostasis, the damage of stress depends on the ability of the animal to control and cope with the stressors” (Piccione et al. 2).
Ideas that Come to the Mind
Transportation of horses induces physiological changes such as heartbeat, metabolism, stress level, and hydration. Since transportation affects the level of metabolites and enzymes, assessment of their levels in the blood provides important information about transportation effects. The longer the duration of transport of horses on a rough road, the greater the effects of transportation. Therefore, transporters of horses should minimize the effects of transportation by reducing speed, use the smooth road, give them plenty of water, and transport them as a group. These strategies modify the transportation stimuli, and thus, minimize the disturbances caused by noise and vibrations associated with transportation.
Works Cited
Niedzwiedz, Artur, Marcin Wadzki, Henryk Filipowski, and Jozef Nicpon. “Influence of 8-hour Road Transportation on Selected Physiological Parameters in Horses.” Bulletin of the Veterinary Institute in Pulawy 56.1 (2012): 193-197. Print.
Piccione, Giuseppe, Marilena Bazzano, Claudia Giannetto, Michele Panzera, and Francesco Fazio. “Evaluation of heart rate as a marker of stress during road transport in hours.” Acta Scientae Veterinariae 41.1118 (2013): 1-5. Print.
Chronobiology shows that the intensity, duration, and direction of light influence the behavioral and physiological processes of horses. The circadian system enables horses to synchronize their internal environment with the external environment, and thus, making them adapt to their environment. However, unfavorable changes in the intensity, duration, and direction of light affect the physiological and behavioral functions of horses. Essentially, these changes stress horses, for they disturb the circadian rhythm and compel horses to alter their physiological and behavioral activities. According to Murphy, circadian rhythm influences behaviors and physiological functions of horses because it controls gene expression and immune responses (2).
The circadian rhythm controls how horses behave in a given environment and determine the nature of physiological functions that take place in their bodies. For horses to remain healthy, their circadian rhythm should be in an innate state or without much deviation from the native circadian rhythm. Murphy notes that diurnal variation in the secretion of hormones such as melatonin and cortisol is due to the circadian rhythm (4). The decrease in the level of cortisol hormone predisposes horses to arthritis and asthma, which are immuno-inflammatory diseases. In this view, it is evident that light has a major role in the growth and development of horses because it influences physiological and behavioral activities.
Horses are susceptible to the circadian rhythm because it influences their behaviors and physiological activities. Melatonin is an important hormone among horses because it mediates circadian rhythm, influences physiological functions, and causes behavioral changes. The level of melatonin is subject to the circadian rhythm, which regulates diverse physiological functions, as well as behaviors of horses. Normally, horses start to secrete melatonin when darkness commences, and the level peaks as darkness progress. In this case, it implies that the light/dark cycle, which is an integral aspect of chronobiology, influences the secretion of melatonin among horses.
Murphy et al. state that melatonin regulates reproduction among horses because it dictates physiological functions and behaviors of horses, such as fertility and mating. As a hormone, melatonin has an inverse relationship with cortisol because its levels increase as the levels of cortisol decreases. As melatonin and cortisol mediate immune responses, the inverse relationships show their regulation in response to the circadian rhythm. Evidently, melatonin and cortisol influence immune responses among horses, for disruption of circadian rhythm reduces the efficacy of vaccinations (Murphy 5). Therefore, it suffices to say that changes in circadian rhythm have marked changes in physiological and behavioral functions such as fertility, mating, and immune responses among horses.
Possible Solutions
Supplementation of light to manipulate the photoperiod is an appropriate solution to the changes in the circadian rhythm, according to seasons. During winter, when the daylight is too short, chronobiology stress increases as horses experience disturbance of their circadian rhythms. An extended period of darkness implies that melatonin secretion increases and lasts for a long period. Murphy argues that melatonin regulates reproduction among horses because female horses are fertile during summer when the length of the day is long (2). Given that melatonin secretion starts at dusk and stops at dawn, it implies that darkness promotes its secretion by the pineal gland. Hence, supplementation of light during winter increases photoperiod and delay secretion of melatonin, and consequently, promotes reproduction among horses. Moreover, extended daylight is important among horses because it promotes the growth of hair in horses. Therefore, caretakers of horses should ensure that the supplementation of artificial light follows the normal pattern of summer when horses have enhanced fertility.
Hormonal treatment is another intervention that is applicable to the management of stress associated with photoperiod and chronobiology. Injection of serotonin and dopamine decreases the levels of cortisol and increases the levels of melatonin, leading to a reduced predisposition to Cushing’s syndrome. Given that cortisol and melatonin have an inverse relationship, they represent hormones that horses secrete during day and night, respectively. Extended daylight increases cortisol levels, while extended darkness increases melatonin levels. Therefore, horses need to maintain the levels of cortisol to remain within the normal ranges. Aged horses have a problem maintaining cortisol because their circadian rhythm is no longer sensitive to changes in photoperiod. Thus, they require supplementation of dopamine and serotonin to enhance the regulation of cortisol and prevent predisposition to Cushing’s syndrome.
Questions
What behavioral changes does the circadian rhythm cause in horses?
What are the physiological processes that circadian rhythm influences in the body?
How does the circadian rhythm influence the expression of clock genes during winter and summer?
What are peak levels of melatonin during summer and winter?
Do melatonin levels vary across different ages of horses?
What are the synthetic hormones that influence circadian rhythm?
Does artificial light determine the level of cortisol and melatonin among horses?
How does the circadian rhythm mediate immune responses?
Interesting Quotes
“The circadian system provides animals with a means to adapt their internal physiology to the constantly changing environmental stimuli that exist on a rotating planet” (Murphy 1).
“There is extensive evidence for circadian regulation of immune parameters exemplified by rhythmic secretion of the neuroendocrine hormone cortisol and the pineal hormone melatonin, both of which exhibit diurnal variation in the horse” (Murphy 4).
“Secondary to light and similar to feeding cues, exercise is a known synchronizer of circadian clocks” (Murphy 6).
“Circadian rhythms are thus controlled by an endogenous oscillator that enables organisms to anticipate rhythmic environmental changes and tailor their behavioral and physiological states to the most appropriate time of solar day” (Murphy et al. 1).
“In diurnal mammals, there exists an inverse relationship between plasma melatonin and circadian cortisol rhythms with the start of the quiescent period of cortisol production phase-locked approximately to the onset of melatonin production” (Murphy et al. 2).
“These findings suggest that under natural conditions, melatonin inhibition in the horse occurs in response to light and not through an endogenous mechanism” (Murphy et al. 4).
Ideas that Come to the Mind
Chronobiology indicates that light is an important environmental factor that influences physiological functions and behaviors. Photoperiod influences physiological functions such as metabolism, immune responses, and hormonal secretion. The most important hormones that photoperiod influences are serotonin, melatonin, and cortisol. In the aspect of behaviors, photoperiod influences the mating season of horses. Essentially, female horses are fertile during summer for the photoperiod is longer than normal. Therefore, caretakers of horses use photoperiod in regulating physiological functions and behaviors with a view of increasing equine productivity and reproduction.
Works Cited
Murphy, Barbara (2009). “Chronobiology and the horse: Recent revelations and future directions.” The Veterinary Journal 1.1 (2009): 1-10. Print.
Murphy, Barbara, Ann-Marrie, Penney Furney, and Jeffrey Elliot. “Absence of a serum melatonin rhythm under acutely extended darkness in the horse.” Journal of Circadian Rhythms 9.3 (2011): 1-8. Print.
Agricultural crops are often exposed to many different environmental stressors. These may be either abiotic, such as drought or extreme temperatures, or biotic, such as diseases or pest damage. By improving stress resistance in these crops would allow producers to grow various essential crops in areas subjected to negative climate conditions (extreme temperatures, droughts) and areas with poor soil. Stress resistance improvement would also contribute to increased productivity.
An increase in the number of crops grown would assist in preventing famine in many poor countries. The biotechnology involved in producing such crops faces many difficulties and there are a lot of considerations of the methods used to improve the crop’s resistance that need to be assessed. Many claim that some techniques can be harmful to the environment and people’s health. For instance, the creation of new species or the introduction of new features in existing plants can damage the biological diversity, since new plants can suppress existing species.
Moreover, this may also lead to damage to the food chain. Finally, many scientists insist there are ambiguities in genetically modified (GM) crops since the long-term consequences of such use are still unknown. Nevertheless, the invention of new strategies and techniques to improve crop resistance should be continued, as the worlds’ population may already be facing the problem of famine, which may become more serious without the development of agricultural species.
The Need for Improvement in Stress Resistance
Agricultural technology has been introduced to solve the imminent problem faced in the agricultural sector: improving crop resistance to biotic and abiotic stressors. Some other problems technology has to address include time, expenses, food safety, environmental impact, land transformation, and nutrient concentration.
Abiotic stressors
Not all regions are appropriate for the growing of agricultural crops, as conditions including extremely high or low temperatures, droughts and salinity make it inefficient. These unfavorable conditions prevent crops from growing fast and decrease the plants’ productivity. For instance, rice can resist high temperatures and floods, but it cannot grow in areas subjected to droughts (VBI, 2008, p.16). However, the need for such an important basic crop is increasing due to the problem of increasingly imminent food shortages in some areas of the world. It is essential, therefore, to create such species which could be productive in drought-stricken regions. This could solve many problems associated with famine and is partly why scientists try to work out various methods to improve crops resistance to such stressors.
Resistance to drought and low temperatures is known to be improved with accumulation of such compounds as osmoprotectants (Gupta, 2009, p.469). Crops such as tomatoes, potatoes and rice cannot accumulate this component; however, these crops can be made to accumulate it by manipulating the glycine betaine biosynthetic pathway, through transgenesis (Gupta, 2009, p.469). This process includes transmission of a certain gene (a transgene) to an organism so that it acquires a new property and can fight illnesses and bacteria due to the increased resistance. This organism can pass this property to its offspring so that they demonstrate good resistance to those external factors as well.
A common practice for improving drought resistance is to use wild species. For instance, drought resistance of sunflowers was increased with the help of breeding (Škorić, 2009). The wild Helianthus species were used, since they possess the necessary features; high resistance to drought and salinity. The process was effective and it was decided to use it to increase crops. As reported by Dita et al. (2006), these technologies have identified specific molecular markers that may be used in breeding programs through Marker-Assisted Selection (MAS) to enhance stress tolerance. In other words, scientists traced the gene that was responsible for a certain feature in the organism with the help of molecular markers, and pulled it from that organism to share with other organisms as well.
Biotic Stressors
It is not only unfavorable climate which can negatively affect a crops growth. Apart from abiotic stressors, crops can suffer the influence of biotic stressors such as disease or pest damage. A very effective technique to improve crop resistance to biotic stressors is hybridizations. For example, in the improvement of wheat resistance, scientists singled out characteristics necessary for tolerance to biotic factors which were present in the nearest wild wheat relatives. This can be explained in the example of two species, Medicago truncatula and Lotus japonicas, that were used for exploration of biotic and abiotic resistance and tolerance (Dita et al., 2006, p.2).
Successful hybrids were obtained which were highly resistant to major biotic stressors such as rusts, powdery mildew, bunt, Russian wheat aphid, oat aphid, greenbug, and wheat nematodes (Anguina tritici) (Tolmay, 2001, p.240). All these biotic stressors are harmful to crops and it is vital, therefore, to improve the tolerance of important crops to such negative factors. Injured plants are underproductive and thus, farmers do not produce quality products.
Food Safety
Food produced from animals and crops should be safe for human consumption. Technology has been harnessed to curb such problems as food poisoning or simply to improve the nutrition of food (Gebhard & Smalla, 1998). This issue is quite disputable now since agricultural technologies may lead to some long-term impacts on human health or the environment which is insufficiently researched. Thus, people should be aware of the techniques used during the production of goods they buy.
Environmental Impact
An objective of agricultural technology is the introduction of some measures for the necessary environmental protection (Green & Allison, 1994). It’s anticipated to mitigate external expenses; mainly the cost of pesticides and fertilizers. Biotechnology continues research to improve the productivity of crops to decrease the excessive use of land and water, to reduce environmental impact. Scientists also work on the improvement of crops resistance to negative influences of the environment.
The Basic Biological Principles used in the Development of the Technology
As different methods used in agriculture can improve the resistance to stresses, these methods should be used in order to analyze the effects of breeding and transformations performed with DNA of plants; for instance, “next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies are able to generate DNA sequence data inexpensively and at a rate that is several orders of magnitude faster than that of traditional technologies” (Varshney et al., 2009, p.522). Agricultural technology is closely connected to and based upon basic biological principles, such as inheritance, variety, evolution, competition and survival (Blinks, 2009, p.26).
In this respect, all these biological principles should be taken into account in the process of growing tissue cultures and other transformations. Inheritance is taken into account while creating new breeds. This essential biological law is a background for genetics and this science is highly used in agriculture today. So, molecular marker-assisted breeding, gene pyramiding assisted by MAS, tissue culture, somaclonal variation and in vitro mutagenesis, in vitro selection, double haploids and wide hybridization, and genetic transformation are some of biotechnological methods and their steps as reported by Dita et al. (2006, pp.4-10).
Scientists single out genes which are responsible for a desired feature and transfer them to other species. For instance, a British laboratory isolated a gene out of the rat’s liver that could be put into canola to reduce the level of saturated fats. However, an alternative decision was made to try to transfer a gene of a white spruce tree into canola for the same purpose (Buia & Yeager, 2002, para. 4). The only reason for not transmitting the genes of rat’s liver to the plan was the expected reaction of the public.
So, it can be so that plants and legumes are the first targets of researchers because an unmanageable situation can spread various plants, as reported by Buia & Yeager (2002, para. 11), in the areas not typical of their natural habitation, due to mutation and their organisms and an acquired ability to resist certain biotic and abiotic factors.
One of the very important biological principles used in agricultural technology is the principle of competition. It is essential knowledge in crop production since scientists understand that it is necessary to create competitive species which will be able to survive and have high productivity. This principle is taken into account when developing new species. For instance, scientists take weeds that are highly resistant to various stressors and transfer certain genes responsible for these particular features into useful crops. However, genes for herbicide resistance can ‘escape’ from crops into parental wild weeds (the possibility exists for canola in Europe) and possibly cause new weeds (Nath, 1999, p.352) that can be rather problematic for the agricultural sector as well as for biologists.
The Use of the Technology
Plant Breeding
Several techniques responsible for making better plant characteristics are available. However, some of these techniques take a lot of time to bring about the desired effect. Examples of these techniques include grafting, cross-pollination, and cross-breeding. However, biotechnology techniques have been invented and have substituted the aforementioned techniques to make better plant characteristics. The techniques permit precise variations to be obtained at a much more rapid rate.
Moreover, some of the concepts of tissue culture can be actively used in plant breeding programs (Dita et al., 2006, p.7). So, the first step in the process of plant breeding is to choose the plan for crossing and choose a wild relative with a beneficial gene that can be transmitted into the initial species after a few generations of selection. Thus, the final offspring is the desired organism that has the features of the initial one and is resistant to some stressors because it also has a gene of the wild relative.
Watermelon crops, as reported by Compton et al. (2004, p.236) gained resistance only to some stressors after plant breeding procedure whereas genetic transformation improved its traits to the extent of making a biotic and abiotic resistant culture. This shows that sometimes genetic transformation can be more effective than simple plant breeding.
Nutrient Supplement
In many third-world nations, there is a large problem with undernourishment. A great number of people do not receive the nutrient necessary for good health. Scientists are therefore interested in developing species of basic crops that can deliver increased nutrition to these people. One successful invention in this field is the creation of golden rice. The golden rice has beta-carotene which generates vitamin A inside human bodies (Saxena, et al., 1999).
Abiotic Stress Resistance
Abiotic stress resistant crops have been produced, with an aim to improve resistance against such factors as drought, salinity, and temperature extremes (Kling, 1996, p.180). To achieve drought tolerance, some plants species have been obtained by regulating the transcription process (David et al., 2010, p.84). Many researchers have shown that it is possible to obtain specific genes of some drought tolerant plants and improve the drought resistance of other species by transferring to them such genes. Scientists have also found that it is possible to alter genes or molecules to improve the drought resistance of these lines. In fact, a lot of work is done in this field and some remarkable results have already been achieved.
For instance, the lentil is very vulnerable to cold temperatures and it was decided to make it cold-resistant with the help of the germplasm that appears to be tolerant to cold (Muehlbauer et al., 2006, p.150). The germplasm was evolved from germs that are cold-resistant. The germplasm is a part of a germ that contains hereditary materials such as genes that are responsible for cold-resistance. The Millennium Project’s Hunger Task Force states that the development of drought-resistant maize will contribute to solving the problem of famine in Africa and Asia (Oakley & Momsen, 2005).
As reported by Dita et al. (2006, p.10), “Although transgenic plants are yet to be examined for salt-tolerance in the field, the recent genetic advances suggest there are good prospects for developing transgenic legumes with enhanced salt tolerance”; besides, the problem of salt-tolerance can be solved with the help of salt-tolerant genes contained in tomatoes. Moreover, the process of engineering of genes for osmolyte biosynthesis shows that “With advances in enzyme purification and plant molecular genetics, the role of osmolytes in stress resistance has been strengthened by the performance of transgenic plants overexpressing or expressing genes related to osmolyte biosynthesis under stresses” (Zhang et al., 2000, p.108). thus, many transgenic plants demonstrate high resistance to salt overproducing a certain osmolyte.
The Negative Effects of the Technology
Although biotechnology has helped to improve the stress resistance of agricultural crops, there are certainly some negative impacts that must be considered.
Imprecise Technology
Genetic engineers may successfully transfer genes from one organism to the other (Harding, 1996). However, this process is associated with a number of concerns. Such processes may interrupt the normal performance of other genes which can be vital for the organisms’ wellbeing (Bergelson, 1998, p.25). Furthermore, genetic engineers aren’t able to conduct DNA surgeries which completely avoid mutations. These mutations are cable of creating severe damage to the environment. Moreover, such mutations may negatively affect the health of human beings (Mikkelson et al., 1996). It is possible to illustrate such negative outcomes by the development of allergy in people to some components present in genetically modified organisms (GMO).
For instance, when soybeans were altered by a gene taken from the Brazil nut, scientists reported many cases of allergic reactions which appeared in people who had never had allergic reactions to soybeans before (Nordlee et al., 1996). Genetic modification may cause the opposite effect to the desired result. For example, genetically modified tobacco plants which were created to reduce toxins in these plants, proved to be even more toxic since they generated octadecatetraenic acid (Reddy & Thomas, 1996).
No Long-Term Safety Testing
Admittedly, genetic engineering utilises materials from organisms which aren’t parts of normal human food provision. These actions could lead to serious negative impacts on humans (Wostemayer et al., 1997). Such distortion of human food provision may, first of all, lead to various diseases since human organism will not be accustomed to new kinds of products. Moreover, the introduction of new products for human consumption could also lead to possible mutations. These would not be revealed at once, but would have long-term development. At any rate, further surveys are necessary in this field (Wostemayer et al., 1997).
Antibiotic Resistant Bacteria
Antibiotic resistance genes are used in staining genetically engineered seeds (Coghlan, 1999). The outcome is that genetically engineered plants have antibiotic resistant genes. The main undesirable consequence with this is that the health of human beings may be impacted negatively (Coghlan, 1999). First of all, such genes can be transferred in natural way to pathogenic bacteria which may cause severe health problems in humans, e.g. such serious diseases as tuberculosis. There is concern over antibiotic resistant genes contributing to the development of resistance in numerous bacteria which affect humans (Eady, et al., 1995). Without proper labelling, people would have no opportunity to make a choice, and when they purchased products containing GMO they would not be aware of possible risks.
Ecosystem might be damaged
There is concern the ecosystem may be impacted negatively (Metz et al., 1997) by genetically modified foods. For instance, the development of genetically modified plants with pest resistance leads to diminishing numbers of species of insects which are a part of the food chain. The distortion of the chain can result in the disappearance of other species such as birds or small mammals (Metz et al., 1997). Furthermore, new species of plants can overtake existing ones. It is still unclear whether the new plants can be safely produced. Perhaps, in future it will turn out that these new species are harmful for the environment and there will be a need to stop producing these species. However, until that time, original plants could be lost, totally supplanted by new ones.
Gene Contamination May Not Be Erased
If genetically engineered organisms, such as bacteria and viruses, are introduced, an undesirable consequence may occur. The consequence is that it may be impossible to recall those (Field & Solie, 2007). Not knowing whether these organisms are going to be harmful, therefore, is of concern. One of the possible threats of these organisms is the development of diseases which have not yet been encountered, and for which there are not yet any cures or prevention. These genetically engineered organisms may also cause mutations in existing plants and animals, leading to unpredictable consequences (Field & Solie, 2007, p. 342).
Conclusion
In conclusion, it is possible to say that modern agricultural technology development which is based on the major biological principles enables scientists to improve on many crop production factors, including improvements in stress resistance. Nevertheless, further research is necessary in the development of agricultural technology since there are many negative impacts to be considered, including a lack of safety testing and negative environmental impacts. Care should be taken in addressing the concerns of the public in regards to growing and consuming these genetically modified foods.
References
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Blinks, L.R. (2009) Opportunities and Requirements in the Life Sciences. Basic Research and National Goals; A Report to the Committee on Science and Astronautics, U.S. House of Representatives. General Books LLC, pp.25-67.
Buia, C., & Yeager, P. (2002). Next on the menu: Scientists are using biotechnology to add genetically engineered canola, salmon and pork to the pantry amid growing environmental and health concerns. (Special Report). Time International, 159 (19), 54-56.
Coghlan, A. (1999) Gone with the wind. New Scientist. 3(6), 25-30.
Compton, M. E., Gray, D. J., and Gaba, V. P. (2004). Use of tissue culture and biotechnology for the genetic improvement of watermelon. Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture, 77, 231–243.
David, B.C. et al. (2010) Engineering Pathogen Resistance in Crop Plants: Current Trends and Future Prospects. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Dita, M. A., Rispail, N., Prats, E., Rubiales, D., and Singh, K. B. (2006). Biotechnology approaches to overcome biotic and abiotic stress constraints in legumes. Euphytica 147, 1–24.
Eady, C. et al. (1995) Pollen Viability and Transgenic Expression Following Storage in Honey. Transgenic Research. 4(3), 226-231.
Field, H & Solie, J. (2007) Introduction to Agricultural Engineering Technology: A Problem Solving Approach. Oklahoma: Oklahoma State University Press.
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Kling, J. (1996) Could Transgenic Supercrops One Day Breed. Super weeds Science.274(3), 180-181.
Metz, P. et al. (1997) The impact on biosafety of the phosphinothricin. Theoretical and Applied Genetics. 95(1), 442-450.
Mikkelson, T. et al. (1996) The Risk of Crop Transgenic Spread. Nature. 380(31), 34-35.
Muehlbauer, F. J., Cho, S., Sarker, A., McPhee, K. E., Coyne, C. J., Rajesh, P.N., and Ford, R. (2006). Application of biotechnology in breeding lentil for resistance to biotic and abiotic stress. Euphytica, 147, 149–165.
Nath, B. (1999). Environmental management in practice: compartments, stressors and sectors. London: Routledge.
Nordlee, J. A., Taylor, S. L., Townsend, J. A., Thomas, L. A., Bush, R. K. (1996). Identification of a Brazil-Nut Allergen in Transgenic Soybeans. New Engl J Med, 14, 688-728.
Oakley, E., Momsen, J.H. (2005). Gender and Agrobiodiversity: A Case Study from Bangladesh. The Geographical Journal, 171(3), 195-208.
Reddy, S.A. and Thomas, T.L. (1996) Expression of a Cyanobacteria Delta 6-Desaturase Gene Results in Gamma-Linolenic Acid Production in Transgenic Plants. Nature Biotechno. 14(6), 629-42.
Saxena, et al. (1999) Transgenic Plants: Insecticidal Toxin in Root Exudates from Bt Corn. Nature. 402(7), 480.
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Radical atoms originating from molecular oxygen in cells are called reactive oxygen species (ROS). The body uses antioxidants to neutralize the effects of these ROS in the body. However, excess ROS in the body occurs induces oxidative stress because it overwhelms antioxidants’ protective effects, leading to cell and tissue damage in the body. In essence, oxidative stress stems from an unfavorable imbalance between ROS production and protective antioxidants, resulting in the damage of biomolecules, such as nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids. Usually, infection, trauma, heat injury, toxins, vigorous exercise, and hyperoxia trigger short-term oxidative stress.
The damaged tissues and cells generate ROS in excess amounts due to increased stimulation of enzymes, such as lipogeneses, xanthine oxidase, and cyclooxygenase. Moreover, the secretion of copper ions, release of free irons, activation of phagocytes, and interference of the electron transport chains contribute to excess ROS production. An imbalance between protective antioxidants and ROS in the body is associated with the occurrence, development, and progression of cancer. The extent of chemotherapy and radiation therapy’s side effects is also associated with the imbalance of antioxidants and ROS in the body. Additionally, excess ROS has a role in initiating and developing age-related eye diseases, Parkinson’s disease, and diabetes.
Oxidative Stress and Biomedical Conditions
Researchers have claimed that oxidative stress has numerous roles in numerous biomedical conditions, such as cancers, inflammation, and aging. Currently, oxidative stress has been linked to the genesis and progression of inflammatory diseases, including vasculitis, lupus erythematosus, arthritis, adult respiratory diseases syndrome, and glomerulonephritis. Oxidative stress is also associated with the occurrence of ischemic diseases such as stroke, heart diseases, intestinal ischemia, gastric ulcers, hemochromatosis, hypertension, smoking-related disorders, emphysema, hypertension, neurological disorders, alcoholism, and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. The presence of ROS in excess causes oxidative stress in the body, leading to the oxidation of proteins and lipids and the transformation of their structures and roles in the body.
Role of Antioxidants on Carcinogenesis
The mechanism of carcinogenesis shows that nitrogen species and ROS, including hydrogen peroxide, superoxide anion, nitric oxide, hydroxyl radical, and their metabolites, contribute to cancer occurrence and progression. For instance, ROS causes DNA damage by breaking strands, modifying bases, and creating protein-DNA cross-linkages. Researchers have provided ample evidence to demonstrate that free radicals play a critical role in genetic material mutation, the transformation of cells, and carcinogenesis. In analyzing the mechanism of carcinogenesis, radiation induces mutagenesis by damaging DNA via heme oxygenase (HO).
Radiolysis produces radicals and other reactive species, which damage DNA indirectly or directly via HO. The mechanism of DNA damage by radicals occurs by adding double bonds on pyrimidine bases and the removal of hydrogen atoms from ribose sugar, initiating a chain of reactions in cells. Coupled with lipid peroxides, radical also causes the stimulation of carcinogens in the body. Cumulative effects like these trigger cell mutagenesis, change cellular functions, initiate carcinogenesis, and develop cancerous cells in the body.
Antioxidants employ various mechanisms to protect cells and tissues from oxidative stress. Direct scavenging of ROS is one mechanism that reduces their concentration in the body to levels that the normal cellular mechanism can process. Inhibiting cell proliferation and the generation of ROS is another mechanism. For instance, beta-carotene has a protective effect against cancer because its antioxidant properties neutralize the oxidative radicals that cause genetic damage. Moreover, beta-carotene has a photoprotective ability against ultraviolet radiation, preventing it from inducing radicals and causing cancer.
This mechanism suggests that immunity could enhance the protective effect of beta-carotene on cancer. Vitamin C is also another molecule that is important in the prevention of cancer. Possible mechanisms of vitamin C include improvement of the immune response, antioxidant effects, enhanced detoxification, and prevention of synthesis of nitrosamines.
As another important molecule, vitamin E has antioxidant effects, which increases immuno-competence by stimulating the production of T-lymphocytes, boosting cell-mediated response, enhancing resistance to bacterial infection, improving humoral antibody protection, blocking micro cell line formation, repairing damaged genetic material, and inhibiting mutagen formation. In this view, vitamin E plays a critical role in the prevention of cancer and initiation of carcinogenesis. The use of beta-carotene, vitamin C, and vitamin E has proved to have a diminishing effect on the risk of cardiac cancer.
Effects of Free Radicals on Aging
Although aging is a natural process, the human body constantly rejuvenates itself and prevents aging. Researchers have established that free radicals destroy cells and cause significant pathological transformations associated with aging. ROS’s existence in the body has been linked to high incidences of disorders and diseases coupled with the aging process. The analysis of the mechanism shows that aging stems from the buildup of molecular, cellular, and physiological products in the body. Researchers have demonstrated that free radicals’ oxidation to reduce their amounts and diminish the rate of their production slows down the aging process.
Antioxidants in some foods aid in slowing the aging process and preventing the occurrence of diseases among people. Since enhanced oxidative stress happens in the aging process, the use of antioxidants may alleviate the oxidative stress of ROS. Additional research has indicated that the optimal consumption of antioxidants leads to reduced free radicals and diminished oxidative stress, resulting in a slowed aging process. Overall, antioxidants improve the quality of life and increase the life span among individuals.
Protective Mechanisms of Antioxidants
Although antioxidants have numerous effects on the body, two main mechanisms exist. The first one entails a chain-breaking mechanism where antioxidants act as electron donors to free radicals in the body. The removal of secondary radicals (ROS/reactive nitrogen species) through terminating chain reaction is the second antioxidant mechanism. Other mechanisms of antioxidants involve metal ion chelation, gene expression, electron donation, and co-antioxidants.
Antioxidant Enzymes
Superoxide dismutases (SODs) comprise antioxidant enzymes that protect cells from oxidative stress from radicals. SODs constitute a collection of metalloenzymes offering front-line protection against ROS’s oxidative stress and its associated cellular damages in all organisms. These enzymes provide protective effects by catalyzing the breakdown of free radicals of superoxide anions into oxygen and hydrogen peroxide, which subsequently decreases the concentration of ROS in cells. The redox reaction of metal ions present in the cells follows these reactions of SODs. Depending on the nature and type of ions that exist in the active sites, SODs can be grouped as iron-SOD, copper-zinc-SOD, Nickel-SOD, and manganese-SOD. These different groups of SODs exist in varied organisms and dissimilar cellular sections.
As antioxidant enzymes, SODs play a critical role in the protection of the body against free radicals. Numerous studies have confirmed that SODs have physiological significance and therapeutic potential against oxidative stress. SODs act as an anti-inflammatory agent in their mechanism of action, which hinders the initiation and development of cancerous changes. As the SOD levels diminish with age, it increases susceptibility to illnesses related to oxidative stress. In the cosmetics industry, SODs are incorporated in skin-care products because they have anti-aging properties of reducing the damage caused by free radicals, hindering the formation of lines, wines, and spots. Moreover, SODs in skin-care products protect against ultraviolet light, enhance wound healing, relax scar tissue, and rejuvenate tissues.
Ample evidence shows that SODs are significant in the occurrence of numerous disorders. The occurrence of cystic fibrosis, malignant breast cancer, erythrocyte-related diseases, post-cholecystectomy, cancer, AIDS, lateral sclerosis, neural apoptosis, and nephrotic syndrome have some links with SODs. Additionally, other researchers have suggested a significant association between the occurrence of Alzheimer’s disease and the activity of SODs in the body. Other studies have established that SODs aid in the recovery of burns from mustard gas. SODs are effective enzymes used to treat inflammation and myocardial and cerebral ischemic injuries in diverse animal models.
The action mechanism shows that SODs are small molecules that catalyze antioxidants activity, resulting in the alleviation of oxidative stress. As synthetic compounds, SOD mimetics imitate the role of SODs in the conversion of oxygen radicals into hydrogen peroxide for catalase to neutralize them easily into water. Features that make SOD mimetics effective in protecting against oxidative stress are their minute sizes, comparable activity, and extended half-life than the native SODs. Researchers have attempted to utilize to synthesize SODs and use them as therapeutic agents for diseases stemming from ROS. Literature review shows that SODs have various therapeutic potentials in the treatment of oxidative stress.
Lipid Peroxidation
Lipid peroxidation is a metabolic process that occurs naturally in cells owing to oxidative stress. The process of lipid peroxidation entails initiation, proliferation, and termination. At the initiation phase, the activation of oxygen occurs and forms the rate-limiting step in the process of lipid peroxidation. Polyunsaturated fatty acids in plasma membranes are likely to undergo peroxidation and induce oxidative stress. In cellular biology, lipid peroxidation is an important mechanism that ROS uses to induce oxidative stress and influences the structure of functions of plasma membranes. A growing body of evidence has indicated that lipid peroxidation is not only a destructive process of oxidative stress.
New findings have indicated that initiators of lipid peroxidation, lipid hydroperoxides, and oxygenated products have a role in forming signal transduction cascade, regulation of cell proliferation, and control of cellular growth. Further findings have shown that ROS and lipid peroxidation activators and mediators of apoptosis are key in preventing carcinogenesis, clearance of virus-infected cells, and elimination of damaged cells.
Additional findings demonstrate that lipid peroxidation plays a role in the suppression of carcinogenesis and cancer growth. While some studies show that n-6 fatty acid linoleic acid enhances cancer progression, other studies demonstrate that n-6 fatty acids and n-3 fatty acids prevent the growth and development of cancerous cells. The interaction of products of lipid peroxidation from these forms of lipids has a protective effect against oxidative stress.
These findings are valid because there is a significant correlation between the degree of lipid peroxidation and tumor cells’ growth in the body. A plausible mechanism of these observations is that pro-oxidants suppress cancer growth while antioxidants eliminate cancerous cells. The extent of cancer elimination relates to the suppression of lipid peroxidation by antioxidants in cells.
